title: LNG carrier

text: In the case of small scale LNG carriers (LNG carriers below ), the optimal size of a ship is determined by the project for which it is built, taking into consideration volume, destination and vessel characteristics.


title: LNG carrier

text: A typical LNG carrier has four to six tanks located along the center-line of the vessel. Surrounding the tanks is a combination of ballast tanks, cofferdams and voids; in effect, this gives the vessel a double-hull type design.


title: LNG carrier

text: Inside each tank there are typically three submerged pumps. There are two main cargo pumps which are used in cargo discharge operations and a much smaller pump which is referred to as the spray pump. The spray pump is used for either pumping out liquid LNG to be used as fuel (via a vaporizer), or for cooling down cargo tanks. It can also be used for "stripping" out the last of the cargo in discharge operations. All of these pumps are contained within what is known as the pump tower which hangs from the top of the tank and runs the entire depth of the tank. The pump tower also contains the tank gauging system and the tank filling line, all of which are located near the bottom of the tank.


title: LNG carrier

text: In membrane-type vessels there is also an empty pipe with a spring-loaded foot valve that can be opened by weight or pressure. This is the emergency pump tower. In the event both main cargo pumps fail the top can be removed from this pipe and an emergency cargo pump lowered down to the bottom of the pipe. The top is replaced on the column and then the pump is allowed to push down on the foot valve and open it. The cargo can then be pumped out.


title: LNG carrier

text: All cargo pumps discharge into a common pipe which runs along the deck of the vessel; it branches off to either side of the vessel to the cargo manifolds, which are used for loading or discharging.


title: LNG carrier

text: All cargo tank vapour spaces are linked via a vapour header which runs parallel to the cargo header. This also has connections to the sides of the ship next to the loading and discharging manifolds.


title: LNG carrier

text: A typical cargo cycle starts with the tanks in a "gas free" condition, meaning the tanks are full of air, which allows maintenance on the tank and pumps. Cargo cannot be loaded directly into the tank, as the presence of oxygen would create an explosive atmospheric condition within the tank, and the rapid temperature change caused by loading LNG at could damage the tanks.


title: LNG carrier

text: First, the tank must be 'inerted' to eliminate the risk of explosion. An inert gas plant burns diesel in air to produce a mixture of gases (typically less than 5% O2 and about 13% CO plus N). This is blown into the tanks until the oxygen level is below 4%.


title: LNG carrier

text: Next, the vessel goes into port to "gas-up" and "cool-down", as one still cannot load directly into the tank: The CO will freeze and damage the pumps and the cold shock could damage the tank's pump column.


title: LNG carrier

text: LNG is brought onto the vessel and taken along the spray line to the main vaporiser, which boils off the liquid into gas. This is then warmed up to roughly in the gas heaters and then blown into the tanks to displace the "inert gas". This continues until all the CO is removed from the tanks. Initially, the IG (inert gas) is vented to atmosphere. Once the hydrocarbon content reaches 5% (lower flammability range of methane) the inert gas is redirected to shore via a pipeline and manifold connection by the HD (high duty) compressors. The shore terminal then burns this vapour to avoid the dangers of having large amounts of hydrocarbons present which may explode.


title: LNG carrier

text: Now the vessel is gassed up and warm. The tanks are still at ambient temperature and are full of methane.


title: LNG carrier

text: The next stage is cool-down. LNG is sprayed into the tanks via spray heads, which vaporises and starts to cool the tank. The excess gas is again blown ashore to be re-liquified or burned at a flare stack. Once the tanks reach about the tanks are ready to bulk load.


title: LNG carrier

text: Bulk loading starts and liquid LNG is pumped from the storage tanks ashore into the vessel tanks. Displaced gas is blown ashore by the HD compressors. Loading continues until typically 98.5% full is reached (to allow for thermal expansion/contraction of cargo).


title: LNG carrier

text: The vessel can now proceed to the discharge port. During passage various boil-off management strategies can be used. Boil-off gas can be burned in boilers to provide propulsion, or it can be re-liquefied and returned to the cargo tanks, depending on the design of the vessel.


title: LNG carrier

text: Once in the discharge port, the cargo is pumped ashore using the cargo pumps. As the tank empties, the vapour space is filled by either gas from ashore or by vaporising some cargo in the cargo vaporiser. Either the vessel can be pumped out as far as possible, with the last being pumped out with spray pumps, or some cargo can be retained on board as a "heel".


title: LNG carrier

text: It is normal practice to keep onboard 5% to 10% of the cargo after discharge in one tank. This is referred to as the heel and this is used to cool down the remaining tanks that have no heel before loading. This must be done gradually otherwise the tanks will be cold shocked if loaded directly into warm tanks. Cool-down can take roughly 20 hours on a Moss vessel (and 10–12 hours on a membrane type vessel), so carrying a heel allows cool-down to be done before the vessel reaches port giving a significant time saving.


title: LNG carrier

text: If all the cargo is pumped ashore, then on the ballast passage the tanks will warm up to ambient temperature, returning the vessel to a gassed up and warm state. The vessel can then be cooled again for loading.


title: LNG carrier

text: If the vessel is to return to a gas free state, the tanks must be warmed up by using the gas heaters to circulate warm gas. Once the tanks are warmed up, the inert gas plant is used to remove the methane from the tanks. Once the tanks are methane free, the inert gas plant is switched to dry air production, which is used to remove all the inert gas from the tanks until they have a safe working atmosphere.


title: LNG carrier

text: Transportation of natural gas both in the form of LNG and by pipeline causes greenhouse gas emissions, but in different ways. With pipelines, most of the emissions stem from the production of steel pipe; with LNG most of the emissions stem from liquefaction. For both pipelines and LNG, propulsion causes additional emissions (pressurization of the pipeline, propulsion of the LNG tanker).


title: LNG carrier

text: Today there are four containment systems in use for new build vessels. Two of the designs are of the self-supporting type, while the other two are of the membrane type and today the patents are owned by Gaztransport & Technigaz (GTT).


title: LNG carrier

text: There is a trend towards the use of the two different membrane types instead of the self-supporting storage systems. This is most likely because prismatic membrane tanks utilize the hull shape more efficiently and thus have less void space between the cargo-tanks and ballast tanks. As a result of this, Moss-type design compared to a membrane design of equal capacity will be far more expensive to transit the Suez Canal. However, self-supporting tanks are more robust and have greater resistance to sloshing forces, and will possibly be considered in the future for offshore storage where bad weather will be a significant factor.


title: LNG carrier

text: Named after the company that designed them, the Norwegian company Moss Maritime, the Spherical IMO type B LNG tanks are spherical in shape. Most Moss type vessels have four or five tanks.


title: LNG carrier

text: The outside of the tanks have a thick layer of foam insulation that is either fitted in panels or in more modern designs wound round the tank. Over this insulation is a thin layer of "tinfoil" which allows the insulation to be kept dry with a nitrogen atmosphere. This atmosphere is constantly checked for any methane that would indicate a leak of the tank. Also the outside of the tank is checked at three-month intervals for any cold spots that would indicate breakdown in the insulation.


title: LNG carrier

text: The tank is supported around its circumference by the equatorial ring, which is supported by a large circular skirt, known as a data-couple that is a unique combination of aluminum and steel, which takes the weight of the tank down to the ship's structure. This skirt allows the tank to expand and contract during cool-down and warm-up operations. During cool-down or warm-up the tank can expand or contract about . Because of this expansion and contraction all piping into the tank comes in the top and is connected to the ship's lines via flexible bellows.


title: LNG carrier

text: Inside each tank there is a set of spray heads. These heads are mounted around the equatorial ring and are used to spray LNG onto the tank walls to reduce the temperature.


title: LNG carrier

text: Tanks normally have a working pressure of up to (0.22 bar), but this can be raised for an emergency discharge. If both main pumps fail then to remove the cargo, the tank's safety valves are adjusted to lift at 100 kPa (1 bar). Then the filling line which goes to the bottom of the tank is opened along with the filling lines of the other tanks on board. The pressure is then raised in the tank with the defective pumps which pushes the cargo into the other tanks where it can be pumped out.


title: LNG carrier

text: Designed by Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries, the "self-supporting prismatic type B (SPB)" tank is currently employed in only two vessels. Type B tanks limit sloshing problems, an improvement over Membrane LNG carrier tanks which may break due to sloshing impact, therefore destroying the ship's hull. This is also of prime relevance for FPSO LNG (or FLNG).


title: LNG carrier

text: In addition, IMO type B LNG tanks can sustain internal accidental damage due for example to internal equipment releases. This was incorporated into the design following several incidents that occurred inside membrane LNG tanks.


title: LNG carrier

text: Designed by Technigaz, these tanks are of the membrane type. The membrane consists of stainless steel with 'waffles' to absorb the thermal contraction when the tank is cooled down. The primary barrier, made of corrugated stainless steel of about thickness is the one in direct contact with the cargo liquid (or vapour in empty tank condition). This is followed by a primary insulation which in turn is covered by a secondary barrier made of a material called "triplex" which is basically a metal foil sandwiched between glass wool sheets and compressed together. This is again covered by a secondary insulation which in turn is supported by the ship's hull structure from the outside.


title: LNG carrier

text: Designed by Gaztransport, the tanks consists of a primary and secondary thin membrane made of the material Invar which has almost no thermal contraction. The insulation is made out of plywood boxes filled with perlite and continuously flushed with nitrogen gas. The integrity of both membranes is permanently monitored by detection of hydrocarbon in the nitrogen. An evolution is proposed by NG2, with the replacement of nitrogen by argon as the flushed inert and insulation gas. Argon has a better insulation power than nitrogen, which could save 10% of boil-off gas.


title: LNG carrier

text: CS1 stands for Combined System Number One. It was designed by the now merged Gaztransport & Technigaz companies and consists of the best components of both MkIII and No96 systems. The primary barrier is made of invar , and secondary from Triplex. The primary and secondary insulation consists of polyurethane foam panels.


title: LNG carrier

text: Three vessels with CS1 technology were built by one shipyard, but established shipyards have decided to maintain production of the MKIII and NO96.


title: LNG carrier

text: In order to facilitate transport, natural gas is cooled down to approximately at atmospheric pressure, at which point the gas condenses to a liquid. The tanks on board an LNG carrier effectively function as giant thermoses to keep the liquid gas cold during storage. No insulation is perfect, however, and so the liquid is constantly boiling during the voyage.


title: LNG carrier

text: According to WGI, on a typical voyage an estimated 0.1–0.25% of the cargo converts to gas each day, depending on the efficiency of the insulation and the roughness of the voyage. In a typical 20-day voyage, anywhere from 2–6% of the total volume of LNG originally loaded may be lost.


title: LNG carrier

text: Normally an LNG tanker is powered by steam turbines with boilers. These boilers are dual fuel and can run on either methane or oil or a combination of both.


title: LNG carrier

text: The gas produced in boil off is traditionally diverted to the boilers and used as a fuel for the vessel. Before this gas is used in the boilers, it must be warmed up to roughly 20 °C by using the gas heaters. The gas is either fed into the boiler by tank pressure or it is increased in pressure by the Low Duty compressors.


title: LNG carrier

text: What fuel the vessel runs on is dependent on many factors which include the length of the voyage, desire to carry a heel for cooldown, price of oil versus price of LNG, and port demands for cleaner exhaust.


title: LNG carrier

text: Minimum boil-off/maximum oil:- In this mode tank pressures are kept high to reduce boil off to a minimum and the majority of energy comes from the fuel oil. This maximises the amount of LNG delivered but does allow tank temps to rise due to lack of evaporation. The high cargo temps can cause storage problems and offloading problems.


title: LNG carrier

text: Maximum boil-off/minimum oil:- In this mode the tank pressures are kept low and there is greater boil-off but a large amount of fuel oil is still used. This decreases the amount of LNG delivered but the cargo will be delivered cold which many ports prefer.


title: LNG carrier

text: 100% gas:- Tank pressures are kept at a similar level to maximum boil off but as this may not be enough to supply all the boilers needs, additional LNG must be "forced" to vaporize. A small pump in one tank supplies LNG to the forcing vaporizer, where it is warmed and vaporized back into a gas that is usable in the boilers. In this mode no fuel oil is used.


title: LNG carrier

text: Recent advances in technology reliquefication plants to be fitted to vessels, allowing the boil off to be reliquefied and returned to the tanks. Because of this, the vessels' operators and builders have been able to contemplate the use of more efficient slow-speed diesel engines (previously most LNG carriers have been steam turbine-powered). Exceptions are the LNG carrier "Havfru" (built as "Venator" in 1973), which originally had dual fuel diesel engines, and its sister-ship "Century" (built as "Lucian" in 1974), also built with dual fuel gas turbines before being converted to a diesel engine system in 1982.


title: LNG carrier

text: Vessels using Dual or Tri-Fuel Diesel Electric, respectively DFDE/TFDE, propulsion systems are now in service.


title: LNG carrier

text: Recently, there has been interest in a return to propulsion by boil-off gas. This is a result of the IMO 2020 anti-pollution regulation that bans the use of marine fuel oil with a sulfur content greater than 0.5% on ships not fitted with flue-gas scrubbing plant. Space constraints and safety issues typically prevent the installation of such equipment on LNG carriers, forcing them to abandon the use of the lower-cost, high-sulfur fuel oil and switch to low-sulfur fuels that cost more and are in shorter supply. In these circumstances, boil-off gas may become a more attractive option.


title: LNG carrier

text: Compared to oil, there is less public concern over spillage of Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) carrying vessels as the gas would quickly vaporize and become atmospheric methane.


title: LNG carrier

text: The LNG sector is known to have a good safety record regarding cargo loss. By 2004, there had been close to 80,000 loaded port transits of LNG carriers with no loss of containment failure.


title: LNG carrier

text: An analysis of several spherical carriers showed that the vessels can withstand a 90-degree side-on collision with another similar LNG carrier at 6.6 kn (50% of normal port speed) with no loss of LNG cargo integrity. This drops to 1.7 kn for a fully loaded 300,000 dwt oil tanker collision into an LNG carrier. The report also notes that such collisions are rare.


title: LNG carrier

text: HAZID performed a risk assessment of an LNG spill. Taking into account precautions, training, regulations and technology changes over time HAZID calculates that the likelihood of an LNG spill as approximately 1 in 100,000 trips.


title: LNG carrier

text: In the event that the tank integrity of a LNG transport is compromised, there is a risk that the natural gas contained within could ignite, causing either an explosion or fire.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: Fugaku is a petascale supercomputer at the Riken Center for Computational Science in Kobe, Japan. It started development in 2014 as the successor to the K computer and made its debut in 2020. It is named after an alternative name for Mount Fuji.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: It became the fastest supercomputer in the world in the June 2020 TOP500 list as well as becoming the first ARM architecture-based computer to achieve this. At this time it also achieved 1.42 exaFLOPS using the mixed fp16/fp64 precision HPL-AI benchmark. It started regular operations in 2021.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: The supercomputer is built with the Fujitsu A64FX microprocessor. This CPU is based on the ARM version 8.2A processor architecture, and adopts the Scalable Vector Extensions for supercomputers. Fugaku was aimed to be about 100 times more powerful than the K computer (i.e. a performance target of 1 exaFLOPS).


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: The initial (June 2020) configuration of Fugaku used 158,976 A64FX CPUs joined using Fujitsu's proprietary torus fusion interconnect. An upgrade in November 2020 increased the number of processors.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: Fugaku will use a "light-weight multi-kernel operating system" named "IHK/McKernel". The operating system uses both Linux and the McKernel light-weight kernel operating simultaneously and side by side. The infrastructure that both kernels run on is termed the "Interface for Heterogeneous Kernels" (IHK). The high-performance simulations are run on McKernel, with Linux available for all other POSIX-compatible services.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: Besides the system software, the supercomputer has run many kinds of applications, including several benchmarks. Running the mainstream HPL benchmark, used by TOP500, Fugaku is at petascale and almost halfway to exascale. Additionally, Fugaku has set world records on at least three other benchmarks, including HPL-AI; at 2.0 exaflops, the system has exceeded the exascale threshold for the benchmark. A description of that benchmark is as follows:


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: The reported initial performance of Fugaku was a Rmax of 416 petaFLOPS in the FP64 high performance LINPACK benchmark used by the TOP500. After the November 2020 upgrade in the number of processors, Fugaku's performance increased to a Rmax of 442 petaFLOPS.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: In 2020, Fugaku also attained top spots in other rankings that test computers on different workloads, including Graph500, HPL-AI, and HPCG benchmark. No previous supercomputer has ever led all four rankings at once.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: After a hardware upgrade, as of November 2020, "Fugaku increased its performance on the new mixed precision HPC-AI benchmark to 2.0 exaflops, besting its 1.4 exaflops mark recorded six months ago. These represent the first benchmark measurements above one exaflop for any precision on any type of hardware." (a 42% increase) Interestingly, the Arm A64FX core-count was only increased by 4.5%, to 7,630,848, but the measured performance rose much more on that benchmark (and the system does not use other compute capabilities, such as GPUs), and a little more on TOP500, or by 6.4%, to 442 petaflops, a new world record and widening the gap to the next computer by that much. For the HPCG benchmark, it is 5.4 times faster, at 16.0 HPCG-petaflops, than the number two system, Summit, which happens to also be second on TOP500.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: Fugaku's performance surpasses the combined performance of the next 4 supercomputers on the TOP500 list (almost next 5) and surpasses by a 45% margin all the other top-10 computers on the HPCG benchmark.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: Note that it has been reported since at least before May 2021 that China had developed a supercomputer with its own technology that exceeds the performance of Fugaku by a factor of two or more, and was secretly operating it to avoid sanctions by the United States. In fact, a paper using this machine won the Gordon Bell Prize for best paper. As of May 2022, China is reportedly operating two supercomputers with exascale performance.


title: Fugaku (supercomputer)

text: On May 23, 2019, Riken announced that the supercomputer was to be named Fugaku. In August 2019, the logo for Fugaku was unveiled; it depicts Mount Fuji, symbolising "Fugaku's high performance" and "the wide range of its users". In November 2019, the prototype of Fugaku won first place in the Green500 list. Shipment of the equipment racks to the Riken facility began on December 2, 2019, and was completed on May 13, 2020. In June 2020, Fugaku became the fastest supercomputer in the world in the TOP500 list, displacing the IBM Summit.


title: Shanola Hampton

text: Shanola Hampton (born May 27, 1977) is an American actress best known for her role as Veronica Fisher on Showtime dramedy "Shameless" and as the face model of Rochelle in the video game "Left 4 Dead 2".


title: Shanola Hampton

text: Hampton appeared in several television series, such as "Shameless," "Reba," "Popular," "Scrubs," "Criminal Minds", "Related", and "Miami Medical". She has also had roles in the movies: "The Mostly Unfabulous Social Life of Ethan Green", "The Hanged Man", Christmas in the City, and "You Again".


title: Shanola Hampton

text: Hampton graduated from Winthrop University with a degree in theater. While studying acting at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Hampton worked at Goose Island Brewery in Wrigleyville. Hampton earned a Masters of Fine Arts in acting.


title: Shanola Hampton

text: In Summer 2010, Hampton was cast as a series regular on the Showtime dramedy "Shameless" as Veronica Fisher, a role for which she has received critical acclaim.


title: Shanola Hampton

text: In 2013, Hampton co-starred in the movie "Things Never Said." Hampton played a woman who tries to find the strength to leave her physically abusive husband. The movie was part of the Annual American Black Film Festival, the North Carolina Black Film Festival, Roxbury International Film Festival, the Greater Cleveland Urban Film Festival, the Black Star Film Festival, and the Laguna Film Festival. She signed a deal with NBCUniversal via Universal Television more recently.


title: Shanola Hampton

text: Hampton has been married to producer Daren Dukes since March 2000. The couple have a daughter named Cai MyAnna Dukes (born January 2014) and a son named Daren O.C. Dukes (born May 2016).


title: Spinning wheel

text: A spinning wheel is a device for spinning thread or yarn from fibres. It was fundamental to the cotton textile industry prior to the Industrial Revolution. It laid the foundations for later machinery such as the spinning jenny and spinning frame, which displaced the spinning wheel during the Industrial Revolution.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The basic spinning of yarn involves taking a clump of fibres and teasing a bit of them out, then twisting it into a basic string shape. The spinner continues pulling and twisting to make it longer and longer, and to control the thickness. Thousands of years ago, people began doing this onto a stick, called a spindle, which was a very lengthy process.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The actual wheel part of a spinning wheel does not take the place of the spindle, instead it automates the twisting process, allowing one to "twist" the thread without having to constantly do so manually, and also the size of the wheel lets one more finely control the amount of twist. The thread still ends up on a spindle, just as it did before the invention of the wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The wheel itself was originally free-moving, spun by a hand or foot reaching out and turning it directly. Eventually, simple mechanisms were created that let a person simply push at a pedal and keep the wheel turning at an even more constant rate. This mechanism has been the main source of technological progress for the spinning wheel, before the 18th century.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The spinning wheel spread from the Islamic world to Europe by the 13th century, with the earliest European illustration dated to around 1280. In France, the spindle and distaff were not displaced until the mid 18th century.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The spinning wheel replaced the earlier method of hand spinning with a spindle. The first stage in mechanizing the process was mounting the spindle horizontally so it could be rotated by a cord encircling a large, hand-driven wheel. The great wheel is an example of this type, where the fibre is held in the left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the right. Holding the fibre at a slight angle to the spindle produced the necessary twist. The spun yarn was then wound onto the spindle by moving it so as to form a right angle with the spindle. This type of wheel, while known in Europe by the 14th century, was not in general use until later. The construction of the Great Wheel made it very good at creating long drawn soft fuzzy wools, but very difficult to create the strong smooth yarns needed to create warp for weaving. Spinning wheels ultimately did not develop the capability to spin a variety of yarns until the beginning of the 19th century and the mechanization of spinning.


title: Spinning wheel

text: In general, the spinning technology was known for a long time before being adopted by the majority of people, thus making it hard to fix dates of the improvements. In 1533, a citizen of Brunswick is said to have added a treadle, by which the spinner could rotate her spindle with one foot and have both hands free to spin. Leonardo da Vinci drew a picture of the flyer, which twists the yarn before winding it onto the spindle. During the 16th century a treadle wheel with flyer was in common use, and gained such names as the Saxony wheel and the flax wheel. It sped up production, as one needn't stop spinning to wind up the yarn.


title: Spinning wheel

text: According to Mark Elvin, 14th-century Chinese technical manuals describe an automatic water-powered spinning wheel. Comparable devices were not developed in Europe until the 18th century. However, it fell into disuse when fibre production shifted from hemp to cotton. It was forgotten by the 17th century. The decline of the automatic spinning wheel in China is an important part of Elvin's high level equilibrium trap theory to explain why there was no indigenous industrial Revolution in China despite its high levels of wealth and scientific knowledge.


title: Spinning wheel

text: On the eve of the Industrial revolution it took at least five spinners to supply one weaver. Lewis Paul and John Wyatt first worked on the problem in 1738, patenting the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. However, they did not have much financial success. In 1771, Richard Arkwright used waterwheels to power looms for the production of cotton cloth, his invention becoming known as the water frame.


title: Spinning wheel

text: More modern spinning machines use a mechanical means to rotate the spindle, as well as an automatic method to draw out fibres, and devices to work many spindles together at speeds previously unattainable. Newer technologies that offer even faster yarn production include friction spinning, an open-end system, and air jets.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Until the acceptance of rotor spinning wheel, all yarns were produced by aligning fibres through drawing techniques and then twisting the fibre together. With rotor spinning, the fibres in the roving are separated, thus opened, and then wrapped and twisted as the yarn is drawn out of the rotor cup.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The tabletop or floor charkha is one of the oldest known forms of the spinning wheel. The charkha works similarly to the great wheel, with a drive wheel being turned by one hand, while the yarn is spun off the tip of the spindle with the other. The floor charkha and the great wheel closely resemble each other. With both, the spinning must stop in order to wind the yarn onto the spindle.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The word "charkha", which has links with Persian (Romanized: "charkh"), wheel, is related to the Sanskrit word for "circle" ("cakra"). The charkha was both a tool and a symbol of the Indian independence movement. The charkha, a small, portable, hand-cranked wheel, is ideal for spinning cotton and other fine, short-staple fibres, though it can be used to spin other fibres as well. The size varies, from that of a hardbound novel to the size of a briefcase, to a floor charkha. Leaders of the India's Freedom Struggle brought the charkha into wider use with their teachings. They hoped the charkha would assist the people of India achieve self-sufficiency and independence, and therefore used the charkha as a symbol of the Indian independence movement and included it on earlier versions of the Flag of India.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The great wheel was one of the earlier types of spinning wheel. The fibre is held in the left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the right. This wheel is thus good for using the long-draw spinning technique, which requires only one active hand most of the time, thus freeing a hand to turn the wheel. The great wheel is usually used to spin short-staple fibres (this includes both cotton and wool), and can only be used with fibre preparations that are suited to long-draw spinning.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The great wheel is usually over in height. The large drive wheel turns the much smaller spindle assembly, with the spindle revolving many times for each turn of the drive wheel. The yarn is spun at an angle off the tip of the spindle, and is then stored on the spindle. To begin spinning on a great wheel, first a leader (a length of waste yarn) is tied onto the base of the spindle and spiraled up to the tip. Then the spinner overlaps a handful of fibre with the leader, holding both gently together with the left hand, and begins to slowly turn the drive wheel clockwise with the right hand, while simultaneously walking backward and drawing the fibre in the left hand away from the spindle at an angle. The left hand must control the tension on the wool to produce an even result. Once a sufficient amount of yarn has been made, the spinner turns the wheel backward a short distance to unwind the spiral on the spindle, then turns it clockwise again, and winds the newly made yarn onto the spindle, finishing the wind-on by spiralling back out to the tip again to make another draw.


title: Spinning wheel

text: This type of wheel is powered by the spinner's foot rather than their hand or a motor. The spinner sits and pumps a foot treadle that turns the drive wheel via a crankshaft and a connecting rod. This leaves both hands free for drafting the fibres, which is necessary in the short draw spinning technique, which is often used on this type of wheel. The old-fashioned pointed driven spindle is not a common feature of the treadle wheel. Instead, most modern wheels employ a flyer-and-bobbin system which twists the yarn and winds it onto a spool simultaneously. These wheels can be single- or double-treadle; which is a matter of preference and does not affect the operation of the wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The double drive wheel is named after its drive band, which goes around the spinning wheel twice. The drive band turns the flyer, which is the horse-shoe shaped piece of wood surrounding the bobbin, as well as the bobbin. Due to a difference in the size of the whorls (the round pieces or pulleys around which the drive band runs) the bobbin whorl, which has a smaller radius than the flyer whorl, turns slightly faster. Thus both the flyer and bobbin rotate to twist the yarn, and the difference in speed continually winds the yarn onto the bobbin. Generally the speed difference or "ratio" is adjusted by the size of the whorls and the tension of the drive band.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The drive band on the double drive wheel is generally made from a non-stretch yarn or twine; candlewick is also used.


title: Spinning wheel

text: A single drive wheel has one drive band that the flywheel and the flyer, and a short tension band which goes only over the bobbin. The tension band adds an adjustable amount of drag to the bobbin and thereby increases the yarn take up force.


title: Spinning wheel

text: If the tension band were extremely tight and the bobbin could not rotate at all, yarn would be taken up onto the bobbin by the rotation of the flyer constantly at a rate of one wrap per revolution of the flyer. In practice, the tension is set such that the bobbin can slip, but with some drag, generating the differential rate of rotation between the flyer and the bobbin. This drag is the force which winds new yarn onto the bobbin.


title: Spinning wheel

text: While the spinner is making new yarn, the bobbin and the flyer turn in unison, driven by the single drive band. When the spinner feeds the yarn onto the bobbin, the drag on the flyer slows it and thus the yarn winds on. The tighter the tension band is, the more pull on the yarn, because the more friction the bobbin has to overcome to turn in sync with the flyer.


title: Spinning wheel

text: When the spindle or flyer is located above the wheel, rather than off to one side, the wheel is said to be an upright wheel. This type of wheel is often more compact, thus easier to store. Some upright wheels are even made to fold up small enough that they fit in carry-on luggage at the airport. An Irish castle wheel is a type of upright in which the flyer is located below the drive wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Electric spinning wheels or e-spinners are powered by an electric motor rather than via a treadle. Some require mains power while others may be powered by a low-voltage source, such as a rechargeable battery. Most e-spinners are small and portable.


title: Spinning wheel

text: One of the attractions of an e-spinner is that it is not necessary to coordinate treadling with handling the fibre (drafting), so it is generally easier to learn to spin on an e-spinner than a traditional treadle-style spinning wheel. E-spinners are also suitable for spinners who have trouble treadling for various reasons.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The spinning wheel increased the productivity of thread making by a factor of greater than 10. Medieval historian Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which in turn was a factor in the development of printing.


title: Spinning wheel

text: It was fundamental to the cotton textile industry prior to the Industrial Revolution. It laid the foundations for later machinery such as the spinning jenny and spinning frame, which displaced the spinning wheel during the Industrial Revolution.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The spinning wheel was a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was widely used during the Industrial Revolution. The spinning jenny was essentially an adaptation of the spinning wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: The ubiquity of the spinning wheel has led to its inclusion in the art, literature and other expressions of numerous cultures around the world, and in the case of South Asia it has become a powerful political symbol.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Starting in 1931, the traditional spinning wheel became the primary symbol on the flag of the Provisional Government of Free India.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Mahatma Gandhi’s manner of dress and commitment to hand spinning were essential elements of his philosophy and politics. He chose the traditional loincloth as a rejection of Western culture and a symbolic identification with the poor of India. His personal choice became a powerful political gesture as he urged his more privileged followers to copy his example and discard—or even burn—their European-style clothing and return with pride to their ancient, pre-colonial culture. Gandhi claimed that spinning thread in the traditional manner also had material advantages, as it would create the basis for economic independence and the possibility of survival for India’s impoverished rural areas. This commitment to traditional cloth making was also part of a larger swadeshi movement, which aimed for the boycott of all British goods. As Gandhi explained to Charlie Chaplin in 1931, the return to spinning did not mean a rejection of all modern technology but of the exploitative and controlling economic and political system in which textile manufacture had become entangled. Gandhi said, “Machinery in the past has made us dependent on England, and the only way we can rid ourselves of the dependence is to boycott all goods made by machinery. This is why we have made it the patriotic duty of every Indian to spin his own cotton and weave his own cloth."


title: Spinning wheel

text: "The Golden Spinning Wheel" (Zlatý kolovrat) is a Czech poem by Karel Jaromír Erben that was included in his classic collection of folk ballads, Kytice.


title: Spinning wheel

text: "Rumpelstiltskin", one of the tales collected by the Brothers Grimm, revolves around a woman who is imprisoned under threat of execution unless she can spin straw into gold. Rumpelstiltskin helps her with this task, ultimately at the cost of her first-born child; however, she makes a new bargain with him and is able to keep her child after successfully guessing his name.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Another folk tale that incorporates spinning wheels is the classic fairy tale "Sleeping Beauty", in which the main character pricks her hand or finger on the poisoned spindle of a spinning wheel and falls into a deep sleep following a wicked fairy or witch's curse. Numerous variations of the tale exist (the Brothers Grimm had one in their collection entitled Little Briar Rose), and in only some of them is the spindle actually attached to/associated with a spinning wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Perhaps surprisingly, a traditional spindle does not have a sharp end that could prick a person's finger (unlike the walking wheel, often used for wool spinning). Despite this, the narrative idea persists that Sleeping Beauty or Briar Rose or Dornrosen pricks her finger on the spindle—a device which she has never seen before, as they have been banned from the kingdom in a forlorn attempt to prevent the curse of the wicked godmother-fairy.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Walt Disney included the Saxony or flax wheel in their animated film version of Perrault's tale and Rose pricks her finger on the distaff (which holds the plant fibre waiting to be spun). Whereas only a spindle is used in Tchaikovsky's ballet "The Sleeping Beauty" which is closer to the direct translation of the French "un fuseau".


title: Spinning wheel

text: Spinning wheels are also integral to the plot or characterization in the Scottish folk tale "Habitrot" and the German tales "The Three Spinners". and "The Twelve Huntsmen"


title: Spinning wheel

text: Louisa May Alcott, most famous as the author of "Little Women", wrote a collection of short stories called "Spinning-Wheel Stories", which were not about spinning wheels but instead meant to be read while engaging in the rather tedious act of using a spinning wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: In 1814, Franz Schubert composed "Gretchen am Spinnrade", a lied for piano and voice based on a poem from Goethe's "Faust". the piano part depicts Gretchen's restlessness as she spins on a spinning wheel while waiting by a window for her love to return.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Antonín Dvořák composed "The Golden Spinning Wheel", a symphonic poem based on the folk ballad from "Kytice" by Karel Jaromír Erben.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Camille Saint-Saëns wrote "Le Rouet d'Omphale (Omphale's Spinning Wheel)", symphonic poem in A major, Op. 31, a musical treatment of the classical story of Omphale and Heracles.


title: Spinning wheel

text: A favorite piano work for students is Albert Ellmenreich's "Spinnleidchen (Spinning Song)", from his 1863 "Musikalische Genrebilder", Op. 14. An ostinato of repeating melodic fifths represents the spinning wheel.


title: Spinning wheel

text: A traditional Irish folk song, "Túirne Mháire", is generally sung in praise of the spinning wheel, but was regarded by Mrs Costelloe, who collected it, as "much corrupted", and may have had a darker narrative. It is widely taught in junior schools in Ireland.


title: Spinning wheel

text: "Sun Charkhe Di Mithi Mithi Kook" is a Sufi song in the Punjabi language inspired by the traditional spinning wheel. It is an ode by a lover as she remembers her beloved with the sound of every spin of her Charkha.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Spinning wheels also feature prominently in the Wagner opera "The Flying Dutchman"; the second act begins with local girls sitting at their wheels and singing about the act of spinning.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Gilbert and Sullivan's "The Yeomen of the Guard" begins with a solitary character singing while spinning at her wheel, the first of their operettas not to open with a chorus.


title: Spinning wheel

text: Spinning wheels may be found as motifs in art around the world, ranging from their status as domestic/utilitarian items to their more symbolic role (such as in India, where they may have political implications).


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: Shanvi Srivastava (born 8 December 1993) is an Indian actress and model who works predominantly in Kannada films and a few Telugu and Malayalam films.


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: Srivastava was born on 8 December 1993, in Varanasi, she did her schooling at Children College Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh and graduation at the Thakur College of Science and Commerce in Mumbai and completed her B.Com degree in 2016. Srivastava has one elder brother and one elder sister, actress Vidisha Srivastava.


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: Srivastava made her debut in 2012 in B. Jaya's "Lovely" while she was still studying. In her second Telugu film "Adda" she was seen as a fashion designing student and her performance was well received by critics. The Times of India wrote, "In the lengthy role that she has, Shanvi gets all her expressions right". She was then signed by Ram Gopal Varma to play a brief role as Vishnu Manchu's romantic interest in his Telugu political drama "Rowdy".


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: In 2014, she made her Kannada debut with the horror comedy film "Chandralekha" and received positive reviews for her performance. In 2015, she won the South Indian International Movie Awards and was also nominated for a Filmfare Award for Best Actress - Kannada for Masterpiece (2015 film) directed by Manju Mandavya. She was also nominated for the Filmfare Best Actress Kannada and won the SIIMA Award for Best Actor in lead role (Female)- Kannada for the movie "Tarak".


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: Srivastava made her international debut in the Chinese drama series 夜天子 ("Ye Tian Zi", The Dark Lord) in 2018, making the selection over the initial choice of Sunny Leone. She learned Chinese for the role.


title: Shanvi Srivastava

text: In 2019, Srivastava had two releases - "Avane Srimannarayana" and "Geetha" which was her first Kannada voice dubbed film.


title: Burden of Truth (TV series)

text: Burden of Truth is a Canadian legal drama television series, starring Kristin Kreuk, which premiered on CBC on January 10, 2018. The series was created by Brad Simpson, and is executive-produced by Kreuk, Ilana Frank and Jocelyn Hamilton. In the US, the series is part of The CW's summer programming slate. One of the issues addressed in the series is institutional racism towards indigenous people.


title: Burden of Truth (TV series)

text: Corporate attorney Joanna Hanley returns to her small hometown of Millwood, Manitoba in order to represent a large pharmaceutical company against a group of sick girls, but starts to see that these girls need her help.


title: Burden of Truth (TV series)

text: Noelle Carbone and Adriana Maggs were the original showrunners but left the series. Ten one-hour episodes were ordered. It was filmed in Winnipeg, Manitoba in summer 2017. The series' original setting was supposed to have been in Eastern Canada but was changed to Manitoba because of lower production costs. Location shots were filmed in Selkirk and Sanford, with several shots in the Riverside Grill. In outdoor shots, traffic on the Selkirk bridge is visible, as is the Landmark Cinemas Garry Selkirk theater.


title: Burden of Truth (TV series)

text: The series was renewed for an eight-episode third season on March 25, 2019 and returned on January 8, 2020.


title: Burden of Truth (TV series)

text: In April 2018, The CW network acquired the series for a planned run in the United States in mid-2018. The series debuted on the network on July 25, 2018. The network aired seasons 2 and 3 in the summers of 2019 and 2020. Season 4 returned to the CBC on January 28, 2021. The final season aired in the United States on The CW on July 30, 2021 and the series concluded on September 17, 2021.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus of Soli (; , ; ) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of the Stoic philosopher Cleanthes. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the Stoic school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Cleanthes' mentor Zeno of Citium, the founder and first head of the school, which earned him the title of the Second Founder of Stoicism.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge, ethics, and physics. He created an original system of propositional logic in order to better understand the workings of the universe and role of humanity within it. He adhered to a deterministic view of fate, but nevertheless sought a role for personal freedom in thought and action. Ethics, he thought, depended on understanding the nature of the universe, and he taught a therapy of extirpating the unruly passions which depress and crush the soul. He initiated the success of Stoicism as one of the most influential philosophical movements for centuries in the Greek and Roman world.


title: Chrysippus

text: Of his several written works, none have survived except as fragments. Recently, segments of some of his works were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri.


title: Chrysippus

text: Of Phoenician descent, Chrysippus was the son of Apollonius of Tarsus, and he was born at Soli, Cilicia. He was slight in stature, and is reputed to have trained as a long-distance runner. While still young, he lost his substantial inherited property when it was confiscated to the king's treasury. Chrysippus moved to Athens, where he became the disciple of Cleanthes, who was then the head ("scholarch") of the Stoic school. He is believed to have attended the courses of Arcesilaus and his successor Lacydes, in the Platonic Academy.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus threw himself eagerly into the study of the Stoic system. His reputation for learning among his contemporaries was considerable. He was noted for intellectual audacity and self-confidence and his reliance on his own ability was shown, among other things, in the request he is supposed to have made to Cleanthes: "Give me the principles, and I will find the proofs myself." He succeeded Cleanthes as head of the Stoic school when Cleanthes died, in around 230 BC.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus was a prolific writer. He is said to rarely have gone without writing 500 lines a day and he composed more than 705 works. His desire to be comprehensive meant that he would take both sides of an argument and his opponents accused him of filling his books with the quotations of others. He was considered diffuse and obscure in his utterances and careless in his style, but his abilities were highly regarded, and he came to be seen as a preeminent authority for the school.


title: Chrysippus

text: He died during the 143rd Olympiad (208–204 BC) at the age of 73. Diogenes Laërtius gives two different accounts of his death. In the first account, Chrysippus was seized with dizziness having drunk undiluted wine at a feast, and died soon after. In the second account, he was watching a donkey eat some figs and cried out: "Now give the donkey a drink of pure wine to wash down the figs", whereupon he died in a fit of laughter. His nephew Aristocreon erected a statue in his honour in the Kerameikos. Chrysippus was succeeded as head of the Stoic school by his pupil Zeno of Tarsus.


title: Chrysippus

text: Of his written works, none survived except as fragments quoted in the works of later authors like Cicero, Seneca, Galen, Plutarch, and others. Recently, segments from "Logical Questions" and "On Providence" were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri. A third work by Chrysippus may also be among them.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus had a long and successful career of resisting the attacks of the Academy and hoped not simply to defend Stoicism against the assaults of the past, but also against all possible attack in the future. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and crystallized them into what became the definitive system of Stoicism. He elaborated the physical doctrines of the Stoics and their theory of knowledge and he created much of their formal logic. In short, Chrysippus made the Stoic system what it was. It was said that "without Chrysippus, there would have been no Stoa".


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus wrote much on the subject of logic and created a system of propositional logic. Aristotle's term logic had been concerned with the interrelations of terms such as "Socrates" or "man" ("all men are mortal, Socrates is a man, so Socrates is mortal"). Stoic logic, on the other hand, was concerned with the interrelations of propositions such as "it is day" ("if it is day, it is light: but it is day: so it is light"). Though the earlier Megarian dialecticians – Diodorus Cronus and Philo – had worked in this field and the pupils of Aristotle – Theophrastus and Eudemus – had investigated hypothetical syllogisms, it was Chrysippus who developed these principles into a coherent system of propositional logic.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus defined a proposition as "that which is capable of being denied or affirmed as it is in itself" and gave examples of propositions such as "it is day" and "Dion is walking." He distinguished between simple and non-simple propositions, which in modern terminology are known as atomic and molecular propositions. A simple proposition is an elementary statement such as "it is day." Simple propositions are linked together to form non-simple propositions by the use of logical connectives. Chrysippus enumerated five kinds of molecular propositions according to the connective used:


title: Chrysippus

text: Thus several types of molecular propositions, familiar to modern logic, were listed by Chrysippus, including the conjunction, the disjunction, and the conditional, and Chrysippus studied their criteria of truth closely.


title: Chrysippus

text: The first logicians to debate conditional statements were Diodorus Cronus and his pupil Philo. Writing five-hundred years later, Sextus Empiricus refers to a debate between Diodorus and Philo. Philo regarded all conditionals as true except those which with a correct antecedent had an incorrect consequent, and this meant a proposition such as "if it is day, then I am talking," is true unless it is day and I fall silent. But Diodorus argued that a true conditional is one in which the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusionthus, because the proposition "if it is day, then I am talking" can be false, it is invalid. However, paradoxical propositions were still possible such as "if atomic elements of things do not exist, atomic elements exists." Chrysippus adopted a much stricter view regarding conditional propositions, which made such paradoxes impossible: to him, a conditional is true if denial of the consequent is logically incompatible with the antecedent. This corresponds to the modern-day strict conditional.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus developed a syllogistic or system of deduction in which he made use of five types of basic arguments or argument forms called indemonstrable syllogisms, which played the role of axioms, and four inference rules, called "themata" by means of which complex syllogisms could be reduced to these axioms. The forms of the five indemonstrables were:


title: Chrysippus

text: Of the four inference rules, only two survived. One, the so-called first "thema", was a rule of antilogism. The other, the third "thema", was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms. The purpose of Stoic syllogistic was not merely to create a formal system. It was also understood as the study of the operations of reason, the divine reason ("logos") which governs the universe, of which human beings are a part. The goal was to find valid rules of inference and forms of proof to help people find their way in life.


title: Chrysippus

text: According to Sextus Empiricus, Chrysippus held that dogs use disjunctive syllogism, such as when using scent to pick which path to run down. This was in contrast to a tradition since Aristotle, who saw reasoning (and reasoning deductively) as man's defining aspect.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus analyzed speech and the handling of names and terms. He also devoted much effort in refuting fallacies and paradoxes. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Chrysippus wrote twelve works in 23 books on the Liar paradox; seven works in 17 books on amphiboly; and another nine works in 26 books on other conundrums. In all, 28 works or 66 books were given over to puzzles or paradoxes.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus is the first Stoic for whom the third of the four Stoic categories, i.e. the category "somehow disposed" is attested. In the surviving evidence, Chrysippus frequently makes use of the categories of "substance" and "quality", but makes little use of the other two Stoic categories ("somehow disposed" and "somehow disposed in relation to something"). It is not clear whether the categories had any special significance for Chrysippus, and a clear doctrine of categories may be the work of later Stoics.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus came to be renowned as one of the foremost logicians of ancient Greece. When Clement of Alexandria wanted to mention one who was master among logicians, as Homer was master among poets, it was Chrysippus, not Aristotle, he chose. Diogenes Laërtius wrote: "If the gods use dialectic, they would use none other than that of Chrysippus." The logical work by Chrysippus came to be neglected and forgotten. Aristotle's logic prevailed, partly because it was seen as more practical, and partly because it was taken up by the Neoplatonists. As recently as the 19th century, Stoic logic was treated with contempt, a barren formulaic system, which was merely clothing the logic of Aristotle with new terminology. It was not until the 20th century, with the advances in logic, and the modern propositional calculus, that it became clear that Stoic logic constituted a significant achievement.


title: Chrysippus

text: For the Stoics, truth is distinguished from error by the sage who possesses right reason. Chrysippus's theory of knowledge was empirical. The senses transmit messages from the external world, and their reports are controlled not by referring them to innate ideas, but by comparing them to previous reports stored in the mind. Zeno had defined impressions of sense as "an impression in the soul" and this was interpreted literally by Cleanthes, who compared the impression on the soul to the impression made by a seal on wax. Chrysippus preferred to regard it as an alteration or change in the soul; that is, the soul receives a modification from every external object that acts upon it, just as the air receives countless strokes when many people are speaking at once.


title: Chrysippus

text: In the receipt of an impression, the soul is purely passive and the impression reveals not only its own existence, but that also of its causejust as light displays itself and the elements that are in it. The power to name the object resides in the understanding. First must come the impression, and the understandinghaving the power of utteranceexpresses in speech the affection it receives from the object. True presentations are distinguished from those that are false by the use of memory, classification and comparison. If the sense organ and the mind are healthyand provided that an external object can be really seen or heardthe presentation, due to its clearness and distinctness, has the power to extort the assent that always lies in our power, to give or to withhold. In a context in which people are understood to be rational beings, reason is developed out of these notions.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus insisted on the organic unity of the universe, as well as the correlation and mutual interdependence of all of its parts. He said, the universe is "the soul and guide of itself." Following Zeno, Chrysippus determined fiery breath or aether to be the primitive substance of the universe. Objects are made up of inert formless matter and an informing soul, ""pneuma"", provides form to the undifferentiated matter. The "pneuma" pervades all of substance and maintains the unity of the universe and constitutes the soul of the human being.


title: Chrysippus

text: The classical elements change into one another by a process of condensation and rarefaction. Fire first becomes solidified into air; then air into water; and lastly, water into earth. The process of dissolution takes place in the reverse order: earth being rarefied into water, water into air and air into fire.


title: Chrysippus

text: The human soul was divided by Chrysippus into eight faculties: the five senses, the power of reproduction, the power of speech, and the "ruling part" that is located in the chest rather than the head. Individual souls are perishable; but, according to the view originated by Chrysippus, the souls of wise people survive longer after their death. No individual soul can, however, survive beyond the periodic conflagration, when the universe is renewed.


title: Chrysippus

text: For Chrysippus, all things happen according to fate: what seems to be accidental has always some hidden cause. The unity of the world consists in the chain-like dependence of cause upon cause. Nothing can take place without a sufficient cause. According to Chrysippus, every proposition is either true or false, and this must apply to future events as well:


title: Chrysippus

text: If any motion exists without a cause, then not every proposition will be either true or false. For that which has not efficient causes is neither true nor false. But every proposition is either true or false. Therefore, there is no motion without a cause. And if this is so, then all effects owe their existence to prior causes. And if this is so, all things happen by fate. It follows therefore that whatever happens, happens by fate.


title: Chrysippus

text: The Stoic view of fate is entirely based on a view of the universe as a whole. Individual things and persons only come into consideration as dependent parts of this whole. Everything is, in every respect, determined by this relation, and is consequently subject to the general order of the world.


title: Chrysippus

text: If his opponents objected that, if everything is determined by destiny, there is no individual responsibility, since what has been once foreordained must happen, come what may, Chrysippus replied that there is a distinction to be made between simple and complex predestination. Becoming ill may be fated whatever happens but, if a person's recovery is linked to consulting a doctor, then consulting the doctor is fated to occur together with that person's recovery, and this becomes a complex fact. All human actionsin fact, our destinyare decided by our relation to things, or as Chrysippus put it, events are "co-fated" to occur:


title: Chrysippus

text: The non-destruction of one's coat, he says, is not fated simply, but co-fated with its being taken care of, and someone's being saved from his enemies is co-fated with his fleeing those enemies; and having children is co-fated with being willing to lie with a woman. ... For many things cannot occur without our being willing and indeed contributing a most strenuous eagerness and zeal for these things, since, he says, it was fated for these things to occur in conjunction with this personal effort. ... But it will be in our power, he says, with what is in our power being included in fate.


title: Chrysippus

text: Thus our actions are predetermined, and are causally related to the overarching network of fate, but nevertheless the moral responsibility of how we respond to impressions remains our own. The one all-determining power is active everywhere, working in each particular being according to its nature, whether in rational or irrational creatures or in inorganic objects. Every action is brought about by the co-operation of causes depending on the nature of things and the character of the agent. Our actions would only be involuntary if they were produced by external causes alone, without any co-operation, on the part of our wills, with external causes. Virtue and vice are set down as things in our power, for which, consequently, we are responsible. Moral responsibility depends only on freedom of the will, and what emanates from our will is our own, no matter whether it is possible for us to act differently or not. This rather subtle position which attempts to reconcile determinism with human responsibility is known as soft-determinism, or compatibilism.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus also argued for the existence of fate based on divination, which he thought there was good evidence for. It would not be possible for diviners to predict the future if the future itself was accidental. Omens and portents, he believed, are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences. There must be countless indications of the course of providence, for the most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity. To those who argued that divination was superfluous as all events are foreordained, he replied that both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which it affords are included in the chain of causation.


title: Chrysippus

text: The Stoics believed that the universe is God, and Chrysippus affirmed that "the universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul." It is the guiding principle of the universe, "operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality which embraces all existence." Based on these beliefs, physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein identified Chrysippus as a Pandeist.


title: Chrysippus

text: If there is anything that humanity cannot produce, the being who produces it is better than humanity. But humanity cannot produce the things that are in the universethe heavenly bodies, etc. The being, therefore, who produces them is superior to humanity. But who is there that is superior to humanity, except God? Therefore, God exists.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus spoke of God and gods interchangeably. He interpreted the gods of traditional Greek religion by viewing them as different aspects of the one reality. Cicero tells us that "he further maintained that aether is that which people call Zeus, and that the air which permeates the seas is Poseidon, and that the earth is what is known by the name of Demeter, and he treated in similar style the names of the other gods." In addition, the universe exists for the benefit of the universal god:


title: Chrysippus

text: We should infer in the case of a beautiful dwelling-place that it was built for its owners and not for mice; we ought, therefore, in the same way to regard the universe as the dwelling-place of the gods.


title: Chrysippus

text: In response to the question of how evil could exist in a good universe, Chrysippus replied "evil cannot be removed, nor is it well that it should be removed." Firstly, he argued, following Plato, that it was impossible for good to exist without evil, for justice could not be known without injustice, courage without cowardice, temperance without intemperance or wisdom without foolishness. Secondly, apparent evils exist as a consequent of nature's goodness, thus it was necessary for the human skull to be made from small and thin bones for reasons of utility, but this superior utility meant that the skull is vulnerable to blows. Thirdly, evils are distributed according to the rational will of Zeus, either to punish the wicked or because they are important to the world-order as a whole. Thus evil is good under disguise, and is ultimately conducive to the best. Chrysippus compared evil to the coarse jest in the comedy; for, just as the jest, though offensive in itself, improves the piece as a whole, "so too you may criticize evil regarded by itself, yet allow that, taken with all else, it has its use."


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus regarded bodies, surfaces, lines, places, the void and time as all being infinitely divisible. He determined one of the principal features of the infinite set: since a man and a finger have an infinite number of parts as do the universe and a man, it cannot be said that a man has more parts than his finger, nor that the universe has more parts than a man.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus also responded to a problem first posed by Democritus. If a cone is divided by a plane parallel to its base, are the surfaces of the segments equal or unequal? If they are equal, then the cone becomes a cylinder; if they are unequal, then the surface of the cone must be stepped. The reply of Chrysippus was that the surfaces are both equal and unequal. Chrysippus was, in effect, negating the law of excluded middle with respect to the equal and unequal, and thus he may have anticipated an important principle of modern infinitesimal calculus, namely, the limit and the process of convergence towards a limit.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus was notable for claiming that "one" is a number. One was not always considered a number by the ancient Greeks since they viewed one as that by which things are measured. Aristotle in his "Metaphysics" wrote, "... a measure is not the things measured, but the measure or the One is the beginning of number." Chrysippus asserted that one had "magnitude one" (), although this was not generally accepted by the Greeks, and Iamblichus wrote that "magnitude one" was a contradiction in terms.


title: Chrysippus

text: Chrysippus taught that ethics depended on physics. In his "Physical Theses", he stated: "for there is no other or more appropriate way of approaching the subject of good and evil on the virtues or happiness than from the nature of all things and the administration of the universe." The goal of life, said Chrysippus, is to live in accordance with one's experience of the actual course of nature. A person's individual nature is part of the nature of the whole universe, and thus life should be lived in accordance with one's own human nature as well as that of the universe. Human nature is ethical, and humanity is akin to the Divine, emanating from the primal fire or aether, which, though material, is the embodiment of reason; and people should conduct themselves accordingly. People have freedom, and this freedom consists in emancipation from irrational desires (lust, riches, position in life, domination, etc.) and in subjecting the will to reason. Chrysippus laid the greatest stress on the worth and dignity of the individual, and on the power of will.


title: Chrysippus

text: The Stoics admitted between the good and the bad a third class of thingsthe indifferent ("adiaphora"). Of things morally indifferent, the best includes health, and riches, and honour, and the worst includes sickness and poverty. Chrysippus accepted that it was normal in ordinary usage to refer to the preferred indifferent things as "good", but the wise person, said Chrysippus, uses such things without requiring them. Practice and habit are necessary to render virtue perfect in the individualin other words, there is such a thing as moral progress, and character has to be built up.


title: Chrysippus

text: The Stoics sought to be free of the unruly emotions, which they regarded as being contrary to nature. The passions or emotions ("pathe") are the disturbing element in right judgment. Chrysippus wrote a whole book, "On Passions" (), concerning the therapy of the emotions. The passions are like diseases which depress and crush the soul, thus he sought to eradicate them ("apatheia"). Wrong judgements turn into passions when they gather an impetus of their own, just as, when one has started running, it is difficult to stop. One cannot hope to eradicate the emotions when one is in the heat of love or anger: this can only be done when one is calm. Therefore, one should prepare in advance, and deal with the emotions in the mind as if they were present. By applying reason to emotions such as greed, pride, or lust, one can understand the harm which they cause.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to a reported 605 to 732 oil wells along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as oil lakes and fire trenches, as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 due to the advances of US-led coalition forces in the Gulf War. The fires were started in January and February 1991, and the first oil well fires were extinguished in early April 1991, with the last well capped on November 6, 1991.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The dispute between Iraq and Kuwait over alleged slant-drilling in the Rumaila oil field was one of the reasons for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: In addition, Kuwait had been producing oil above treaty limits established by OPEC. By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to almost , which coincided with a sharp drop in the price of oil. By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main motivations in invading Kuwait was to punish the ruling al-Sabah family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction, as well as his reasoning behind the destruction of said wells.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: It is also hypothesized that Iraq decided to destroy the oil fields to achieve a military advantage, believing the intense smoke plumes serving as smoke screens created by the burning oil wells would inhibit Coalition offensive air strikes, foil allied precision guided weapons and spy satellites, and could screen Iraq's military movements. Furthermore, it is thought that Iraq's military leaders may have regarded the heat, smoke, and debris from hundreds of burning oil wells as presenting a formidable area denial obstacle to Coalition forces. The onset of the oil well destruction supports this military dimension to the sabotage of the wells; for example, during the early stage of the Coalition air campaign, the number of oil wells afire was relatively small but the number increased dramatically in late February with the arrival of the ground war.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The Iraqi military combat engineers also released oil into low-lying areas for defensive purposes against infantry and mechanized units along Kuwait's southern border, by constructing several "fire trenches" roughly 1 kilometer long, 3 meters wide, and 3 meters deep to impede the advance of Coalition ground forces.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The military use of the land based fires should also be seen in context with the coinciding, deliberate, sea based Gulf War oil spill, the apparent strategic goal of which was to foil a potential amphibious landing by U.S. Marines.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: As an international coalition under United States command assembled in anticipation of an invasion of Iraqi-occupied Kuwait, the Iraqi regime decided to destroy as much of Kuwait's oil reserves and infrastructure as possible before withdrawing from that country. As early as December 1990, Iraqi forces placed explosive charges on Kuwaiti oil wells. The wells were systematically sabotaged beginning on January 16, 1991, when the allies commenced air strikes against Iraqi targets. On February 8, satellite images detected the first smoke from burning oil wells. The number of oil fires peaked between February 22 and 24, when the allied ground offensive began.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's report to Congress, "the retreating Iraqi army set fire to or damaged over 700 oil wells, storage tanks, refineries, and facilities in Kuwait." Estimates placed the number of oil well fires from 605 to 732. A further thirty-four wells had been destroyed by heavy coalition bombing in January. The Kuwait Petroleum Company's estimate as of September 1991 was that there had been 610 fires, out of a total of 749 facilities damaged or on fire along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as "oil lakes" and "fire trenches". These fires constituted approximately 50% of the total number of oil well fires in the history of the petroleum industry, and temporarily damaged or destroyed approximately 85% of the wells in every major Kuwaiti oil field.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Concerted efforts to bring the fires and other damage under control began in April 1991. During the uncontrolled burning phase from February to April, various sources estimated that the ignited wellheads burnt through between four and six million barrels of crude oil, and between seventy and one hundred million cubic meters of natural gas per day. Seven months later, 441 facilities had been brought under control, while 308 remained uncontrolled. The last well was capped on November 6, 1991. The total amount of oil burned is generally estimated at one billion barrels or just below one percent of Kuwait's entire supply of 104 billion barrels. Daily global oil consumption in 2015 is about 91.4 million barrels; the oil lost to combustion would last 11 days at modern usage rates.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: In March 1991 the accumulated financial losses were estimated to be as much as 10% of 90 billion barrels of Kuwait oil reserves based on a statement made by an Kuwait Oil Company official. At the world prices at the time it would amount $157.5 billion USD.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: On March 21, 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C-130H crashed in heavy smoke due to the Kuwaiti oil fires on approach to Ras Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and 6 Saudi crew members were killed, the largest accident among Coalition forces.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The smoke screening was also used by Iraqi anti-armor forces to a successful extent in the Battle of Phase Line Bullet, having aided in achieving the element of surprise against advancing Bradley (IFV)s, along with increasing the general fog of war.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews during the war. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells and military demining was necessary before the fires could be put out. Around of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The fires have been linked with what was later deemed Gulf War syndrome, a chronic disorder afflicting military veterans and civilian workers that include fatigue, muscle pain, and cognitive problems; however, studies have indicated that the firemen who capped the wells did not report any of the symptoms that the soldiers experienced. The causes of Gulf War syndrome have yet to be determined.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: From the perspective of ground forces, apart from the occasional "oil rain" experienced by troops very close to spewing wells, one of the more commonly experienced effects of the oil field fires were the ensuing smoke plumes which rose into the atmosphere and then precipitated or fell out of the air via dry deposition and by rain. The pillar-like plumes frequently broadened and joined up with other smoke plumes at higher altitudes, producing a cloudy grey overcast effect, as only about 10% of all the fires corresponding with those that originated from "oil lakes" produced pure black soot filled plumes, 25% of the fires emitted white to grey plumes, while the remainder emitted plumes with colors between grey and black. For example, one Gulf War veteran stated:


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: A paper published in 2000 analyzed the degree of exposure by troops to particulate matter, including soot. However, the paper focused more-so on silica sand, which can produce silicosis. The paper included troop medical records, and in its conclusion: "A literature review indicated negligible to nonexistent health risk from other inhaled particulate material (other than silica) during the Gulf War".


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The burning wells needed to be extinguished as, without active efforts, Kuwait would lose billions of dollars in oil revenues. It was predicted by experts that the fires would burn for between two and five years before losing pressure and going out on their own.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The companies responsible for extinguishing the fires initially were Bechtel, Red Adair Company (now sold to Global Industries of Louisiana), Boots and Coots, and Wild Well Control. Safety Boss was the fourth company to arrive but ended up extinguishing and capping the most wells of any other company: 180 of the 600. Other companies including Cudd Well/Pressure Control, Neal Adams Firefighters, and Kuwait Wild Well Killers were also contracted.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: According to Larry H. Flak, a petroleum engineer for Boots and Coots International Well Control, 90% of all the 1991 fires in Kuwait were put out with nothing but sea water, sprayed from powerful hoses at the base of the fire. The extinguishing water was supplied to the arid desert region by re-purposing the oil pipelines that prior to the arson attack had pumped oil from the wells to the Arabian Gulf. The pipeline had been mildly damaged but, once repaired, its flow was reversed to pump Arabian gulf seawater to the burning oil wells. The extinguishing rate was approximately 1 every 7–10 days at the start of efforts but then with experience gained and the removal of the mine fields that surrounded the burning wells, the rate increased to 2 or more per day.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: For stubborn oil well fires, the use of a gas turbine to blast a large volume of water at high velocity at the fire proved popular with firefighters in Kuwait and was brought to the region by Hungarians equipped with MiG-21 engines mounted originally on a T-34 tank (later replaced with T-55 tank, called "Big wind". It extinguished 9 fires in 43 days.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: In fighting a fire at a directly vertical spewing wellhead, high explosives, such as dynamite were used to create a blast wave that pushes the burning fuel and local atmospheric oxygen away from the well. (This is a similar principle to blowing out a candle.) The flame is removed and the fuel can continue to spill out without igniting. Generally, explosives were placed within 55 gallon drums, the explosives surrounded by fire retardant chemicals, and then the drums are wrapped with insulating material with a horizontal crane being used to bring the drum as close to the burning area as possible.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The firefighting teams titled their occupation as "Operation Desert Hell" after Operation Desert Storm.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The fires were the subject of a 1992 IMAX documentary film, "Fires of Kuwait", which was nominated for an Academy Award. The film includes footage of the Hungarian team using their jet turbine extinguisher.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: "Lessons of Darkness" is a 1992 film by director Werner Herzog that explores of the ravaged oil fields of post-Gulf War Kuwait.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Bechtel Corporation produced a short documentary titled "Kuwait: Bringing Back the Sun" that summarizes and focuses upon the fire fighting efforts, which were dubbed the Al-Awda (Arabic for "The Return") project.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Immediately following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, predictions were made of an environmental disaster stemming from Iraqi threats to blow up captured Kuwaiti oil wells. Speculation ranging from a nuclear winter type scenario, to heavy acid rain and even short term immediate global warming were presented at the World Climate Conference in Geneva that November.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: On January 10, 1991, a paper appearing in the journal "Nature" stated Paul Crutzen's calculations predicting that the oil well fires would produce a cloud of smoke covering half the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in widespread cooling similar to nuclear winter; temperatures beneath the cloud would be reduced by 5—10 degrees Celsius after 100 days. This was followed by articles printed in the "Wilmington Morning Star" and the "Baltimore Sun" newspapers in mid to late January 1991, with the popular television scientist personality of the time, Carl Sagan, who was also the co-author of the first few nuclear winter papers along with Richard P. Turco, John W. Birks, Alan Robock and Paul Crutzen together collectively stated that they expected catastrophic nuclear winter like effects with continental sized impacts of "sub-freezing" temperatures as a result if the Iraqis went through with their threats of igniting 300 to 500 pressurized oil wells and they burned for a few months.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Later when Operation Desert Storm had begun, S. Fred Singer and Carl Sagan discussed the possible environmental impacts of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program "Nightline". Sagan again argued that some of the effects of the smoke could be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with smoke lofting into the stratosphere, a region of the atmosphere beginning around above sea level at Kuwait, resulting in global effects and that he believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the "Year Without a Summer". He reported on initial modeling estimates that forecast impacts extending to south Asia, and perhaps to the northern hemisphere as well.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited. Both height estimates made by Singer and Sagan turned out to be wrong, albeit with Singer's narrative being closer to what transpired, with the comparatively minimal atmospheric effects remaining limited to the Arabian Gulf region, with smoke plumes, in general, lofting to about and a few times as high as .


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Along with Singer's televised critique, Richard D. Small criticized the initial "Nature" paper in a reply on March 7, 1991, arguing along similar lines as Singer.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Sagan later conceded in his book "The Demon-Haunted World" that his prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it "was" pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C over the Arabian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared."


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: At the peak of the fires, the smoke absorbed 75 to 80% of the sun's radiation. The particles rose to a maximum of , but were scavenged by cloud condensation nuclei from the atmosphere relatively quickly.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Sagan and his colleagues expected that a "self-lofting" of the sooty smoke would occur when it absorbed the sun's heat radiation, with little to no scavenging occurring, whereby the black particles of soot would be heated by the sun and lifted/lofted higher and higher into the air, thereby injecting the soot into the stratosphere where it would take years for the sun blocking effect of this aerosol of soot to fall out of the air, and with that, catastrophic ground level cooling and agricultural impacts in Asia and possibly the Northern Hemisphere as a whole.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: In retrospect, it is now known that smoke from the Kuwait oil fires only affected the weather pattern throughout the Arabian Gulf and surrounding region during the periods that the fires were burning in 1991, with lower atmospheric winds blowing the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities such as Dhahran and Riyadh, and countries such as Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled skies and carbon soot rainout/fallout.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Thus the immediate consequence of the arson sabotage was a dramatic regional decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis and those in neighboring countries.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: According to the 1992 study from Peter Hobbs and Lawrence Radke, daily emissions of sulfur dioxide (which can generate acid rain) from the Kuwaiti oil fires were 57% of that from electric utilities in the United States, the emissions of carbon dioxide were 2% of global emissions and emissions of soot reached 3400 metric tons per day.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: In a paper in the DTIC archive, published in 2000, it states that "Calculations based on smoke from Kuwaiti oil fires in May and June 1991 indicate that combustion efficiency was about 96% in producing carbon dioxide. While, with respect to the incomplete combustion fraction, Smoke particulate matter accounted for 2% of the fuel burned, of which 0.4% was soot." (With the remaining 2% being oil that did not undergo any initial combustion).


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Peter V. Hobbs also narrated a short amateur documentary titled "Kuwait Oil Fires" that followed the University of Washington/UW's "Cloud and Aerosol Research Group" as they flew through, around and above the smoke clouds and took samples, measurements, and video of the smoke clouds in their Convair C-131(N327UW) Aerial laboratory.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Although scenarios that predicted long-lasting environmental impacts on a global atmospheric level due to the burning oil sources did not transpire, long-lasting ground level oil spill impacts were detrimental to the environment regionally.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Forty-six oil wells are estimated to have gushed, and before efforts to cap them began, they were releasing approximately 300,000-400,000 barrels of oil per day, with the last gusher being capped occurring in the latter days of October 1991.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The Kuwaiti Oil Minister estimated between twenty-five and fifty million barrels of unburned oil from damaged facilities pooled to create approximately 300 oil lakes, that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth. The mixture of desert sand, unignited oil spilled and soot generated by the burning oil wells formed layers of hard "tarcrete", which covered nearly five percent of Kuwait's land mass.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Cleaning efforts were led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Arab Oil Co., who tested a number of technologies including the use of petroleum-degrading bacteria on the oil lakes.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the oil lakes began recovering by 1995, but the dry climate has also partially solidified some of the lakes. Over time the oil has continued to sink into the sand, with potential consequences for Kuwait's small groundwater resources.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The land based Kuwaiti oil spill surpassed the Lakeview Gusher, which spilled nine million barrels in 1910, as the largest oil spill in recorded history.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Six to eight million barrels of oil were directly spilled into the Arabian Gulf, which became known as the Gulf War oil spill.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: During the second US invasion of Iraq in 2003, approximately 40 oil wells were set on fire in the Persian Gulf within Iraqi territory, ostensibly to once again hinder the invasion.


title: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: The "Kuwait Wild Well Killers", who successfully extinguished 41 of the Kuwait oil well fires in 1991, used their experience to tackle blazes in the Iraqi Rumaila oilfields in 2003.


title: Knowledge management

text: Knowledge management (KM) is the collection of methods relating to creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and information of an organization. It refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieve organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.


title: Knowledge management

text: An established discipline since 1991, KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, library, and information science. Other fields may contribute to KM research, including information and media, computer science, public health and public policy. Several universities offer dedicated master's degrees in knowledge management.


title: Knowledge management

text: Many large companies, public institutions, and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their business strategy, IT, or human resource management departments. Several consulting companies provide advice regarding KM to these organizations.


title: Knowledge management

text: Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration, and continuous improvement of the organisation. These efforts overlap with organisational learning and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM is an enabler of organizational learning.


title: Knowledge management

text: The most complex scenario for knowledge management may be found in the context of supply chain as it involves multiple companies without an ownership relationship or hierarchy between them, being called by some authors as transorganizational or interorganizational knowledge. That complexity is additionally increased by industry 4.0 (or 4th industrial revolution) and digital transformation, as new challenges emerge from both the volume and speed of information flows and knowledge generation.


title: Knowledge management

text: Knowledge management efforts have a long history, including on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training, and mentoring programs. With increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, information repositories, group decision support systems, intranets, and computer-supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts.


title: Knowledge management

text: In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced; it refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level.


title: Knowledge management

text: In the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognised the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process and measurement. Key lessons learned include people and the cultural norms which influence their behaviors are the most critical resources for successful knowledge creation, dissemination and application; cognitive, social and organisational learning processes are essential to the success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change. In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organisations if they are purposeful, concrete and action-orientated.


title: Knowledge management

text: KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 1990s. It was initially supported by individual practitioners, when Skandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world's first Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO). Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of CIBC, Canada), started investigating KM long before that. The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximise the intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. The KM idea has been taken up by academics, such as Ikujiro Nonaka (Hitotsubashi University), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), Thomas H. Davenport (Babson College) and Baruch Lev (New York University).


title: Knowledge management

text: In 2001, Thomas A. Stewart, former editor at "Fortune" magazine and subsequently the editor of "Harvard Business Review", published a cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital in organizations. The KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity. First, is a trend toward higher cooperation among academics; single-author publications are less common. Second, the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academic research declined from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009. Third, the number of academic knowledge management journals has been steadily growing, currently reaching 27 outlets.


title: Knowledge management

text: Multiple KM disciplines exist; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matured, academic debates increased regarding theory and practice, including:


title: Knowledge management

text: Regardless of the school of thought, core components of KM roughly include people/culture, processes/structure and technology. The details depend on the perspective. KM perspectives include:


title: Knowledge management

text: The practical relevance of academic research in KM has been questioned with action research suggested as having more relevance and the need to translate the findings presented in academic journals to a practice.


title: Knowledge management

text: Different frameworks for distinguishing between different 'types of' knowledge exist. One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of, such as to accomplish particular tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others.


title: Knowledge management

text: Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model (SECI, for Socialisation, Externalisation, Combination, Internalisation) which considers a spiraling interaction between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. In this model, knowledge follows a cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 're-internalised' into implicit knowledge.


title: Knowledge management

text: Hayes and Walsham (2003) describe knowledge and knowledge management as two different perspectives. The content perspective suggests that knowledge is easily stored; because it may be codified, while the relational perspective recognises the contextual and relational aspects of knowledge which can make knowledge difficult to share outside the specific context in which it is developed.


title: Knowledge management

text: Early research suggested that KM needs to convert internalised tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge to share it, and the same effort must permit individuals to internalise and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort.


title: Knowledge management

text: Subsequent research suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside our heads). More recently, together with Georg von Krogh and Sven Voelpel, Nonaka returned to his earlier work in an attempt to move the debate about knowledge conversion forward.


title: Knowledge management

text: A second proposed framework for categorising knowledge dimensions distinguishes embedded knowledge of a system outside a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) from embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a human body's nervous and endocrine systems.