title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: Mac's character's celebrity worked as a plot device allowing other celebrities to appear on the show as themselves, including Neve Campbell, Don Cheadle, Halle Berry, Serena Williams, Courteney Cox, Chris Rock, Ashton Kutcher, Dom DeLuise, Natasha Lyonne, Billy Crystal, Carl Reiner, Don Rickles, Parker Posey, Angela Bassett, Ellen DeGeneres, Ice Cube, Isaac Hayes, and Flavor Flav. Lucy Lawless, Stone Cold Steve Austin, Triple H, Matt Damon, Charles Barkley, Jon Garland, Jules Sylvester, Sugar Ray Leonard, India Arie, Shaquille O'Neal, Sugar Shane Mosley, Hugh Hefner, Phil McGraw, and Marcus Allen all appeared as themselves over the course of the show.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: The series finale titled "Bernie's Angels" focused on Bernie getting an electrical shock and ends up traumatized. After he recovers, he begins to teach Jordan and Bryanna how to do certain things on their own. Also, Vanessa doesn't want Bernie to be involved in her choosing a college. Meanwhile, Jordan takes advantage of Bernie's kindness. In the end, Vanessa and Bernie make up (mainly due to her writing an essay about who inspires her most: which is him). In the final scene of the series, Bernie goes back to his normal self and takes back the iPod he bought Jordan since he was taking advantage of him. Bernie's final line is a farewell message to the viewers and stating that he is going to continue to raise and teach the kids for as long as they need it and he also wishes the viewers luck. The scene pans out with Jordan on his knees sobbing and begging for the iPod while Bernie smugly laughs and teases him.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: The series debuted in its time slot on November 14, 2001, with solid ratings in spite of a weak lead-in, "Grounded for Life". The show had a very successful first season and in the process won a handful of honors including an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series" and the prestigious Peabody Award. Bernie Mac also received Emmy and Golden Globe nominations for Best Actor in a Comedy Series.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: In fall 2002, the series aired against the Damon Wayans comedy "My Wife and Kids" which may have hurt the show's momentum in the ratings during the first half of its second season run. Larry Wilmore, the show's creator and executive producer, was fired at this time. In interviews, Wilmore said he was fed up with the network's creative interference with the show, in addition to Fox constantly shuffling it around the schedule. Fox contended that it wasn't happy with the show's direction under Wilmore in the second season, claiming the show "wasn't delivering enough laughs". With "The Bernie Mac Show"'s inability to topple "My Wife and Kids" in the Wednesday 8 p.m. timeslot, Fox eventually aired the show after "American Idol", after which it received its highest ratings ever.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: The third season was scheduled to start on October 29, 2003, but was postponed due to "The O.C." being moved. Instead, the series started the season at the late date of November 30, 2003. The ratings were mediocre, despite the large ratings of its lead-in "The Simpsons". In March 2004, the show was moved to Monday nights in a plan to boost ratings for the new show "Cracking Up", but the ratings were low for both shows. "Cracking Up" was canceled and "The Bernie Mac Show" was pulled from May Sweeps with leftover episodes that aired in June (one of which included an episode about Thanksgiving).


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: "The Bernie Mac Show" returned to its original time slot on September 8, 2004, to start the fourth season. The production was shut down a month later due to Bernie's sickness. The show returned on January 14, 2005, with new episodes on Friday nights. Although the ratings were low enough that commentators questioned the show's future (especially when it was postponed from May Sweeps again), the show was renewed for a fifth season.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: The fifth season started September 23, 2005, on Friday nights and beginning mid-season, airings were followed by reruns of the show.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: "The Bernie Mac Show" celebrated its 100th episode on February 3, 2006, even though the actual 100th episode was not aired until March 31.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: The series had been airing in syndication since September 2005 and aired on Independent Fox UPN and The WB affiliates (the letter networks The WB 100+ Station Group also carries the program as part of its national schedule) and was on the FX network from September 2008 until 2011. In syndication, the series' title is shortened simply to "Bernie Mac". Bernie Mac's hometown of Chicago aired the series on the city's independent station The U. "The Bernie Mac Show" began its run on the station in September 2005. In the beginning of fall 2009, the series briefly moved to The U's sister station Me-TV, before returning to The U where it remained until late 2010.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: On the day of Mac's funeral, The U aired a retrospective TV special called "A Tribute to Bernie Mac", which featured clips from the series and an interview with Camille Winbush, who portrayed Vanessa.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: "The Bernie Mac Show" won a Peabody Award in 2001, the Humanitas Prize, a Primetime Emmy Award, three NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, and was honored by the Television Critics Association.


title: The Bernie Mac Show

text: For his role in the show, Bernie Mac was honored by the Television Critics Association for Individual Achievement in a Comedy as well as the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series four years in a row: 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006.


title: Shakeela

text: C. Shakeela, known mononymously as Shakeela, is an Indian actress and politician who predominantly acted in Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu language films. She is a member of Indian National Congress. Shakeela debuted in the film "Playgirls" (1995) at the age of 18 as an actress.


title: Shakeela

text: Shakeela was born in a Muslim family based in Kodambakkam, Madras, India. Her mother Chan Begum was from Nellore in Andhra Pradesh and father Chan Basha was from Madras. She could not complete her school leaving certificate examination, eventually making her foray into films.


title: Shakeela

text: From the beginning of her career, she acted in many B grade movies and soft-porn movies. One of her big hits was "Kinnarathumbikal", which brought her into limelight and resulted in an unheard-of craze for her from youngsters to the old. She did a few controversial topless scenes in her initial movies until she got noticed. Her B-Grade films were dubbed and released in almost all Indian languages. Her films were dubbed into foreign languages like Nepalese, Chinese, and Sinhala. After she acted in several movies, the soft-porn movies in India were colloquially called as "shakeela films". Shakeela hired a body double Surayya Banu to do her topless scenes.


title: Shakeela

text: Shakeela started appearing in family character roles in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada language movies since 2003. She wrote her autobiography in Malayalam, which covered her family, her background, as well as her acquaintance with notable film personalities, politicians and childhood friends.


title: Shakeela

text: In 2012, Shakeela announced that she will no longer act in B grade movies. Shakeela released her autobiography "Shakeela: Aatmakatha" in 2013. Shakeela has adopted a transgender daughter Mila.


title: Shakeela

text: Shakeela has featured in over 250 in Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Kannada, Odia and Telugu Language films in various roles.


title: Shakeela

text: Indrajit Lankesh directed her biopic "Shakeela" based on her life in which Richa Chadda portrays the title character.


title: 2022 Jacksonville Jaguars season

text: The 2022 season is the Jacksonville Jaguars' 28th season in the National Football League (NFL) and their first under head coach Doug Pederson.


title: 2022 Jacksonville Jaguars season

text: During the prior season, head coach Urban Meyer was fired by the team after only 13 games in his first season as coach for the Jaguars. Offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell was named the interim head coach for the remainder of the season. After a 28–27 victory over the Baltimore Ravens in Week 12, the Jaguars improved upon their 3–14 record from the previous year, doing so with a late drive to overcome a seven point deficit; it was the first time in franchise history that they had won a game when trailing by seven in the final minute of regulation, as they were 0–183 before that game.


title: 2022 Jacksonville Jaguars season

text: The Jacksonville Jaguars fired first-year head coach Urban Meyer on December 16, 2021, due to on-and off-the-field issues along with a 2–11 record.


title: 2022 Jacksonville Jaguars season

text: On February 28, the NFL announced that the Jaguars would play the Las Vegas Raiders in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game on Thursday, August 4, at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium in Canton, Ohio, at 8:00 p.m. EDT. The Jaguars would be represented by offensive tackle Tony Boselli, who played with the team during the franchise's first seven seasons from 1995–2001. The two teams would meet again during the regular season in Jacksonville.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: Zakir Khan (born 20 August 1987) is an Indian comedian and actor. In 2012, he rose to popularity by winning Comedy Central India's Best Stand Up Comedian competition. Khan has also been a part of a news comedy show, On Air with AIB. He has also released three-hour length standup specials: "Haq Se Single" (2017), "Kaksha Gyarvi" (2018) and "Tathastu" (2022) on Amazon Prime Video.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: Khan was born and raised in Indore, Madhya Pradesh to a rajasthani muslim family of classical musicians. He is the grandson of Sarangi Maestro Ustad Moinuddin Khan. He spent a large portion of his adult life in Delhi. He comes from a humble background and credits his father with being supportive of his talent.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: Khan has a diploma in Sitar and is a college dropout. He has stated that had he not been a standup comedian, he would instead be working as a music teacher. He became a known face in India's stand-up comedy circuit in 2012 when he won the title of 'India's Best Stand Up', a comedy competition organized by Comedy Central. Besides performing at many stand-up comedy shows, he has also ghostwritten and produced radio shows. His comedy style was applauded in NDTV Prime's "The Rising Stars of Comedy" television show. Khan is known for his punchline ""Sakht Launda"" which refers to a guy with immense self-control who doesn't easily fall for girls. He also performed with Joke Singh at Gurgaon.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: He is an emerging Urdu Poet and comes from a family of artists. He has presented his poetry in events like Rekhta. On his train journey to Delhi, he wrote first poem, ""Mai Soonya Pe Sawar Hoon"". He also wrote ""Apne Aap Ke Bhi Piche Khara Hoon Main"", ""Bus Ka Intezar Karte Huye"".


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: In September 2017, Khan appeared as one of the three mentors along with Mallika Dua and Hussain Dalal for the fifth season of "The Great Indian Laughter Challenge", judged by actor Akshay Kumar. He has more than six million subscribers on YouTube and is known for works like his Amazon Prime special "Haq Se Single".


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: In 2015, Khan co-hosted and wrote "On Air with AIB", a news comedy show, with Sorabh Pant and Gursimran Khamba from the Indian comedy group All India Bakchod. The show was broadcast on Star World, India. Khan co-hosted the 5th Annual Golden Kela Awards.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: He also appeared as one of the judges in Amazon Prime's Comicstaan Season 2 where he mentored the contestants in a genre of comedy known as anecdotal comedy. He also went on to be one of the four judges in Season 3.


title: Zakir Khan (comedian)

text: Apart from comedy, he has also generated podcast series Ummeed on Gaana, where he shares the inspiration he got from incidents in his life, along with his other comedian friends.


title: Redbubble

text: Redbubble is a global online marketplace for print-on-demand products based on user-submitted artwork. The company was founded in 2006 in Melbourne, Australia, and also maintains offices in San Francisco and Berlin.


title: Redbubble

text: The company operates primarily on the Internet and allows its members to sell their artwork as decoration on a variety of products. Products include prints, T-shirts, hoodies, cushions, duvet covers, leggings, stickers, skirts, and scarves. The company offers free membership to artists who maintain the copyrights to their work, regulate their own prices, and decide which products may display their images.


title: Redbubble

text: The company was founded in 2006 by Martin Hosking, Peter Styles, and Paul Vanzella after raising $2 million in investor capital. On 16 June 2011, Hosking left his position at Aconex to focus on his job as CEO of Redbubble.


title: Redbubble

text: In March 2014, it was reported that 51,900 artists have successfully sold their creations on Redbubble generating more than A$15 million in earnings. At the time it was estimated that eight million unique viewers visited the site every month.


title: Redbubble

text: In 2015, Redbubble raised A$15.5 million in funding from various investors including Melbourne-based Acorn Capital and London based investor Piton Capital.


title: Redbubble

text: Since February 2015, Redbubble has been running an artist residency program at their Melbourne office. The purpose of the program is to enable selected artists with the opportunity to produce artwork at Redbubble artist studio while collaborating with other artists.


title: Redbubble

text: In January 2017, Hosking reported 450,000 active artists and 10 million site visits per month. In the last ten years, almost 7 million people have bought products from the site, generating $70 million earned by artists.


title: Redbubble

text: In June 2018, it was announced that Hosking would be stepping down as CEO. COO Barry Newstead, who has been with the company since 2013, would take over as CEO in August 2018.


title: Redbubble

text: In June 2011, "The Register" and "The Age" reported that artists on Redbubble were offering T-shirts images taken from the satirical online comic strip "Hipster Hitler". Some Redbubble users perceived the comic and its products as antisemitic, pressuring PayPal to investigate whether it violated their policy. In May 2011 Arnold Bloch Leibler, a law firm with connections to the Australian Jewish community, severed their business relationship with Redbubble for "promoting Nazism". Both Redbubble's CEO, Martin Hosking, and the head of B'nai B'rith's Anti Defamation Commission recognized "Hipster Hitler" as parody but noted that it was being misunderstood – this was due in part to the limited context of the merchandise and stories that some hate groups had allegedly praised "Hipster Hitler" – and discussed how best to deal with such work. Three weeks later on 5 June 2011, "The Age" reported that Hosking, who had originally defended the work as free speech, removed the entire "Hipster Hitler" merchandise line and said the guidelines would be changed to "prohibit parodies of genocide and the Holocaust, as well as other material likely to cause deep offence". Such a statement does not appear literally or clearly semantically in Redbubble's community guidelines. At the same time he said it was hard to take a nuanced approach to removing "Hipster Hitler" merchandise due to the nature of the controversy. Hosking's decision to pull "Hipster Hitler"'s line was applauded by the Simon Wiesenthal Center as being responsive to both artists and the Jewish community. On 12 and 15 June 2011 articles by digital media company Ninemsn and news web site Stuff.co.nz reported that artists on Redbubble were selling baby clothes featuring pictures of Hitler, Osama bin Laden and serial killers Ivan Milat, Ted Bundy and Charles Manson.


title: Redbubble

text: According to a 9 September 2011 article in the "Herald Sun" more than 100 children's items remained on sale, some with "four-letter swear words" and drug images. In 2012 the "Los Angeles Times" reported that due to outrage over the death of Trayvon Martin, artists on Redbubble were offering a hoodie with a version of a "Neighborhood Watch" sign, which warns, darkly, "We immediately murder all suspicious persons".


title: Redbubble

text: In 2019, the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club sued Redbubble in the Federal Court of Australia for infringing on its trademark. Another lawsuit was launched in 2021 after evidence was provided that Redbubble had continued to breach the trademark.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial German Navy or the Imperial Navy () was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence. Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy. The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who greatly expanded the size and quality of the navy, while adopting the sea power theories of American strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan. The result was a naval arms race with Britain, as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world, second only to the Royal Navy.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The German surface navy proved ineffective during the First World War; its only major engagement, the Battle of Jutland, was a draw, but it kept the surface fleet largely in port for the rest of the war. The submarine fleet was greatly expanded and threatened the British supply system during the U-boat campaign. As part of the Armistice, the Imperial Navy's main ships were ordered to be turned over to the Allies but they were instead scuttled by their own crews. All ships of the Imperial Navy bore the title "SMS", for (His Majesty's Ship).


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats. At the Battle of Coronel, it inflicted the first major defeat on the Royal Navy in over one hundred years, although the German squadron of ships was subsequently defeated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands, only one ship escaping destruction. The Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic value of both of these encounters was minimal.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial Navy was the first to operate submarines successfully on a large scale in wartime, with 375 submarines commissioned by the end of the First World War, and it also operated zeppelins. Although it was never able to match the number of ships of the Royal Navy, it had technological advantages, such as better shells and propellant for much of the Great War, meaning that it never lost a ship to a catastrophic magazine explosion from an above-water attack, although the elderly pre-dreadnought sank rapidly at Jutland after a magazine explosion was caused by an underwater attack.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the defining point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as King of Prussia, had previously been head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire. The navy remained the same as that operated by the empire's predecessor organisation in the unification of Germany, the North German Confederation, which itself in 1867 had inherited the navy of the Kingdom of Prussia. Article 53 of the new Empire's constitution recognised the existence of the Navy as an independent organisation, but until 1888 it was commanded by army officers and initially adopted the same regulations as the Prussian army. Supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was "General der Infanterie" (General of the Infantry) Albrecht von Stosch. Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navy's principal naval bases. The former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875. Initially the main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France and Russia seen as Germany's most likely future enemies. The Imperial Navy's tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval Academy was created at Kiel for training officers, followed in May by the creation of a 'Machine Engineer Corps', and in February 1873 a 'Medical Corps'. In July 1879 a separate 'Torpedo Engineer Corps' was created dealing with torpedoes and mines.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In May 1872 a ten-year building programme was instituted to modernise the fleet. This called for eight armoured frigates, six armoured corvettes, twenty light corvettes, seven monitors, two floating batteries, six avisos, eighteen gunboats and twenty-eight torpedo boats, at an estimated cost of 220 million gold marks. The building plan had to be approved by the "Reichstag", which controlled the allocation of funds, although one-quarter of the money came from French war reparations.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1883 Stosch was replaced by another general, Count Leo von Caprivi. At this point the navy had seven armoured frigates and four armoured corvettes, 400 officers and 5,000 ratings. The objectives of coastal defence remained largely unchanged, but there was a new emphasis on development of the torpedo, which offered the possibility of relatively small ships successfully attacking much larger ones. In October 1887 the first torpedo division was created at Wilhelmshaven and the second torpedo division based at Kiel. In 1887 Caprivi requested the construction of ten armoured frigates.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Greater importance was placed at this time on development of the army, which was expected to be more important in any war. However, the Kiel Canal was commenced in June 1887, which connected the North Sea with the Baltic through the Jutland peninsula, allowing German ships to travel between the two seas avoiding waters controlled by other countries. This shortened the journey for commercial ships, but specifically united the two areas principally of concern to the German navy, at a cost of 150 million marks.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Later, the protection of German maritime trade routes became important. This soon involved the setting up of some overseas supply stations, so called "Auswärtige Stationen" (foreign stations) and in the 1880s the Imperial Navy played a part in helping to secure the establishment of German colonies and protectorates in Africa, Asia and Oceania.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In June 1888 Wilhelm II became Emperor after the death of his father Frederick III, who ruled for only 99 days. He started his reign with the intention of doing for the navy what his grandfather Wilhelm I had done for the army. The creation of a maritime empire to rival the British and French empires became an ambition to mark Germany as a truly global great power. Wilhelm became Grand Admiral of the German Navy, but also was awarded honorific titles from all over Europe, becoming admiral in the British, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Austro-Hungarian and Greek navies. On one occasion he wore the uniform of a British admiral to receive the visiting British ambassador. At this time the Imperial Navy had 534 officers and 15,480 men.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The concept of expanding naval power, inevitably at the cost of not expanding other forces, was opposed by the three successive heads of the German armed forces, Waldersee, Schlieffen and Moltke between 1888 and 1914. It would also have been more widely opposed, had the Kaiser's intentions been widely known. Instead, he proceeded with a plan to expand the navy slowly, justifying enlargement step by step.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In July 1888 Wilhelm II appointed Vice-Admiral Alexander von Monts as head of the admiralty. Monts oversaw the design of the , four of which were constructed by 1894 at a cost of 16 million marks each and displacement of 10,000 tons.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1889 Wilhelm II reorganised top level control of the navy by creating a Navy Cabinet ("Marine-Kabinett") equivalent to the German Imperial Military Cabinet which had previously functioned in the same capacity for both the army and navy. The Head of the navy cabinet was responsible for promotions, appointments, administration and issuing orders to naval forces. Captain Gustav von Senden-Bibran was appointed as its first head and remained so until 1906, when he was replaced by the long-serving Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller. The existing Imperial admiralty was abolished and its responsibilities divided between two organisations. A new position of Chief of the Imperial Naval High Command was created, being responsible for ship deployments, strategy and tactics, an equivalent to the supreme commander of the Army. Vice admiral Max von der Goltz was appointed in 1889 and remained in post until 1895. Construction and maintenance of ships and obtaining supplies was the responsibility of the State Secretary of the Imperial Navy Office ("Reichsmarineamt"), responsible to the chancellor and advising the Reichstag on naval matters. The first appointee was Rear Admiral Karl Eduard Heusner, followed shortly by Rear Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann from 1890 to 1897. Each of these three heads of department reported separately to Wilhelm II.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1895 funding was agreed for five battleships of the , completed by 1902. The ships were innovative for their time, introducing a complex system of watertight compartments and storing coal along the sides of the ship to help absorb explosions. However, the ships went against the trend for increasingly larger main guns, having smaller diameter guns than the "Brandenburg" design, but with a quick-loading design and more powerful secondary armaments. Costs rose to 21 million marks each, as had size to 11,500 tons.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1892 Germany had launched the protected cruiser , the first navy ship to have triple propellers. She was succeeded by five protected cruisers, the last 'protected', as distinct from 'armoured' cruiser class constructed by Germany. The ships, completed between 1898 and 1900, had deck armour but not side armour and were intended for overseas duties. Shortages of funding meant it was not possible to create several designs of cruisers specialised for long range work, or more heavily armoured for fleet work. Work commenced on an armoured cruiser design, started in 1896 and commissioned in 1900.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: On 18 June 1897 Rear-Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was appointed State Secretary of the Navy, where he remained for nineteen years. Tirpitz advocated the cause of an expanded navy necessary for Germany to defend her territories abroad. He had great success in persuading parliament to pass successive Navy bills authorising expansions of the fleet. German foreign policy as espoused by Otto von Bismarck had been to deflect the interest of great powers abroad while Germany consolidated her integration and military strength. Now Germany was to compete with the rest. Tirpitz started with a publicity campaign aimed at popularising the navy. He created popular magazines about the navy, arranged for Alfred Thayer Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power upon History", which argued the importance of naval forces, to be translated into German and serialised in newspapers, arranged rallies in support and invited politicians and industrialists to naval reviews. Various pressure groups were formed to lobby politicians and spread publicity. One such organisation, the navy league or "Flottenverein", was organized by principals in the steel industry (Alfred Krupp), ship yards and banks, gaining more than one million members. Political parties were offered concessions, such as taxes on imported grain, in exchange for their support for naval bills.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: On 10 April 1898 the first Navy Bill was passed by the "Reichstag". It authorised the maintenance of a fleet of 19 battleships, 8 armoured cruisers, 12 large cruisers and 30 light cruisers to be constructed by 1 April 1904. Existing ships were counted in the total, but the bill provided for ships to be replaced every 25 years on an indefinite basis. Five million marks annually was allocated to run the navy, with a total budget of 408 million marks for shipbuilding. This would bring the German fleet to a strength where it could contemplate challenging France or Russia, but would remain clearly inferior to the world's largest fleet, the Royal Navy.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Following the Boxer Rebellion in China and the Boer War, a second navy bill was passed on 14 June 1900. This approximately doubled the allocated number of ships to 38 battleships, 20 armoured cruisers, 38 light cruisers. Significantly, the bill set no overall cost limit for the building program. Expenditure for the navy was too great to be met from taxation: the Reichstag had limited powers to extend taxation without entering into negotiations with the constituent German states, and this was considered politically unviable. Instead, the bill was financed by massive loans. Tirpitz, in 1899 was already exploring the possibilities for extending the battleship total to 45, a target which rose to 48 by 1909.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Tirpitz's ultimate goal was a fleet capable of rivaling the Royal Navy. As British public opinion was turned against Germany, Admiral Sir John Fisher twice – in 1904 and 1908 – proposed using Britain's current naval superiority to 'Copenhagen' the German fleet, that is, to launch pre-emptive strikes against the Kiel and Wilhelmshaven naval bases as the Royal Navy had done against the Danish navy in 1801 and 1807." Tirpitz argued that if the fleet could achieve two-thirds the number of capital ships possessed by Britain then it stood a chance of winning in a conflict. Britain had to maintain a fleet throughout the world and consider other naval powers, whereas the German fleet could be concentrated in German waters. Attempts were made to play down the perceived threat to Britain, but once the German fleet reached the position of equalling the other second-rank navies, it became impossible to avoid mention of the one great fleet it was intended to challenge. Tirpitz hoped that other second-rank powers might ally with Germany, attracted by its navy. The policy of commencing what amounted to a naval arms race did not properly consider how Britain might respond. British policy, stated in the Naval Defence Act of 1889, was to maintain a navy superior to Britain's two largest rivals combined. The British Admiralty estimated that the German navy would be the world's second largest by 1906.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Major reforms of the Royal Navy were undertaken, particularly by Fisher as First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1909. 154 older ships, including 17 battleships, were scrapped to make way for newer vessels. Reforms in training and gunnery were introduced to make good perceived deficiencies, which in part Tirpitz had counted upon to provide his ships with a margin of superiority. More capital ships were stationed in British home waters. A treaty with Japan in 1902 meant that ships could be withdrawn from East Asia, while the "Entente Cordiale" with France in 1904 meant that Britain could concentrate on guarding Channel waters, including the French coast, while France would protect British interests in the Mediterranean. By 1906 it was considered that Britain's only likely naval enemy was Germany.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Five battleships of the were constructed from 1899 to 1904 at a cost of 22 million marks per ship. Five ships of the were built between 1901 and 1906 for the slightly greater 24 million marks each. Technological improvements meant that rapid fire guns could be made larger, so the "Braunschweig" class had a main armament of guns. Due to torpedo improvements in range and accuracy, emphasis was placed on a secondary armament of smaller guns to defend against them. The five s constructed between 1903 and 1908 had similar armament as the "Braunschweig" class, but heavier armour, for the slightly greater sum of 24.5 million marks each.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Development of armoured cruisers also continued. "Fürst Bismarck"s design was improved upon in the subsequent , completed in 1902. Two ships of the were commissioned in 1904, followed by two similar armoured cruisers commissioned in 1905 and 1906, at costs around 17 million marks each. and followed, between 1904 and 1908, and cost an estimated for 20.3 million marks. Main armament was eight guns, but with six and eighteen guns for smaller targets. Eight light cruisers were constructed between 1902 and 1907, developed from the earlier . The ships had ten guns and were named after German towns. was the first German cruiser to be fitted with turbine engines, which were also trialled in torpedo boat "S-125". Turbines were faster, quieter, lighter, more reliable and more fuel efficient at high speeds. The first British experimental design (the destroyer ) had been constructed in 1901 and as a result Tirpitz had set up a special commission to develop turbines. No reliable German design was available by 1903, so British Parsons turbines were purchased.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1899, the Imperial Naval High Command was replaced by the German Imperial Admiralty Staff ("Admiralstab") responsible for planning, the training of officers, and naval intelligence. In time of war it was to assume overall command, but in peace acted only advisory. Direct control of various elements of the fleet was subordinated to officers commanding those elements, accountable to the Kaiser.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The reorganisations suited the Kaiser who wanted to maintain direct control of his ships. A disadvantage was that it split apart the integrated military command structure which before had balanced the importance of the navy within overall defence considerations. It suited Alfred von Tirpitz, because it removed the influence of the admiralty staff from naval planning, but left him the possibility, in wartime, to reorganise command around himself. Wilhelm II, however, never agreed to relinquish direct control of his fleet.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: On 3 December 1906 the Royal Navy received a new battleship, . She became famous as the first of a new concept in battleship design, using all big gun, single size of calibre armament. She used turbine propulsion for greater speed and less space required by the machinery, and guns arranged so that three times as many could be brought to bear when firing ahead, and twice as many when firing broadside. The design was not a uniquely British concept as similar ships were being built around the world, nor was it uniquely intended as a counter to German naval expansion, but the effect was to immediately require Germany to reconsider its naval building program. The battleship design was complemented by the introduction of a variant with lighter armour and greater speed, which became the battlecruiser.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The revolution in design, together with improvements in personnel and training severely brought into question the German assumption that a fleet of two-thirds the size of the Royal Navy would at least stand a chance in an engagement. By 1906 Germany was already spending 60% of revenue upon the army. Either an enormous sum now had to be found to develop the navy further, or naval expansion had to be abandoned. The decision to continue was taken by Tirpitz in September 1905 and agreed by Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and the Kaiser, while "Dreadnought" was still at the planning stage. The larger ships would naturally be more expensive, but also would require enlargement of harbours, locks and the Kiel canal, all of which would be enormously expensive. Estimated cost for new dreadnoughts was placed at 36.5 million marks for 19,000 tons displacement ships (larger than "Dreadnought" at 17,900 tons), and 27.5 million marks for battle-cruisers. 60 million mark was allocated for dredging the canal. The Reichstag was persuaded to agree to the program and passed a "Novelle" (a supplementary law) amending the navy bills and allocating 940 million marks for a dreadnought program and the necessary infrastructure. Two dreadnoughts and one battlecruiser were to be built each year.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Construction of four s began in 1907 under the greatest possible secrecy. The chief German naval designer was Hans Bürkner. A principle was introduced that the thickness of side armour on a ship would equal the calibre of the large guns, while ships were increasingly divided internally into watertight compartments to make them more resistant to flooding when damaged. The design was hampered by the necessity to use reciprocating engines instead of the smaller turbines, since no sufficiently powerful design was available and acceptable to the German navy. Turrets could not be placed above the centre of the ship and instead had to be placed at the side, meaning two of the six turrets would always be on the wrong side of the ship when firing broadsides. Main armament was twelve 28 cm guns. The ships were all completed by 1910, over budget, averaging 37.4 million marks each. In 1910 they were transferred from Kiel to Wilhelmshaven, where two new large docks had been completed and more were under construction.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The first German battlecruiser——was commenced March 1908. Four Parsons turbines were used, improving speed to 27 knots and reducing weight. Four twin turrets mounted 28 cm guns; although the two centre turrets were still placed one either side of the ship, they were offset so could now fire either side. The design was considered a success, but the cost at 35.5 million marks was significantly above the 1906 allocation. Light cruiser development continued with the light cruisers, which were to become famous for their actions in the start of World War I in the Pacific. The ships were 3,300 tons, and armed with ten 10.5 cm rapid fire guns and a speed around 24 knots. cost 7.5 million marks, and 6 million marks. Four were produced between 1907 and 1911 at 4,400 tons and around 8 million marks each. These had turbines, twelve 10.5 cm guns as main armament, but were also equipped to carry and lay 100 mines. From 1907 onward, all torpedo boats were constructed using turbine engines.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Despite their ultimate importance, the German navy declined to take up the cause of another experiment, the submarine, until 1904. The first submarine, was delivered in December 1906, built by Krupp's Germania yard in Kiel. The first submarine had 238 ton displacement on the surface and 283 tons submerged. The kerosene engine developed 10 knots on the surface with a range of . Submerged, the ship could manage 50 nautical miles at 5 knots using battery electric propulsion. The ships followed a design by Maxime Laubeuf first used successfully in 1897, having a double hull and flotation tanks around the outside of the main crew compartments. The submarine had just one torpedo tube at the front and a total of three torpedoes. The early engines were noisy and smoky, so that a considerable boost to the usefulness of the submarine came with the introduction of quieter and cleaner diesel engines in 1910, which were much more difficult for an enemy to detect.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: German expenditure on ships was steadily rising. In 1907, 290 million marks was spent on the fleet, rising to 347 million marks or 24 percent of the national budget in 1908, with a predicted budget deficit of 500 million marks. By the outbreak of World War I, one billion marks had been added to Germany's national debt because of naval expenditures. While each German ship was more expensive than the last, the British managed to reduce the cost of the succeeding generations of (3 ships) and (3) battleships. Successive British battlecruisers were more expensive, but less so than their German equivalents. Overall, German ships were some 30% more expensive than the British. This all contributed to growing opposition in the Reichstag to any further expansion, particularly when it was clear that Britain intended to match and exceed any German expansion program. In the fleet itself, complaints were beginning to be made in 1908 about underfunding and shortages of crews for the new ships. The State Secretary of the Treasury, Hermann von Stengel, resigned because he could see no way to resolve the budget deficit.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The elections of 1907 had returned a "Reichstag" more favourable to military exploits, following the refusal of the previous parliament to grant funds to suppress uprisings in colonies in German South-West Africa. Despite the difficulties, Tirpitz persuaded the Reichstag to pass a further "Novelle" in March 1908. This reduced the service life for ships from 25 years to 20 years, allowing for faster modernisation, and increased the building rate to four capital ships per year. Tirpitz's target was a fleet of 16 battleships and 5 battlecruisers by 1914, and 38 battleships and 20 battlecruisers by 1920. There were also to be 38 light cruisers, and 144 torpedo boats. The bill contained a restriction, that building would fall to two ships per year in 1912, but Tirpitz was confident of changing this at a later date. He anticipated that German industry, now heavily involved in shipbuilding, would back a campaign to maintain a higher construction rate.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Four battleships of the were laid down in 1909–10, with displacements of 22,800 tons, twelve guns in 6 turrets, reciprocating engines generating a maximum speed of 21 knots, and a price tag of 46 million marks. Again, the turret configuration was dictated by the need to use the centre of the ship for machinery, despite the disadvantage of the turret layout. The ships were now equipped with torpedoes.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The s built between 1909 and 1913 introduced a change in design as turbine engines were finally approved. The ships had ten 30.5 cm guns, losing two of the centre side turrets but gaining an additional turret astern on the centre line. As with the "Von der Tann" design, which was drawn up at a similar time, all guns could be fired either side in broadsides, meaning more guns could come to bear than with the "Helgoland" design, despite having fewer in total. Five ships were constructed rather than the usual four, one to act as a fleet flagship. One ship, the , was equipped with only two turbines rather than three, with the intention of having an additional diesel engine for cruising, but the Howaldt engine could not be developed in time. "Luitpold" had a top speed of 20 knots as a result, compared to 22 knots for the other ships. The ships were larger than the preceding class at 24,700 tons, but cheaper at 45 million marks. They formed part of the third squadron of the High Seas Fleet as it was constituted for World War I.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Between 1908 and 1912 two s were constructed, adding an extra turret on the centre line astern, raised above the aft turret, but still using 28 cm guns. became part of the High Seas Fleet, but became part of the Mediterranean squadron and spent World War I as part of the Ottoman navy. The ships cost 42.6 and 41.6 million marks, with maximum speed of 28 knots. was constructed as a slightly enlarged version of the "Moltke" design, reaching a maximum speed of 29 knots. All cruisers were equipped with turbine engines from 1908 onwards. Between 1910 and 1912 four light cruisers were constructed of 4,600 tons, at around 7.4 million marks each. The ships were fitted with oil burners to improve the effectiveness of their main coal fueling. These were followed by the similar but slightly enlarged and marginally faster and light cruisers.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1907 a naval artillery school was established at Sonderburg (north of Kiel). This aimed to address the difficulties with the new generation of guns, which with potentially greater range required aiming devices capable of directing them at targets at those extreme ranges. By 1914, experiments were being conducted with guns in increasing sizes up to . Capital ships were fitted with spotting tops high up on masts with range finding equipment, while ship design was altered to place turrets on the centre line of the ship for improved accuracy.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The four s were commenced between October 1911 and May 1912 and entered service in 1914 at a cost of 45 million marks, forming the other part of the Third Squadron of the High Seas Fleet. They were 28,500 tons, with a maximum speed of 21 knots from three triple-stage Brown-Boverie-Parsons turbines. Main armament was five double turrets housing twin 30.5 cm guns, arranged with two turrets fore and aft and one in the centre of the ship. The second turret at either end was raised higher than the outer so that it could fire over the top (superfiring). As with "Prinzregent Luitpold", the ships were originally intended to have one diesel engine for cruising, but these were never developed and turbines were fitted instead. The ships were equipped with torpedo nets, trailed along the hull intended to stop torpedoes, but these reduced maximum speed to an impractical 8 knots and were later removed.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Construction began in 1910 of the first submarine powered by twin diesel engines. "U-19" was twice the size of the first German submarine, had five times the range at cruising at 8 knots, or 15 knots maximum. There were now two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with six torpedoes carried. The ships were designed to operate at a depth of , though could go to .


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Spending on the navy increased inexorably year by year. In 1909 Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and Treasury Secretary Reinhold von Sydow attempted to pass a new budget boosting taxes in an attempt to reduce the deficit. The Social Democratic parties refused to accept the increased taxes on goods, while the conservatives opposed increases in inheritance taxes. Bülow and Sydow resigned in defeat and Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg became Chancellor. His attempted solution was to initiate negotiations with Britain for an agreed slow down in naval building. Negotiations came to nothing when in 1911 the Agadir Crisis brought France and Germany into conflict. Germany attempted to 'persuade' France to cede territory in the Middle Congo in return for giving France a free hand in Morocco. The effect was to raise concerns in Britain over Germany's expansionist aims, and encouraged Britain to form a closer relationship with France, including naval cooperation. Tirpitz saw this once again as an opportunity to press for naval expansion and the continuation of the four capital ships per year building rate into 1912. The January 1912 elections brought a Reichstag where the Social Democrats, opposed to military expansion, became the largest party.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The German army, mindful of the steadily increasing proportion of spending going to the navy, demanded an increase of 136,000 men to bring its size closer to that of France. In February 1912 the British war minister, Viscount Haldane, came to Berlin to discuss possible limits to naval expansion. Meanwhile, in Britain, the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill made a speech describing the German navy as a 'luxury', which was considered an insult when reported in Germany. The talks came to nothing, ending in recriminations over who had offered what. Bethmann-Hollweg argued for a guaranteed proportion of expenditure for the army, but failed when army officers refused to support him publicly. Tirpitz argued for six new capital ships, and got three, together with 15,000 additional sailors in a new combined military budget passed in April 1912. The new ships, together with the existing reserve flagship and four reserve battleships were to become one new squadron for the High Seas Fleet. In all the fleet would have five squadrons of eight battleships, twelve large cruisers and thirty small, plus additional cruisers for overseas duties. Tirpitz intended that with the rolling program of replacements, the existing coastal defence squadron of old ships would become a sixth fleet squadron, while the eight existing battle-cruisers would be joined by eight more as replacements for the large cruisers presently in the overseas squadrons. The plan envisaged a main fleet of 100,000 men, 49 battleships and 28 battlecruisers by 1920. The Kaiser commented of the British, "... we have them up against the wall."


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Although Tirpitz had succeeded in getting more ships, the proportion of military expenditure on the navy declined in 1912 and thereafter, from 35% in 1911 to 33% in 1912 and 25% in 1913. This reflected a change in attitude amongst military planners that a land war in Europe was increasingly likely, and a turning away from Tirpitz's scheme for worldwide expansion using the navy. In 1912 General von Moltke commented, "I consider war to be unavoidable, and the sooner the better." The Kaiser's younger brother, Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia, considered that the cost of the navy was now too great. In Britain, Churchill announced an intention to build two capital ships for every one constructed by Germany, and reorganised the fleet to move battleships from the Mediterranean to Channel waters. A policy was introduced of promoting British naval officers by merit and ability rather than time served, which saw rapid promotions for Jellicoe and Beatty, both of whom had important roles in the forthcoming World War I. By 1913 the French and British had plans in place for joint naval action against Germany, and France moved its Atlantic fleet from Brest to Toulon, replacing British ships.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Britain also escalated the arms race by expanding the capabilities of its new battleships. The five 1912 of 32,000 tons would have guns and would be completely oil-fuelled, allowing a speed of 25 knots. For 1912–13 Germany concentrated on battlecruisers, with three ships of 27,000 tons and 26–27 knots maximum speed, costing 56–59 million marks each. These had four turrets mounting two 30.5 cm guns arranged in two turrets either end, with the inner turret superfiring over the outer. was the first German ship to have anti-aircraft guns fitted.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1913, Germany responded to the British challenge by laying down two battleships. These did not enter service until after the Battle of Jutland, so failed to take part in any major naval action of the war. They had displacement of 28,600 tons, a crew of 1,100 and a speed of 22 knots, costing 50 million marks. Guns were arranged in the same pattern as the preceding battle-cruisers, but were now increased to diameter. The ships had four 8.8 cm anti-aircraft and also sixteen 15 cm lighter guns, but were coal fuelled. It was considered that coal bunkers at the sides of the ship added to protection against penetrating shells, but Germany also did not have a reliable supply of fuel oil. Two more ships of the class were later laid down, but never completed.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Three light cruisers commenced construction in German yards in 1912–1913 ordered by the Russian Navy, costing around 9 million marks. The ships were seized at the outbreak of World War I becoming , and . Two larger cruisers, and were also commenced and entered service in 1915. More torpedo boats were constructed, with gradually increasing sizes having reached 800 tons for the V-25 to V-30 craft constructed by AG Vulcan in Kiel before 1914. In 1912 Germany created a Mediterranean squadron consisting of the battlecruiser "Goeben" and light cruiser "Breslau".


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Naval trials of balloons began in 1891, but the results were unsatisfactory and none were purchased by the navy. In 1895 Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin attempted to interest both the army and navy in his new rigid airships, but without success. The Zeppelin rigids were considered too slow and there were concerns with their reliability operating over water. In 1909 the navy rejected proposals for aircraft to be launched from ships, and again in 1910 declined Zeppelin's airships. Finally in 1911, trials with aircraft began and in 1912 Tirpitz agreed to purchase the first airship for naval reconnaissance at a cost of 850,000 marks.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The machine had insufficient range () to operate over Britain, but had machine guns for use against aircraft and experimental bombs. The following year ten more were ordered and a new naval air division was created at Johannisthal, near Berlin. However, in September 1913 L 1 was destroyed in a storm, while the following month L 2 was lost in a gas explosion. Orders for the undelivered machines were cancelled, leaving the navy with one machine, the L 3.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: In 1910 Prince Heinrich had learned to fly and supported the cause of naval aviation. In 1911 experiments took place with Albatros seaplanes and in 1912 Tirpitz authorized 200,000 marks for seaplane trials. The Curtiss seaplane was adopted. By 1913 there were four aeroplanes, now including a British Sopwith, and long-term plans to create six naval air stations by 1918. By 1914, the "Marine-Fliegerabteilung", the naval counterpart to the well-established "Fliegertruppe" land-based aviation units of the Army, comprised twelve seaplanes and one landplane and disposed of a budget of 8.5 million marks. Trials in 1914 using seaplanes operating with the fleet were less than impressive; out of four taking part one crashed, one was unable to take off and only one succeeded in all tasks. The most successful aircraft had been the British design, and indeed experiments in Britain had been proceeding with the support of Winston Churchill, and included converting ferries and liners into seaplane carriers.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: By the start of the First World War, the German Imperial Navy possessed 22 pre-Dreadnoughts, 14 dreadnought battleships and 4 battle-cruisers. A further three ships of the "König" class were completed between August and November 1914, and two "Bayern"-class battleships entered service in 1916. The battlecruisers "Derfflinger", , and were completed in September 1914, March 1916, and May 1917, respectively. All but the latest pre-Dreadnoughts were soon decommissioned, so that their crews could be transferred to more useful vessels.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The main fighting forces of the navy were to become the High Seas Fleet and the U-boat fleet. Smaller fleets were deployed to the German overseas protectorates, the most prominent being assigned to the East Asia Station at Tsingtao.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The German Navy's U-boats were also instrumental in the sinking of the passenger liner and auxiliary cruiser, the on 7 May 1915, which was one of the main events that led to the USA joining the war two years later in 1917.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Minor engagements included the commerce raiding carried out by the "Emden", , and the sailing ship and commerce raider .


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial Navy carried out land operations, e.g. operating the long-range Paris Gun which was based on a naval gun. The Siege of Tsingtao used naval troops as Tsingtao was a naval base, and also as the Imperial Navy was directly under the Imperial Government (the German Army was made up of regiments from the various states).


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Following the Battle of Jutland, the capital ships of the Imperial Navy had been confined to inactive service in harbor. In October 1918, the Imperial Naval Command in Kiel under Admiral Franz von Hipper, without authorization, planned to dispatch the fleet for a last battle against the Royal Navy in the English Channel. The naval order of 24 October 1918 and the preparations to sail first triggered the Kiel Mutiny among the affected sailors and then a general revolution which was to sweep aside the monarchy within a few days.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Marines were referred to as "Seebataillone" (sea battalions). They served in the Prussian Navy, the North German Federal Navy, the Imperial German Navy and in the modern German Navy.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The "Marine-Fliegerabteilung" consisted of Zeppelins (airships), observation balloons and fixed-wing aircraft.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The main use of the Zeppelins was in reconnaissance over the North Sea and the Baltic, where the endurance of the craft led German warships to a number of Allied vessels. Zeppelin patrolling had priority over any other airship activity. During the entire war around 1,200 scouting flights were made. During 1915 the German Navy had some 15 Zeppelins in commission and was able to have two or more patrolling continuously at any one time. They kept the British ships from approaching Germany, spotted when and where the British were laying sea-mines, and later aided in the destruction of those mines. Zeppelins would sometimes land on the sea surface next to a minesweeper, bring aboard an officer and show him the lay of the mines. The Naval and Army Air Services also directed a number of strategic raids against Britain, leading the way in bombing techniques and also forcing the British to bolster their anti-aircraft defences. The possibility of airship raids were approved by the Kaiser on 9 January 1915, although he excluded London as a target and further demanded that no attacks be made on historic or government buildings or museums. The night-time raids were intended to target only military sites on the east coast and around the Thames estuary, but difficulties in navigation and the height from which the bombs were dropped made accurate bombing impossible, and most bombs fell on civilian targets or open countryside.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: Stationed in North Sea coastal airfields, German naval aircraft often fought against their British counterparts of the Royal Naval Air Service. Naval pilots flew aircraft that were also used by the German Army's "Luftstreitkräfte" in addition to seaplanes. Theo Osterkamp was one of the original naval pilots, the first German pilot to fly a land-based aircraft to England on a reconnaissance mission, and its leading ace with 32 victories. By war's end, the roster of German naval flying aces also included Gotthard Sachsenberg (31 victories), Alexander Zenzes (18 victories), Friedrich Christiansen (13 victories), Karl Meyer (8 victories), Karl Scharon (8 victories), and Hans Goerth (7 victories). Another decorated aviator was Gunther Plüschow who shot down a Japanese plane during the Siege of Tsingtao and was the only German combatant to escape from a prison camp in Britain.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: After the end of World War I, the bulk of the navy's modern ships (74 in all) were interned at Scapa Flow (November 1918), where the entire fleet (with a few exceptions) was scuttled by its crews on 21 June 1919 on orders from its commander, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The surviving ships of the Imperial Navy became the basis for the "Reichsmarine" of the Weimar Republic.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial German Navy's rank and rating system combined that of Prussia's with the navies of other northern states.


title: Imperial German Navy

text: The Imperial German Navy was implicated in several war crimes committed during the First World War, most notably:


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: 7G Rainbow Colony is a 2004 Indian romantic drama film written and directed by Selvaraghavan. The film is shot simultaneously in Tamil and Telugu languages, the latter titled 7G Brindavan Colony. It stars debutant Ravi Krishna and Sonia Agarwal. The music is scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja while Arvind Krishna performed the cinematography. The film deals with unrequited love of a boy towards a girl.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Released on 15 October 2004, the film received critical acclaim and was commercially successful. Ravi Krishna received the Filmfare Best Male Debut (South) for his performance, whilst Yuvan Shankar Raja was awarded the Filmfare Best Music Director Award for his highly praised musical score.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: The movie begins with Kadhir heading to work. He appears distracted throughout the day and even instructs his assistant to postpone an important meeting with a big client. He then waits for someone at Marina Beach in Chennai (Hussain Sagar in Hyderabad in the Telugu version) with a bouquet of flowers. His best friend, Lakshmi, sees him and asks him whom he is waiting for. Kadhir explains that he is waiting to meet his girlfriend Anita for their date. In flashbacks, we are shown how Kadhir first met Anita.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Kadhir belongs to a lower middle class family, living with his parents and younger sister in Rainbow Colony in Chennai (Brindavan Colony, Hyderabad in the Telugu version). He is perceived as a good-for-nothing person as he skips classes, fails exams, and gets involved in fights. Kadhir believes that his father hates him and often quarrels with him, even threatening to leave the house, only to be persuaded not to do so by his mother. Kadhir’s life changes when a once well-lived family moves into the same colony due to loss in business. Kadhir is attracted to the daughter of his new neighbour, Anita. Although he tries to woo her, Anita treats him with disdain. One day, Kadhir confesses to Anita that he loves her. He tells her that having always been ridiculed, he found respite in the fact that she at least bothered to look at him. He promises to wipe her thoughts out of his mind, as he is not right for her.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Despite himself, Kadhir continues pursuing her. Anita realizes that Kadhir is not such a useless fellow when Lakshmi tells her that he has seen Kadhir dismantle and assemble a motorcycle within minutes each time they steal a bike to get drunk. Anita takes Kadhir to a Hero Honda dealer and asks them to give him a job. He is promised a job if he can assemble a bike. Initially, the lethargic Kadhir is disinterested and gives up the task. Anita takes him to the washroom and slaps him before revealing that she has fallen in love with him. She then tells him that they can only be together if he gets a proper job and gets his life straightened out. Kadhir then demonstrates his skill in motorcycle assembly, securing a good job with the dealer.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Later that evening, Kadhir plans a treat for his friends. However, Anita confronts him and makes him break the good news to his parents first to get their blessings. However, Kadhir’s father berates him as usual for getting a job instead of completing college. Then later at night, Kadhir overhears his father telling his mother how proud he is of their son since getting a job at such a prestigious company, which is not easy. The only reason the father did not openly praise Kadhir is because he feared his son might misjudge him for giving him respect, only now that he is earning money for their household. Only then does Kadhir realize his father's love for him and weeps in joy. The intimacy between Kadhir and Anita is discovered by her mother, and she refuses to allow them to continue dating even as Kadhir’s father tries to persuade her otherwise. Anita's family is heavily indebted to another Northern Indian family that has been supporting them since Anita's father suffered losses in his business. Anita's parents want Anita to marry the son of the family that has helped them.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Using her friend's marriage as a ruse and with unwitting help of her friend's aunt, Anita escapes her home and travels with Kadhir to a tourist place near Thekkady in Kerala, and they end up in a hotel room. Anita reveals that she has made the biggest decision of her life by deciding to make love to him, as he should not regret falling in love with her when she marries the man her parents chose. Though stunned by her decision, Kadhir goes with her plan and the two consummate their love. The next morning, Kadhir and Anita argue when Kadhir says he wants Anita to live with him, while Anita accuses him of being attracted to her only because of the sex. They continue arguing as they exit the hotel, which culminates in Kadhir slapping Anita in anger, causing her to cross the road alone in tears. While a guilt-ridden Kadhir calls out to Anita, she is knocked down by a truck as a helpless Kadhir watches, then also hit by another speeding vehicle. Anita dies gruesomely on the spot as she is subsequently run over by several vehicles and Kadhir is injured. The following day, he is shocked to find the mere remains of Anita in the hospital mortuary. Though heartbroken, Kadhir tells the police that Anita never accepted his love, and her death was really an accident. This way, he saves her dignity, and her mother blesses him as she leaves. Though the police want to file a murder case on Kadhir, Anita's mother refuses to name him as a murderer. After sadly returning to Chennai, Kadhir tries to commit suicide unsuccessfully, only to end up causing a ruckus in traffic and being assaulted by the crowd, but is saved by a group of nuns. He then hallucinates about Anita's spirit coming to him and advising him to live life to the fullest and that she will always be with him.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Back in the present day, it is revealed that Kadhir has become successful in his life but has remained mentally damaged since Anita's death. He still believes that she is alive and always imagines talking to her. The film ends with Kadhir talking to himself at the beach, thinking that he is talking to Anita.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: "7G Rainbow Colony" was the second venture of Selvaraghavan as a director. He revealed that the film's inspiration came from his college days when he had been fascinated with a Punjabi girl during his education in KK Nagar. He based several of the scenes on real-life happenings with his friends, revealing that the film was "75% biographical" and the lead character was an "average guy" like himself, who "no one would make a film on".


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Selva cast Ravikrishna, son of producer Rathnam after a successful screen test. For the lead female role, Selvaraghavan initially considered Genelia D'Souza and auditioned Mumbai model Mamta Zaveri, who was to work with Dhanush in Sibi Chakravarthy's shelved film "Raghava". The film later began production with Swathi Reddy in her first lead role, though she later opted out and was replaced by Sonia Agarwal due to her Punjabi origin.


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Selvaraghavan teamed up once again with musician Yuvan Shankar Raja after "Thulluvadho Ilamai" and "Kaadhal Kondein". The soundtrack released on 21 May 2004 and features 10 tracks overall, two of which are Instrumentals. The lyrics were penned by Na. Muthukumar. Yuvan Shankar Raja used live music for the score, for which he worked with a 40-piece orchestra for one month. The theme music is inspired by "Johnny" (1980). As it was the case with "Kaadhal Kondein", an "Original Soundtrack", consisting of 25 tracks, which are pieces of the film score and were titled as "Theme Music", was released afterwards. It includes one bit song "Idhu Enna Maatram" (Theme Music 14), sung by legendary singer P. B. Sreenivas. Yuvan Shankar Raja has given a Madhuvanti in "Kanaa Kaanum Kaalangal".


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: Composer Yuvan Shankar Raja received universal critical acclaim for the musical score as the songs and the film score were hailed as "excellent" and the album as a "great" and "must buy". Particularly, the instrumental track in the album was very much lauded, described as "highly innovative" and "eminently haunting" and even hailed as "one of the most haunting instrumental tracks ever". The song became very popular and were topping the charts for some time. Yuvan Shankar Raja received his first Filmfare Best Music Director Award in Tamil for the music, at the age of 25, becoming the youngest composer ever to win this award till 2011 when GV Prakash Kumar won Filmfare Best Music Director Award in Tamil for his work in, "Aadukalam".


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: "Rediff" said that "Selvaraghavan has once again displayed his skill making a movie that is touching without being mushy, and believable because of its realism". "Idlebrain" gave the film a rating of three-and-three quarters out of five and noted that "Doing a tragic climax and making it commercially acceptable is one hell of a task. And Sri Raghava succeeded in it".


title: 7G Rainbow Colony

text: The Tamil version opened in 92 screens and expanded to 118 prints. Made on a budget of 3 crore, it turned profitable yielding a distributor share of 10 crore. The Telugu version opened in 35 screens and expanded to 80 prints.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Twilight (stylized as twilight) is a 2005 young adult vampire-romance novel by author Stephenie Meyer. It is the first book in the "Twilight" series, and introduces seventeen-year-old Isabella "Bella" Swan, who moves from Phoenix, Arizona to Forks, Washington. She is endangered after falling in love with Edward Cullen, a 103-year-old vampire frozen in his 17-year-old body. Additional novels in the series are "New Moon", "Eclipse", and "Breaking Dawn".


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: "Twilight" received lukewarm reviews. Some praised the novel's tone and its portrayal of common teenage emotions such as alienation and rebellion. Others criticized Meyer's prose and argued the story was lacking in character development. It reached number five on the "New York Times" bestseller list within a month of its release and eventually reached first place. The novel was named one of "Publishers Weekly<nowiki>'</nowiki>"s Best Children's Books of 2005.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: The film adaptation, released in 2008, was a commercial success, grossing more than $392 million worldwide and making an additional $157 million in North American DVD sales as of July 2009. The book was the biggest-selling of 2008; in 2009, it was the second-biggest selling, losing only to its sequel "New Moon".


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: In October 2015, Stephenie Meyer announced a new gender-swapped version of the novel, entitled "," with characters Beau and Edythe, in honor of the 10th anniversary of "The Twilight Saga". In 2020, Meyer released "Midnight Sun", a retelling of the story of "Twilight" from the perspective of Edward Cullen.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Bella Swan is a seventeen-year-old introvert girl who moved from Phoenix, Arizona to Forks, Washington on the Olympic Peninsula to live with her father, Charlie Swan, the town's police chief. Her mother, Renée Dwyer, is traveling with her new husband, Phil Dwyer, a minor-league baseball player. Bella is admitted to Forks High School, where she easily settles in with a group of friends. A somewhat inexperienced and shy girl, Bella is dismayed by several boys competing for her attention.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: On the first day of her school, Bella sits next to Edward in biology class, but he seems to be utterly repulsed by her, much to her bewilderment. He disappears for a few days but when he returns, he is unexpectedly friendly to Bella. Their newfound relationship is interrupted after Bella is nearly struck by a van in the school parking lot. Edward saves Bella, narrowly stopping the van with his bare hands. Bella questions Edward about how he saved her life but he refuses to tell her anything.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: During a campout, Bella meets Jacob Black, a local boy from the Quileute tribe. She learns from stories told at a bonfire with his tribe that Edward and his family are "the cold ones" (vampires) who consume only animal blood. Disturbed and riddled by recurring nightmares, Bella researches vampires. She compares the characteristics of the vampires in mythology to the Cullens and becomes convinced that Edward is a vampire.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Bella is saved by Edward again in Port Angeles when she is almost attacked by a group of men. Furious, Edward drives Bella away and takes her to a restaurant for dinner and then back home. On the way, she tells him she knows that he is a vampire. Edward confirms her belief and confesses that Bella's blood is more desirable to him than anyone else's and he wanted to kill her on the first day of school. He tries to stay away from Bella to avoid hurting her, but over time, Edward and Bella fall in love.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Their relationship is affected when a nomad vampire coven arrives in Forks. James, a tracker vampire, who is intrigued by Cullen's relationship with a human, wants to hunt Bella for sport. Bella and Edward are forced to separate as Bella escapes with Alice and Jasper (Edward's brother and sister) to hide in a hotel in Phoenix.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: James calls Bella and claims to be holding her mother hostage. Bella sneaks out and hurries to save her mother. When she arrives, she finds that the hostage claim was a ruse. James attacks her, but before he can kill her, she is rescued by Edward and the other Cullens who kill James. However, James has already bitten Bella. Edward prevents Bella from becoming a vampire by sucking the venom out of her wound, and she is treated at a hospital, using the story that she fell out of a window as an excuse.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: After they return to Forks, Edward takes her to the school prom, as Edward did not want Bella to miss any normal human experience because of him. Bella says that she wants to become like him, a vampire, but Edward reiterates he is against this.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Bella's desire to become a vampire increases throughout the series. Edward continues to refuse to turn her, as he thinks being a vampire is being a monster, and does not want Bella to suffer the same fate.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Meyer claims that the idea for "Twilight" came to her in a dream on June 2, 2003. She dreamed of a human girl and a vampire who loved her but still wanted her blood. Inspired by her dream, Meyer wrote the draft of what is now Chapter 13 of the book. The first drafts were titled "Forks" instead of "Twilight;" the publisher requested the title change. At first, Meyer didn't name her two main characters. She chose Edward, influenced by Edward Rochester from Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre" and Edward Ferrars from Jane Austen's "Sense and Sensibility". She named the female lead Isabella, thinking she would have chosen that for a daughter. Rosalie and Jasper were originally named "Carol" and "Ronald".


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Meyer continued writing to the end chronologically, not worrying about the backstory. She lettered the chapters instead of numbering them, Chapter 13 being E. The last chapter of the first draft kept getting longer and longer, so she wrote epilogue after epilogue. However, she realized that she wanted to explore many of the events in the backstory and the reasons behind the events in the chapters, so she planned to write a 5-6 chapter backstory. Instead, these turned into 24 chapters by the time she was finished. In a matter of three months she had completed a novel. She has said she was writing for her own enjoyment, never thinking of publishing the work. She finished the manuscript on August 29, 2003.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Her sister liked the book and encouraged Meyer to send the manuscript to literary agencies. Of the 15 letters she wrote, five went unanswered, nine brought rejections, and the last was a positive response from Jodi Reamer of Writers House. Meyer had merely sent out letters to literary agents inquiring if they would be interested in a 130,000-word manuscript about teenage vampires. Luck helped. An inexperienced assistant at Writers House responded to her inquiry, not knowing that young adult books are expected to be about 40,000 to 60,000 words in length. Due to that error, Reamer eventually read Meyer's manuscript and signed her up as a client. During the editing process, a chapter that used to be Chapter 20 was cut out of the manuscript along with Emmett's account of his bear attack and some parts of the epilogue.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Stephenie Meyer has said the apple on the cover represents the forbidden fruit from the Book of Genesis and Bella and Edward's forbidden love. She uses a quote from Genesis 2:17 at the beginning of the book. It also represents Bella's knowledge of good and evil, and the choices she makes. Meyer says, "It asks if you are going to bite in and discover the frightening possibilities around you or refuse and stay safe in the comfortable world you know." An alternative cover features Kristen Stewart and Robert Pattinson, the actors who play the lead characters in the film adaptation.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: Meyer's inquiry letter was initially rejected by 14 agents. Eight publishers competed for the rights to publish "Twilight" in the 2003 auction. Little, Brown and Company originally bid for $300,000, but Meyer's agent asked for $1 million; the publishers finally settled on $750,000 for three books. "Twilight" was published in 2005 with a print run of 75,000 copies. It debuted at #5 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list within a month of its release, and later peaked at #1. Foreign rights to the novel were sold to over 26 countries.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: In October 2008, "Twilight" was ranked #26 in "USA Today"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list of "Bestselling Books of Last 15 Years". Later, the book went on to become the best-selling book of 2008. and the second biggest selling of 2009, only behind its sequel "New Moon".


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: For the tenth anniversary of the book's release, Meyer released "Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined", alongside the original "Twilight". "Life and Death" is a reimagining of the story with Beau (a male human) and Edythe (a female vampire) as the leads.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: On August 4, 2020, Meyer released the Twilight companion piece "Midnight Sun". "Midnight Sun" is the story of "Twilight" as told from Edward Cullen's perspective.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: "Publishers Weekly" calling Meyer one of the most "promising new authors of 2005". "The Times" praised the book for capturing "perfectly the teenage feeling of sexual tension and alienation". Hillias J. Martin of "School Library Journal" addresses the appeal of the novel to be due to its clear and understandable nature, allowing readers to become fully engaged Norah Piehl of "TeenReads" also wrote, ""Twilight" is a gripping blend of romance and horror". "Publishers Weekly<nowiki>'</nowiki>"s starred review described Bella's "infatuation with outsider Edward", their risky relationship, and "Edward's inner struggle" as a metaphor for sexual frustration accompanying adolescence. "Booklist" wrote, "There are some flaws here–a plot that could have been tightened, an over reliance on adjectives and adverbs to bolster dialogue–but this dark romance seeps into the soul." Christopher Middleton of "The Daily Telegraph" called the book a "high school drama with a bloody twist ... no secret, of course, at whom this book is aimed, and no doubt, either, that it has hit its mark". Jennifer Hawes of "The Post and Courier" said, "Twilight, the first book in Stephenie Meyer's series, gripped me so fiercely that I called the nearest teenager I know and begged for her copy after I misplaced my own." Roberta Goli of Suite101.com gave the novel a positive review, saying that while "the first half of the novel lacks action", the writing is "fluid" and the story "interesting". She also praised the depth of emotion shown between the main characters for pinpointing "the angst of teenage love." Jana Reiss noted the presence of Mormon themes in the "Twilight" series, seeing Edward Cullen's struggle against carnal desires as an example of Mormonism's "natural man."


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: "Kirkus" gave a more mixed review, noting that, "["Twilight"] is far from perfect: Edward's portrayal as monstrous tragic hero is overly Byronic, and Bella's appeal is based on magic rather than character. Nonetheless, the portrayal of dangerous lovers hits the spot; fans of dark romance will find it hard to resist." The "New York Times" review stated, "The premise of "Twilight" is attractive and compelling — who hasn't fantasized about unearthly love with a beautiful stranger? — but the book suffers at times from overearnest, amateurish writing. A little more "showing" and a lot less "telling" might have been a good thing, especially some pruning to eliminate the constant references to Edward's shattering beauty and Bella's undying love." Although the "Daily Telegraph" later listed "Twilight" at number 32 on its list of "100 books that defined the noughties", it said that the novel was "Astonishing, mainly for the ineptitude of [Meyer's] prose". Elizabeth Hand said in a review for the "Washington Post", "Meyer's prose seldom rises above the serviceable, and the plotting is leaden". In addition, the book is voted as the worst book of all time on the website Goodreads.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: "Twilight" was on the American Library Association Top Ten List of the Most Frequently Challenged Books of 2010, for containing a "religious viewpoint" and "violence". The "Twilight" series was on the same list in 2009 for being "sexually explicit", "unsuited to age group", and having a "religious viewpoint". The Marshall University Libraries pinpoint specific reasons several schools have removed the novel from libraries, citing the hyper-sexual nature of the novel, as well as the religious controversy within the plot.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: The second book, "New Moon", was originally published in the US on August 21, 2006. "Eclipse" was published on August 7, 2007. The fourth and final novel, "Breaking Dawn", is the longest book in the original tetralogy at 756 pages in the US hardcover version, and 700 pages in the US paperback release. It was published worldwide on August 2, 2008, and sold over 1.3 million copies in the first 24 hours of its release in the US.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: A manga-style Japanese language version of the "Twilight" saga was released in 13 installments. The books, which were primarily text, featured illustrated pages of art sprinkled throughout the book.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: "Twilight" was adapted as a film by Summit Entertainment. The film was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and stars Kristen Stewart and Robert Pattinson as protagonists Bella and Edward. The screenplay was adapted by Melissa Rosenberg. The movie was released in theaters in the United States on November 21, 2008, and on DVD on March 21, 2009. The DVD was released in Australia on April 22, 2009.


title: Twilight (Meyer novel)

text: On July 15, 2009, "Entertainment Weekly" confirmed rumors that a graphic novel adaptation of "Twilight" was in development. The book was drawn by Korean artist Young Kim and published by Yen Press. Stephenie Meyer reviewed every panel herself. According to "EW", "it doesn't look simply like an artist's rendering of Kristen Stewart and Rob Pattinson. In fact, the characters seem to be an amalgam of Meyer's literary imagination and the actors' actual looks." "EW" magazine published finished illustrations of Edward, Bella, and Jacob in their July 17, 2009 issue. The first part of the graphic novel was released on March 16, 2010.


title: Creative destruction

text: Creative destruction (German: "schöpferische Zerstörung") is a concept in economics which since the 1950s is the most readily identified with the Austrian-born economist Joseph Schumpeter who derived it from the work of Karl Marx and popularized it as a theory of economic innovation and the business cycle. It is also sometimes known as Schumpeter's gale.


title: Creative destruction

text: According to Schumpeter, the "gale of creative destruction" describes the "process of industrial mutation that continuously revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one". In Marxian economic theory the concept refers more broadly to the linked processes of the accumulation and annihilation of wealth under capitalism.


title: Creative destruction

text: The German sociologist Werner Sombart has been credited with the first use of these terms in his work "Krieg und Kapitalismus" ("War and Capitalism", 1913). In the earlier work of Marx, however, the idea of creative destruction or annihilation (German: "Vernichtung") implies not only that capitalism destroys and reconfigures previous economic orders, but also that it must ceaselessly devalue existing wealth (whether through war, dereliction, or regular and periodic economic crises) in order to clear the ground for the creation of new wealth.


title: Creative destruction

text: In "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy" (1942), Joseph Schumpeter developed the concept out of a careful reading of Marx's thought (to which the whole of Part I of the book is devoted), arguing (in Part II) that the creative-destructive forces unleashed by capitalism would eventually lead to its demise as a system (see below). Despite this, the term subsequently gained popularity within mainstream economics as a description of processes such as downsizing in order to increase the efficiency and dynamism of a company. The Marxian usage has, however, been retained and further developed in the work of social scientists such as David Harvey, Marshall Berman, Manuel Castells and Daniele Archibugi.


title: Creative destruction

text: Although the modern term "creative destruction" is not used explicitly by Marx, it is largely derived from his analyses, particularly in the work of Werner Sombart (whom Engels described as the only German professor who understood Marx's "Capital"), and of Joseph Schumpeter, who discussed at length the origin of the idea in Marx's work (see below).


title: Creative destruction

text: In "The Communist Manifesto" of 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels described the crisis tendencies of capitalism in terms of "the enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces":


title: Creative destruction

text: Modern bourgeois society, with its relations of production, of exchange and of property, a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, is like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells. ... It is enough to mention the commercial crises that by their periodical return put the existence of the whole of bourgeois society on trial, each time more threateningly. In these crises, "a great part not only of existing production, but also of previously created productive forces, are periodically destroyed". In these crises, there breaks out an epidemic that, in all earlier epochs, would have seemed an absurdity – the epidemic of over-production. Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary barbarism; it appears as if a famine, a universal war of devastation, had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence; industry and commerce seem to be destroyed; and why? Because there is too much civilisation, too much means of subsistence, too much industry, too much commerce. The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions. ... And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises? On the one hand by "enforced destruction of a mass of productive forces"; on the other, by the conquest of new markets, and by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones. That is to say, by paving the way for more extensive and more destructive crises, and by diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented.


title: Creative destruction

text: A few years later, in the "Grundrisse", Marx was writing of "the violent destruction of capital not by relations external to it, but rather as a condition of its self-preservation". In other words, he establishes a necessary link between the generative or creative forces of production in capitalism and the destruction of capital value as one of the key ways in which capitalism attempts to overcome its internal contradictions:


title: Creative destruction

text: These contradictions lead to explosions, cataclysms, crises, in which ... momentaneous suspension of labour and annihilation of a great portion of capital ... violently lead it back to the point where it is enabled [to go on] fully employing its productive powers without committing suicide.


title: Creative destruction

text: In the "Theories of Surplus Value" ("Volume IV" of "Das Kapital", 1863), Marx refines this theory to distinguish between scenarios where the destruction of (commodity) values affects either use values or exchange values or both together. The destruction of exchange value combined with the preservation of use value presents clear opportunities for new capital investment and hence for the repetition of the production-devaluation cycle:


title: Creative destruction

text: the destruction of capital through crises means the depreciation of values which prevents them from later renewing their reproduction process as capital on the same scale. This is the ruinous effect of the fall in the prices of commodities. It does not cause the destruction of any use-values. What one loses, the other gains. Values used as capital are prevented from acting again as capital in the hands of the same person. The old capitalists go bankrupt. ... A large part of the nominal capital of the society, i.e., of the exchange-value of the existing capital, is once for all destroyed, although this very destruction, since it does not affect the use-value, may very much expedite the new reproduction. This is also the period during which moneyed interest enriches itself at the cost of industrial interest.


title: Creative destruction

text: Social geographer David Harvey sums up the differences between Marx's usage of these concepts and Schumpeter's: "Both Karl Marx and Joseph Schumpeter wrote at length on the 'creative-destructive' tendencies inherent in capitalism. While Marx clearly admired capitalism's creativity he ... strongly emphasised its self-destructiveness. The Schumpeterians have all along gloried in capitalism's endless creativity while treating the destructiveness as mostly a matter of the normal costs of doing business".


title: Creative destruction

text: In the "Origin of Species", which was published in 1859, Charles Darwin wrote that the "extinction of old forms is the almost inevitable consequence of the production of new forms." One notable exception to this rule is how the extinction of the dinosaurs facilitated the adaptive radiation of mammals. In this case creation was the consequence, rather than the cause, of destruction.


title: Creative destruction

text: In philosophical terms, the concept of "creative destruction" is close to Hegel's concept of sublation. In German economic discourse it was taken up from Marx's writings by Werner Sombart, particularly in his 1913 text "Krieg und Kapitalismus":


title: Creative destruction

text: Again, however, "from destruction a new spirit of creation arises;" the scarcity of wood and the needs of everyday life... forced the discovery or invention of substitutes for wood, forced the use of coal for heating, forced the invention of coke for the production of iron.


title: Creative destruction

text: Hugo Reinert has argued that Sombart's formulation of the concept was influenced by Eastern mysticism, specifically the image of the Hindu god Shiva, who is presented in the paradoxical aspect of simultaneous destroyer and creator. Conceivably this influence passed from Johann Gottfried Herder, who brought Hindu thought to German philosophy in his "Philosophy of Human History" (Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit) (Herder 1790–92), specifically volume III, pp. 41–64. via Arthur Schopenhauer and the Orientalist Friedrich Maier through Friedrich Nietzsche´s writings. Nietzsche represented the creative destruction of modernity through the mythical figure of Dionysus, a figure whom he saw as at one and the same time "destructively creative" and "creatively destructive". In the following passage from "On the Genealogy of Morality" (1887), Nietzsche argues for a universal principle of a cycle of creation and destruction, such that every creative act has its destructive consequence:


title: Creative destruction

text: But have you ever asked yourselves sufficiently how much the erection of every ideal on earth has cost? How much reality has had to be misunderstood and slandered, how many lies have had to be sanctified, how many consciences disturbed, how much "God" sacrificed every time? If a temple is to be erected a temple must be destroyed: that is the law – let anyone who can show me a case in which it is not fulfilled! – Friedrich Nietzsche, "On the Genealogy of Morality"


title: Creative destruction

text: Other nineteenth-century formulations of this idea include Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, who wrote in 1842, "The passion for destruction is a creative passion, too!" Note, however, that this earlier formulation might more accurately be termed "destructive creation", and differs sharply from Marx's and Schumpeter's formulations in its focus on the active destruction of the existing social and political order by human agents (as opposed to systemic forces or contradictions in the case of both Marx and Schumpeter).


title: Creative destruction

text: The expression "creative destruction" was popularized by and is most associated with Joseph Schumpeter, particularly in his book "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy", first published in 1942. Already in his 1939 book "Business Cycles", he attempted to refine the innovative ideas of Nikolai Kondratieff and his long-wave cycle which Schumpeter believed was driven by technological innovation. Three years later, in "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy", Schumpeter introduced the term "creative destruction", which he explicitly derived from Marxist thought (analysed extensively in Part I of the book) and used it to describe the disruptive process of transformation that accompanies such innovation:


title: Creative destruction

text: Capitalism ... is by nature a form or method of economic change and not only never is but never can be stationary. ... The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers' goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates... The opening up of new markets, foreign or domestic, and the organizational development from the craft shop and factory to such concerns as U.S. Steel illustrate the process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure "from within", incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one. This process of Creative Destruction is the essential fact about capitalism. It is what capitalism consists in and what every capitalist concern has got to live in.[... Capitalism requires] the perennial gale of Creative Destruction.


title: Creative destruction

text: In Schumpeter's vision of capitalism, innovative entry by entrepreneurs was the disruptive force that sustained economic growth, even as it destroyed the value of established companies and laborers that enjoyed some degree of monopoly power derived from previous technological, organizational, regulatory, and economic paradigms. However, Schumpeter was pessimistic about the sustainability of this process, seeing it as leading eventually to the undermining of capitalism's own institutional frameworks:


title: Creative destruction

text: In breaking down the pre-capitalist framework of society, capitalism thus broke not only barriers that impeded its progress but also flying buttresses that prevented its collapse. That process, impressive in its relentless necessity, was not merely a matter of removing institutional deadwood, but of removing partners of the capitalist stratum, symbiosis with whom was an essential element of the capitalist schema. [... T]he capitalist process in much the same way in which it destroyed the institutional framework of feudal society also undermines its own.


title: Creative destruction

text: Schumpeter (1949) in one of his examples used "the railroadization of the Middle West as it was initiated by the Illinois Central." He wrote, "The Illinois Central not only meant very good business whilst it was built and whilst new cities were built around it and land was cultivated, but it spelled the death sentence for the [old] agriculture of the West."


title: Creative destruction

text: Companies that once revolutionized and dominated new industries – for example, Xerox in copiers or Polaroid in instant photography – have seen their profits fall and their dominance vanish as rivals launched improved designs or cut manufacturing costs. In technology, the cassette tape replaced the 8-track, only to be replaced in turn by the compact disc, which was undercut by downloads to MP3 players, which is now being usurped by web-based streaming services. Companies which made money out of technology which becomes obsolete do not necessarily adapt well to the business environment created by the new technologies.