title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: The ISV "Venture Star" (also called the Interstellar Vehicle Venture Star) is an interstellar bulk carrier starship that uses antimatter propulsion systems to enable interstellar travel. It transports supplies, equipment, humans in cryonic hibernation, refined ore, and data between Earth and Pandora, taking around six years to travel from one to the other. The "Venture Star" does not land on the planetary surface, but stations itself in orbit and rendezvous with operations on Earth and Pandora via Valkyrie shuttlecraft that dock with it. The "Venture Star" is one of twelve RDA ISV mineral carriers, continuously traveling between the Sol and Alpha Centauri A systems. According to film designer Ben Proctor:


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: The huge glowing radiators mounted to the engines dissipate their heat, and the enormously long central truss, with its own protective coolers and reflectors, protects the cargo and crew modules from the engines' heat and radiation using the simple rule of r-squared attenuation rather than heavy shielding. (Yes, [James Cameron] really thinks about this kind of stuff and explains it very clearly in text and in person.) The ship has a pair of centrifugal-gravity-gen modules for the crew who remain awake for the duration, which has become a pretty typical feature of quasi-realistic ship designs in movies. But one unique feature it has which directly relates to the sub-light realistic travel is a cascade-style shield stack to protect the speeding craft from interstellar debris. Jim's [brief] completely explains this technology, apparently based on current NASA research, and how it obliterates potentially catastrophic particles by letting them slam through a series of thin, light shield surfaces.


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: The ship was based on designs by scientist and author Charles Pellegrino, who served as a science advisor on the film, and deceased scientist and author Robert L. Forward. It also resembles the spaceship "Discovery One" from the movie "".


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: The Valkyrie TAV is a delta-wing space vehicle/aircraft used to transport equipment and personnel between ISV Venture Star and Hell's Gate on Pandora and its chief purpose is to bring Unobtanium to the spacecraft. The Valkyrie's official name is SSTO-TAV-37 B-class shuttlecraft. The Valkyrie has a payload of up to 60 armed troops, 25 AMP suits, 25 tons of refined Unobtanium, and/or supplies. Two Valkyries carried by the ISV Venture Star are used for the transfer of personnel and cargo between the orbiting ISV and the surface of Pandora. It has VTOL capability by rotating its fusion engines, and like the C-130 Hercules was adapted as a bomber to drop daisy cutter bombs out of the rear cargo ramp. It can also be fixed with machine-gun nests on the wings and cargo ramp.


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" writes, "Cameron turns Pandora into a vertiginously suspended forest landscape...Jake and the sexy tribal princess Neytiri (Zoë Saldana) wow us with their fluid, prancing movements, but there's no subtext to their smoothly virtual faces." Carol Kaesuk Yoon of the "New York Times" wrote that "Avatar" "has recreated what is the heart of biology: the naked, heart-stopping wonder of really seeing the living world".


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: "CNN" reported that the film's universe has had a profound effect on the audience over their perception of Earth, and life on it, in reality. Avatar Forums posted a topic thread entitled "Ways to cope with the depression of the dream of Pandora being intangible" which received "1,000 posts from people experiencing depression and fans trying to help them cope" (a second thread was posted for more room). Philippe Baghdassarian, the site administrator, commented "I wasn't depressed myself. In fact, the movie made me happy, but I can understand why it made people depressed. The movie was so beautiful and it showed something we don't have here on Earth. I think people saw we could be living in a completely different world and that caused them to be depressed." Many have confessed to falling to depression and harboring suicidal thoughts, while others have expressed disgust towards humanity and "disengagement with reality." Psychiatrist Dr. Stephan Quentzel added that "Virtual life is not real life and it never will be, but this is the pinnacle of what we can build in a virtual presentation so far."


title: Fictional universe of Avatar

text: In February 2010, "CNN" published an article exploring the "Avatar science" (the technology linking the human mind to a remotely controlled body). Elizabeth Landau wrote, "Scientists say we are many decades, even centuries, away from making this kind of sophisticated interaction possible, if it can be done at all." A neuroscientist at the University of Pittsburgh, Andrew Schwartz, further commented that it "shouldn't be taken as anything but fantasy."


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The First Italo-Ethiopian War was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. It originated from the disputed Treaty of Wuchale, which the Italians claimed turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. Full-scale war broke out in 1895, with Italian troops from Italian Eritrea achieving initial successes against Tigrayan warlords at the battle of Coatit and the battle of Senafe until they were reinforced by a large Ethiopian army led by Emperor Menelik II.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Italian defeat came about after the Battle of Adwa, where the Ethiopian army dealt the heavily outnumbered Italian soldiers and Eritrean askaris a decisive blow and forced their retreat back into Eritrea. The war concluded with the Treaty of Addis Ababa. Because this was one of the first decisive victories by African forces over a European colonial power, this war became a preeminent symbol of pan-Africanism and secured Ethiopia's sovereignty until 1936.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The Khedive of Egypt Isma'il Pasha, better known as "Isma'il the Magnificent" had conquered Eritrea as part of his efforts to give Egypt an African empire. Isma'il had tried to follow up that conquest with Ethiopia, but the Egyptian attempts to conquer that realm ended in humiliating defeat. After Egypt's bankruptcy in 1876 followed by the "Ansar" revolt under the leadership of the Mahdi in 1881, the Egyptian position in Eritrea was hopeless with the Egyptian forces cut off and unpaid for years. By 1884 the Egyptians began to pull out of both Sudan and Eritrea.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Egypt had been very much in the French sphere of influence until 1882 when the British occupied Egypt. A major goal of French foreign policy until 1904 was to diminish British influence in Egypt and restore it to its place in the French sphere of influence, and in 1883 the French created the colony of French Somaliland which allowed for the establishment of a French naval base at Djibouti on the Red Sea. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 had turned the Horn of Africa into a very strategic region as a navy based in the Horn could interdict any shipping going up and down the Red Sea. By building naval bases on the Red Sea that could intercept British shipping in the Red Sea, the French hoped to reduce the value of the Suez Canal for the British, and thus "lever" them out of Egypt. A French historian in 1900 wrote: "The importance of Djibouti lies almost solely in the uniqueness of its geographic position, which makes it a port of transit and natural entrepôt for areas more infinitely more populated than its own territory...the rich provinces of central Ethiopia." The British historian Harold Marcus noted that for the French, "Ethiopia represented the entrance to the Nile valley; if she could obtain hegemony over Ethiopia, her dream of a west to east French African empire would be closer to reality". In response, Britain consistently supported Italian ambitions in the Horn of Africa as the best way of keeping the French out.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: On 3 June 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed between Britain, Egypt and Ethiopia that allowed the Ethiopians to occupy parts of Abyssinia and allowed Ethiopian goods to pass in and out of Massawa duty-free. From the viewpoint of Britain, it was highly undesirable that the French replace the Egyptians in Massawa as that would allow the French to have more naval bases on the Red Sea that could interfere with British shipping using the Suez Canal, and as the British did not want the financial burden of ruling Massawa, they looked for another power who would be interested in replacing the Egyptians. The Hewett treaty seemed to suggest that Massawa would fall into the Ethiopian sphere of influence as the Egyptians pulled out. After initially encouraging the Emperor Yohannes IV to move into Massawa to replace the Egyptians, London decided to have the Italians move into Massawa . In his history of Ethiopia, British historian Augustus Wylde wrote: "England made use of King John [Emperor Yohannes] as long as he was of any service and then threw him over to the tender mercies of Italy...It is one of our worst bits of business out of the many we have been guilty of in Africa...one of the vilest bites of treachery". After the French had unexpectedly made Tunis into their protectorate in 1881, outraging opinion in Italy over the so-called ""Schiaffo di Tunisi"" (the "slap of Tunis"), Italian foreign policy had been extremely anti-French, and from the British viewpoint the best way of ensuring the Eritrean ports on the Red Sea stayed out of French hands was by allowing the staunchly anti-French Italians move in. In 1882, Italy had joined the Triple Alliance, allying herself with Austria and Germany against France.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: On 5 February 1885 Italian troops landed at Massawa to replace the Egyptians. The Italian government for its part was more than happy to embark upon an imperialist policy to distract its people from the failings in post "Risorgimento" Italy. In 1861, the unification of Italy was supposed to mark the beginning of a glorious new era in Italian life, and many Italians were gravely disappointed to find that not much had changed in the new Kingdom of Italy with the vast majority of Italians still living in abject poverty. To compensate, a chauvinist mood was rampant among the upper classes in Italy with the newspaper "Il Diritto" writing in an editorial: "Italy must be ready. The year 1885 will decide her fate as a great power. It is necessary to feel the responsibility of the new era; to become again strong men afraid of nothing, with the sacred love of the fatherland, of all Italy, in our hearts". On the Ethiopian side, the wars that Emperor Yohannes had waged first against the invading Egyptians in the 1870s and then more so against the Sudanese "Mahdiyya" state in the 1880s had been presented by him to his subjects as holy wars in defense of Orthodox Christianity against Islam, reinforcing the Ethiopian belief that their country was an especially virtuous and holy land. The struggle against the "Ansar" from Sudan complicated Yohannes's relations with the Italians, whom he sometimes asked to provide him with guns to fight the "Ansar" and other times he resisted the Italians and proposed a truce with the "Ansar".


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: On 18 January 1887, at a village named Saati, an advancing Italian Army detachment defeated the Ethiopians in a skirmish, but it ended with the numerically superior Ethiopians surrounding the Italians in Saati after they retreated in face of the enemy's numbers. Some 500 Italian soldiers under Colonel de Christoforis together with 50 Eritrean auxiliaries were sent to support the besieged garrison at Saati. At Dogali on his way to Saati, de Christoforis was ambushed by an Ethiopian force under "Ras" Alula, whose men armed with spears skillfully encircled the Italians who retreated to one hill and then to another higher hill. After the Italians ran out of ammunition, "Ras" Alula ordered his men to charge and the Ethiopians swiftly overwhelmed the Italians in an action that featured bayonets against spears. The Battle of Dogali ended with the Italians losing 23 officers and 407 other ranks killed. As a result of the defeat at Dogali, the Italians abandoned Saati and retreated back to the Red Sea coast. Italians newspapers called the battle a "massacre" and excoriated the "Regio Esercito " for not assigning de Chistoforis enough ammunition. Having, at first, encouraged Emperor Yohannes to move into Eritrea, and then having encouraged the Italians to also do so, London realised a war was brewing and decided to try to mediate, largely out of the fear that the Italians might actually lose.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The British consul in Zanzibar, Gerald Portal, was sent in 1887 to mediate between the Ethiopians and Italians before war broke out.Upon meeting the Emperor Yohannes on 4 December 1887, he presented him with gifts and a letter from Queen Victoria urging him to settle with the Italians. Portal reported: "What might have been possible in August or September was impossible in December, when the whole of the immense available forces in the country were already under arms; and that there now remains no hope of a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulties between Italy and Abyssinia [Ethiopia] until the question of the relative supremacy of these two nations has been decided by an appeal to the fortunes of war... No one who has once seen the nature of the gorges, ravines and mountain passes near the Abyssinian frontier can doubt for a moment that any advance by a civilised army in the face of the hostile Abyssinian hordes would be accomplished at the price of a fearful loss of life on both sides. ... The Abyssinians are savage and untrustworthy, but they are also redeemed by the possession of an unbounded courage, by a disregard of death, and by a national pride which leads them to look down on every human being who has not had the good fortune to be born an Abyssinian". Portal ended by writing that the Italians were making a mistake in preparing to go war against Ethiopia: "It is the old, old story, contempt of a gallant enemy because his skin happens to be chocolate or brown or black, and because his men have not gone through orthodox courses of field-firing, battalion drill, or 'autumn maneuvers'".


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The defeat at Dogali made the Italians cautious for a moment, but on 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes died after being wounded in battle against the "Ansar" and on his deathbed admitted that "Ras" Mengesha, the supposed son of his brother, was actually his own son and asked that he succeed him. The revelation that the emperor had slept with his brother's wife scandalised intensely Orthodox Ethiopia, and instead the "Negus" Menelik was proclaimed emperor on 26 March 1889. "Ras" Mengesha, one of the most powerful Ethiopian noblemen, was unhappy about being by-passed in the succession and for a time allied himself with the Italians against the Emperor Menelik. Under the feudal Ethiopian system, there was no standing army, and instead, the nobility raised up armies on behalf of the Emperor. In December 1889, the Italians advanced inland again and took the cities of Asmara and Keren and in January 1890 took Adowa.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: On 25 March 1889, the Shewa ruler Menelik II, having conquered Tigray and Amhara, declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (or "Abyssinia", as it was commonly called in Europe at the time). Barely a month later, on 2 May he signed the Treaty of Wuchale with the Italians, which apparently gave them control over Eritrea, the Red Sea coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule. Menelik II continued the policy of Tewodros II of integrating Ethiopia.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: However, the bilingual treaty did not say the same thing in Italian and Amharic; the Italian version did not give the Ethiopians the "significant autonomy" written into the Amharic translation. The Italian text stated that Ethiopia must conduct its foreign affairs through Italy (making it an Italian protectorate), but the Amharic version merely stated that Ethiopia "could" contact foreign powers and conduct foreign affairs using the embassy of Italy. Italian diplomats, however, claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and Menelik knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty. In October 1889, the Italians informed all of the other European governments because of the Treaty of Wuchale that Ethiopia was now an Italian protectorate and therefore the other European nations could not conduct diplomatic relations with Ethiopia. With the exceptions of the Ottoman Empire, which still maintained its claim to Eritrea, and Russia, which disliked the idea of an Orthodox nation being subjugated to a Roman Catholic nation, all of the European powers accepted the Italian claim to a protectorate.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The Italian claim that Menelik was aware of Article XVII turning his nation into an Italian protectorate seems unlikely given that the Emperor Menelik sent letters to Queen Victoria and Emperor Wilhelm II in late 1889 and was informed in the replies in early 1890 that neither Britain nor Germany could have diplomatic relations with Ethiopia on the account of Article XVII of the Treaty of Wuchale, a revelation that came as a great shock to the Emperor. Victoria's letter was polite whereas Wilhelm's letter was somewhat more rude, saying that King Umberto I was a great friend of Germany and Menelik's violation of the supposed Italian protectorate was a grave insult to Umberto, adding that he never wanted to hear from Menelik again. Moreover, Menelik did not know Italian and only signed the Amharic text of the treaty, being assured that there were no differences between the Italian and Amharic texts before he signed. The differences between the Italian and Amharic texts were due to the Italian minister in Addis Ababa, Count Pietro Antonelli, who had been instructed by his government to gain as much territory as possible in negotiating with the Emperor Menelik. However, knowing Menelik was now enthroned as the King of Kings and had a strong position, Antonelli was in the unenviable situation of negotiating a treaty that his own government might disallow. Therefore, he inserted the statement making Ethiopia give up its right to conduct its foreign affairs to Italy as a way of pleasing his superiors who might otherwise have fired him for only making small territorial gains. Antonelli was fluent in Amharic and given that Menelik only signed the Amharic text he could not have been unaware that the Amharic version of Article XVII only stated that the King of Italy places the services of his diplomats at the disposal of the Emperor of Ethiopia to represent him abroad if he so wished. When his subterfuge was exposed in 1890 with Menelik indignantly saying he would never sign away his country's independence to anybody, Antonelli who left Addis Ababa in mid 1890 resorted to racism, telling his superiors in Rome that as Menelik was a black man, he was thus intrinsically dishonest and it was only natural the Emperor would lie about the protectorate he supposedly willingly turned his nation into.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Francesco Crispi, the Italian Prime Minister was an ultra-imperialist who believed the newly unified Italian state required "the grandeur of a second Roman empire". Crispi believed that the Horn of Africa was the best place for the Italians to start building the new Roman empire. The American journalist James Perry wrote that "Crispi was a fool, a bigot and a very dangerous man". Because of the Ethiopian refusal to abide by the Italian version of the treaty and despite economic handicaps at home, the Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty. In doing so, they believed that they could exploit divisions within Ethiopia and rely on tactical and technological superiority to offset any inferiority in numbers. The efforts of Emperor Menelik, viewed as pro-French by London, to unify Ethiopia and thus bring the source of the Blue Nile under his control was perceived in Whitehall as a threat to their influence in Egypt. As Menelik became increasingly successful in unifying Ethiopia, the British government courted the Italians to counter Ethiopian expansion.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: There was a broader, European background as well: the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy was under some stress, with Italy being courted by the British government. Two secret Anglo-Italian protocols were signed in 1891, leaving most of Ethiopia in Italy's sphere of influence. France, one of the members of the opposing Franco-Russian Alliance, had its own claims on Eritrea and was bargaining with Italy over giving up those claims in exchange for a more secure position in Tunisia. Meanwhile, Russia was supplying weapons and other aid to Ethiopia. It had been trying to gain a foothold in Ethiopia, and in 1894, after denouncing the Treaty of Wuchale in July, it received an Ethiopian mission in St. Petersburg and sent arms and ammunition to Ethiopia. This support continued after the war ended. The Russian travel writer Alexander Bulatovich who went to Ethiopia to serve as a Red Cross volunteer with the Emperor Menelik made a point of emphasizing in his books that the Ethiopians converted to Christianity before any of the Europeans ever did, described the Ethiopians as a deeply religious people like the Russians, and argued the Ethiopians did not have the "low cultural level" of the other African peoples, making them equal to the Europeans. Germany and Austria supported their ally in the Triple Alliance Italy while France and Russia supported Ethiopia.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: In 1893, judging that his power over Ethiopia was secure, Menelik repudiated the treaty; in response the Italians ramped up the pressure on his domain in a variety of ways, including the annexation of small territories bordering their original claim under the Treaty of Wuchale, and finally culminating with a military campaign and across the Mareb River into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in December 1894. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and the Sultan of Aussa to join them; instead, all of the ethnic Tigrayan or Amharic peoples flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of both nationalism and anti-Italian feeling, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g. the Sultan of Aussa) were watched by Imperial garrisons. In June 1894, "Ras" Mengesha and his generals had appeared in Addis Ababa carrying large stones which they dropped before the Emperor Menelik (a gesture that is a symbol of submission in Ethiopian culture). In Ethiopia, the popular saying at the time was: "Of a black snake's bite, you may be cured, but from the bite of a white snake, you will never recover." There was an overwhelming national unity in Ethiopia as various feuding noblemen rallied behind the emperor who insisted that Ethiopia, unlike the other African nations, would retain its freedom and not be subjugated by Italy. The ethnic rivalries between the Tigrians and the Amhara that the Italians were counting upon did not prove to be a factor as Menelik pointed out that the Italians held all ethnic Africans, regardless of their individual ethnic backgrounds, in contempt, noting the segregation policies in Eritrea applied to all ethnic Africans. Further, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of modern weapons and ammunition, acquired from the French, British, and the Italians themselves, as the European colonial powers sought to keep each other's North African aspirations in check. They also used the Ethiopians as a proxy army against the Sudanese Mahdists.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: In December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akkele Guzay, claiming support of Mengesha. Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta at the Battle of Halai. The Italian army then occupied the Tigrian capital, Adwa. Baratieri suspected that Mengesha would invade Eritrea, and met him at the Battle of Coatit in January 1895. The victorious Italians chased the retreating Mengesha, capturing weapons and important documents proving his complicity with Menelik. The victory in this campaign, along with previous victories against the Sudanese Mahdists, led the Italians to underestimate the difficulties to overcome in a campaign against Menelik. At this point, Emperor Menelik turned to France, offering a treaty of alliance; the French response was to abandon the Emperor in order to secure Italian approval of the Treaty of Bardo which would secure French control of Tunisia. Virtually alone, on 17 September 1895, Emperor Menelik issued a proclamation calling up the men of Shewa to join his army at Were Ilu.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: As the Italians were poised to enter Ethiopian territory, the Ethiopians mobilised en masse all over the country. Helping it was the newly updated imperial fiscal and taxation system. As a result, a hastily mobilised army of 196,000 men gathered from all parts of Abyssinia, more than half of whom were armed with modern rifles, rallied at Addis Ababa in support of the Emperor and defence of their country.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The only European ally of Ethiopia was Russia. The Ethiopian emperor sent his first diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg in 1895. In June 1895, the newspapers in St. Petersburg wrote, "Along with the expedition, Menelik II sent his diplomatic mission to Russia, including his princes and his bishop". Many citizens of the capital came to meet the train that brought Prince Damto, General Genemier, Prince Belyakio, Bishop of Harer Gabraux Xavier and other members of the delegation to St. Petersburg. On the eve of war, an agreement providing military help for Ethiopia was concluded.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The next clash came at Amba Alagi on 7 December 1895, when Ethiopian soldiers overran the Italian positions dug in on the natural fortress, and forced the Italians to retreat back to Eritrea. The remaining Italian troops under General Giuseppe Arimondi reached the unfinished Italian fort at Mekele. Arimondi left there a small garrison of approximately 1,150 Askaris and 200 Italians, commanded by Major Giuseppe Galliano, and took the bulk of his troops to Adigrat, where Oreste Baratieri, the Italian Commander, was concentrating the Italian Army.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The first Ethiopian troops reached Mekele in the following days. Ras Makonnen surrounded the fort at Mekele on 18 December, but the Italian Commander adroitly used promises of a negotiated surrender to prevent the Ras from attacking the fort. By the first days of January, Emperor Menelik, accompanied by his Queen Taytu Betul, had led large forces into Tigray, and besieged the Italians for sixteen days (6–21 January 1896), making several unsuccessful attempts to carry the fort by storm, until the Italians surrendered with permission from the Italian Headquarters. Menelik allowed them to leave Mekele with their weapons, and even provided the defeated Italians mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri. While some historians read this generous act as a sign that Emperor Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution to the war, Harold Marcus points out that this escort allowed him a tactical advantage: "Menelik craftily managed to establish himself in Hawzien, at Gendepata, near Adwa, where the mountain passes were not guarded by Italian fortifications."


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Heavily outnumbered, Baratieri refused to engage, knowing that due to their lack of infrastructure the Ethiopians could not keep large numbers of troops in the field much longer. However, Baratieri also never knew the true numerical strength of the Ethiopian army he faced, so he further fortified his positions in the Tigray instead of advancing. But the Italian government of Francesco Crispi was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baratieri to advance deep into enemy territory and bring about a battle.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The decisive battle of the war was the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896, which took place in the mountainous country north of the actual town of Adwa (or Adowa). The Italian army comprised four brigades totaling approximately 17,700 men, with fifty-six artillery pieces; the Ethiopian army comprised several brigades numbering between 73,000 and 120,000 men (80–100,000 with firearms: according to Richard Pankhurst, the Ethiopians were armed with approximately 100,000 rifles of which about half were quick-firing), with almost fifty artillery pieces.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: General Baratieri planned to surprise the larger Ethiopian force with an early morning attack, expecting his enemy to be asleep. However, the Ethiopians had risen early for Church services and, upon learning of the Italian advance, promptly attacked. The Italian forces were hit by wave after wave of attacks, until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 men, destroying an Italian brigade. Another brigade was cut off, and destroyed by a cavalry charge. The last two brigades were destroyed piecemeal. By noon, the Italian survivors were in full retreat.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: While Menelik's victory was in a large part due to the sheer force of numbers, his troops were well-armed because of his careful preparations. The Ethiopian army only had a feudal system of organisation but proved capable of properly executing the strategic plan drawn up in Menelik's headquarters. However, the Ethiopian army also had its problems. The first was the quality of its arms, as the Italian colonial authorities in Eritrea prevented the transportation of 30,000–60,000 modern Mosin–Nagant rifles and Berdan rifles from Russia into landlocked Ethiopia. The rest of the Ethiopian army was equipped with swords and spears. Secondly, the Ethiopian army's feudal organisation meant that nearly the entire force was composed of peasant militia. Russian military experts advising Menelik II suggested a full-contact battle with Italians, to neutralise the Italian fire superiority, instead of engaging in a campaign of harassment designed to nullify problems with arms, training, and organisation.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Some Russian councillors of Menelik II and a team of fifty Russian volunteers participated in the battle, among them Nikolay Leontiev, an officer of the Kuban Cossack army. Russian support for Ethiopia also led to a Russian Red Cross mission, which arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menelik's Adwa victory.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: The Italians suffered over 5,000 killed and 1,400 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, with almost 2,000 taken prisoner; Ethiopian losses have been estimated around 3,000 killed and 6,000 wounded. In addition, 2,000 Eritrean Askaris were killed or captured. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured Askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. Menelik, knowing that the war was very unpopular in Italy with the Italian Socialists in particular condemning the policy of the Crispi government, chose to be a magnanimous victor, making it clear that he saw a difference between the Italian people and Crispi.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Menelik retired in good order to his capital, Addis Ababa, and waited for the fallout of the victory to hit Italy. Riots broke out in several Italian cities, and within two weeks, the Crispi government collapsed amidst Italian disenchantment with "foreign adventures".


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: Menelik secured the Treaty of Addis Ababa in October, which delineated the borders of Eritrea and forced Italy to recognise the independence of Ethiopia. Delegations from the United Kingdom and France—whose colonial possessions lay next to Ethiopia—soon arrived in the Ethiopian capital to negotiate their own treaties with this newly proven power. Owing to Russia's diplomatic support of her fellow Orthodox nation, Russia's prestige greatly increased in Ethiopia. The adventuresome Seljan brothers, Mirko and Stjepan, who were actually Catholic Croats, were warmly welcomed when they arrived in Ethiopia in 1899 when they misinformed their hosts by saying they were Russians. As France supported Ethiopia with weapons, French influence increased markedly. Prince Henri of Orléans, the French traveller, wrote: "France gave rifles to this country and taking the hand of its Emperor like an elder sister has explained to him the old motto which has guided her across the centuries of greatness and glory: Honor and Country!". In December 1896, a French diplomatic mission in Addis Ababa arrived and on 20 March 1897 signed a treaty that was described as ""véritable traité d'alliance". In turn, the increase in French influence in Ethiopia led to fears in London that the French would gain control of the Blue Nile and would be able to "lever" the British out of Egypt. To keep control of the Nile in Egypt, the British government decided in March 1896 to advance down the Nile from Egypt into the Sudan to conquer the "Mahdiyya" state. On 12 March 1896, upon hearing of the Italian defeat at the Battle of Adwa, the British Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, gave instructions for the British forces in Egypt to occupy the Sudan before the French could conquer the "Mahdiyya" state, stating that no hostile power could be allowed to control the Nile.


title: First Italo-Ethiopian War

text: In 1935, Italy launched a second invasion, which ended in 1937 with an Italian victory and the annexation of Ethiopia to Italian East Africa. Ethiopia became an Italian colony until the Italians were driven out in 1941 by the British Empire, with assistance from Ethiopian "arbegnoch" guerillas.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the chief executive officer of the government of Massachusetts. The governor is the head of the state cabinet and the commander-in-chief of the commonwealth's military forces.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Massachusetts has a republican system of government that is akin to a presidential system. The governor acts as the head of government while having a distinct role from that of the legislative branch. The governor has far-reaching political obligations, including ceremonial and political duties. The governor also signs bills into law and has veto power. The governor is a member of the Massachusetts Governor's Council, a popularly elected council with eight members who provide advice and consent on certain legal matters and appointments.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Beginning with the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1629, the role of the governor has changed throughout its history in terms of powers and selection. The modern form of the position was created in the 1780 Constitution of Massachusetts, which called for the position of a "supreme executive magistrate".


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Governors of Massachusetts are elected every four years during state elections that are held on the first Tuesday of November after November 1. As of November 2022, the most recent Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held in 2022. Following each gubernatorial election, the elected governor is inaugurated on the Thursday after the first Wednesday following the next January 1. There are no term limits restricting how long a governor may serve. The longest-serving Massachusetts Governor is Michael Dukakis, who served 12 years; Dukakis was in office from 1975 to 1979 and from 1983 to 1991. As of November 2022, the governor of Massachusetts is Charlie Baker, a Republican. Maura Healey, a Democrat, is the governor-elect, having won the 2022 Massachusetts gubernatorial election.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The role of governor has existed in Massachusetts since the Royal Charter of 1628. The original role was one of a president of the board of a joint-stock company, namely the Massachusetts Bay Company. The governor would be elected by freemen, who were shareholders of the company. These shareholders were mostly colonists themselves who fit certain religious requirements. The governor acted in a vice-regal manner, overseeing the governance and functioning of the colony. Originally they were supposed to reside in London, as was the case with other colonial company governors, although this protocol was broken when John Winthrop was appointed Governor. The governor served as the executive of the colony, originally elected annually, they were joined by a Council of Assistants. This council was a group of magistrates who performed judicial functions, acted as an upper house of the General Court, and provided advice and consent to the governor. The early governors of Massachusetts Bay were staunchly Puritan colonists who wished to form a state that coincided with religious law.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: With the founding of the Dominion of New England, the New England colonies were combined with the Province of New York, Province of West Jersey, and the Province of East Jersey. During this period (1686-1689) Massachusetts had no governor of its own. Instead there existed a royally appointed governor who resided in Boston and served at the King's pleasure. Though there existed a council which served as a quasi-legislature, however the logistics of calling the council to meet were so arduous that the Dominion was essentially governed by the Crown through the Royal Governor. The reason for the creation of such a post was there existed tremendous hostility between the Kingdom of England and the colonists of Massachusetts Bay. In an effort to bring the colonies under tighter control the Crown dismantled the old assembly system and created the Viceroy system based on the Spanish model in New Spain. This model of government was greatly disliked by the colonists all throughout British North America but especially in New England where colonists at one time did have some semblance of democratic and local control. With the Glorious Revolution and the Boston Revolt the Dominion was abolished in 1689.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: With the creation of the Massachusetts Charter in 1691, the role of civilian governor was restored in Massachusetts Bay. Now the Province of Massachusetts Bay, the colony then encompassed the territory of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, and areas of what is now the state of Maine. The governor however would not be chosen by the electorate, instead the position would remain a royal appointment. In order to ease tensions with royal authorities and the colonists the General Court was reestablished and given significant powers. This created acrimony between the governors and the assembly of the General Court. The governor could veto any decision made by the assembly and had control over the militia, however the General Court had authority of the treasury and provincial finances. This meant that in the event the governor did not agree with or consent with the rulings and laws of the General Court then the assembly would threaten to withhold any pay for the governor and other Royal Officers.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: From 1765 on the unraveling of the Province into a full political crisis only increased the tensions between the governor and the people of Massachusetts Bay. Following the passage of the Stamp Act Governor Thomas Hutchinson had his home broken into and ransacked. The early stages of the American Revolution saw political turmoil in Massachusetts Bay. With the passage of the Intolerable Acts the then Royal Governor Thomas Gage dissolved the General Court and began to govern the province by decree. In 1774 the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was formed as an alternative revolutionary government to the royal government in Boston. With Massachusetts Bay declaring its independence in May 1776 the role of Governor was vacant for four years. The executive role during this time was filled by the Governor's Council, the Committee of Safety, and the president of the Congress when in session.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: With the adoption of the Constitution of Massachusetts in 1780 the role of an elected civilian governor was restored. John Hancock was elected as the first governor of the independent commonwealth on October 25, 1780.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The governor of Massachusetts is the chief executive of the commonwealth, and is supported by a number of subordinate officers. He, like most other state officers, senators, and representatives, was originally elected annually. In 1918 this was changed to a two-year term, and since 1966 the office of governor has carried a four-year term. The governor of Massachusetts does not receive a mansion or other official residence and resides in their own private residence. The governor does receives a housing allowance/stipend for $65,000. The title "His Excellency" is a holdover from the royally appointed governors of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The first governor to use the title was Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont, in 1699; since he was an Earl, it was thought proper to call him "Your Excellency." The title was retained until 1742, when an order from King George II forbade its further use. However, the framers of the state constitution revived it because they found it fitting to dignify the governor with this title.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: According to the Massachusetts State Constitution:Whenever the chair of the governor shall be vacant, by reason of his death, or absence from the commonwealth, or otherwise, the lieutenant governor, for the time being, shall, during such vacancy, perform all the duties incumbent upon the governor, and shall have and exercise all the powers and authorities, which by this constitution the governor is vested with, when personally present.The Constitution does not use the term "acting governor," but the practice in Massachusetts has been that the lieutenant governor retains his or her position and title as "lieutenant governor" and becomes acting governor, not governor. The lieutenant governor, when acting as governor, is referred to as "the lieutenant-governor, acting governor" in official documents.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Despite this terminology, the Massachusetts courts have found that the full authority of the office of the governor devolves to the lieutenant governor upon vacancy in the office of governor, and that there is no circumstance short of death, resignation, or impeachment that would relieve the acting governor from the full gubernatorial responsibilities.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The first use of the succession provision occurred in 1785, five years after the constitution's adoption, when Governor John Hancock resigned the post, leaving Lieutenant Governor Thomas Cushing as acting governor. Most recently, Jane Swift became acting governor upon the resignation of Paul Cellucci.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: When the constitution was first adopted, the Governor's Council was charged with acting as governor in the event that both the governorship and lieutenant governorship were vacant. This occurred in 1799 when Governor Increase Sumner died in office on June 7, 1799, leaving Lieutenant Governor Moses Gill as acting governor. Acting Governor Gill never received a lieutenant and died on May 20, 1800, between that year's election and the inauguration of Governor-elect Caleb Strong. The Governor's Council served as the executive for ten days; the council's chair, Thomas Dawes was at no point named governor or acting governor.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The governor has a 10-person cabinet, each of whom oversees a portion of the government under direct administration (as opposed to independent executive agencies). See Government of Massachusetts for a complete listing.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The front doors of the State House are only opened when a governor leaves office, a head of state or the president of the United States comes to visit the State House, or for the return of flags from Massachusetts regiments at the end of wars. The tradition of the ceremonial door originated when departing governor Benjamin Butler kicked open the front door and walked out by himself in 1884.[source?]


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Immediately before being sworn into office, the governor-elect receives four symbols from the departing governor: the ceremonial pewter "Key" for the governor's office door, the Butler Bible, the "Gavel", and a two-volume set of the Massachusetts General Statutes with a personal note from the departing governor to their successor added to the back of the text. The governor-elect is then escorted by the sergeant-at-arms to the House Chamber and sworn in by the President of the Senate before a joint session of the House and Senate.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Upon completion of their term, the departing governor takes a "lone walk" down the Grand Staircase, through the House of Flags, into Doric Hall, out the central doors, and down the steps of the Massachusetts State House. The governor then crosses the street into Boston Common, thereby symbolically rejoining the commonwealth as a private citizen. Benjamin Butler started the tradition in 1884. Some walks have been modified with some past governors having their wives, friends, or staff accompany them. A 19-gun salute is offered during the walk, and frequently the steps are lined by the outgoing governor's friends and supporters.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: In January 1991, outgoing lieutenant governor Evelyn Murphy, the first woman elected to statewide office in Massachusetts, walked down the stairs before Governor Michael Dukakis. In a break from tradition, the January 2007 inauguration of Governor Deval Patrick took place the day after outgoing governor Mitt Romney took the lone walk down the front steps.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Despite several proposals for establishing an official residence for the governor of Massachusetts, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts does not have a governor's mansion.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: In 1955, Governor Foster Furcolo turned down a proposal to establish the Shirley–Eustis House in Roxbury, built by royal Governor William Shirley, as the official residence.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: At one time, Governor John A. Volpe accepted the donation of the Endicott Estate in Dedham from the heirs of Henry Bradford Endicott. He intended to renovate the 19th-century mansion into a splendid governor's residence. After Volpe resigned to become United States Secretary of Transportation in the Nixon administration, the plan was aborted by his successor in consideration of budgetary constraints and because the location was considered too far from the seat of power, the State House in Boston.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Prior to their respective demolitions in 1922 and 1863, the Province House and the Hancock Manor were also proposed as official residences.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Since the governor has no official residence, the expression "corner office," rather than "governor's mansion," is commonly used in the press as a metonym for the office of governor. This refers instead to the governor's office on the third floor of the State House.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Since 1780, 65 people have been elected governor, six to non-consecutive terms (John Hancock, Caleb Strong, Marcus Morton, John Davis, John Volpe, and Michael Dukakis), and seven lieutenant governors have acted as governor without subsequently being elected governor. Thomas Talbot served a stint as acting governor, but later was elected governor several years later. Prior to 1918 constitutional reforms, both the governor's office and that of lieutenant governor were vacant on one occasion, when the state was governed by the Governor's Council.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: The colonial history of Massachusetts begins with the founding first of the Plymouth Colony in 1620, and then the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628. The Dominion of New England combined these and other New England colonies into a single unit in 1686, but collapsed in 1689. In 1692 the Province of Massachusetts Bay was established, merging Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay, which then included the territory of present-day Maine.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Colonial governors of Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay Colony were elected annually by a limited subset of the male population (known as freemen), while Dominion officials and those of the 1692 province were appointed by the British crown. In 1774 General Thomas Gage became the last royally appointed governor of Massachusetts. He was recalled to England after the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, by which time the Massachusetts Provincial Congress exercised "de facto" control of Massachusetts territory outside British-occupied Boston. Between 1775 and the establishment of the Massachusetts State Constitution in 1780 the state was governed by the provincial congress and an executive council.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: In the table below, acting governors are denoted in the leftmost column by the letter "A", and are not counted as actual governors. The longest-serving governor was Michael Dukakis, who served twelve years in office, although they were not all consecutive. The longest period of uninterrupted service by any governor was nine years, by Levi Lincoln Jr. The shortest service period by an elected governor was one year, achieved by several 19th century governors. Increase Sumner, elected by a landslide to a third consecutive term in 1799, was on his deathbed and died not long after taking the oath of office; this represents the shortest part of an individual term served by a governor. Sumner was one of four governors to die in office; seven governors resigned, most of them to assume another office.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: This is a table of notable government offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Massachusetts, except otherwise noted.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: No governor of Massachusetts has graduated from the state's public university system, making the University of Massachusetts one of only two American public university systems to never produce a governor of its respective state.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: A plurality of governors, and a majority of those who attended any college, graduated from Harvard College. Marcus Morton (Brown) was the first Governor to graduate from an institution other than Harvard College.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Acting Governors Thomas Cushing and Levi Lincoln Sr. also attended Harvard College. Acting Governor Jane Swift attended Trinity College. Acting Governors Moses Gill and Samuel Armstrong attended no recorded institution. Governor Frank Allen was admitted to Harvard but did not attend.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: As with undergraduate institutions, the vast majority of governors who received graduate degrees did so from Harvard University. Of those, all but three degrees were law degrees from Harvard Law School; Elbridge Gerry and Edward Everett received masters' degrees and Mitt Romney, who also received a law degree, received a master's in business administration. Other than those, Charlie Baker is the only governor with a graduate degree not in law; he holds an M.B.A. from Northwestern University.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Romney and Everett are the only governors with multiple graduate degrees, and Everett is the only Ph.D. holder.


title: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Governor Christian Herter entered a graduate program in architecture at Columbia University but did not complete the degree.


title: Editorial

text: An editorial, or leading article (UK) or leader (UK) is an article written by the senior editorial people or publisher of a newspaper, magazine, or any other written document, often unsigned. Australian and major United States newspapers, such as "The New York Times" and "The Boston Globe", often classify editorials under the heading "opinion".


title: Editorial

text: Typically, a newspaper's editorial board evaluates which issues are important for their readership to know the newspaper's opinion on.


title: Editorial

text: Editorials are typically published on a dedicated page, called the editorial page, which often features letters to the editor from members of the public; the page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains opinion pieces (hence the name think pieces) by writers not directly affiliated with the publication. However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page. In the English-language press, this occurs rarely and only on topics considered especially important; it is more common, however, in some European countries such as Denmark, Spain, Italy, and France.


title: Editorial

text: Many newspapers publish their editorials without the name of the leader writer. Tom Clark, leader-writer for "The Guardian", says that it ensures readers discuss the issue at hand rather than the author. On the other hand, an editorial does reflect the position of a newspaper and the head of the newspaper, the editor, is known by name. Whilst the editor will often not write the editorial themselves, they maintain oversight and retain responsibility.


title: Editorial

text: In the field of fashion publishing, the term is often used to refer to "photo"-editorials – features with often full-page photographs on a particular theme, designer, model or other single topic, with or (as in a photo-essay) without accompanying text.


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: Laysla De Oliveira (born January 11, 1992) is a Canadian actress. She is known for her roles as Dodge in the Netflix series "Locke & Key", Veronica in the drama film "Guest of Honour", and Becky DeMuth in the horror film "In the Tall Grass".


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: De Oliveira was born in Toronto, Ontario, to a family of Brazilian origin. She began a modeling career at the age of 14, but always wanted to be an actress. She studied drama and dance at Rosedale Heights School of the Arts, and once she went to college, she finally acquired an acting agent.


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: After acting in several television films and direct-to-video films, De Oliveira was cast in Natty Zavitz's romantic drama film "Acquainted" in 2017 as the character of Emma. The film premiered at the Whistler Film Festival on December 1, 2018.


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: In August 2018, De Oliveira was cast as Becky DeMuth in the Netflix horror film "In the Tall Grass", directed by Vincenzo Natali and based on the novella by Stephen King and Joe Hill. The film was released on October 4, 2019.


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: While in Toronto to film "In the Tall Grass", Atom Egoyan asked to meet with De Oliveira, leading to her being cast as the starring role of Veronica in the film "Guest of Honour". The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival on September 3, 2019.


title: Laysla De Oliveira

text: De Oliveira was announced to be in another adaptation of Joe Hill's work in February 2019, as the antagonist role of Dodge in the Netflix series "Locke & Key", based on the graphic novels of the same name. While filming the show, she also reunited with Vincenzo Natali, who directed the last two episodes of the first season. The first season was released on Netflix on February 7, 2020. De Oliveira was very excited to play a villain role for the first time, and the character of Dodge greatly appealed to her because of her unapologetic nature to be evil, which is something rarely seen in roles given to female actors. De Oliveira was inspired by Angelina Jolie's performance as the title character in "Maleficent" for her portrayal of Dodge.


title: Cessna 152

text: The Cessna 152 is an American two-seat, fixed-tricycle-gear, general aviation airplane, used primarily for flight training and personal use. It was based on the earlier Cessna 150 incorporating a number of minor design changes and a slightly more powerful engine with a longer time between overhaul.


title: Cessna 152

text: The Cessna 152 has been out of production for almost forty years, but many are still airworthy and are in regular use for flight training.


title: Cessna 152

text: First delivered in 1977 as the 1978 model year, the 152 was a modernization of the proven Cessna 150 design. The 152 was intended to compete with the new Beechcraft Skipper and Piper Tomahawk, both of which were introduced the same year. Additional design goals were to improve useful load through a gross weight increase to , decrease internal and external noise levels and run better on the then newly introduced 100LL fuel.


title: Cessna 152

text: As with the 150, the great majority of 152s were built at the Cessna factory in Wichita, Kansas. A number of aircraft were also built by Reims Aviation of France and given the designation F152/FA152.


title: Cessna 152

text: Production of the 152 was ended in 1985 when Cessna ended production of all of their light aircraft; by that time, a total of 7,584 examples of the 152, including A152 and FA152 Aerobat aerobatic variants, had been built worldwide.


title: Cessna 152

text: In 2007 Cessna announced that it would build a light-sport successor, designated the Model 162 Skycatcher, although production ended in 2013.


title: Cessna 152

text: All Cessna 152s were manufactured with a Lycoming O-235 engine which has been in production since 1942. The Lycoming provided not only an increase in engine power over the Cessna 150, but also was more compatible with the newer 100LL low-lead fuel.


title: Cessna 152

text: Cessna 152s produced between 1977 and 1982 were equipped with Lycoming O-235-L2C engines producing at 2,550 rpm. This engine still suffered some lead-fouling problems in service. In 1983 it was succeeded by the O-235-N2C which featured a different piston design and a redesigned combustion chamber to reduce this problem. The N2C engine was used until 152 production ended in 1985.


title: Cessna 152

text: The airframe is mainly of metal construction. being primarily of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy with riveted skin. Components such as wingtips and fairings are made from glass-reinforced plastic. The fuselage is a semi-monocoque with vertical bulkheads and frames joined by longerons running the length of the fuselage. The wings are of a strut-braced design and have a 1 degree dihedral angle. The tapered (outboard) portion of each wing has one degree of washout (the chord of the tip section has one degree lower angle of attack than the chord at the end of the constant-width section). This allows greater aileron effectiveness during a stall.


title: Cessna 152

text: The 1978 model has a one piece cowling nose bowl that requires removing the propeller to remove it. The 1979 model introduced a split-nose cowling nose bowl that can be removed without removing the propeller.


title: Cessna 152

text: Dual controls are available as optional equipment on the Cessna 152 and almost all 152s have this option installed.


title: Cessna 152

text: The Cessna 152 is equipped with differential ailerons that move through 20 degrees upwards and 15 degrees downwards. It has single-slotted fowler flaps which are electrically operated and deploy to a maximum of 30 degrees. The rudder can move 23 degrees to either side and is fitted with a ground-adjustable trim tab. The elevators move up through 25 degrees and down through 18 degrees. An adjustable trim tab is installed on the right elevator and is controlled by a small wheel in the center of the control console. The trim tab moves 10 degrees up and 20 degrees down relative to the elevator chordline.


title: Cessna 152

text: The Cessna 152 is equipped with fixed tricycle landing gear. The main gear has tubular steel legs surrounded by a full-length fairing with a step for access to the cabin. The main gear has a wheelbase.


title: Cessna 152

text: The nosewheel is connected to the engine mount and has an oleo strut to dampen and absorb normal operating loads. The nosewheel is steerable through eight degrees either side of neutral and can castor under differential braking up to 30 degrees. It is connected to the rudder pedals through a spring linkage.


title: Cessna 152

text: The braking system consists of single disc brake assemblies fitted to the main gear and operated by a hydraulic system. Brakes are operated by pushing on the top portion of the rudder pedals. It is possible to use differential braking when taxiing and this allows very tight turns to be made.


title: Cessna 152

text: The 152 is also fitted with a parking brake system. It is applied by depressing both toe brakes and then pulling the "Park Brake" lever to the pilot's left. The toe brakes are then released but pressure is maintained in the system thereby leaving both brakes engaged.


title: Cessna 152

text: There are hundreds of modifications available for the Cessna 152. The most frequently installed include:


title: Cessna 152

text: Taildragger conversions are available and have been fitted to some 152s. It involves strengthening the fuselage for the main gear being moved further forward, removing the nosewheel and strengthening the tail area for the tailwheel. This greatly improves short field performance and is claimed to give up to a cruise speed increase.


title: Cessna 152

text: The wings can be modified using a number of STOL modification kits, some improving high speed/cruise performance but most concentrating on STOL performance. Horton's STOL kit is one of the better-known of the latter. It involves fitting a more cambered leading edge cuff to increase the maximum coefficient of lift, fitting fences at the aileron/flap intersection and fitting drooped wingtips. Stalls with these modifications are almost off the airspeed indicator, since instrument error is high at high angles of attack. It has been said that landings can be achieved in two fuselage lengths with the kit installed in addition to a taildragger modification, by balancing power against drag. Takeoff performance is also improved by varying degrees depending on the surface.


title: Cessna 152

text: The engine's power can be increased by various modifications, such as the "Sparrow Hawk" power package, increasing it to . The disadvantage of the "Sparrow Hawk" conversion is that it uses pistons from the O-235-F series engine and therefore the engine recommended time between overhauls is reduced from 2,400 hours to 2,000 hours.


title: Cessna 152

text: The 152 is popular with flight training organizations and is also widely operated by private individuals.


title: Brett Hull

text: Brett Andrew Hull (born August 9, 1964) is a Canadian–American former ice hockey player and general manager, and currently an executive vice president of the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Calgary Flames, St. Louis Blues, Dallas Stars, Detroit Red Wings and Phoenix Coyotes between 1986 and 2005. His career total of 741 goals is fifth highest in NHL history, and he is one of five players to score 50 goals in 50 games. He was a member of two Stanley Cup winning teams – 1999 with the Dallas Stars and 2002 with the Detroit Red Wings. In 2017 Hull was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.


title: Brett Hull

text: Known as one of the game's greatest snipers, Hull was an elite scorer at all levels of the game. He played college hockey for the University of Minnesota-Duluth Bulldogs, where he scored 52 goals in 1985–86. He scored 50 the following year with the Moncton Golden Flames of the American Hockey League (AHL) and had five consecutive NHL seasons of at least 50 goals. His 86 goals in 1990–91 is the third-highest single-season total in NHL history, with the first two being the same person, Wayne Gretzky. Hull won the Hart Memorial Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award that year as the league's most valuable player. He was named a first team all-star on three occasions and played in eight NHL All-Star Games.


title: Brett Hull

text: Having dual citizenship in Canada and the United States, Hull was eligible to play for either Canada or the United States internationally and chose to join the American National Team. He was a member of the team that won the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and was a two-time Olympian, winning a silver medal at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Hull was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2009, joining his father Bobby Hull. They are the first father-son combination to each score either of 600 goals or 1,000 career points in the NHL. Hull's nickname, "the Golden Brett" is a reference to his father's nickname of "the Golden Jet". His jersey number 16 was retired by the St. Louis Blues in 2006.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull was born August 9, 1964, in Belleville, Ontario. His father, Bobby, was a long-time professional hockey player in both the National Hockey League (NHL) and World Hockey Association (WHA). His mother, Joanne (McKay), was an American professional figure skater and taught him how to skate. He has three brothers: Bobby Jr., Blake and Bart, and a younger sister: Michelle. Bart played professional football in the Canadian Football League. His uncle Dennis was also a long-time NHL player.


title: Brett Hull

text: As his father was playing for the Chicago Blackhawks, Hull's early life was spent in Illinois, and he first played organized hockey in the Chicago area at the age of four. He and his brothers often skated with the Black Hawks where they watched their father play. The family moved back to Canada when Bobby signed with the original Winnipeg Jets in 1972. As a youth, he and teammate Richard Kromm played in the 1977 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Winnipeg South Monarchs minor ice hockey team. Brett moved to Vancouver with his mother and two youngest siblings shortly before his parents' acrimonious divorce in 1979. Hull was not close to his father following the breakup, though the two spoke periodically.


title: Brett Hull

text: Admitting that he was viewed as a "pudgy, fun-loving, music-crazed bum" in his youth, Hull stated in his autobiography that he was not surprised when he failed to attract the attention of a junior team. He was first eligible for the NHL Entry Draft in 1982, but as he was still playing in a juvenile league, was passed over without interest. He joined the Penticton Knights of the tier-II British Columbia Junior Hockey League (BCJHL) in the 1982–83 season where he scored 48 goals in 50 games. He was again passed over at the 1983 Entry Draft as teams remained unconvinced of his commitment to the game and his conditioning. NHL teams finally took notice of Hull following his 1983–84 season in which he scored 105 goals in 56 games and broke the BCJHL scoring record with 188 points. The Calgary Flames selected him in the sixth round of the 1984 NHL Entry Draft, 117th overall.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull accepted a scholarship to play for the University of Minnesota-Duluth (UMD), and in 1984–85, scored 32 goals as a freshman. The power of his shot terrorized opposition goaltenders. He was awarded the Jerry Chumola Award as the school's rookie of the year and received similar honors from the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA). His coaches at Minnesota-Duluth impressed on Hull the need to improve his skating, and in 1985–86, he broke the school record of 49 goals in one season, reaching 52 that year. Hull was named the WCHA first-team all-star at right wing and was a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award as the top player in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).


title: Brett Hull

text: In his two seasons at UMD, Hull set numerous school scoring records. He holds the records for most goals by a rookie (32) and most goals in one season (52). His 20 power play goals, seven hat tricks and 13 multiple-goal games in 1985–86 are all records, and he shares the school's single-game playoff record of four goals. The school retired his jersey number 29 in 2006.


title: Brett Hull

text: Choosing to turn professional following his sophomore season, Hull signed a contract with the Calgary Flames and joined the team during the 1986 Stanley Cup Playoffs. He made his NHL debut on May 20, 1986, in game three of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Montreal Canadiens. His best scoring opportunity came when he hit the post in his first shift of the game. He appeared in two games of the Flames' five-game series loss to Montreal.


title: Brett Hull

text: The Flames assigned Hull to their American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Moncton Golden Flames, for the majority of the 1986–87 season. He scored 50 goals, tying an AHL rookie record, and his 93 points was third-best in the league. He won the Dudley "Red" Garrett Memorial Award as the league's rookie of the year and was named to the first all-star team. He earned a brief recall to Calgary during the season. He made his regular-season debut on November 13, 1986, against the Hartford Whalers and scored his first NHL goal against Steve Weeks on a breakaway. It was the game-winning goal in a 4–3 victory. Hull appeared in five regular-season games for the Flames and played in four playoff games where he scored two goals and added an assist.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull earned a spot on the Flames for the 1987–88 NHL season, though the team continued to work with him on his conditioning. He appeared in 52 games for the Flames, scoring 26 goals and 50 points. He did not finish the season in Calgary however. On March 7, 1988, Hull was traded, along with Steve Bozek, to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for defenseman Rob Ramage and goaltender Rick Wamsley.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull led the St. Louis Blues with 41 goals in , but his poor skating and inattention to his defensive responsibilities concerned the club. Head coach Brian Sutter convinced Hull to improve his conditioning over the summer. He arrived to begin the season in much better shape and showed a marked improvement in his skating. Center Adam Oates, acquired over the summer, joined Hull on the top line. The pair, dubbed "Hull and Oates" as a play on the band Hall and Oates, were prolific scorers with Oates being an excellent passer and Hull being an excellent shooter. Hull scored 228 goals between 1989–90 and , the second-highest three-season total of any player in NHL history, behind only Wayne Gretzky's 250 tallies between and . He became the fifth player in NHL history to score 50 goals in 50 games in ,—joining Maurice Richard, Mike Bossy, Gretzky, and Mario Lemieux—then repeated the feat in 1991–92.


title: Brett Hull

text: He led the league in goal scoring all three seasons and was named to the first All-Star team each year. He collected numerous league awards, winning the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy in 1990 as the league's most sportsmanlike player, then in 1991, won the Hart Memorial Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award as the NHL's most valuable player as selected by the league and his fellow players respectively. His total of 86 goals in 1990–91 is the third highest for a single season in NHL history, after Gretzky's 92 goals in 1981–82 and 87 in 1983–84. Oates left the Blues midway through the 1991–92 season, and while Hull's offensive production dropped, he remained the Blues' top offensive threat. He recorded his fourth and fifth consecutive 50-goal seasons, scoring 54 in and 57 in .


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull clashed with head coach Mike Keenan, who joined the team in , primarily over the latter's changes to team personnel. Hull, who had been named team captain in 1992, was stripped of the captaincy. By early 1996, the two were publicly criticizing each other in the media. Forced to choose between the player and coach, the Blues fired Keenan on December 19, 1996. Hull responded three nights later with a hat trick against the Los Angeles Kings to reach 500 goals for his NHL career. He and Bobby are the only father-son pair who both reached that total.


title: Brett Hull

text: After 43- and 42-goal seasons in and , Hull scored 27 in . He became an unrestricted free agent following the season after rejecting a three-year, $15 million offer from the Blues because the team refused to include a no-trade clause. He left St. Louis, signing a three-year, $17 million contract with the Dallas Stars on July 2, 1998.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull reached 1,000 points in his career when he notched a goal and an assist in a 3–1 victory with the Dallas Stars over the Boston Bruins on November 14, 1998. He then scored his 600th goal on December 31, 1999. He scored 32 goals in 1998–99 despite struggling with a groin injury for much of the season. The Stars reached the 1999 Stanley Cup Finals, against the Buffalo Sabres. The sixth game of the series went to overtime tied 1–1 while Dallas held a 3–2 series lead. At 14:51 of the third overtime period, Hull collected a rebound in front of the Buffalo net and put the puck past goaltender Dominik Hašek to win the game, and the Stanley Cup, for Dallas.


title: Brett Hull

text: The Sabres immediately protested the goal, as NHL rules of the time stated that a player could not score a goal if any part of his body was within the goal crease. Replays showed that Hull's skate was within the crease when he scored, however, the NHL ruled that he had possession of the puck prior to entering the crease, making the goal legal. League officials stated that that very scenario was addressed in a memo sent to the league's on-ice officials prior to the start of the playoffs. Hull himself states the goal was legal, supporting the claim that the NHL had altered the rules in a private memo sent to all teams but not released to the public. Media, fans and players across the league remain divided on the goal, some claiming that the league altered the rule after the fact. It remains especially controversial in Buffalo, where fans and former players continue to maintain that the play should have been ruled "no goal". The NHL formally abolished the crease rule prior to the next season, allowing players to score from within the crease freely as long as they did not interfere with the goaltender.


title: Brett Hull

text: As a member of the Stars in their Stanley Cup winning season, Hull wore sweater number 22, as his customary number 16 was worn by Pat Verbeek. Hull would switch back to number 16 the following season when Verbeek left the team as a free agent. Though he appeared in 79 games in 1999–2000, Hull had what coach Ken Hitchcock called "a disappointing season", struggling defensively and scoring only 24 goals. His offensive production improved in the 2000 Stanley Cup Playoffs as he led the league in post-season scoring with 10 goals and 23 points. The Stars again reached the finals, but lost the series in six games to the New Jersey Devils. Hull scored 39 goals in 2000–01, his best total in four years. He surpassed his father's career total when he scored his 611th goal in a 3–1 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 10, 2000. Hull played his 1,000th career game on February 25, 2001, in Calgary.


title: Brett Hull

text: The Stars chose not to exercise their option on Hull's contract that would have paid him $7 million for the 2001–02 NHL season, making him a free agent. Although he received superior financial offers from the Montreal Canadiens and New York Rangers, Hull chose to sign a two-year, $9 million contract with the Detroit Red Wings to pursue a second Stanley Cup championship. He joined an already star-studded team that earlier that same offseason had acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek, and also signed winger Luc Robitaille.


title: Brett Hull

text: As a member of the Red Wings, Hull switched to sweater number 17 out of respect for Vladimir Konstantinov, who wore number 16 for the Red Wings before his playing career ended due to a limousine accident a week after Detroit's 1997 Stanley Cup championship. As of 2022, no player has worn the number 16 for the Red Wings since Konstantinov.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull subsequently scored 30 goals that season as the Red Wings dominated their opponents, earning the President's Trophy as the NHL's top team. During the regular season, he was put on a line with Boyd Devereaux and rookie Pavel Datsyuk, a combination in which Hull himself referred to as "two kids and a goat".


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull would then score a league-leading 10 in the 2002 Stanley Cup Playoffs, as the Red Wings defeated the Vancouver Canucks, his former team the St. Louis Blues, and the rival Colorado Avalanche en route to their fourth Finals appearance in eight years. He'd score a hat trick in the deciding sixth game in the opening round against Vancouver, while adding two goals in the second round against the Blues. He then scored three goals in the Western Conference Finals against the Avalanche, including one in Detroit's stunning 7–0 rout of Colorado in the decisive Game 7.


title: Brett Hull

text: He scored key goals in Detroit's game three and four victories against the Carolina Hurricanes in the Stanley Cup Finals; the latter was the 100th playoff goal of his career. Hull won his second career championship as the Red Wings won the series in five games.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull posted a 37-goal, 76-point campaign in 2002–03. He became the sixth player in NHL history to score 700 career goals on February 10, 2003, against the San Jose Sharks. At age 38, Hull signed a one-year, $5 million extension with the Red Wings. After scoring 25 goals in 2003–04, Hull would score three goals during the 2004 Stanley Cup Playoffs for Detroit, who were eliminated by the eventual Western Conference champion Calgary Flames in six games in the second round.


title: Brett Hull

text: The Stars thought they were on the verge of signing Hull to a one-year contract for 2004–05, but he instead accepted a two-year, $4.5 million contract with the Phoenix Coyotes. The first year of the contract was wiped out when the season was cancelled due to a labor stoppage. When play resumed in 2005–06, Hull returned to the ice wearing his father's jersey number 9. The Coyotes franchise, which had relocated from Winnipeg in 1996, continued to honor the Jets' retired numbers, including the elder Hull's. Bobby requested that the team un-retire his uniform and allow his son to wear it. However, after playing just five games and recording one assist, Hull felt that he was no longer able to play at the level he expected of himself. On October 15, 2005, he announced his retirement as a player.


title: Brett Hull

text: As a dual Canadian and American citizen, Hull was eligible to play for either country internationally. While playing at UMD, he was passed over by officials with Team Canada when they selected their roster for the 1986 World Ice Hockey Championships. However, the American national team invited him to join their squad. Hull accepted and led the team in scoring with 7 goals and 11 points for the sixth place Americans. Hull later said the faith shown in him by American officials gave him the confidence to excel in his career. He played with Team USA for the rest of his career, and at the 1986 Calgary Cup tournament, played a pivotal role in a 5–3 upset of Canada by the Americans. Following the game, he said "I don't feel more like an American than a Canadian. I just want to play."


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull tied Mike Modano for the American scoring lead at the 1991 Canada Cup with nine points. He led the Americans into the tournament final against Canada, but was held pointless in the decisive game as Canada won the tournament with a 4–2 game. Canadian fans turned on Hull at the inaugural World Cup of Hockey in 1996. In the semifinal against Russia, fans in Ottawa loudly booed Hull and chanted "traitor" towards him as he scored two goals to lead the United States to the final against Canada. In the deciding game of the best-of-three final, Hull scored a key goal as the Americans turned a 2–1 deficit with five minutes to play into a 5–2 victory and captured the championship. Hull led all players with 11 points and was a tournament all-star at forward.


title: Brett Hull

text: Making his Olympic debut at the 1998 Winter Games, Hull scored two goals in four games. The Americans were quickly eliminated from the tournament and were criticized for their lack of desire and leadership. The team was further embarrassed when it was discovered some members had trashed their hotel room following their elimination. Hull was initially blamed as being a culprit. He angrily denied the accusation and claimed it was an invention of Canadian media upset that he was playing for the United States. Hull, Modano and John LeClair formed the American's top line for the 2002 Olympics. The trio were dominant throughout most of the tournament, leading Team USA to the gold medal game against Canada. Hull and LeClair finished second and third in overall scoring, respectively; however they were held pointless against Team Canada in the final. Hull and the Americans settled for the silver medal following a 5–2 defeat.


title: Brett Hull

text: Team USA named Hull an alternate captain of its veteran-laden team for the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. However, he was benched by head coach Ron Wilson following two indifferent games in which he did not register a point and never returned to the active lineup.


title: Brett Hull

text: Upon his arrival in the NHL, Hull was considered a "one-dimensional player". He was a natural goal scorer with a reputation for being uninterested in backchecking and playing defense. He was nicknamed "The Incredible Hull" (a reference to Bruce Banner) in college for his scoring exploits and was called "The Golden Brett" in the NHL, a play on his father's nickname of "The Golden Jet". Brett was often compared to Bobby in his early years, though the two shared few similarities on the ice. Both were known for their shooting ability, particularly the power of their slapshot, which Terry Crisp – who played against Bobby and coached Brett – described as "explosive", but while Bobby was a left wing known for both his conditioning and skating ability, Brett played right wing, was a poorer skater and lacked his father's physique.


title: Brett Hull

text: His reputation for defensive indifference persisted through much of his career. In his 72-goal season of 1989–90, Hull's plus-minus (net difference of even strength and shorthanded goals scored for and against while he was on the ice) was −1. He was a −27 four years later despite scoring 54 goals. Hull also carried a reputation as a player who could not win as his Blues' teams rarely achieved success in the playoffs. He shed that reputation after leading his teams to championships at the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and the 1999 Stanley Cup Finals. To win that 1999 championship, Hull also had to fit in with the Dallas Stars' defense-oriented system. He finished that season with a career-best plus-minus of +19.


title: Brett Hull

text: Known as an outspoken player, Hull earned a reputation on and off the ice for speaking bluntly and without regard for whom it might offend. He chastised his own fans in 1992 – later backtracking – when they booed Adam Oates following Oates' trade request, calling them "losers" and stating he wanted to rip one particular fan's head off. Hull was a consistent critic of the NHL's defensive, "clutch and grab" era of the late 1990s, raising the ire of commissioner Gary Bettman in 1998 when he said "I wouldn't pay to watch. It's boring. The whole style of the game is terrible. There's no flow. When a guy like [Mario] Lemieux leaves the game and tells you why he's leaving, and you don't address it, that's stupid. But the players don't say crap. That's why I always look like the big mouth."


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull played in eight NHL All-Star Games, and was named the most valuable player of the 1992 game in Philadelphia. As of 2022, his 741 career goals is the fifth highest total in NHL history, and Hull was the third-fastest (behind Wayne Gretzky and Alex Ovechkin) to reach 700 goals, doing so in 1,157 games. He is also second all-time in power play goals with 265 and third in game-winning goals with 110. With 24 career game-winning playoff goals, he is tied with Gretzky for the most all-time. He scored 33 hat tricks in his career, the fourth highest in NHL history. Hull holds numerous St. Louis Blues franchise records, including goals (527), power play goals (195), game-winning goals (70) and hat tricks (27). He also holds the organization's single-season records of goals (86) and points (131). In honor of his achievements with the team, the Blues retired his jersey number 16 in 2006. The team also arranged to have a portion of the street that runs alongside the Scottrade Center renamed "Brett Hull Way". In 2010, the team unveiled a statue of him in front of the arena. Hull was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 2008, and into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2009.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull worked two jobs in 2006–07. He served as a special assistant to the team president of the Dallas Stars and provided studio analysis for NHL on NBC telecasts. He left NBC after one season when he was named a special adviser to the team's hockey operations department. Hull was promoted to interim co-general manager of the Stars, sharing the role with Les Jackson after Doug Armstrong was fired on November 13, 2007. ESPN analyst Scott Burnside criticized the promotion of Hull, noting his lack of front office experience and questionable work ethic.


title: Brett Hull

text: The pair made one of the most prominent trades in the 2007–08 NHL season, acquiring Brad Richards from the Tampa Bay Lightning as part of a five-player trade. The team went on to reach the Western Conference Final of the 2008 Stanley Cup Playoffs, the Stars' deepest playoff run in eight years. Team owner Tom Hicks rewarded the pair with three-year contracts and named them permanent co-general managers. He credited Hull for his positive relationship with the players and his "unconventional wisdom".


title: Brett Hull

text: The signing of controversial forward Sean Avery prior to the 2008–09 season proved a turning point for Hull and Jackson. Avery's erratic behavior created divisions within the team's locker room, particularly after he made derogatory comments towards another player's girlfriend in the media. The Stars missed the playoffs that season, leading the team to replace Hull and Jackson as general manager with Joe Nieuwendyk. Hull remained with the organization, serving as an adviser to Hicks and team president Jeff Cogen. Hull has since been hired by the St. Louis Blues as their executive vice president for business development.


title: Brett Hull

text: On May 21, 2019, after the Blues advanced to the Stanley Cup Final for the first time in 49 years, Hull wasn't able to control his emotions and cried, saying "I'm in there. I'm not a crier, but I'm crying...I saw Bobby Plager and I'm like 'Holy cow,'... 49 years in the making for this... These guys have played unbelievable."


title: Brett Hull

text: On Saturday, June 15, 2019, after the St. Louis Blues won their first Stanley Cup, Brett Hull took the stage and led the crowd in a drunken ramble that echoed throughout the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial following the victory parade down Market Street. He coined the iconic phrase, "We went Blues," explaining, "We don't have to go anymore, 'cause we already did it."


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull currently lives in Dallas, Texas with his second wife, Darcie. He has three children by his first wife, Alison: son Jude and daughters Jayde and Crosby. Jude also played hockey, as a goaltender. He attended St. Olaf College until 2018, he never played professionally. Jayde attends Colgate University.


title: Brett Hull

text: In business, Hull was twice involved in the operation of restaurants. He owned two eateries in St. Louis while he was a member of the Blues, and partnered with Mike Modano and others on a Dallas restaurant called "Hully and Mo Restaurant and Tap Room" following his playing career. He lent his name to a 1995 Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game called "Brett Hull Hockey". Hull was a co-owner of the St. Louis Bandits, a junior team in the North American Hockey League. In November 2020, Hull returned to restaurant operation in the St. Louis area with the opening of Brett Hull's Junction in Wentzville, Missouri.


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull is an avid golfer, often stating during his career that he preferred the sport to hockey. He is a frequent participant in the American Century Celebrity Golf Classic and his best finish at the tournament is a tie for fifth in 2008. He competes in several charity and celebrity tournaments, and in 2009 was ranked as the sixth best athlete golfer in North America by "Golf Digest".


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull was a guest on the Weekend Update segment of the December 11, 2004, episode of "Saturday Night Live".


title: Brett Hull

text: Hull made a special guest appearance as the USA hockey team captain in the "What's New, Scooby-Doo?" episode, "Diamonds Are a Ghoul's Best Friend".


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Super Bowl XI was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Oakland Raiders and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Minnesota Vikings to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for its 1976 season. The Raiders defeated the Vikings by the score of 32–14 to win their first Super Bowl. The game was played on January 9, 1977, at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California. This remains the Super Bowl scheduled earliest during the calendar year.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: This was the Raiders’ second Super Bowl appearance after losing Super Bowl II. They posted a 13–1 regular season record before defeating the New England Patriots and the Pittsburgh Steelers in the playoffs. The Vikings were making their fourth Super Bowl appearance after posting an 11–2–1 regular season record and playoff victories over the Washington Redskins and the Los Angeles Rams. The Vikings became the first team to appear in four Super Bowls, a record they held until the Dallas Cowboys advanced to a Super Bowl for the fifth time in Super Bowl XIII. They had not won in their previous three attempts, losing Super Bowl IV to the Kansas City Chiefs in the final Super Bowl before the AFL–NFL merger and following that up with losses in Super Bowls VIII and IX. The Raiders were the first original AFL team to win a Super Bowl in the post-merger era.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Oakland gained a Super Bowl record 429 yards, including a Super Bowl record 288 yards in the first half, en route to winning Super Bowl XI. After a scoreless first quarter, Oakland scored on three consecutive possessions to take a 16–0 lead at halftime. The Raiders also had two fourth quarter interceptions, including cornerback Willie Brown’s 75-yard return for a touchdown. Oakland wide receiver Fred Biletnikoff, who had 4 catches for 79 yards that set up three Raider touchdowns, was named the game’s Most Valuable Player (MVP). Among the wide receivers who have won the Super Bowl MVP, Biletnikoff was the only one to not have gained 100 yards in his performance until Super Bowl LVI.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: The NFL awarded Super Bowl XI to Pasadena, California on March 19, 1975 at the owners' meetings held in Honolulu.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: This game marked the second Super Bowl appearance for the Oakland Raiders, who lost Super Bowl II. Two years after their Super Bowl loss, the Raiders hired John Madden as their head coach. Under Madden, the Raiders had posted in his 8 seasons an 83–22–7 record (counting ties, this was a .772 winning percentage, second for any NFL team behind only the Vikings’ .781). Nevertheless, Super Bowl XI was the first time Madden led his team to a league championship game. They had been eliminated in all six of their previous playoff appearances, including five losses in the AFC Championship Game.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: The Raiders offense was led by quarterback Ken Stabler, who finished as the top rated passer in the AFC, passing for 2,737 yards and 27 touchdowns. His 66.7 completion percentage (194 completions out of 291 attempts) was the second highest in the league. Stabler's main passing weapon was wide receiver Cliff Branch, who caught 46 passes for 1,111 yards (24.2 yards per catch average) and 12 touchdowns. Fred Biletnikoff was also a reliable deep threat, with 43 receptions for 551 yards and 7 touchdowns, while tight end Dave Casper recorded 53 receptions for 691 yards and 10 touchdowns.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: In addition to their great passing attack the Raiders also had a powerful running game, led by fullback Mark van Eeghen (1,012 rushing yards, 17 receptions) and halfback Clarence Davis (516 rushing yards, 27 receptions). Another reason for the Raiders' success on offense was their offensive line, led by left tackle Art Shell and left guard Gene Upshaw, as well as perennial All-Pro center Dave Dalby.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Injuries early in the season forced the Raiders to switch from a 4–3 to a 3–4 defense. The switch benefited the team, as they won their last 10 games and finished the regular season with the best record in the league, 13–1. The Raiders' defense was anchored by great linebackers, such as Phil Villapiano and Ted Hendricks, while defensive end Otis Sistrunk anchored the defensive line. Their defensive secondary was extremely hard-hitting and talented, led by safeties Jack Tatum and George Atkinson, and cornerbacks Skip Thomas and Willie Brown.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Brown, Upshaw, Biletnikoff and running back Pete Banaszak were the only holdovers from the Oakland team that was defeated nine years earlier in Super Bowl II.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Many accused the Raiders defense of being overly aggressive, especially Atkinson, who inflicted a severe concussion on Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Lynn Swann in the previous season's AFC Championship Game. Atkinson added to that reputation as the Raiders advanced through the playoffs to Super Bowl XI, as Atkinson inflicted another concussion to Swann in the Raiders' 1976 season opener. In the Raiders' 24–21 playoff win over the New England Patriots, Atkinson broke the nose of Patriots tight end Russ Francis. In reaction, Pittsburgh head coach Chuck Noll complained of a "criminal element" in Atkinson's play. Atkinson himself denied deliberately trying to injure anyone and pointed out that at 6′0″ and 185 pounds, he was one of the smallest players on the field. The Raiders and their fans were often known to counter these accusations against Atkinson and Jack Tatum by pointing out the physical way that Pittsburgh cornerback Mel Blount covered Oakland's speedy split end Cliff Branch.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Two of the Raiders' players (whose names were not revealed) bought marijuana from Red Hot Chili Peppers singer Anthony Kiedis' father, Blackie Dammett, smoked it before the game, and played the game under the effects of the drug. This was revealed on Kiedis’ biography from 2004, "Scar Tissue".


title: Super Bowl XI

text: The Vikings, coached by Bud Grant, won the NFC Central for the eighth time in the last nine seasons with an 11–2–1 record, and advanced to their fourth Super Bowl in eight years. They were the only team who had lost three Super Bowls (they had previously lost Super Bowls IV, VIII and IX), and did not want to be the first one to lose four. They were the first team to appear in a fourth Super Bowl.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Once again, the Vikings had a powerful offense led by 36-year-old quarterback Fran Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman. In his 16th NFL season, Tarkenton was already the league's all-time leader in pass completions (3,186), passing yards (41,802), and touchdown passes (308). He had another fine season in 1976, completing 61.9 percent of his passes for 2,961 yards, 17 touchdowns, and only 8 interceptions. Foreman had the best season of his career, rushing for 1,155 yards and 13 touchdowns, while also catching 55 passes for 567 yards and another touchdown. Fullback Brent McClanahan also contributed 634 combined rushing and receiving yards. The Vikings also added two new weapons to their offense: veteran wide receiver Ahmad Rashad and rookie wide receiver Sammy White combined for 104 receptions, 1,577 receiving yards, and 13 touchdowns, while tackle Ron Yary once again anchored the offensive line.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: The Vikings' "Purple People Eaters" defense, anchored by Carl Eller, Jim Marshall, and Alan Page, were also dominating teams again. During this regular season, they led the NFC in fewest points allowed (176). Also, defensive back Nate Wright led the team with 7 interceptions for 47 yards, while safety Paul Krause had 2 interceptions for 21 yards. Pro Bowl linebacker Matt Blair intercepted two passes and recovered five fumbles.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: Tarkenton became the second quarterback to start three Super Bowls, following his Super Bowl VIII counterpart Bob Griese. Eleven players were on the roster for Super Bowl IV, VIII, IX, and XI for the Vikings: Bobby Bryant, Fred Cox, Carl Eller, Wally Hilgenberg, Paul Krause, Jim Marshall, Alan Page, Mick Tingelhoff, Ed White, Roy Winston and Ron Yary.


title: Super Bowl XI

text: The Vikings went on to dominate the Washington Redskins, 35–20, and then defeated the Los Angeles Rams, 24–13, in the playoffs. Ten of the Vikings’ points in the NFC Championship Game came from blocked kicks.