title: Politics of the Philippines

text: In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society. An expanding civil service and a changing economy saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper and middle classes. The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term "Filipino" shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity. A class of educated individuals became known as the Ilustrados. This group gained prominence in Philippine administration, and became increasingly involved in politics.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: In the 1880s, some prominent Ilustrados launched the Propaganda Movement. For the most part this was a campaign for secular self-government as a full part of Spain, but as proposed liberal reforms were rejected, some saw the movement as the beginning of a national awakening. In 1892 the Katipunan split from the movement, led by members of Manila's urban middle class. The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence, and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. The Spanish–American War reached the Philippines on May 1 with the Battle of Manila Bay. The Katipunan under Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898. Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government, and convened a congress that approved the Malolos Constitution, inaugurating the First Philippine Republic.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in 1898. The Philippine–American War erupted in February 1899 in a skirmish in Manila. Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901. The Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901. The hierarchical social structure that existed under Spanish rule was co-opted by the United States, with democracy introduced in a manner which did not threaten the power of the existing elites. Local elites were entrenched into the national system.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The first election of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 was won by the independence-supporting Nacionalista Party, led by Sergio Osmeña. The Nacionalista party would maintain electoral dominance until independence. In some rural areas opposition to American rule persisted among the poorer population, and the development of class consciousness-based political organization led to peasant revolts in the 1930s. American forces extended their control over the entirety of the islands, securing the Sultanate of Sulu and establishing control over interior mountainous areas. The Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao, supported by immigration from Christian areas. Despite this, the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel political structure.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The 1916 Jones Law envisioned eventual Philippine independence. The Nacionalista-dominated legislature grew more powerful, seizing state bodies and using nationalism to weaken American oversight. The establishment of the senate led to the Nacionalistas forming opposing camps loyal to Osmeña (the Unipersonalistas) and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon (the Colectavistas). The 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act paved the way for the Commonwealth of the Philippines and mandated U.S. recognition of independence of the Philippine Islands after a ten-year transition period.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Quezon and Osmeña were elected as president and vice president, respectively, in 1935. In 1937 the voting franchise was expanded to include literate women. A national curriculum similarly sought to impose a single vision of a Filipino identity across the diverse ethnolinguistic groups of the islands, and Tagalog was established as a national language. Treatment of the Commonwealth by the United States was inconsistent: sometimes it was treated as a separate country, sometimes as under US jurisdiction. The presidential system of the Commonwealth government was based on that of the United States. However, while dividing power between three branches similarly to the constitution of the United States, the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine president significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the president of the United States.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile, and subjected the country to a puppet government. The KALIBAPI became the sole legal political party, and Jose P. Laurel was declared president of an independent Second Philippine Republic. In rural areas, a sudden vacuum of elite power led to the formation of new local governments by the remaining populace, beginning the Hukbalahap Rebellion. The Americans reconquered the Philippines in 1944, and Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Nacionalistas were divided following the war, with a leadership struggle leading to Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be the Liberal Party. Roxas defeated Osmeña in the 1946 presidential election, and became the last president of the Commonwealth. A left-wing political movement that spawned from the Hukbalahap fight against the Japanese was suppressed by the former elite with American support, leading to the continuation of the rebellion against the new government. The Americans granted independence on July 4, 1946, and Roxas became the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The impact of the war led to a weaker civil service and a reduction in the dominance of Manila, with provincial politicians gaining political power and in some cases "de facto" autonomy. Many leveraged their provincial power to engage in national politics. Universal suffrage saw an expansion of voter participation, although power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite. A diversifying post-war economy largely brought an end to the land-based cacique democracy patronage system. Political offices became lucrative by themselves, and patronage became more reliant on access to government funds. These changes did not shift the overall shape of Filipino politics, which remained a two-party system dominated by a narrow elite. There was little policy difference between the parties.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Roxas suffered a fatal heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years. Quirino sought to significantly expand executive power. Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by his former Defense secretary Ramon Magsaysay in 1953. Magsaysay, who oversaw the surrender of the long-running Hukbalahap Rebellion, was massively popular. Magsaysay implemented a plan to settle surrendered Hukbalahap rebels in Mindanao, cementing a demographic shift in Mindanao from a Muslim to a Christian majority.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Before the 1957 election, Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash. His vice president, Carlos P. Garcia, succeeded him and won the election. He continued Magsaysay's "Filipino First" policy and implemented an austerity program. Garcia was defeated by his vice president, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961. Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise, and sought land reform and electrification. Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power and an expansion in mass media. Marcos was the first president to be re-elected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying. Civil unrest heightened after the election. Communist rebellion strengthened during Marcos' rule, and a Moro insurgency emerged in Mindanao. Marcos declared martial law in 1972.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Attempts to end the war in Mindanao led Marcos to recognize Islamic holidays, introduce a code of Muslim personal laws, and formally recognize a number of sultans in Mindanao and Sulu. Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics. He relied on the growing technocratic civil service, who were receptive to such arguments, to effectively run the country under martial law. Marcos also relied on the military, which gained increased power and resources during the martial law period. A constitutional convention finalized a new constitution in November 1972, which introduced a semi-presidential system.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) legislature was elected. Marcos had complete control over the bureaucracy, local governments, military, the press, and COMELEC. The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party. The unicameral IBP had little real power. The Supreme Court affirmed the expansive executive powers claimed under martial law. Marcos laid out a vision of a "new society", which would represent an end to old oligarchies.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Some political dynasties who were not Marcos allies were stripped of assets and power, in many cases replaced in local politics by Marcos allies. Marcos ended martial law in 1981, shortly before a visit to the Philippines by Pope John Paul II, although he retained immense executive powers. Opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election, which Marcos easily won. Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was slain upon his return to the Philippines in 1983.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: By this time, the government was marred by a weak economy, rampant corruption, and a loss of political support. A united opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election, making gains. A snap election saw the opposition nominate Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate. Marcos was declared the winner of the 1986 election, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged. The People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The 1987 constitution restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution. The new constitution introduced some elements of direct democracy. The 1988 local elections saw the traditional elite recapturing local political office. Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts, and saw continued rebellions by communists and Islamic separatists. In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Aquino did not wish to run for election again, and leading up to the 1992 presidential election she supported Fidel V. Ramos, who had left her party to form his own. Ramos won, albeit under controversial circumstances and allegations of electoral fraud. The 1992 elections were the first to be synchronized, with presidential, legislative, and local elections held simultaneously. With the 1997 Asian financial crisis damaging the image of economy liberalism, and with no clear successor to Ramos, Ramos's vice president Joseph Estrada won the 1998 election with a comfortable margin on a populist campaign appealing directly to poorer voters.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Estrada administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption, leading to his impeachment by the House of Representatives. In the impeachment trial, Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented, triggering massive protests. The military withdrew their support from Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacañang Palace.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Estrada's supporters launched their own mass movement, which was ultimately unsuccessful. Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and therefore consolidated power. In 2003, a failed coup attempt took place in the central business district. As she had served less than four years as president, Arroyo was eligible for re-election. She won the 2004 election with a slim plurality. It was later exposed that Arroyo rigged the election. This second term saw another coup attempt. By the end of her presidency, Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Before the 2010 election, former president Aquino died, and her son, Benigno Aquino III, won the election. His administration was politically stable, seen as relatively clean, and had the highest ratings since Marcos. While his popularity dipped towards the end of his administration, it was linked to perceptions about the failure of change within the wider political system, rather than to Aquino himself. In the 2016 presidential election, Aquino's handpicked successor was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Duterte ran on a populist platform, winning votes from various socioeconomic classes, with particularly strong appeal to the middle classes. Duterte implemented a War on Drugs that led to thousands of deaths. Duterte then prioritized infrastructure spending, and sought to end the communist insurgency. The administration made peace with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, replacing the ARMM with the more powerful Bangsamoro region. The Duterte government has largely continued Aquino's economic policies, including those focused on the poor. Its political policies have shown a shift towards illiberal democracy, with the politicization of legal institutions and less regard for checks and balances.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: In May 2022, Ferdinand Marcos Jr (known by his nickname "Bongbong"), son of former president Ferdinand Marcos, received nearly 59 percent of the vote and won the presidential election by landslide. His vice presidential candidate was Sara Duterte, daughter of then-president Rodrigo Duterte. On 30 June 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: The regulation of telephone numbers in Germany is the responsibility of the Federal Network Agency () of the German government. The agency has a mandate to telecommunications in Germany and other infrastructure systems.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Germany has an open telephone numbering plan. Before 2010, area codes and subscriber telephone numbers had no fixed size, meaning that some subscriber numbers may be as short as two digits. As a result, dialing sequences are generally of a variable length, except for some non-geographic area codes for which subscriber numbers use a fixed-length format. It is not possible to determine unambiguously the end of a phone number from a prefix or the digits already dialed. This feature allows the extension of the length of phone numbers without revoking or changing existing numbers. Cell phone numbers in Germany are not given geographic area codes but non-geographic codes. Thus they can easily be told apart from other numbers.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: A new numbering plan was introduced on 3 May 2010. Since then new landline telephone numbers have a standard length of 11 digits, which includes the area code but omits the trunk prefix (0). Area codes remain as they are and are still variable in length. Exceptions to the 11 digit rule are the four cities of Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich, which are the only cities with two digit area codes and require only 10 digit numbers so as not to exceed the maximum length of 8 digits for a subscriber number.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: The German telephone network uses 5200 geographical area codes, the length of which varies from two to five digits (not including the trunk code 0), with five-digit area codes only being assigned in the New States (prefix 3). In general, geographic area codes start with digits 2 to 9, whereas other non-geographic area codes including those for cell phone usage are assigned to 1 and network services to 11.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Geographic area codes have a length of two to five digits. The maximum total length is eleven digits.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Geographic numbers are assigned to carriers in blocks, from which these carriers can make derivative assignments to subscribers.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Subscriber numbers do not start with 0 or 11 and can be called directly from landlines within the same geographic area code.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Originally, the first digits following the area code would indicate a smaller area within these area codes or the type of the subscriber line (analogue or ISDN). However, this is no longer true as subscribers can keep their numbers when moving within an area code or when switching from analogue to ISDN. Further, new carriers assign numbers from different blocks.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Non-geographic numbers were originally assigned the prefix 1. However, some of these services have been moved to other area codes.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Network services are not dialed with the trunk prefix 0. They resemble local numbers that start with 11 but usually cannot be dialed after an area code.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Before German reunification, East Germany used country code +37. West Berlin was integrated into the West German telephone network, using the same international dialling code (+49) of West Germany, with the area code 311, later changed to 030. Unlike West Germany, from where calls to East Berlin were made using the prefix 00372 (international access code 00, East German country code 37, area code 2), calls from West Berlin required only the short code 0372. Conversely, those made to West Berlin from East Berlin only required the short code 849.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: Geographic numbers in the New States were assigned area codes starting with 3, in some cases followed by the former East German area code (without the initial 0) or a code similar to it. Thus, Leipzig, for example, which had used East German domestic area code 41, was assigned the new area code 341 in the unified telephone system. On the other hand, some area codes were changed: for example, the small town of Zossen used to have East German area code 323, but the new area code is 3377. Area code 30, formerly used by West Berlin, was assigned to the entire reunified Berlin.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: The released country code +37 was later reused as the initial digits of several new codes for European countries that became independent states at the time (e.g.: +370 for Lithuania, +374 for Armenia, +375 for Belarus, etc.), as well as some microstates whose telephone networks had formerly been integrated to those of surrounding larger countries (e.g. +376 for Andorra, +377 for Monaco and +378 for San Marino).


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: The German telephone network became fully digital in 1997, allowing more flexible use of the numbering space.


title: Telephone numbers in Germany

text: On 1 January 1998, the Federal Network Agency (named the Regulatory Authority for Telecommunications and Postal Services at the time) became the numbering authority for telephone numbers in Germany.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Lorenzo Joseph Fertitta (born January 3, 1969) is an American businessman and philanthropist. He is chairman of Fertitta Capital, director of Red Rock Resorts Inc, and former CEO of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Lorenzo and his older brother Frank Fertitta III were raised in Las Vegas, Nevada, after their father, Frank Fertitta Jr., moved there from Texas with his wife Victoria (née Broussard) in 1960. Fertitta Jr. became a dealer at the Stardust Casino before graduating to management positions at the Tropicana, Sahara and Circus Circus casinos.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: In 1976, after observing that no casinos effectively catered to the city's residents, Fertitta Jr. built The Casino, a 5,000-square-foot establishment on Sahara Blvd. The Casino would be renamed Bingo Palace before it eventually became Palace Station.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Fertitta Jr. worked at Station Casinos, a developer and casino operator in the U.S, alongside his sons until retiring in 1993. Until his death in 2009, Fertitta Jr. remained active in other family business ventures, community service and philanthropic efforts, with Las Vegas Mayor Oscar Goodman referring to Fertitta Jr. as "one of the most successful business persons in the history of Las Vegas."


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Fertitta graduated from Bishop Gorman High School, a private Catholic prep school in Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1987. He earned a Bachelor of Business Administration from the University of San Diego in 1991 where he was a member of Sigma Pi fraternity. He earned an MBA from the Stern School of Business at New York University in 1993.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Since 1991, Fertitta occupied various executive positions within Fertitta Enterprises, a family investment office and entertainment company. He served as vice president from 1991 to 1993, before becoming president and CEO from June 1993 to July 2000. In these roles, Fertitta managed an investment portfolio consisting of marketable securities and real property.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Throughout their time in high school and college, Lorenzo and Frank III worked for their father, Frank Fertitta Jr., at Station Casinos. After Fertitta Jr. retired in 1993, Lorenzo and Frank III led Station Casinos to its first IPO that same year, raising $294 million and becoming principal shareholders and co-founders of Station Casinos Inc. in the process. Station Casinos was then taken private in 2007 in a management-led leveraged buyout.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: On February 2, 2009, Station Casinos declared plans to file for bankruptcy. The filing came in response to a lawsuit that challenged the gaming company's debt swap and prepackaged bankruptcy proposal. Station Casinos filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on July 28, 2009 and, with a subsequent reinvestment of $240 million, emerged from this process in June 2011 with a new ownership structure that allowed the Fertittas to retain full control.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: On October 13, 2015, Red Rock Resorts, Inc. filed an S-1 registration statement with the SEC to take Station Casinos public again through an initial public offering (IPO), creating a holding company for the organization, known as Red Rock Resorts, Inc., which owns a portion of the Station Casinos entity. On April 26, 2016, Red Rock Resorts, Inc. raised $531.4 million in an IPO that priced 27.25 million shares under the ticker symbol "RRR". Deutsche Bank Securities, J.P Morgan, BofA Merrill Lynch and Goldman Sachs & Co were among the underwriters for the offering. The Fertitta family continues to own a stake in Red Rock Resorts Inc. In January 2017, Fertitta was named Vice Chairman.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: In 2001, Lorenzo, along with his brother Frank III, established Zuffa, LLC to acquire the assets of Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), a mixed martial arts promotion and live event provider, from Semaphore Entertainment Group for $2 million. Lorenzo Fertitta assumed positions as chairman and CEO of UFC, while appointing childhood friend Dana White as President of the organization. Zuffa, LLC operated the UFC until its sale in August 2016.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: As Chairman and CEO of UFC, Fertitta worked with the athletic commissions of New Jersey, Nevada, California and Mohegan Sun to establish a unified rule set for MMA competitions. The sport operates in all 50 U.S. states and is broadcast to more than 150 countries. Approximately 135 UFC-branded gyms operate in North America and Australia.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: In January 2005, UFC entered a deal to broadcast televised content on Viacom Inc.'s Spike cable channel, an agreement that ran until the end of 2011. On August 18, 2011, UFC and Fox Broadcasting Company announced a seven-year, $813 million television rights deal that spanned Fox's flagship channel, its cable channel FX, and other stations including Fuel TV and Fox Deportes.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: As CEO of UFC, Fertitta worked with Governor of New York Andrew Cuomo to regulate MMA in the state, an initiative projected to yield more than $32 million in economic activity for New York's economy each year. Governor Cuomo signed legislation authorizing competitive mixed martial arts in New York State on April 14, 2016, with UFC hosting its first show at Madison Square Garden, UFC 205, later that year. The event set a record for live gate receipts at the venue, drawing $17.7 million.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: In July 2016, Zuffa, LLC and the brothers announced the sale of their shares in UFC for an estimated $4 billion to WME-IMG, a sports and entertainment talent representation firm led by Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell. Private equity firms Silver Lake Partners and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) were also a part of the deal. Upon completion of the transaction, Lorenzo Fertitta stepped down from his role as CEO.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: On May 1, 2017, Fertitta Capital, a private investment firm, was launched with an initial seed investment of $500 million from Lorenzo and Frank Fertitta III. The Firm has a permanent capital base and invests throughout a business's lifecycle and across the capital structure in consumer-facing companies in the technology, media and entertainment sectors. Nakisa Bidarian, former CFO of UFC, will lead Fertitta Capital as CEO and co-founder and be responsible for the deployment of the Firm's capital.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Fertitta's philanthropic efforts include supporting his high school alma mater, Bishop Gorman, as well as the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). In September 2016, the Fertitta family made a $10 million donation to UNLV to fund a 73,000-square-foot football facility that will be named The Fertitta Football Complex.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: Fertitta is a supporter of veterans and active duty students, having made contributions to the Lone Survivor Foundation, the Fisher House and the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund, which provide support for the families of military personnel lost or severely wounded in service to the United States.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: On November 11, 2016, Lorenzo and Frank III established the Fertitta Veterans Program at New York University Stern, a full-time MBA program designed to support U.S. military veterans' transition to business school. As part of the program, 20 full-time MBA military students receive scholarship support and participate in a six-week, six-credit summer term that facilitates their transition to the academic and professional communities.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: In addition, Fertitta supports local Las Vegas charities including the Nathan Adelson Hospice, Catholic Charities of Southern Nevada, the Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health and Three Square, a charity focused on providing wholesome food to those in need.


title: Lorenzo Fertitta

text: He is third-cousin to fellow entrepreneur Tilman Fertitta. Lorenzo and his wife are major donors to the Republican Party and Republican candidates, having given more than $9,700,000 from 2009 to 2020, making him, along with his brother, one of the largest contributors in Nevada.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Dynamic-link library (DLL) is Microsoft's implementation of the shared library concept in the Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems. These libraries usually have the file extension codice_1, codice_2 (for libraries containing ActiveX controls), or codice_3 (for legacy system drivers).


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The file formats for DLLs are the same as for Windows EXE files – that is, Portable Executable (PE) for 32-bit and 64-bit Windows, and New Executable (NE) for 16-bit Windows. As with EXEs, DLLs can contain code, data, and resources, in any combination.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Data files with the same file format as a DLL, but with different file extensions and possibly containing only resource sections, can be called "resource DLLs". Examples of such DLLs include "icon libraries", sometimes having the extension codice_4, and font files, having the extensions codice_5 and codice_6.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The first versions of Microsoft Windows ran programs together in a single address space. Every program was meant to co-operate by yielding the CPU to other programs so that the graphical user interface (GUI) could multitask and be maximally responsive. All operating-system level operations were provided by the underlying operating system: MS-DOS. All higher-level services were provided by Windows Libraries "Dynamic Link Library". The Drawing API, Graphics Device Interface (GDI), was implemented in a DLL called codice_7, the user interface in codice_8. These extra layers on top of DOS had to be shared across all running Windows programs, not just to enable Windows to work in a machine with less than a megabyte of RAM, but to enable the programs to co-operate with each other. The code in GDI needed to translate drawing commands to operations on specific devices. On the display, it had to manipulate pixels in the frame buffer. When drawing to a printer, the API calls had to be transformed into requests to a printer. Although it could have been possible to provide hard-coded support for a limited set of devices (like the Color Graphics Adapter display, the HP LaserJet Printer Command Language), Microsoft chose a different approach. GDI would work by loading different pieces of code, called "device drivers", to work with different output devices.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The same architectural concept that allowed GDI to load different device drivers is that which allowed the Windows shell to load different Windows programs, and for these programs to invoke API calls from the shared USER and GDI libraries. That concept was "dynamic linking".


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In a conventional non-shared static library, sections of code are simply added to the calling program when its executable is built at the "linking" phase; if two programs call the same routine, the routine is included in both the programs during the linking stage of the two. With dynamic linking, shared code is placed into a single, separate file. The programs that call this file are connected to it at run time, with the operating system (or, in the case of early versions of Windows, the OS-extension), performing the binding.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: For those early versions of Windows (1.0 to 3.11), the DLLs were the foundation for the entire GUI. As such, display drivers were merely DLLs with a .DRV extension that provided custom implementations of the same drawing API through a unified device driver interface (DDI), and the Drawing (GDI) and GUI (USER) APIs were merely the function calls exported by the GDI and USER, system DLLs with .EXE extension.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: This notion of building up the operating system from a collection of dynamically loaded libraries is a core concept of Windows that persists .


title: Dynamic-link library

text: DLLs provide the standard benefits of shared libraries, such as modularity. Modularity allows changes to be made to code and data in a single self-contained DLL shared by several applications without any change to the applications themselves.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Another benefit of modularity is the use of generic interfaces for plug-ins. A single interface may be developed which allows old as well as new modules to be integrated seamlessly at run-time into pre-existing applications, without any modification to the application itself. This concept of dynamic extensibility is taken to the extreme with the Component Object Model, the underpinnings of ActiveX.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In Windows 1.x, 2.x and 3.x, all Windows applications shared the same address space as well as the same memory. A DLL was only loaded once into this address space; from then on, all programs using the library accessed it. The library's data was shared across all the programs. This could be used as an indirect form of inter-process communication, or it could accidentally corrupt the different programs. With the introduction of 32-bit libraries in Windows 95, every process ran in its own address space. While the DLL code may be shared, the data is private except where shared data is explicitly requested by the library. That said, large swathes of Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me were built from 16-bit libraries, which limited the performance of the Pentium Pro microprocessor when launched, and ultimately limited the stability and scalability of the DOS-based versions of Windows.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Although DLLs are the core of the Windows architecture, they have several drawbacks, collectively called "DLL hell".


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Since DLLs are essentially the same as EXEs, the choice of which to produce as part of the linking process is for clarity, since it is possible to export functions and data from either.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: It is not possible to directly execute a DLL, since it requires an EXE for the operating system to load it through an entry point, hence the existence of utilities like RUNDLL.EXE or RUNDLL32.EXE which provide the entry point and minimal framework for DLLs that contain enough functionality to execute without much support.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: DLLs provide a mechanism for shared code and data, allowing a developer of shared code/data to upgrade functionality without requiring applications to be re-linked or re-compiled. From the application development point of view, Windows and OS/2 can be thought of as a collection of DLLs that are upgraded, allowing applications for one version of the OS to work in a later one, provided that the OS vendor has ensured that the interfaces and functionality are compatible.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: DLLs execute in the memory space of the calling process and with the same access permissions, which means there is little overhead in their use, but also that there is no protection for the calling program if the DLL has any sort of bug.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In Windows API, DLL files are organized into "sections". Each section has its own set of attributes, such as being writable or read-only, executable (for code) or non-executable (for data), and so on.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The code in a DLL is usually shared among all the processes that use the DLL; that is, they occupy a single place in physical memory, and do not take up space in the page file. Windows does not use position-independent code for its DLLs; instead, the code undergoes relocation as it is loaded, fixing addresses for all its entry points at locations which are free in the memory space of the first process to load the DLL. In older versions of Windows, in which all running processes occupied a single common address space, a single copy of the DLL's code would always be sufficient for all the processes. However, in newer versions of Windows which use separate address spaces for each program, it is only possible to use the same relocated copy of the DLL in multiple programs if each program has the same virtual addresses free to accommodate the DLL's code. If some programs (or their combination of already-loaded DLLs) do not have those addresses free, then an additional physical copy of the DLL's code will need to be created, using a different set of relocated entry points. If the physical memory occupied by a code section is to be reclaimed, its contents are discarded, and later reloaded directly from the DLL file as necessary.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In contrast to code sections, the data sections of a DLL are usually private; that is, each process using the DLL has its own copy of all the DLL's data. Optionally, data sections can be made shared, allowing inter-process communication via this shared memory area. However, because user restrictions do not apply to the use of shared DLL memory, this creates a security hole; namely, one process can corrupt the shared data, which will likely cause all other sharing processes to behave undesirably. For example, a process running under a guest account can in this way corrupt another process running under a privileged account. This is an important reason to avoid the use of shared sections in DLLs.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: If a DLL is compressed by certain executable packers (e.g. UPX), all of its code sections are marked as read and write, and will be unshared. Read-and-write code sections, much like private data sections, are private to each process. Thus DLLs with shared data sections should not be compressed if they are intended to be used simultaneously by multiple programs, since each program instance would have to carry its own copy of the DLL, resulting in increased memory consumption.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Like static libraries, import libraries for DLLs are noted by the codice_9 file extension. For example, kernel32.dll, the primary dynamic library for Windows's base functions such as file creation and memory management, is linked via codice_10. The usual way to tell an import library from a proper static library is by size: the import library is much smaller as it only contains symbols referring to the actual DLL, to be processed at link-time. Both nevertheless are Unix ar format files.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Linking to dynamic libraries is usually handled by linking to an import library when building or linking to create an executable file. The created executable then contains an import address table (IAT) by which all DLL function calls are referenced (each referenced DLL function contains its own entry in the IAT). At run-time, the IAT is filled with appropriate addresses that point directly to a function in the separately loaded DLL.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In Cygwin/MSYS and MinGW, import libraries are conventionally given the suffix codice_11, combining both the Windows DLL suffix and the Unix ar suffix. The file format is similar, but the symbols used to mark the imports are different (codice_12 vs codice_13). Although its GNU Binutils toolchain can generate import libraries and link to them, it is faster to link to the DLL directly. An experimental tool in MinGW called genlib can be used to generate import libs with MSVC-style symbols.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Each function exported by a DLL is identified by a numeric ordinal and optionally a name. Likewise, functions can be imported from a DLL either by ordinal or by name. The ordinal represents the position of the function's address pointer in the DLL Export Address table. It is common for internal functions to be exported by ordinal only. For most Windows API functions only the names are preserved across different Windows releases; the ordinals are subject to change. Thus, one cannot reliably import Windows API functions by their ordinals.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Importing functions by ordinal provides only slightly better performance than importing them by name: export tables of DLLs are ordered by name, so a binary search can be used to find a function. The index of the found name is then used to look up the ordinal in the Export Ordinal table. In 16-bit Windows, the name table was not sorted, so the name lookup overhead was much more noticeable.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: It is also possible to "bind" an executable to a specific version of a DLL, that is, to resolve the addresses of imported functions at compile-time. For bound imports, the linker saves the timestamp and checksum of the DLL to which the import is bound. At run-time, Windows checks to see if the same version of library is being used, and if so, Windows bypasses processing the imports. Otherwise, if the library is different from the one which was bound to, Windows processes the imports in a normal way.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Bound executables load somewhat faster if they are run in the same environment that they were compiled for, and exactly the same time if they are run in a different environment, so there is no drawback for binding the imports. For example, all the standard Windows applications are bound to the system DLLs of their respective Windows release. A good opportunity to bind an application's imports to its target environment is during the application's installation. This keeps the libraries "bound" until the next OS update. It does, however, change the checksum of the executable, so it is not something that can be done with signed programs, or programs that are managed by a configuration management tool that uses checksums (such as MD5 checksums) to manage file versions. As more recent Windows versions have moved away from having fixed addresses for every loaded library (for security reasons), the opportunity and value of binding an executable is decreasing.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: DLL files may be explicitly loaded at run-time, a process referred to simply as "run-time dynamic linking" by Microsoft, by using the codice_14 (or codice_15) API function. The codice_16 API function is used to look up exported symbols by name, and codice_17 – to unload the DLL. These functions are analogous to codice_18, codice_19, and codice_20 in the POSIX standard API.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The procedure for explicit run-time linking is the same in any language that supports pointers to functions, since it depends on the Windows API rather than language constructs.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Normally, an application that is linked against a DLL’s import library will fail to start if the DLL cannot be found, because Windows will not run the application unless it can find all of the DLLs that the application may need. However an application may be linked against an import library to allow delayed loading of the dynamic library.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In this case, the operating system will not try to find or load the DLL when the application starts; instead, a stub is included in the application by the linker which will try to find and load the DLL through codice_14 and codice_16 when one of its functions is called. If the DLL cannot be found or loaded, or the called function does not exist, the application will generate an exception, which may be caught and handled appropriately. If the application does not handle the exception, it will be caught by the operating system, which will terminate the program with an error message.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The delayed loading mechanism also provides notification hooks, allowing the application to perform additional processing or error handling when the DLL is loaded and/or any DLL function is called.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In a source file, the keyword codice_23 is used instead of codice_24. At the end of the file, the functions to be exported are listed in codice_25 clause.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Delphi does not need codice_26 files to import functions from DLLs; to link to a DLL, the codice_27 keyword is used in the function declaration to signal the DLL name, followed by codice_28 to name the symbol (if different) or codice_29 to identify the index.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In Visual Basic (VB), only run-time linking is supported; but in addition to using codice_14 and codice_16 API functions, "declarations" of imported functions are allowed.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: When importing DLL functions through declarations, VB will generate a run-time error if the codice_1 file cannot be found. The developer can catch the error and handle it appropriately.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: When creating DLLs in VB, the IDE will only allow creation of ActiveX DLLs, however methods have been created to allow the user to explicitly tell the linker to include a .DEF file which defines the ordinal position and name of each exported function. This allows the user to create a standard Windows DLL using Visual Basic (Version 6 or lower) which can be referenced through a "Declare" statement.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Microsoft Visual C++ (MSVC) provides several extensions to standard C++ which allow functions to be specified as imported or exported directly in the C++ code; these have been adopted by other Windows C and C++ compilers, including Windows versions of GCC. These extensions use the attribute codice_33 before a function declaration. Note that when C functions are accessed from C++, they must also be declared as codice_34 in C++ code, to inform the compiler that the C linkage should be used.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Besides specifying imported or exported functions using codice_33 attributes, they may be listed in IMPORT or EXPORTS section of the codice_36 file used by the project. The codice_36 file is processed by the linker, rather than the compiler, and thus it is not specific to C++.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: DLL compilation will produce both codice_1 and codice_26 files. The codice_26 file (import library) is used to link against a DLL at compile-time; it is not necessary for run-time linking. Unless the DLL is a Component Object Model (COM) server, the codice_1 file must be placed in one of the directories listed in the PATH environment variable, in the default system directory, or in the same directory as the program using it. COM server DLLs are registered using regsvr32.exe, which places the DLL's location and its globally unique ID (GUID) in the registry. Programs can then use the DLL by looking up its GUID in the registry to find its location or create an instance of the COM object indirectly using its class identifier and interface identifier.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The following examples show how to use language-specific bindings to import symbols for linking against a DLL at compile-time.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Example.lib file must be included (assuming that Example.dll is generated) in the project (Add Existing Item option for Project!) before static linking. The file Example.lib is automatically generated by the compiler when compiling the DLL. Not executing the above statement would cause linking error as the linker would not know where to find the definition of AddNumbers. The DLL Example.dll may also have to be copied to the location where the .exe file would be generated by the following code.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The following examples show how to use the run-time loading and linking facilities using language-specific Windows API bindings.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Note that all of the four samples are vulnerable to DLL preloading attacks, since example.dll can be resolved to a place unintended by the author (the current working directory goes "before" system library locations), and thus to a malicious version of the library. See the reference for Microsoft's guidance on safe library loading: one should use in to remove the current-directory lookup before any libraries are loaded.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: The Component Object Model (COM) defines a binary standard to host the implementation of objects in DLL and EXE files. It provides mechanisms to locate and version those files as well as a language-independent and machine-readable description of the interface. Hosting COM objects in a DLL is more lightweight and allows them to share resources with the client process. This allows COM objects to implement powerful back-ends to simple GUI front ends such as Visual Basic and ASP. They can also be programmed from scripting languages.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Due to a vulnerability commonly known as DLL hijacking, DLL spoofing, DLL preloading or binary planting, many programs will load and execute a malicious DLL contained in the same folder as a data file opened by these programs. The vulnerability was discovered by Georgi Guninski in 2000.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: In August 2010 it gained worldwide publicity after ACROS Security rediscovered it again and many hundreds of programs were found vulnerable.


title: Dynamic-link library

text: Programs that are run from unsafe locations, i.e. user-writable folders like the "Downloads" or the "Temp" directory, are almost always susceptible to this vulnerability.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Wang Jingwei regime or the Wang Ching-wei regime is the common name of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (), the government of the puppet state of the Empire of Japan in eastern China called simply the Republic of China. This should not be confused with the contemporaneously existing National Government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek, which was fighting with the Allies of World War II against Japan during this period. The country was ruled as a dictatorship under Wang Jingwei, a very high-ranking former Kuomintang (KMT) official. The region that it would administer was initially seized by Japan throughout the late 1930s with the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Wang, a rival of Chiang Kai-shek and member of the pro-peace faction of the KMT, defected to the Japanese side and formed a collaborationist rebel government in occupied Nanking (Nanjing) (the traditional capital of China) in 1940. The new state claimed the entirety of China during its existence, portraying itself as the legitimate inheritors of the Xinhai Revolution and Sun Yat-sen's legacy as opposed to Chiang Kai-shek's government in Chunking (Chongqing), but effectively only Japanese-occupied territory was under its direct control. Its international recognition was limited to other members of the Anti-Comintern Pact, of which it was a signatory. The Reorganized National Government existed until the end of World War II and the surrender of Japan in August 1945, at which point the regime was dissolved and many of its leading members were executed for treason.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The state was formed by combining the previous Reformed Government (1938–1940) and Provisional Government (1937–1940) of the Republic of China, puppet regimes which ruled the central and northern regions of China that were under Japanese control, respectively. Unlike Wang Jingwei's government, these regimes were not much more than arms of the Japanese military leadership and received no recognition even from Japan itself or its allies. However, after 1940 the former territory of the Provisional Government remained semi-autonomous from Nanjing's control, under the name "North China Political Council". The region of Mengjiang (puppet government in Inner Mongolia) was under Wang Jingwei's government only nominally. His regime was also hampered by the fact that the powers granted to it by the Japanese were extremely limited, and this was only partly changed with the signing of a new treaty in 1943 which gave it more sovereignty from Japanese control. The Japanese largely viewed it as not an end in itself but the means to an end, a bridge for negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek, which led them to often treat Wang with indifference.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The regime is informally also known as the "Nanjing Nationalist Government" (), the "Nanjing Regime", or by its leader "Wang Jingwei Regime" (). As the government of the Republic of China and subsequently of the People's Republic of China regard the regime as illegal, it is also commonly known as "Wang's Puppet Regime" () or "Puppet Nationalist Government" () in Greater China. Other names used are the "Republic of China-Nanjing", "China-Nanjing", or "New China".


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: While Wang Jingwei was widely regarded as a favorite to inherit Sun Yat-sen's position as leader of the Nationalist Party, based upon his faithful service to the party throughout the 1910s and 20s and based on his unique position as the one who accepted and recorded Dr. Sun's last will and testament, he was rapidly overtaken by Chiang Kai-shek. By the 1930s, Wang Jingwei had taken the position of Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Nationalist Government under Chiang Kai-shek. This put him in control over the deteriorating Sino-Japanese relationship. While Chiang Kai-shek focused his primary attentions against the Chinese Communist Party, Wang Jingwei diligently toiled to preserve the peace between China and Japan, repeatedly stressing the need for a period of extended peace in order for China to elevate itself economically and militarily to the levels of its neighbor and the other Great powers of the world. Despite his efforts, Wang was unable to find a peaceful solution to prevent the Japanese from commencing an invasion into Chinese territory.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: By April 1938, the national conference of the KMT, held in retreat at the temporary capital of Chongqing, appointed Wang as vice-president of the party, reporting only to Chiang Kai-shek himself. Meanwhile, the Japanese advance into Chinese territory as part of the Second Sino-Japanese War continued unrelentingly. From his new position, Wang urged Chiang Kai-shek to pursue a peace agreement with Japan on the sole condition that the hypothetical deal "did not interfere with the territorial integrity of China". Chiang Kai-shek was adamant, however, that he would countenance no surrender, and that it was his position that, were China to be united completely under his control, the Japanese could readily be repulsed. As a result, Chiang continued to devote his primary attention to eradicating the Communists and ending the Chinese Civil War. On December 18, 1938, Wang Jingwei and several of his closest supporters resigned from their positions and boarded a plane to Hanoi in order to seek alternative means of ending the war.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: From this new base, Wang began pursuit of a peaceful resolution to the conflict independent of the Nationalist Party in exile. In June 1939, Wang and his supporters began negotiating with the Japanese for the creation of a new Nationalist Government which could end the war despite Chiang's objections. To this end, Wang sought to discredit the Nationalists in Chongqing on the basis that they represented not the republican government envisioned by Dr. Sun, but rather a "one-party dictatorship", and subsequently call together a Central Political Conference back to the capital of Nanjing in order to formally transfer control over the party away from Chiang Kai-shek. These efforts were stymied by Japanese refusal to offer backing for Wang and his new government. Ultimately, Wang Jingwei and his allies would establish their almost entirely powerless new party and government in Nanjing in 1940, in the hope that Tokyo might eventually be willing to negotiate a deal for peace, which, though painful, might allow China to survive.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Wang and his group were also damaged early on by the defection of the diplomat Gao Zongwu, who played a critical role in arranging Wang's defection after two years of negotiations with the Japanese, in January 1940. He had become disillusioned and believed that Japan did not see China as an equal partner, taking with him the documents of the Basic Treaty that Japan had signed with the Wang Jingwei government. He revealed them to the Kuomintang press, becoming a major propaganda coup for Chiang Kai-shek and discrediting Wang's movement in the eyes of the public as mere puppets of the Japanese.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: In theory, the Reorganized National Government controlled all of China with the exception of Manchukuo, which it recognized as an independent state. In actuality, at the time of its formation, the Reorganized Government controlled only Jiangsu, Anhui, and the north sector of Zhejiang, all being Japanese-controlled territories after 1937.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Thereafter, the Reorganized Government's actual borders waxed and waned as the Japanese gained or lost territory during the course of the war. During the December 1941 Japanese offensive the Reorganized Government extended its control over Hunan, Hubei, and parts of Jiangxi provinces. The port of Shanghai and the cities of Hankou and Wuchang were also placed under control of the Reformed Government after 1940.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Japanese-controlled provinces of Shandong and Hebei were "de jure" part of this political entity, though they were "de facto" under military administration of the Japanese Northern China Area Army from its headquarters in Beijing. Likewise, the Japanese-controlled territories in central China were under military administration of the Japanese Sixth Area Army from its headquarters in Hankou (Wuhan). Other Japanese-controlled territories had military administrations directly reporting to the Japanese military headquarters in Nanjing, with the exception of Guangdong and Guangxi which briefly had its headquarters in Canton. The central and southern zones of military occupation were eventually linked together after Operation Ichi-Go in 1944, though the Japanese garrison had no effective control over most of this region apart from a narrow strip around the Guangzhou–Hankou railway.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: In 1940 an agreement was signed between the Inner Mongolian puppet state of Mengjiang and the Nanjing regime, incorporating the former into the latter as an autonomous part.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: With Nanjing still rebuilding itself after the devastating assault and occupation by the Japanese Imperial Army, the fledgling Reorganized Nationalist Government turned to Shanghai as its primary focal point. With its key role as both an economic and media center for all China, close affiliation to Western Imperial powers even despite the Japanese invasion, and relatively sheltered position from attacks by KMT and Communist forces alike, Shanghai offered both sanctuary and opportunity for Wang and his allies' ambitions. Once in Shanghai, the new regime quickly moved to take control over those publications already supportive of Wang and his peace platform, while also engaging in violent, gang-style attacks against rival news outlets. By November 1940, the Reorganized Nationalist Party had secured enough local support to begin hostile takeovers of both Chinese courts and banks still under nominal control by the KMT in Chongqing or Western powers. Buoyed by this rapid influx of seized collateral, the Reorganized Government under its recently appoint Finance Minister, Zhou Fohai, was able to issue a new currency for circulation. Ultimately however, the already limited economic influence garnered by the new banknotes was further diminished by Japanese efforts to contain the influence of the new regime, at least for a time, to territories firmly under Japanese control like Shanghai and other isolated regions of the Yangtze Valley.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The administrative structure of the Reorganized National Government included a Legislative Yuan and an Executive Yuan. Both were under the president and head of state Wang Jingwei. However, actual political power remained with the commander of the Japanese Central China Area Army and Japanese political entities formed by Japanese political advisors.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: After obtaining Japanese approval to establish a national government in the summer of 1940, Wang Jingwei ordered the 6th National Congress of the Kuomintang to establish this government in Nanjing. The dedication occurred in the Conference Hall, and both the "blue-sky white-sun red-earth" national flag and the "blue-sky white-sun" Kuomintang flag were unveiled, flanking a large portrait of Sun Yat-sen.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: On the day the new government was formed, and just before the session of the "Central Political Conference" began, Wang visited Sun's tomb in Nanjing's Purple Mountain to establish the legitimacy of his power as Sun's successor. Wang had been a high-level official of the Kuomintang government and, as a confidant to Sun, had transcribed Sun's last will, the . To discredit the legitimacy of the Chongqing government, Wang adopted Sun's flag in the hope that it would establish him as the rightful successor to Sun and bring the government back to Nanjing.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: A principal goal of the new regime was to portray itself as the legitimate continuation of the former Nationalist government, despite the Japanese occupation. To this end, the Reorganized government frequently sought to revitalize and expand the former policies of the Nationalist government, often to mixed success.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: While Wang had been successful in securing from Japan a "basic treaty" recognizing the foundation of his new party in November 1940, the produced document granted the Reorganized Nationalist Government almost no powers whatsoever. This initial treaty precluded any possibility for Wang to act as intermediary with Chiang Kai-shek and his forces in securing a peace agreement in China. Likewise, the regime was afforded no extra administrative powers in occupied China, save those few previously carved out in Shanghai. Indeed, official Japanese correspondence regarded the Nanjing regime as trivially important, and urged any and all token representatives stationed with Wang and his allies to dismiss all diplomatic efforts by the new government which could not directly contribute to a total military victory over Chiang and his forces. Hoping to expand the treaty in such a way as to be useful, Wang formally traveled to Tokyo in June 1941 in order to meet with prime minister Fumimaro Konoe and his cabinet to discuss new terms and agreements. Unfortunately for Wang, his visit coincided with the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, a move which further emboldened officials in Tokyo to pursue total victory in China, rather than accept a peace deal. In the end, Konoe eventually agreed to provide a substantial loan to the Nanjing government as well as increased sovereignty; neither of which came to fruition, and indeed, neither of which were even mentioned to military commanders stationed in China. As a slight conciliation, Wang was successful in persuading the Japanese to secure official recognition for the Nanjing Government from the other Axis Powers.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: As the Japanese offensive stalled around the Pacific, conditions remained generally consistent under Wang Jingwei's government. The regime continued to represent itself as the legitimate government of China, continued to appeal to Chiang Kai-shek to seek a peace deal, and continued to chafe under the extremely limited sovereignty afforded by the Japanese occupiers. Yet by 1943, Japanese leaders including Hideki Tojo, recognizing that the tide of war was turning against them, sought new ways to reinforce the thinly stretched Japanese forces. To this end, Tokyo finally found it expedient to fully recognize Wang Jingwei's government as a full ally, and a replacement Pact of Alliance was drafted for the basic treaty. This new agreement granted the Nanjing government markedly enhanced administrative control over its own territory, as well as increased ability to make limited self-decisions. Despite this windfall, the deal came far too late for the Reorganized government to have sufficient resources to take advantage of its new powers, and Japan was in no condition to offer aid to its new partner.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: As a result of general chaos and wartime various profiteering efforts of the conquering Japanese armies, already considerable illegal opium smuggling operations expanded greatly in the Reorganized Nation Government's territory. Indeed, Japanese forces themselves became arguably the largest and most widespread traffickers within the territory under the auspices of semi-official narcotics monopolies. While initially too politically weak to make inroads into the Japanese operations, as the war began to turn against them, the Japanese government sought to incorporate some collaborationist governments more actively into the war effort. To this end in October 1943 the Japanese government signed a treaty with the Reorganized Nationalist Government of China offering them a greater degree of control over their own territory. As a result, Wang Jingwei and his government were able to gain some increased control over the opium monopolies. Negotiations by Chen Gongbo were successful in reaching an agreement to cut opium imports from Mongolia in half, as well as an official turnover of state-sponsored monopolies from Japan over to the Reorganized Nationalist Government. Yet, perhaps due to financial concerns, the regime sought only limited reductions in the distribution of opium throughout the remainder of the war.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Beijing administration (East Yi Anti-Communist Autonomous Administration) was under the commander-in-chief of the Japanese Northern China Area Army until the Yellow River area fell inside the sphere of influence of the Japanese Central China Area Army. During this same period the area from middle Zhejiang to Guangdong was administered by the Japanese North China Area Army. These small, largely independent fiefdoms had local money and local leaders, and frequently squabbled.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Wang Jingwei traveled to Tokyo in 1941 for meetings. In Tokyo the Reorganized National Government Vice President Zhou Fohai commented to the "Asahi Shimbun" newspaper that the Japanese establishment was making little progress in the Nanjing area. This quote provoked anger from Kumataro Honda, the Japanese ambassador in Nanjing. Zhou Fohai petitioned for total control of China's central provinces by the Reorganized National Government. In response, Imperial Japanese Army Lt. Gen. Teiichi Suzuki was ordered to provide military guidance to the Reorganized National Government, and so became part of the real power that lay behind Wang's rule.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: With the permission of the Japanese Army, a monopolistic economic policy was applied, to the benefit of Japanese zaibatsu and local representatives. Though these companies were supposedly treated the same as local Chinese companies by the government, the president of the Yuan legislature in Nanjing, Chen Gongbo, complained that this was untrue to the "Kaizō" Japanese review. The Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China also featured its own embassy in Yokohama, Japan (as did Manchukuo).


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Nanjing Nationalist Government received little international recognition as it was seen as a Japanese puppet state, being recognized only by Japan and the rest of the Axis powers. Initially, its main sponsor, Japan, hoped to come to a peace accord with Chiang Kai-shek and held off official diplomatic recognition for the Wang Jingwei regime for eight months after its founding, not establishing formal diplomatic relations with the National Reorganized Government until 30 November 1940. The Sino-Japanese Basic Treaty was signed on 20 November 1940, by which Japan recognised the Nationalist Government, and it also included a Japan–Manchukuo–China joint declaration by which China recognized the Empire of Great Manchuria and the three countries pledged to create a "New Order in East Asia." The United States and Britain immediately denounced the formation of the government, seeing it as a tool of Japanese imperialism. In July 1941, after negotiations by Foreign Minister Chu Minyi, the Nanjing Government was recognized as the government of China by Germany and Italy. Soon after, Spain, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, and Denmark also recognized and established relations with the Wang Jingwei regime as the government of China. China under the Reorganized National Government also became a signatory of the Anti-Comintern Pact on 25 November 1941.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: After Japan established diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1942, they and their ally Italy pressured Pope Pius XII to recognize the Nanjing regime and allow a Chinese envoy to be appointed to the Vatican, but he refused to give in to these pressures. Instead the Vatican came to an informal agreement with Japan that their apostolic delegate in Beijing would pay visits to Catholics in the Nanjing government's territory. The Pope also ignored the suggestion of the aforementioned apostolic delegate, Mario Zanin, who recommended in October 1941 that the Vatican recognize the Wang Jingwei regime as the legitimate government of China. Zanin would remain in the Wang Jingwei regime's territory as apostolic delegate while another bishop in Chongqing was to represent Catholic interests in Chiang Kai-shek's territory. Vichy France, despite being aligned with the Axis, resisted Japanese pressure and also refused to recognize the Wang Jingwei regime, with French diplomats in China remaining accredited to the government of Chiang Kai-shek.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Reorganized National Government had its own Foreign Section or Ministry of Foreign Affairs for managing international relations, although it was short on personnel.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: On 9 January 1943, the Reorganized National Government signed the "Treaty on Returning Leased Territories and Repealing Extraterritoriality Rights" with Japan, which abolished all foreign concessions within occupied China. Reportedly the date was originally to have been later that month, but was moved to January 9 to be before the United States concluded a similar treaty with Chiang Kai-shek's government. The Nanjing Government then took control of all of the international concessions in Shanghai and its other territories. Later that year Wang Jingwei attended the Greater East Asia Conference as the Chinese representative.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Wang Jingwei government sent Chinese athletes, including the national football team, to compete in the 1940 East Asian Games, which were held in Tokyo for the 2,600th anniversary of the legendary founding of the Japanese Empire by Emperor Jimmu, and were a replacement for the cancelled 1940 Summer Olympics.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: After Japan's pivot towards joining the Axis powers (which included signing the Tripartite Pact), Wang Jingwei's government promoted the idea of pan-Asianism directed against the West, aimed at establishing a "New Order in East Asia" together with Japan, Manchukuo, and other Asian nations that would expel Western colonial powers from Asia, particularly the "Anglo-Saxons" (the U.S. and Britain) that dominated large parts of Asia. Wang Jingwei used pan-Asianism, basing his views on Sun Yat-sen's advocacy for Asian people to unite against the West in the early 20th century, partly to justify his efforts at working together with Japan. He claimed it was natural for Japan and China to have good relations and cooperation because of their close affinity, describing their conflicts as a temporary aberration in both nation's history. Furthermore, the government believed in the unity of all Asian nations with Japan as their leader as the only way to achieve their goals of removing Western colonial powers from Asia. There was no official description of which Asian peoples were considered to be included in this, but Wang, members of the Propaganda Ministry, and other officials of his regime writing for collaborationist media had different interpretations, at times listing Japan, China, Manchukuo, Thailand, the Philippines, Burma, Nepal, India, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Arabia as potential members of an "East Asian League."


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: From 1940 onwards, the Wang Jingwei government depicted World War II as a struggle by Asians against the West, more specifically the Anglo-American powers. The Reorganized National Government had a Propaganda Ministry, which exerted control over local media outlets and used them to disseminate pan-Asianist and anti-Western propaganda. British and American diplomats in Shanghai and Nanjing noted by 1940 that the Wang Jingwei-controlled press was publishing anti-Western content. These campaigns were aided by the Japanese authorities in China and also reflected pan-Asian thought as promoted by Japanese thinkers, which intensified after the start of the Pacific War in December 1941. Pro-regime newspapers and journals published articles which cited instances of racial discrimination towards immigrant Asian communities living in the West and Western colonies in Asia. Chu Minyi, the minister of foreign affairs of the Nanjing Government, asserted in an article written shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor that the Sino-Japanese conflict and other wars among Asians were the result of secret manipulation by the Western powers. Lin Baisheng, the minister of propaganda from 1940 to 1944, also made these claims in several of his speeches.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Since Japan was aligned with Germany, Italy, and other European Axis countries, the Nanjing Government's propaganda did not portray the conflict as a war against all white people and focused on the U.S. and Britain in particular. Their newspapers like "Republican Daily" praised the German people as a great race for their technological and organizational advancements and glorified the Nazi regime for supposedly transforming Germany into a great power over the past decade. The publications of the Nanjing Government also agreed with the anti-Jewish views held by Nazi Germany, with Wang Jingwei and other officials seeing Jews as dominating the American government and being conspirators with the Anglo-American powers to control the world.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The government also took measures to ban the spread of Anglo-American culture and lifestyle among Chinese people in its territory and promoted traditional Confucian culture. Generally it considered Eastern spiritual culture to be superior to the Western culture of materialism, individualism, and liberalism. Christian missionary schools and missionary activities were banned, the study of English language in schools was reduced, and the usage of English in the postal and customs system was gradually reduced as well. Vice minister of education Tai Yingfu called for a campaign against the Anglo-American nations in education. Zhou Huaren, vice minister of propaganda, blamed Chinese students that studied in the West for spreading Western values among the population and disparaging traditional Chinese culture. Wang Jingwei blamed communism, anarchism, and internationalism (which Wang considered Anglo-American thinking) for making other peoples despise their own culture and embracing the Anglo-American culture. He believed it was necessary to promote Confucianism to oppose Anglo-American "cultural aggression." At the same time, Zhou Huaren and others also thought that it was necessary to adopt Western scientific advancements while combining them with traditional Eastern culture to develop themselves, as he said Japan did in the Meiji Restoration, seeing that as a model for others to follow.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: During its existence, the Reorganized National Government nominally led a large army that was estimated to have included 300,000 to 500,000 men, along with a smaller navy and air force. Although its land forces possessed limited armor and artillery, they were primarily an infantry force. Military aid from Japan was also very limited despite Japanese promises to assist the Nanjing regime in the "Japan–China Military Affairs Agreement" that they signed. All military matters were the responsibility of the Central Military Commission, but in practice that body was mainly a ceremonial one. In reality, many of the army's commanders operated outside of the direct command of the central government in Nanjing. The majority of its officers were either former National Revolutionary Army personnel or warlord officers from the early Republican era. Thus their reliability and combat capability was questionable, and Wang Jingwei was estimated to only be able to count on the loyalty of about 10% to 15% of his nominal forces. Among the reorganized government's best units were three Capital Guards divisions based in Nanjing, Zhou Fohai's Taxation Police Corps, and the 1st Front Army of Ren Yuandao.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The majority of the government's forces were armed with a mix of captured Nationalist weaponry and a small amount of Japanese equipment, the latter mainly being given to Nanjing's best units. The lack of local military industry for the duration of the war meant that the Nanjing regime had trouble arming its troops. While the army was mainly an infantry force, in 1941 it did receive 18 Type 94 tankettes for a token armored force, and reportedly they also received 20 armored cars and 24 motorcycles. The main type of artillery in use were medium mortars, but they also possessed 31 field guns (which included Model 1917 mountain guns)—mainly used by the Guards divisions. Oftentimes, the troops were equipped with the German Stahlhelm, which were used in large quantities by the Chinese Nationalist Army. For small arms, there was no standard rifle and a large variety of different weapons were used, which made supplying them with ammunition difficult. The most common rifles in use was the Chinese version of the Mauser 98k and the Hanyang 88, while other notable weapons included Chinese copies of the Czechoslovakian ZB-26 machine guns.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Along with the great variation in equipment, there was also a disparity in sizes of units. Some "armies" had only a few thousand troops while some "divisions" several thousand. There was a standard divisional structure, but only the elite Guards divisions closer to the capital actually had anything resembling it. In addition to these regular army forces, there were multiple police and local militia, which numbered in the tens of thousands, but were deemed to be completely unreliable by the Japanese. Most of the units located around Beijing in northern China remained, in effect, under the authority of the North China Political Council rather than that of the central government. In an attempt to improve the quality of the officer corps, multiple military academies had been opened, including a Central Military Academy in Nanjing and a Naval Academy in Shanghai. In addition there was a military academy in Beijing for the North China Political Council's forces, and a branch of the central academy in Canton.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: A small navy was established with naval bases at Weihaiwei and Qingdao, but it mostly consisted of small patrol boats that were used for coastal and river defense. Reportedly, the captured Nationalist cruisers "Ning Hai" and "Ping Hai" were handed over to the government by the Japanese, becoming important propaganda tools. However, the Imperial Japanese Navy took them back in 1943 for its own use. In addition there were two regiments of marines, one at Canton and the other at Weihaiwei. By 1944, the navy was under direct command of Ren Yuandao, the naval minister. An Air Force of the Reorganized National Government was established in May 1941 with the opening of the Aviation School and receiving three aircraft, Tachikawa Ki-9 trainers. In the future the air force received additional Ki-9 and Ki-55 trainers as well as multiple transports. Plans by Wang Jingwei to form a fighter squadron with Nakajima Ki-27s did not come to fruition as the Japanese did not trust the pilots enough to give them combat aircraft. Morale was low and a number of defections took place. The only two offensive aircraft they did possess were Tupolev SB bombers which were flown by defecting Nationalist crews.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Reorganized National Government's army was primarily tasked with garrison and police duties in the occupied territories. It also took part in anti-partisan operations against Communist guerrillas, such as in the Hundred Regiments Offensive, or played supporting roles for the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA). The Nanjing Government undertook a "rural pacification" campaign to eradicate communists from the countryside, arresting and executing many people suspected of being communists, with support from the Japanese.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: During the conflicts in central China, the Japanese utilized several methods to recruit Chinese volunteers. Japanese sympathisers including Nanjing's pro-Japanese governor, or major local landowners such as Ni Daolang, were used to recruit local peasants in return for money or food. The Japanese recruited 5,000 volunteers in the Anhui area for the Reorganized National Government Army. Japanese forces and the Reorganized National Government used slogans like "Lay down your guns and take up the plough", "Oppose the Communist Bandits" or "Oppose Corrupt Government and Support the Reformed Government" to dissuade guerrilla attacks and buttress its support.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The Japanese used various methods for subjugating the local populace. Initially, fear was used to maintain order, but this approach was altered following appraisals by Japanese military ideologists. In 1939, the Japanese army attempted some populist policies, including:


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Buddhist leaders inside the occupied Chinese territories ("Shao-Kung") were also forced to give public speeches and persuade people of the virtues of a Chinese alliance with Japan, including advocating the breaking-off of all relations with Western powers and ideas.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: In 1938, a manifesto was launched in Shanghai, reminding the populace the Japanese alliance's track-record in maintaining "moral supremacy" as compared to the often fractious nature of the previous Republican control, and also accusing Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek of treason for maintaining the Western alliance.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: In support of such efforts, in 1941 Wang Jingwei proposed the Qingxiang Plan to be applied along the lower course of the Yangtze River. A Qingxiang Plan Committee ("Qingxiang Weiyuan-hui") was formed with himself as Chairman, and Zhou Fohai and Chen Gongbo (as first and second vice-chairmen respectively). Li Shiqun was made the committee's secretary. Beginning in July 1941, Wang maintained that any areas to which the plan was applied would convert into "model areas of peace, anti-communism, and rebuilders of the country" ("heping fangong jianguo mofanqu"). It was not a success.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The North China Transportation Company and the Central China Railway were established by the former Provisional Government and Reformed Government, which had nationalised private railway and bus companies that operated in their territories, and continued to function providing railway and bus services in the Nanjing regime's territory.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Japanese under the regime had greater access to coveted wartime luxuries, and the Japanese enjoyed things like matches, rice, tea, coffee, cigars, foods, and alcoholic drinks, all of which were scarce in Japan proper, but consumer goods became more scarce after Japan entered World War II. In Japanese-occupied Chinese territories the prices of basic necessities rose substantially as Japan's war effort expanded. In Shanghai in 1941, they increased elevenfold.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Daily life was often difficult in the Nanjing Nationalist Government-controlled Republic of China, and grew increasingly so as the war turned against Japan (c. 1943). Local residents resorted to the black market in order to obtain needed items or to influence the ruling establishment. The Kempeitai (Japanese Military Police Corps), Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu (Special Higher Police), collaborationist Chinese police, and Chinese citizens in the service of the Japanese all worked to censor information, monitor any opposition, and torture enemies and dissenters. A "native" secret agency, the "Tewu", was created with the aid of Japanese Army "advisors". The Japanese also established prisoner-of-war detention centres, concentration camps, and kamikaze training centres to indoctrinate pilots.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Since Wang's government held authority only over territories under Japanese military occupation, there was a limited amount that officials loyal to Wang could do to ease the suffering of Chinese under Japanese occupation. Wang himself became a focal point of anti-Japanese resistance. He was demonised and branded as an "arch-traitor" in both KMT and Communist rhetoric. Wang and his government were deeply unpopular with the Chinese populace, who regarded them as traitors to both the Chinese state and Han Chinese identity. Wang's rule was constantly undermined by resistance and sabotage.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: The strategy of the local education system was to create a workforce suited for employment in factories and mines, and for manual labor. The Japanese also attempted to introduce their culture and dress to the Chinese. Complaints and agitation called for more meaningful Chinese educational development. Shinto temples and similar cultural centers were built in order to instill Japanese culture and values. These activities came to a halt at the end of the war.


title: Wang Jingwei regime

text: Having died before the war had ended, Wang Jingwei was unable to join his fellow Reorganized Nationalist Government leaders on trial for treason in the months that followed the Japanese surrender. Instead he, alongside his presidential successor Chen Gongbo (who was tried and sentenced to death by the victorious Nationalists) and his vice president Zhou Fohai (who had his death sentence commuted to life imprisonment), was given the title Hanjian meaning arch-traitor to the Han people. In the following decades, Wang Jingwei and the entire reputation of the collaborationist government have undergone considerable scholastic debate. In general, evaluations produced by scholars working under the People's Republic of China have held the most critical interpretations of the failed regime, Western scholars typically holding the government and Wang Jingwei especially in a sympathetic light, with Taiwanese scholars falling somewhere in the middle.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: Stanley Herbert Johnson Jr. (born May 29, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played one season of college basketball for the Arizona Wildcats before being selected eighth overall by the Detroit Pistons in the 2015 NBA draft.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: A native of Fullerton, California, Johnson was one of the top high school recruits of 2014 by Rivals.com, Scout.com and ESPN. He was a four-time CIF State champion at Mater Dei High School. He played in the 2014 McDonald's All-American Boys Game, 2014 Jordan Brand Classic and the 2014 Nike Hoop Summit. He was also a 2014 USA Today first team All-USA Boys Basketball Team selection. He scored 2,285 career points at Mater Dei, the third-highest mark in school history behind Taylor King (3,216) and Tom Lewis (2,456).


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: As a freshman at Arizona in 2014–15, Johnson was voted first-team All-Pac-12, and was named Pac-12 Freshman of the Year. He started 37 of the 38 games he played for the Wildcats, averaging 13.8 points, 6.5 rebounds, 1.7 assists and 1.5 steals in 28.4 minutes per game.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On April 23, 2015, Johnson declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his remaining three years of college eligibility. Johnson entered the draft as the 11th ranked prospect on ESPN's Top 100 draft board.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On June 25, 2015, he was selected with the eighth overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft by the Pistons. In his debut for the Pistons on October 27, he recorded seven points, four rebounds and three assists off the bench in a 106–94 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On November 9, he recorded 20 points and seven rebounds in a 109–95 loss to the Golden State Warriors. On February 4, while starting at shooting guard in place of the injured Kentavious Caldwell-Pope, Johnson scored a season-high 22 points in a 111–105 win over the New York Knicks.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On November 25, 2016, Johnson was suspended for one game without pay by the Pistons for violating team rules. On December 10, he was assigned to the Grand Rapids Drive of the NBA Development League and was recalled the next day. On March 8, 2017, he scored a season-high 17 points in a 115–98 loss to the Indiana Pacers. On January 30, 2018, Johnson scored a then career-high 26 points in a 125–114 win over the Cleveland Cavaliers.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On February 7, 2019, Johnson was acquired by the New Orleans Pelicans in a three-team trade involving the Pistons and Milwaukee Bucks. On June 26, the Pelicans declined to extend a $4.5 million qualifying offer to Johnson, making him an unrestricted free agent.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On August 12, 2020, Johnson hit his first ever game winning shot with 4.9 seconds remaining in the 4th quarter against the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2019–20 NBA season in Orlando. On August 14, 2020, Johnson put up a season high 23 points against the Denver Nuggets coming off the bench in a 117–109 victory. The Raptors made it to the post-season and managed to get to the second round of the 2020 NBA Playoffs, the first time in Johnson's career that he advanced to the second round. They pushed the Boston Celtics to 7 games before ultimately falling.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On September 8, 2021, Johnson signed with the Chicago Bulls, but was waived on October 16, after appearing in four preseason games. On November 15, he signed with the South Bay Lakers where he played six games and averaged 15.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 2.2 assists and 2.17 steals per game.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On December 9, 2021, Johnson signed a 10-day contract with the Chicago Bulls. On December 11, Johnson, along with Ayo Dosunmu, was placed in the NBA's health and safety protocols. He never played a single game for the Bulls before his contract expired.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On December 24, 2021, Johnson signed a 10-day contract with his hometown team, the Los Angeles Lakers, via the hardship exemption. On January 6, 2022, he was signed to a second 10-day contract, and on January 17, he was signed to a third 10-day contract. Johnson signed a two-year contract with the Lakers on January 26.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: On August 25, 2022 Johnson was traded, alongside Talen Horton-Tucker, to the Utah Jazz in exchange for Patrick Beverley. On October 15, 2022, Johnson was waived.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: Johnson earned gold medals in the 2011 FIBA Americas Under-16 Championship, 2012 FIBA Under-17 World Championship and 2014 FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship. Johnson served as captain of the 2014 team and earned MVP of the 2014 tournament.


title: Stanley Johnson (basketball)

text: Johnson was born in Anaheim, California to Karen Taylor and Stanley Johnson Sr. His parents divorced and his father remarried. Johnson was the couple's only child, and he was raised by his mother in Fullerton. His mother played college basketball for Jackson State, where she was inducted into their Sports Hall of Fame in 2009; she also played professionally in Europe. Johnson is the stepson of Easter Johnson, and has two brothers and two sisters. Johnson is a Christian.


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: The University of Nebraska–Lincoln (Nebraska, NU, or UNL) is a public land-grant research university in Lincoln, Nebraska. Chartered in 1869 by the Nebraska Legislature as part of the Morrill Act of 1862, the school was known as the University of Nebraska until 1968, when it absorbed the Municipal University of Omaha to form the University of Nebraska system. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship institution of the state-wide system. The university has been governed by the Board of Regents since 1871, whose members are elected by district to six-year terms.


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: The university is organized into nine colleges: Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Architecture, Arts and Sciences, Business, Education and Human Sciences, Engineering, Fine and Performing Arts, Journalism and Mass Communications, and Law. NU offers over two hundred degrees across its undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs. The school also offers programs through the University of Nebraska Omaha College of Public Affairs and Community Service, the University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Dentistry and College of Nursing, and the Peter Kiewit Institute, which is managed in partnership with the Kiewit Corporation. Among approximately 300,000 Nebraska alumni are three Nobel laureates, four Pulitzer Prize winners, one Turing Award winner, and twenty-two Rhodes Scholars.


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: Nebraska is considered to have "very high research activity" based on the Carnegie Classification. According to the National Science Foundation, Nebraska spent $320 million on research and development in 2020. Between its three campus locations (City Campus, East Campus, and Nebraska Innovation Campus) the university has over one hundred classroom buildings and research facilities. The university's enrollment is 19,552 undergraduate students and 4,879 graduate students, with 1,595 full-time or part-time instructional faculty. Undergraduate admission to the school is considered "more selective."


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: Nebraska's athletic programs, known as the Cornhuskers, compete in NCAA Division I and are a member of the Big Ten Conference. NU's football team has won forty-six conference championships and claims five national championships, with an additional nine unclaimed. Twenty-five former Cornhuskers have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. A total of 111 former Nebraska student-athletes have combined to win fifty-four Olympic medals, including sixteen gold medals.


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: The University of Nebraska was created by an act of the Nebraska Legislature in 1869, two years after Nebraska was admitted into the Union as the thirty-seventh state. The law described the new university's aims: "The object of such institution shall be to afford to the inhabitants of the state the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various branches of literature, science, and the arts." The school received an initial federal land grant of about through the Morrill Act of 1862. Public opinion on the new school was split; many argued the state did not need a university as it did not even have a state-wide high school system, and others suggested any public university should be church-controlled, which was typical of eastern colleges at the time.


title: University of Nebraska–Lincoln

text: Campus construction began in September 1869 when the cornerstone of University Hall was laid at the corner of 11th and S Streets. Though the building was very large, expensive, and ornate, it was made of low-quality materials and required a foundation repair before hosting a single class. By 1871, the university welcomed its inaugural class of twenty collegiate students and 110 preparatory students, and in 1873 offered its first degrees to graduating students. A school newspaper, "Monthly Hesperian Student" (later "The Hesperian", now "The Daily Nebraskan"), was quickly established and the University of Nebraska State Museum (now Morrill Hall) opened in University Hall. In its early years, the University of Nebraska was modest in terms of enrollment, budget, and stature. The school's development was slowed by a mid-1870s grasshopper swarm that devastated the state's economy and caused NU's first chancellor, Allen R. Benton, to resign. Benton's successor, Edmund Burke Fairfield, led a contentious tenure highlighted by clashes over the place of religion in higher education. Under Fairfield's watch, the University of Nebraska hired its first female faculty member, Ellen Smith (Smith Hall, built on campus in 1967 as a student residence hall, is named in her honor). Smith's hire highlighted the young university's relatively diverse group of students and faculty; this was done deliberately by the board of regents, which hoped to boost the school's enrollment and the city's population through immigration.