title: Jean Genet

text: By 1949, Genet had completed five novels, three plays, and numerous poems, many controversial for their explicit and often deliberately provocative portrayal of homosexuality and criminality. Sartre wrote a long analysis of Genet's existential development (from vagrant to writer), entitled "Saint Genet" (1952), which was anonymously published as the first volume of Genet's complete works. Genet was strongly affected by Sartre's analysis and did not write for the next five years.


title: Jean Genet

text: Between 1955 and 1961, Genet wrote three more plays as well as an essay called "What Remains of a Rembrandt Torn into Four Equal Pieces and Flushed Down the Toilet", on which hinged Jacques Derrida's analysis of Genet in his seminal work "Glas". During this time, Genet became emotionally attached to Abdallah Bentaga, a tightrope walker. However, following a number of accidents and his suicide in 1964, Genet entered a period of depression, and even attempted suicide himself.


title: Jean Genet

text: From the late 1960s, starting with an homage to Daniel Cohn-Bendit after the events of May 1968, Genet became politically active. He participated in demonstrations drawing attention to the living conditions of immigrants in France. Genet was censored in the United States in 1968 and later expelled when they refused him a visa. In an interview with Edward de Grazia, professor of law and First Amendment lawyer, Genet discusses the time he went through Canada for the Chicago congress. He entered without a visa and left with no issues.


title: Jean Genet

text: In 1970, the Black Panthers invited him to the United States, where he stayed for three months giving lectures, attended the trial of their leader, Huey Newton, and published articles in their journals. Later the same year he spent six months in Palestinian refugee camps, secretly meeting Yasser Arafat near Amman. Profoundly moved by his experiences in the United States and Jordan, Genet wrote a final lengthy memoir about his experiences, "Prisoner of Love", which would be published posthumously.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet also supported Angela Davis and George Jackson, as well as Michel Foucault and Daniel Defert's Prison Information Group. He worked with Foucault and Sartre to protest police brutality against Algerians in Paris, a problem persisting since the Algerian War of Independence, when beaten bodies were to be found floating in the Seine. Genet expresses his solidarity with the Red Army Faction (RAF) of Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof, in the article "Violence et brutalité", published in "Le Monde", 1977.


title: Jean Genet

text: In September 1982, Genet was in Beirut when the massacres took place in the Palestinian camps of Sabra and Shatila. In response, Genet published "Quatre heures à Chatila" ("Four Hours in Shatila"), an account of his visit to Shatila after the event. In one of his rare public appearances during the later period of his life, at the invitation of Austrian philosopher Hans Köchler, he read from his work during the inauguration of an exhibition on the massacre of Sabra and Shatila organized by the International Progress Organization in Vienna, Austria, on 19 December 1983.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet developed throat cancer and was found dead at Jack's Hotel in Paris on 15 April 1986 where his photograph and books remain. Genet may have fallen on the floor and fatally hit his head. He is buried in the Larache Christian Cemetery in Larache, Morocco.


title: Jean Genet

text: Throughout his five early novels, Genet works to subvert the traditional set of moral values of his assumed readership. He celebrates a beauty in evil, emphasizes his singularity, raises violent criminals to icons, and enjoys the specificity of gay gesture and coding and the depiction of scenes of betrayal. "Our Lady of the Flowers" ("Notre Dame des Fleurs" 1943) is a journey through the prison underworld, featuring a fictionalized alter-ego named Divine, usually referred to in the feminine. Divine is surrounded by "tantes" ("aunties" or "queens") with colorful sobriquets such as Mimosa I, Mimosa II, First Communion and the Queen of Rumania. The two auto-fictional novels "Miracle of the Rose" ("Miracle de la rose" 1946) and "The Thief's Journal" ("Journal du voleur" 1949) describe Genet's time in Mettray Penal Colony and his experiences as a vagabond and prostitute across Europe. "Querelle de Brest" (1947) is set in the port town of Brest, where sailors and the sea are associated with murder. "Funeral Rites" (1949) is a story of love and betrayal across political divides, written for the narrator's lover, Jean Decarnin, killed by the Germans in WWII.


title: Jean Genet

text: "Prisoner of Love", published in 1986 after Genet's death, is a memoir of his encounters with Palestinian fighters and Black Panthers. It has a more documentary tone than his fiction.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet wrote an essay on the work of the Swiss sculptor and artist Alberto Giacometti titled "L'Atelier d'Alberto Giacometti". It was highly praised by major artists, including Giacometti and Picasso. Genet wrote in an informal style, incorporating excerpts of conversations between himself and Giacometti. Genet's biographer Edmund White said that, rather than write in the style of an art historian, Genet "invented a whole new language for discussing" Giacometti, proposing "that the statues of Giacometti should be offered to the dead, and that they should be buried."


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet's plays present highly stylized depictions of ritualistic struggles between outcasts of various kinds and their oppressors. Social identities are parodied and shown to involve complex layering through manipulation of the dramatic fiction and its inherent potential for theatricality and role-play. Maids imitate one another and their mistress in "The Maids" (1947), ; the clients of a brothel simulate roles of political power before, in a dramatic reversal, actually becoming those figures, all surrounded by mirrors that both reflect and conceal, in "The Balcony" (1957). Most strikingly, Genet offers a critical dramatisation of what Aimé Césaire called negritude in "The Blacks" (1958), presenting a violent assertion of Black identity and anti-white virulence framed in terms of mask-wearing and roles adopted and discarded. His most overtly political play is "The Screens" (1964), an epic account of the Algerian War of Independence. He also wrote another full-length drama, "Splendid's", in 1948 and a one-act play, "Her" ("Elle"), in 1955, though neither was published or produced during Genet's lifetime.


title: Jean Genet

text: "The Maids" was the first of Genet's plays to be staged in New York, produced by Julie Bovasso at Tempo Playhouse in New York City in 1955. "The Blacks" was, after "The Balcony", the third of Genet's plays to be staged in New York. The production was the longest running Off-Broadway non-musical of the decade. Originally premiered in Paris in 1959, this 1961 New York production ran for 1,408 performances. The original cast featured James Earl Jones, Roscoe Lee Browne, Louis Gossett Jr., Cicely Tyson, Godfrey Cambridge, Maya Angelou and Charles Gordone.


title: Jean Genet

text: In 1950, Genet directed "Un Chant d'Amour", a 26-minute black-and-white film depicting the fantasies of a gay male prisoner and his prison warden. Genet is also credited as co-director of the West German television documentary "Am Anfang war der Dieb" (In the Beginning was the Thief) (1984), along with his co-stars Hans Neuenfels and François Bondy.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet's work has been adapted for film and produced by other filmmakers. In 1982, Rainer Werner Fassbinder released "Querelle", his final film, based on "Querelle of Brest". It starred Brad Davis, Jeanne Moreau and Franco Nero. Tony Richardson directed "Mademoiselle", which was based on a short story by Genet. It starred Jeanne Moreau with the screenplay written by Marguerite Duras. Todd Haynes' "Poison" was based on the writings of Genet.


title: Jean Genet

text: Several of Genet's plays were adapted into films. "The Balcony" (1963), directed by Joseph Strick, starred Shelley Winters as Madame Irma, Peter Falk, Lee Grant and Leonard Nimoy. "The Maids" was filmed in 1974 and starred Glenda Jackson, Susannah York and Vivien Merchant. Italian director Salvatore Samperi in 1986 directed another adaptation for film of the same play, "La Bonne" (Eng. "Corruption"), starring Florence Guerin and Katrine Michelsen.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet made an appearance by proxy in the pop charts when David Bowie released his 1972 hit single "The Jean Genie". In his 2005 book "Moonage Daydream", Bowie confirmed that the title "...was a clumsy pun upon Jean Genet". A later promo video combines a version of the song with a fast edit of Genet's 1950 movie "Un Chant d'Amour".


title: Jean Genet

text: Avant-garde musician/composer John Zorn's 1992 album, "Elegy", was inspired by and dedicated to Genet. The liner notes include an excerpt from Genet's "The Thief's Journal".


title: Jean Genet

text: A scene featuring Michael Douglas and Robert Downey Jr. from the 2000 film "Wonder Boys" makes reference to Genet.


title: Jean Genet

text: Genet is mentioned twice in the lyrics to the song "A Cocaine Christmas and an Alcoholic's New Year" by the English band Money on its 2016 studio album "Suicide Songs".


title: Jean Genet

text: Entries show: "English-language translation of title" ("French-language title") [year written] / [year first published]


title: Jean Genet

text: Entries show: "English-language translation of title" ("French-language title") [year written] / [year first published] / [year first performed]


title: Jean Genet

text: Spitzer, Mark, trans. 2010. "The Genet Translations: Poetry and Posthumous Plays". Polemic Press. See www.sptzr.net/genet_translations.htm


title: Jean Genet

text: Two of Genet's poems, "The Man Sentenced to Death" and "The Fisherman of the Suquet" were adapted, respectively, as "The Man Condemned to Death" and "The Thief and the Night" and set to music for the album "Feasting with Panthers", released in 2011 by Marc Almond and Michael Cashmore. Both poems were adapted and translated by Jeremy Reed.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael ( ), also called Great Skellig ( ), is a twin-pinnacled crag west of the Iveragh Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland. The island is named after the archangel Michael, with "Skellig" derived from the Irish language word , meaning a splinter of stone. Its twin island, Little Skellig (), is smaller and inaccessible (landing is not permitted). The two islands rose c. 374–360 million years ago during a period of mountain formation, along with the MacGillycuddy's Reeks mountain range. Later, they were separated from the mainland by rising water levels.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael consists of approximately of rock, with its highest point, known as the Spit, above sea level. The island is defined by its twin peaks and intervening valley (known as Christ's Saddle), which make its landscape steep and inhospitable. It is best known for its Gaelic monastery, founded between the 6th and 8th centuries, and its variety of inhabiting species, which include gannets, puffins, a colony of razorbills and a population of approximately fifty grey seals. The island is of special interest to archaeologists, as the monastic settlement is in unusually good condition. The rock contains the remains of a tower house, a megalithic stone row and a cross-inscribed slab known as the Wailing Woman. The monastery is situated at an elevation of , Christ's Saddle at , and the flagstaff area at above sea level.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The monastery can be approached by narrow and steep flights of stone steps which ascend from three landing points. The hermitage on the south peak contains a dangerous approach and is largely closed to the public. Because of the often difficult crossing from the mainland and the exposed nature of the landing spots, the island is accessible only during summer months. UNESCO designated Skellig Michael a World Heritage Site in 1996.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The word "Skellig" derives from the old Irish word "sceillec", which translates as "small or steep area of rock". The word is unusual in Irish placenames, and appears only in few other instances, including Bunskellig, County Cork, and the Temple-na-Skellig church in Glendalough, County Wicklow. It may be of Old Norse origin, from the word "skellingar" ("the resounding ones"). An early but rarely used alternative Irish name for the island is "Glascarraig" ("the green rock").


title: Skellig Michael

text: The first known reference to the Skelligs appears in the Irish annals; a retelling of a shipwreck occurring around 1400 BC, said to have been caused by the Tuatha Dé Danann, a supernatural race in Irish mythology. According to legend, Irr, son of Míl Espáine (who is sometimes credited with the colonisation of Ireland), was travelling from the Iberian Peninsula, but drowned and was buried on the island. Daire Domhain ("King of the World") is said to have stayed there c. 200 AD before attacking Fionn mac Cumhaill's army in nearby Ventry. A text from the 8th or 9th century records that Duagh, King of West Munster, fled to "Scellecc" after a feud with the Kings of Cashel sometime in the 5th century, although the historicity of the event has not been established. Other early mentions include in the narrative prose of the "Lebor Gabála Érenn" and "Cath Finntrágha", as well the medieval "Martyrology of Tallaght".


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael is a steep pyramidal rugged rock (or "crag") of on the Atlantic coast off the Iveragh peninsula of County Kerry. It is west north west of Bolus Head, at the southern end of Saint Finian's Bay. Its twin island, Little Skellig, is a mile closer to land, and far more inhospitable, because of its sheer cliff faces. The small Lemon Rock island is further inland. The nearby Puffin Island is another seabird colony. The Skelligs, along with some of the Blasket Islands, constitute the most westerly part of both Ireland and Europe excluding Iceland.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The island is defined by its two peaks: the north-east summit where the monastery is built (185 metres above sea level), and the south-west point containing the hermitage (218 metres above sea level). These elevations reside on either side of a depression colloquially known as Christ's Saddle.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The islands are composed of Old Red Sandstone and compressed slate, and were formed between 360 and 374 million years ago, as part of the rising of the MacGillycuddy's Reeks and Caha Mountains mountains ranges. This occurred during the Devonian period when Ireland was part of a larger continental landmass and located south of the equator. The region's topography of peaks and valleys are characterised by steep ridges formed during the Hercynian period of folding and mountain formation some 300 million years ago. When the Atlantic ocean level rose, it created deep marine inlets such as Bantry Bay and left the Skelligs detached from the mainland. The rock is highly compressed and contains numerous fracture lines and jointing. As a result of erosion along a major north–south-trending fault line containing bedrock much more brittle than that on surrounding areas, a large part of the rock broke away, resulting in Christ's Saddle, the depression between the peaks. The island's rock is deeply eroded through exposure to wind and water.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The Wailing Woman rock lies in the centre of the island, on the ascent before the Christ's Saddle ridge, above sea level, on of grassland. It is the only flat and fertile part of the island, and thus contains traces of medieval crop farming. The path from the Saddle to the summit is known as the Way of the Christ, a nomenclature that reflects the danger presented to climbers. Notable features on this stretch include the Needle's Eye peak, a stone chimney above sea level, and a series of 14 stone crosses with names such as the "Rock of the Women's piercing caoine", further references to the harsh climb. Further up is the Stone of Pain area, including the station known as the Spit, a long and narrow fragment of rock approached by steps. The ruin of the medieval church is lower and approached before the older monastery.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The island's three main bays are Blind Man's Cove to the east, Cross Cove to the south and Blue Cove to the north. Each can be used as access points from the sea. All three have steps carved into the rock from their landing point to above sea level. The main landing cove is on the recesses of the eastern side; known as Blind Man's Cove, it is exposed to sea swells and high waves, making approach difficult outside the summer months. The bay's pier is positioned under a sheer cliff face, populated by large numbers of birds. It was built in 1826 from an area known as the Flagstaff and leads to a small stairway leading to the now disused lighthouse. The steps divide into two staircases, the earliest and largely abandoned path leading directly to the monastery.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Blue Cove is the most difficult landing point and is only approachable on an average of 20 days per year. Noting the inaccessibility of the island, writer Des Lavelle observes that "the fact that the monks of old undertook the giant task of constructing a stairway to this bleak cove is a good argument that the weather conditions then were far better than now."


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael is lined by exposed sea cliffs and three bays. Its inland is mostly of thin soil on steep ground, with patches of vegetation which are, however, exposed to sea spray. Nonetheless, it has an ecology far more diverse than on the mainland; as an island, it provides sanctuary to wide varieties of flora and fauna, many of which are unusual to Ireland. It contains a large range of seabirds, now protected by the island's status as a nature reserve owned by the state. The Skellig Islands were classified as a Special Protection Area in 1986 when they were recognised for containing an unusually large variety and population of birds.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The island hosts eyries for peregrine falcons. Other birds of interest include fulmars, Manx shearwaters ("Puffinus puffinus"), storm petrels, gannets, kittiwakes, guillemots and Atlantic puffins. A herd of goats lived on the island until recently, and it supports a population of rabbits and house mice, both relatively recent introductions, probably introduced in the 19th century by lighthouse attendants. Grey seals haul out on the island's ledges.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael was largely uninhabited until the founding of the Augustinian monastery. Many of the islands of the west coast of Ireland contain early Christian monasteries, which were favoured because of their isolation and the abundance of rock for construction. A strong concentration of monasteries can be found off the coast of County Kerry, with nine in total found on islands off the Iveragh and Dingle peninsulas.


title: Skellig Michael

text: This establishment of a hermitage on the island was ordered by Arwystli (aka Aristobulus) who was appointed and ordained Bishop of Britain by the Apostle Paul. Arwystli was the spiritual instructor of Bran (Bran The Blessed son of Llyr Llediaith) of the Silurian dynasty. The purpose of the hermitage was the preservation of doctrine and protection of sacred texts of the Culdee church consisting of the full canon of the Essenes brought to Britain by Joseph Of Arimathea circa AD 37. The hermitage remained in use by Culdee anchorites and was visited by all the prominent Christian bards – Dewi, Teilo, and Padarn – for instruction and wisdom before their trip to Jerusalem. The hermitage was visited extensively by Cattwg Ddoeth, who took over its funding and had the first chapel built on the west side of the island. The last Culdee anchorite to live on the island was Gildas, a student of Cattwg Ddoeth. Gildas retired finally to Glastonbury where he wrote his "History Of The Britons". The island remains a sacred pilgrimage site for Culdee Christians, particularly for members of the Assembly Of Christian Israelites.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The "Annals of Inisfallen" record a Viking attack in 823. The "Annals" record that “Skellig was plundered by the heathen and Eitgal [the abbot] was carried off and he died of hunger on their hands.”


title: Skellig Michael

text: The site had been dedicated to Saint Michael by at least 1044 (when the death of "Aedh of Scelic-Mhichí" is recorded). However, this dedication may have occurred as early as 950, around which time a new church was added to the monastery (typically done to celebrate a consecration) and called Saint Michael's Church. The island may have been dedicated to St. Michael, the legendary slayer of serpents, based on a connection to St. Patrick. A thirteenth-century German source claims that Skellig was the final location of the battle between St. Patrick and the venomous snakes that plagued Ireland.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Each of the three landing areas lead to long flights of steps (known as the east, south and north steps) built by the first generations of monks to inhabit the island. They may have at one time formed part of a larger network; traces of other, possibly earlier steps have been uncovered elsewhere on the island. Archaeological evidence shows that basal sections of each series of steps were rock-cut, giving way to more stable dry stone masonry once they reached an altitude where the sea waves would no longer weather them. Later the base steps were replaced with dry-stone paths.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The north steps lead from Blue Cove and consist of two long and steep continuous flights known as the upper and lower steps. The upper pathway was built from dry stone but in places are in very poor condition; given the steep face on which they are built, they are prone to erosion and the impact of falling stone from the cliffs directly above. The lower rock-cut portion has been heavily weathered by the sea, and some of the ground around them has collapsed; the portions where steps are lost have been replaced with ramps. A parapet at their lowest base was added in the 1820s, and they were widened during the construction of the lighthouse.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The south steps are most commonly used today and merge with the north steps at Christ's Saddle, to lead to the monastery. They cross several archaeological features, including a prayer station and walling. They are in good condition and were probably repaired by the lighthouse builders. Their weakest point, directly above Christ's Saddle, suffers wear and tear from continual use by modern visitors and require continual maintenance. The landing steps may have been built by the lighthouse builders; 14 steps apart from the main landing are virtually inaccessible, stopping short at both ends and leading neither to the sea nor to the highest levels.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The base of the east steps above Blind Man's Cove was heavily blasted with dynamite in 1820 during the construction of the pier and Lighthouse Road and are now inaccessible from the landing point. The steps above this level, on a very steep climb along a sheer face, have been subject to conservation, most recently in 2002/2003 when large amounts of overgrowth were removed, and they are today in good condition.


title: Skellig Michael

text: According to some reports, climate change in the form of increased rainfall and increase in sea swells/severity of storms is a threat to Skellig Michael, with tourism likely to be affected by climate change.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The monastery is built into a terraced shelf above sea level. It contains two oratories, a cemetery, crosses, cross-slabs, six clochán-type domed beehive cells (of which one has fallen) and a medieval church. The cells and oratories are all of dry-built corbel construction, whereas the church, which was constructed at a later date, is of mortared stone.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The year of the monastery's foundation is unknown. Like many early Christian remnants in Kerry, it is sometimes attributed to Saint Finnia, though this is doubted by historians. The first definite reference to monastic activity on the island is a record of the death of "Suibhini of Skelig" dating from the 8th century; however, Fionán is claimed to have founded the monastery in the 6th century.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The "Annals of the Four Masters" detail events at the Skelligs between the 9th and 11th centuries. These entries suggest that Eitgall of Skellig, the monastery's abbot, was taken by the Vikings in 823 and died of starvation thereafter. The Vikings again attacked in 838, sacking churches in Kenmare town, Skellig and Innisfallen Island. The Augustinian abbey in Ballinskelligs was founded in 950, the same year that Blathmhac of Sceilig died. Finally, the annals mention the death of Aedh of Sceilig Michael in 1040.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The largest hut, known as cell A, has a floor area of 14.5 × 3.8 metres, and is 5 metres high. Like the other huts, its internal walls are straight before narrowing to accommodate its dome roof. Protruding stones in the interior, acting as pegs, are placed at about 2.5 metres to support the roof, and in some instances may have supported upstairs living quarters. Protruding stones on the exterior most likely acted as anchors for thatch roofing. Some cells contain recesses that may have been formed to contain cupboards. The main oratory is boat-shaped, and measures 3.6 × 4.3 metres. It has an altar a small window on its eastern wall. The small oratory is situated on its own terrace, at a relative distance from the main complex. It measures 2.4 × 1.8 × 2.4 metres and contains a low door (0.9 × 0.5 metres) and a comparatively large, one-metre-high window on its north-eastern wall.


title: Skellig Michael

text: St. Michael's Church dates to the 10th or early 11th century. It was originally constructed from mostly lime mortar with imported sandstone from Valentia Island. It is today mostly collapsed, with only its eastern window still standing. The centre of the church contains a modern gravestone, dated 1871, erected for members of the family of one of the lighthouse keepers.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The Monk's Graveyard is partially collapsed and smaller than when it was in active use. It contains stone crosses with mostly plain inscribed decorative patterns on its west side, two of which are highly detailed and believed to be early features of the site; in total over a hundred individual stone crosses have been found on the island. There are several large orthostats on its north and west sides. There are two dry stone leachta on the site. The larger is positioned between Saint Michael's Church and the main Oratory, and is thought to pre-date both, and once had a large upright cross at its western end, which is now broken off. The other is located against the monastery retaining wall at the south of the oratory. Human remains have been found underneath both.


title: Skellig Michael

text: It has been estimated that no more than twelve monks and an abbot lived at the monastery at any one time. The monastery was continuously occupied until the late 12th or early 13th century and remained a site for pilgrimage through to the modern era. The diet of the island monks was somewhat different from that of those on the mainland. With less arable land available to grow grain, vegetable gardens were an important part of monastic life. Of necessity, fish and the meat and eggs of birds nesting on the islands were staples. Theories for the site's abandonment include that the climate around Skellig Michael became colder and more prone to storms, Viking raids, and changes to the structure of the Irish Church. Probably a combination of these factors prompted the community to abandon the island and move to the abbey in Ballinskelligs. The move was recorded by the Cambro-Norman cleric and historian Giraldus Cambrensis at the end of the 12th century when he wrote that the monks had moved to a new site on the continent.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The hermitage is on the opposite side of the island to the monastery, below the south peak, and is significantly more difficult and hazardous to approach. Today, access to the south peak is restricted and only permitted after prior arrangement. It is approached from Christ's Saddle via a very narrow and steep series of rock-cut steps exposed on all sides to high winds, at times to near-hurricane force. The pathway passes through the Needle's Eye, a rock chimney formed by a narrow vertical crack in the peak. Though its origin and history are not as well studied as that of the monastery, the hermitage is thought to originate from the 9th century and comprises several enclosures and platforms situated on three main terraces cut into the rock. The terraces are known as the Oratory, Garden and Outer Terraces.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The oratory terrace, two hundred metres above sea level and fifteen metres below the summit, is the largest and is in good condition. The main oratory is still largely intact and contains its original altar, bench, a water cistern and what is likely the remnants of a shrine. The masonry work is typical of the Early Christian period in Ireland. It seems likely that the hermitage was built later than the monastery; given the presumed difficulty of its construction, which would have involved the movement of large pieces of stone up almost sheer cliff faces, the builders would have needed the monastery as a base. The eroding effect of frost on the island's major fault line provided the masons with large amounts of materials for the construction.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The interior of the main building measures 2.3 metres long and 1.2 metres wide. The enclosure wall is made from mostly small stones. Although it is now worn and mostly knocked down, it would once have been 1–1.5 metres high. The interior is today full of stone rubble fallen from the structure and the fragments of a 7-foot-tall stone cross. The leacht outside of it was probably used as a shrine or altar; it is too small to have been a burial site.


title: Skellig Michael

text: The outer terrace is situated on three stepped ledges some distance from the main complex and is difficult to access. Its only masonry consists of a 17-metre-long wall along its steep and exposed perimeter. Wondering why such an inaccessible and harsh outpost might have been built, the historian Walter Horn wrote that "the goal of an ascetic was not comfort" and recalled that the Cambrai Homily states: "This is our denial of ourselves, if we do not indulge our desires and if we abjure our sins. This is our taking-up of our cross upon us if we receive loss and martyrdom and suffering for Christ's sake."


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael remained in the possession of the Catholic Canons Regular until the dissolution of Ballinskelligs Abbey in 1578, a result of the reformation by Elizabeth I. Ownership of the islands passed to the Butler family (for rental of "two hawks and a quantity of puffin feathers yearly"), with whom it stayed until the early 1820s when the Corporation for Preserving and Improving the Port of Dublin (predecessor to the Commissioners of Irish Lights) purchased the island for £500 from John Butler of Waterville in a compulsory purchase order. The corporation constructed two lighthouses on the Atlantic side of the island, and associated living quarters, all of which was completed by 1826.


title: Skellig Michael

text: In 1871, Lord Dunraven, in his "Notes on Irish Architecture", made the first comprehensive archaeological survey of the island. Describing the monastery, he wrote "the scene is one so solemn and so sad that none should enter here but the pilgrim and the penitent. The sense of solitude, the vast heaven above and the sublime monotonous motion of the sea beneath would oppress the spirit, were not that spirit brought into harmony." He was less charitable of the lighthouse project and described their alterations as attributed to "the lighthouse workmen who...in 1838, built some objectionable modern walls". The Office of Public Works took the remains of the monastery into guardianship in 1880, before purchasing the island (with the exception of the lighthouses and associated structures) from the Commissioners of Irish Lights.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael was made a World Heritage Site in 1996. The International Council on Monuments and Sites (an advisory body of the World Heritage Committee) described Skellig Michael as of "exceptional universal value", and a "unique example of an early religious settlement", while also noting the site's preservation as a result of its "remarkable environment", and its ability to illustrate "as no other site can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterising much of North Africa, the Near East and Europe".


title: Skellig Michael

text: Several films and documentaries have used the island as a filming location. The island was used as a filming location in "" (2015) and "" (2017). Aerial footage of the island was also used in "" (2019). It also served as a location for the final scene in "Heart of Glass" (1976), and in "Byzantium" (2012).


title: Skellig Michael

text: In the first episode of the 1969 BBC documentary "", art historian Kenneth Clark described the island's buildings and pathways as "an extraordinary achievement of courage and tenacity". He observed that "looking back from the great civilizations of twelfth-century France or seventeenth-century Rome, it is hard to believe, that for quite a long time—almost a hundred years—western Christianity survived by clinging to places like Skellig Michael, a pinnacle of rock eighteen miles from the Irish coast, rising out of the sea."


title: Skellig Michael

text: Skellig Michael contains three landing points variously used by monks depending on the weather conditions. Today the island receives an average of 11,000 visitors per year. To protect the site, the Office of Public Works limits the number of visitors to 180 per day. The local climate and exposed terrain make the crossing from the mainland to Skellig Michael difficult. Once landed, the island's terrain is steep, unprotected and dangerous. The rock is ascended via 600 medieval stone steps leading towards the main island peak.


title: Skellig Michael

text: This remoteness and inaccessibility has long discouraged visitors, so the island is exceptionally well preserved. Tourism began in the late 19th century when a rowing boat could be hired for 25 shillings. It did not become a popular tourist destination until the early 1970s when small chartered passenger boats became more frequent; five were available in 1973 at a price of £3 per person. By 1990, the level of demand had grown to the extent that the Office of Public Works began to organise ten boats departing from four individual harbours.


title: Skellig Michael

text: Each year at least four boat licences are granted to tour operators who run trips to Skellig Michael during the summer season (May to October, inclusive), weather permitting. Even when conditions on the mainland are calm, the sea around the island can be turbulent. The area is a landing point for sea swells travelling in from distant depressions in the Atlantic. The island is lashed by water from all sides, with wave crests breaking at up to 10 metres over the pier and 45 metres along the lighthouse. When such large wave troughs recede, they can often expose ragged seaweed stumps, sponges and anemones on the rock faces, further hampering approach and landing.


title: Skellig Michael

text: A typical visit lasts about six hours. The Office of Public Works emphasises that the journey presents safety challenges. For safety reasons, mainly because the steps are steep, rocky, old and unprotected, climbs are not permitted during wet or windy weather. Dive sites immediately around the rock, mostly around Blue Cove, are permitted in summer.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood is an action-adventure first-person shooter video game developed by MachineGames and published by Bethesda Softworks. It was released on 5 May 2015 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The game is a stand-alone title in the "Wolfenstein" series and a prequel expansion to 2014's "", set in an alternate-history 1946. The single-player story follows war veteran William "B.J." Blazkowicz and his efforts to discover the locations of a Nazi compound. Development began in 2014, soon after the release of "The New Order".


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: The game is played from a first-person perspective and its levels are navigated on foot. The story is arranged in chapters which players complete in order to progress, separated into two interconnected campaigns. The game features a variety of weapons, including pistols, shotguns, and explosives, most of which can be dual wielded. A cover system is also present; players lean in and out of cover instead of the more common system where players lock into cover.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" received generally positive reviews. Many critics praised the game's intense firefights, intriguing locations, and the balance between stealth and action, but criticised the story.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" changes little from the basic gameplay of "The New Order". As such, it is an action-adventure shooter game played from a first-person perspective. To progress through the story, players take on enemies while navigating throughout levels. The game utilizes a health system in which players' health is divided into separate sections, "health" and "armor", that regenerate. If an entire section is lost, players must find and use a health pack or body armor piece, to replenish the missing health.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Players use melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies, and may run, jump and occasionally swim to navigate through the locations. Melee attacks can be used to silently take down enemies without being detected. Alternatively, players can ambush enemies, which will result in an intense firefight between the two parties. Enemy types vary; standard Nazi human soldiers, which vary in strength, robot-like characters known as Supersoldaten (Super Soldiers), giant mechanical dogs known as Panzerhunds, zombie-like Nazi soldiers and civilians known as Shamblers, and vicious dogs are some of the enemies players will encounter.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: In combat, a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies. Players have the ability to lean around, over, and under cover, which can be used as a tactical advantage during shootouts and stealth levels. Players have access to a weapon inventory, which allows the player to carry as many weapons as they find. With some of these weapons, players have the ability to dual wield, giving them an advantage over enemies by dealing twice as much damage. "The Old Blood" adds various weapons that were not featured in "The New Order", such as a steel pipe. The steel pipe is one of the biggest additions to the game; it consists of two small steel pipes which can be connected together to make a larger pipe. Both pipe states can be used as a melee attacks (each with their own animations) and in specific circumstances. The two small pipes, called "Pipes" in the weapon inventory, can be used to climb rock walls, and the large pipe, called "Pipe" in the inventory, is used to break open weak environmental surfaces. The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options—they can be found on the ground, retrieved from dead enemies, or removed from their stationary position and carried around. Weapon ammunition must be manually retrieved from the ground or from dead enemies.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: As with "The New Order", players can complete "Perks"; each Perk has a task the player can complete. Perks encourage the player to change their play style on the fly; collecting "helmets", getting silent kills, killing specific enemies a select number of times, getting a set number of kills with a specific weapon, and getting kills via explosives are some of the objectives. Once a Perk's task is complete, the player unlocks a bonus, such as more overall health or armor, more ammunition for a certain weapon, or the ability to gain health after a silent takedown. Various collectibles are also scattered throughout the levels; concept art, character models and bios, notes, which tell small side stories of the game, and gold bars are some of the collectibles.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Other modes in the game differing from the main chapters are Challenge Arenas and Nightmare Levels. Challenge Arenas unlock as the player progresses through the story and are accessed from the main menu. Being a basic arena battle mode, players fight waves of enemies to obtain a Bronze, Silver, or Gold medal. Nightmare Levels are accessed by finding and interacting with a bed that is hidden in each chapter. These levels take the form of levels from "Wolfenstein 3D"; the player moves through pixelated hallways, mostly equipped with just a pistol, fighting Nazi soldiers. The objective is to find a key that unlocks an elevator.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" takes place in an alternate history 1946, just prior to the prologue of "Wolfenstein: The New Order", with O.S.A. agents William "B.J." Blazkowicz (Brian Bloom) and Richard Wesley (taking up the codename Agent One) on a mission to infiltrate Castle Wolfenstein and obtain a top secret folder containing the location of "SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer" Wilhelm "Deathshead" Strasse from the castle's commander, Nazi archeologist and "Obersturmbannführer" Helga von Schabbs. Entering the castle disguised as Schutzstaffel officers, B.J. and Wesley fail to find the folder and are captured by Helga's lieutenant, "Sturmbannführer" Rudi Jäger, a massive and sadistic dog trainer who feeds captured prisoners to his mechanically augmented canines. While Wesley is dragged away by Rudi for interrogation, B.J. succeeds in escaping the prison cells and fighting his way through the castle. B.J. eventually locates Wesley strapped to an electric chair used by the Nazis for torture. Before B.J. can rescue Wesley, Rudi activates the chair and electrocutes him to death. Jäger then feeds Wesley's dead body to his prized albino dog, Greta, and straps B.J. into the chair to interrogate him. B.J. breaks free, injures Rudi, and kills Greta.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Escaping the castle, B.J. travels to the nearby village of Paderborn and meets up with the local German resistance leader, Ludwig Kessler, as well as Kessler's assistant Annette, a young Jewish girl whom Kessler is sheltering from the Nazis. Kessler's tavern is attacked by Nazi forces led by Rudi, wearing an experimental suit of power armor, whom B.J. defeats and kills. B.J., Kessler, and Annette flee via rowboat to the village of Wulfburg, where Helga is conducting an archeological excavation attempting to find a hidden underground vault containing occult knowledge previously possessed by King Otto I.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: After meeting up with O.S.A. operative Pippa (codenamed Agent Two), B.J. disguises himself as a waiter and infiltrates the tavern where Helga is staying. Helga sees through B.J.'s disguise and briefly captures him, but a massive earthquake caused by the Nazis opening the vault forces her and her cohort, "Obersturmführer" Emmerich Schreiner, to escape to the excavation site and leave B.J. behind. The opening of the vault also releases a gas that causes anyone that dies within the vicinity of Wulfburg to reanimate as hostile zombies known as "shamblers". B.J. makes his way through the burning ruins of Wulfburg while fighting the zombified Nazis and civilians who died in the earthquake. Agent Two is killed by a shambler, and B.J. has to kill her again when she reanimates as one. Returning to Kessler and Annette, B.J. finds the two of them have left their hiding spot in an attempt to find and rescue Annette's friend, Katrin.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: B.J. finds Annette and Kessler separated by a collapsing bridge and stranded on opposite buildings, and the player is given the choice of traveling to Annette's building or Kessler's building. The person B.J. travels to will be rescued by him, while the other person will be killed by the shamblers then put down by B.J. when they reanimate. B.J. then travels to the dig site in pursuit of Helga, finally encountering her and Schreiner within King Otto's vault. There he finds the source of the zombie-creating gas, an undead giant known as 'The Monstrosity,' a creature created by King Otto's alchemists as a weapon of war, then sealed away by the king after deciding it was an abomination. Helga is initially successful in using Old High German commands to control the monster, but when she attempts to order it to eat B.J., the monster kills her and Schreiner instead. B.J. fights and kills The Monstrosity, then finally obtains the secret folder from Helga's body. B.J. is extracted from Wulfburg by his friend Fergus Reid, and the two of them embark from RAF Kinloss to assassinate Deathshead and end the war, while B.J. thinks about the nature of monsters and hopes that he can finally rest after this .


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: The existence of "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" was first acknowledged by Bethesda Softworks on 4 March 2015, through the release of an announcement trailer. Footage of the game was showcased at PAX East on 6–7 March 2015. Though initially announced to only be available digitally, it was later confirmed that the game would also receive a physical retail release in Europe, Australia and New Zealand.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: The development team initially planned to create a series of individual downloadable content (DLC) packs, but later decided to change this to a standalone expansion pack. When this decision was made, development on two of the DLC was already underway, and the team decided to merge the two DLC into one standalone game. During this process, some members of the team experimented with creating artwork of the game in the style of movie posters from the 1960s, resulting in the inspiration to make the game have a "B movie vibe", though the game also took inspiration from films such as "The Dirty Dozen" (1967) and "Where Eagles Dare" (1968). The development team's decision to make the game a prequel was to allow players to experience the game without playing previous titles in the series. It also allowed the team to explore concepts that were mentioned in "The New Order". For the game, the team aimed to focus on gameplay. "It's something you can just play through and immediately have fun", said executive producer Jerk Gustafsson. The team also tried to create different route possibilities within the combat spaces, offering a balance between stealth and action sequences.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: At one point during the game, Blazkowicz encounters a group of inebriated Nazis singing in a tavern. Though the motion capture was performed by actors, the audio director requested for the voices to be performed by members of the development team; to achieve an accurate performance, members of the team learned some German, and became inebriated prior to recording.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: The team initially planned to reuse assets from "The New Order" in "The Old Blood", but ultimately altered most assets in some way. Due to the team's focus on eighth generation consoles and PC, they were able to achieve some rendering updates, as well as the creation of larger and more detailed environments in the game. The game also intentionally included several references to "Return to Castle Wolfenstein".


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" makes use of an original score, composed by musician Mick Gordon, who also composed the for "The New Order". To create music with a style reflecting the game, Gordon performed with a string quartet, spending time manipulating a broken mandolin and cello. He also placed some items inside a piano, to create a unique sound.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: For the German release of "The Old Blood", all Nazi symbols and references were removed; it is a criminal offence to display Nazi imagery on toys in Germany. The German software ratings board, Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle, later introduced the "social adequacy clause", which allowed the use of such imagery in relevant scenarios, reviewed on a case-by-case basis. Bethesda made the uncensored international version (which lacks German as a language option) available for purchase in Germany on 22 November 2019, while continuing to sell the censored and localised version separately.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" received "generally favorable reviews" on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Destructoid"'s Chris Carter praised the game for its brevity, saying that both episodes "don't waste as much time as some missions in ["The New Order"]. Both Castle Wolfenstein and Wulfburg are expansive enough to justify an entire game." He also said that "the development team does a good job of managing the pacing between stealth and action". Carter said that Helga Von Schabbs is a character that kept him "engaged" throughout the game, that he "slightly [preferred]" "The Old Blood" over "The New Order", and that choosing to play the game is a "no-brainer".


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "Polygon"'s Justin McElroy complimented the game's action gameplay, stating that he liked the choice of weapons, the gunplay, and the mix of stealth and action, while being critical of the game for not having the components that made "The New Order" great. ""The Old Blood" suggests B-movie camp", McElroy said, "there are barely any moments where the action slows down enough to develop the type of characters and motivation that charged the big combat set pieces in ["The"] "New Order"".


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Marty Sliva of IGN complimented the game's stealth puzzles, saying, "These scenes turn down the volume, but keep the tension high, as many enemies are able to tear you apart extremely quickly if you get caught." Sliva also "appreciated" the easter eggs referencing other Bethesda games, liked the firefights, which he called "satisfying", and praised the environment, which he said was "interesting". Sliva did however dislike the presence of zombies, the "weak" story, and having to manually pick up items. Sliva wrapped up his review by saying ""Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" doubles down on blood and guts, but in doing so sacrifices some of its heart."


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: "PC Gamer UK"'s Chris Thursten said, "what was novel a year ago isn't necessarily novel now". He was mostly positive of the game's action gunplay, calling it "excellent". He said the Challenge arenas are also a good addition that he'd like to see in future "Wolfenstein" games. Most negative comments were related to "The New Order", in Thursten's opinion, being superior to "The Old Blood". Thursten said ,"Nothing in "The Old Blood" exceeds what was achieved in "The New Order", and there are moments when the two are uncannily similar".


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: GamesRadar+'s Andi Hamilton praised the game's shooting gameplay, calling it "satisfying", the "strong" pacing, the visuals, particularly the set pieces, which he called "beautiful", and the fact it's a standalone game, Hamilton said it "works". Hamilton did however call the game's story "weak" compared to "The New Order", and said certain stealth sections were "rough". Hamilton summarized his review by saying ""Wolfenstein: The Old Blood" is another sterling effort from MachineGames, fast proving to be real players in the FPS genre. This add-on clearly has smaller scope than was found in "The New Order", keeping things much more 'down to Earth', but the core shooting experience that makes the reborn Wolfenstein such a pleasure to play remains perfectly intact. If you like shooting zombies and Nazis with extravagantly powerful weapons (and lets be honest here, who doesn’t?) this is well worth checking out."


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Matt Bertz of "Game Informer" said: "Had "The Old Blood" been injected with more new blood, maybe it would have matched or surpassed the quality of "The New Order". But by over-relying on nostalgia to drive the experience, it's well-crafted fan service rather than an attempt to push the series in new directions. For a standalone expansion that's not an unforgivable offense, but we're excited to see what Machine Games can do with the series now that this genealogical exercise is flushed out of its system."


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: In Japan, where the Xbox One version was ported for release on 28 May 2015, followed by the PlayStation 4 version on 4 June 2015, "Famitsu" gave it a score of two eights, one nine, and one eight for a total of 33 out of 40.


title: Wolfenstein: The Old Blood

text: Tom Hoggins of "The Daily Telegraph" gave the PS4 version four stars out of five and said, "For those that have played through "The New Order" and are keen for more of its beefy action, this delivers around 7 hours of it for a decent price. I’d argue "The Old Blood" also makes a satisfying starter to "The New Order"’s more substantial meal if you haven’t yet had a taste. A well-priced piece of downloadable content that works equally well on either side of the main game? Clever." David Jenkins of "Metro" gave the same console version eight out of ten and called it "A great follow-up to "The New Order", which cleverly reuses all of its best features and yet still finds time to add plenty of new elements of its own." Justin Clark of "Slant Magazine" gave it three-and-a-half stars out of five and called it "a wonderful palate cleanser, something to undo long-standing wrongs before diving in to a much deeper, gratifying installment. The conundrum is that the people who already know what MachineGames is capable of with this series have seen the future, and "The Old Blood" doesn't provide all that compelling a reason to return to the past." Christopher Byrd of "The Washington Post" gave the same console version an average review and said, "The game’s B-movie vibe is evocative of the work of those skilled filmmakers who embrace the silly or even the self-consciously stupid." Steve Tilley of "Toronto Sun" similarly gave the same console version a mixed review and stated, ""The Old Blood" is just OK. It’s a great deal for the price – as a $25 digital download via the PlayStation Store, the Xbox Games Store and Steam, it’s a rarity in an era when 25 bucks might get you a couple map packs’ worth of downloadable content – but I’ve discovered there’s such a thing as too old-school." Drew Toal of "The A.V. Club" gave the same console version a mixed review and said that it "just feels a little gratuitous". Ebenezer Samuel of "New York Daily News" gave the Xbox One version three stars out of five and called it "a less weighty experience overall."


title: Oshun

text: Ọṣun, is an orisha, a spirit, a deity, or a goddess that reflects one of the manifestations of the Yorùbá Supreme Being in the Ifá oral tradition and Yoruba-based religions of West Africa. She is one of the most popular and venerated Orishas. Oshun is an important river deity among the Yorùbá people. She is the goddess of divinity, femininity, fertility, beauty and love. She is connected to destiny and divination.


title: Oshun

text: During the life of the mortal Osun, she served as queen consort to King Shango of Oyo. Following her posthumous deification, she was admitted to the Yoruba pantheon as an aspect of a primordial divinity of the same name.


title: Oshun

text: She is the patron saint of the Osun River in Nigeria, which bears her name. The river has its source in Ekiti State, in the west of Nigeria, and passes through the city of Osogbo, where Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove, the principal sanctuary of the deity, is located. Oṣun is honored at the Osun-Osogbo Festival, a two-week-long annual festival that usually takes place in August, at the Oṣun-Osogbo Sacred Grove on the banks of the river.


title: Oshun

text: According to the Ifa Literary Corpus, Ọṣun was the only female Irunmole (primordial spirit) sent to assist Shango to create the world by Olodumare. The other spirits that were sent began the work and ignored Ọṣun. Ọṣun went to her partner Shango for guidance. Two versions of this story exist. One claims that female spirits were tempted to take matters into their own hands, but all of their creative attempts failed because they acted without male spiritual leadership. Another version, and this one more consistent with the beginning of the story, claims that the male spirits attempted to make the world without female influence, and this exclusion is what caused the world to fail. The former version appears to reflect a patriarchal influence on orisha narratives that sprang up with the influence of Abrahamic religions, while the second is more in line with traditional orisha beliefs, which revere feminine power. Both story versions end with Shango forcing the other spirits hand to respect Oṣun as they would him. Through her sacrifice, Olodumare - the Supreme God - granted her the powers of an Oriṣa.


title: Oshun

text: While still a mortal, Oṣun is said to have gone to a drum festival one day and to have fallen in love with Shango. Since that day, Shango has been married to Oba, Oya, and Osun, though the last mentioned is said to be his favourite. Other stanzas in the Ifa Literary Corpus say that she was also married to Orunmila, who later became the Orisha of Wisdom and Divination.


title: Oshun

text: Osun is the orisha of the river. Her devotees leave her offerings and perform ceremonies at bodies of fresh water such as rivers, streams and canals.


title: Oshun

text: Ọṣun is a female orishá adopted and worshiped in all Afro-Brazilian religions. She is the orishá of the fresh water of rivers and waterfalls; of wealth and prosperity; of love; and of beauty. Followers seek help for romantic problems from Osun; the orisha is also responsible for marriage and other relationships. As the orishá of financial life, she is also called the "Lady of Gold". This referred to copper at one time for being the most valuable metal of the time. Osun is worshiped at rivers and waterfalls, and more rarely, near mineral water sources. She is a symbol of sensitivity and is identified by weeping.


title: Oshun

text: In Candomblé Bantu, Osun is called Nkisi Ndandalunda, the Lady of Fertility and Moon. Hongolo and Kisimbi have similarities with Osun, and the three are often confused.


title: Oshun

text: In Candomblé Ketu, Osun is the deity of fresh water; the patron of gestation and fecundity; and receives the prayers of women who wish to have children and protect them during pregnancy. Osun also protects small children until they begin to speak; she is affectionately called "Mamãe" ("Mama") by her devotees.


title: Oshun

text: Plants associated with Osun in Brazil are aromatic, sweet, and often yellow, reflecting the qualities of the Orisha. They include mints ("Lamiacaea"). Osun is associated with the folha-de-dez-réis ("Hydrocotyle cybelleta"), a plant of the pennywort family. Many species are brilliant yellow, reflecting Osun's association with gold and wealth. She is also associated with folha-da-fortuna, or "Kalanchoe pinnata".


title: Oshun

text: Ozun is another major Orisha that is distinct from Oṣun, the latter whom is also called "Oshun" and "Ochún" in the Santería religion of the Caribbean (Cuba, Puerto Rico and Trinidad) brought over by Yoruba people during the transatlantic slave trade. While Ozun is a masculine Orisha associated with John the Baptist, Ochún is syncretized with Our Lady of Charity.


title: Oshun

text: A violín is a type of musical ceremony in Regla de Ocha performed for Osún. It includes both European classical music and Cuban popular music.


title: Teryl Rothery

text: Teryl Rothery is a Canadian actress of stage, television, and film. She is best known for portraying Janet Fraiser in the TV series "Stargate SG-1". She co-starred as Grace Sherman in "Cedar Cove", and has had major roles as Muriel in "Virgin River", Jean Loring in "Arrow" and Celia Hudson in "Nancy Drew". She has been involved in a number of television movies.


title: Teryl Rothery

text: Rothery began dance lessons at age nine, and in 1995 looked upon that as the beginning of her career in entertainment. Her first professional outings as a performer were in the musical "Bye Bye Birdie" at age 13 and in the Marpole Community Theatre's production of "The Sound of Music" at age 14. As a youth, she danced on "The Irish Rovers" variety television series, and at age 18, she first appeared on television with a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television special for Halloween. From ages 19–27, Rothery switched to radio, variously working and performing for CJAZ-FM, KISS-FM, and CKWX.


title: Teryl Rothery

text: For her performance in "A Delicate Balance", Rothery was nominated for a Jessie Richardson Theatre Award (2006–2007) in the category of "Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role, Small Theatre". In 2008, she was nominated for a Leo Award (in the category of "Best Performance by a Female in a Short Drama") for performing in "Coffee Diva"; she was nominated again in 2009 ("Best Supporting Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series") for her work on "The Guard". Two more Leo nominations were for acting in "The Collector", and portraying Janet Fraiser in "Stargate SG-1".


title: Teryl Rothery

text: Rothery describes herself as a native of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, having been raised there by her grandparents. She has a daughter, Londyn (b. 2008).


title: Château d'If

text: The Château d'If () is a fortress located on the Île d'If, the smallest island in the Frioul archipelago, situated about offshore from Marseille in southeastern France. Built in the 16th century, it later served as a prison until the end of the 19th century. The fortress was demilitarized and open to the public in 1890. It is famous for being one of the settings of Alexandre Dumas's adventure novel "The Count of Monte Cristo".


title: Château d'If

text: The Île d'If measures and is located west of the Old Port of Marseille. The entire island is heavily fortified; high ramparts with gun platforms surmount the cliffs, which rise steeply from the surrounding ocean. Apart from the fortress, the island is uninhabited.


title: Château d'If

text: The "château" is a square, three-story building long on each side, flanked by three towers with large gun embrasures. It was built from 1524–31 on the orders of King Francis I, who, during a visit in 1516, saw the island as a strategically important location for defending the coastline from sea-based attacks.


title: Château d'If

text: The castle's principal military value was as a deterrent; it never had to fight off an actual attack. The closest that it came to a genuine test of strength was in July 1531, when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V made preparations to attack Marseille. However, he abandoned the invasion plan.


title: Château d'If

text: In 1701, the military engineer Vauban questioned its suitability to defend against an actual attack: "The fortifications look like the rock[;] they are fully rendered, but very roughly and carelessly, with many imperfections. The whole [has] been very badly built[...] with little care [...] All the buildings [are] very crudely done [and] ill made."


title: Château d'If

text: The embalmed body of general Jean Baptiste Kléber was repatriated to France after his assassination in Cairo in 1800. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, fearing that his tomb would become a symbol to Republicanism, ordered that the body stay at the château. It remained there for 18 years, until King Louis XVIII granted Kléber a proper burial in his native Strasbourg.


title: Château d'If

text: The isolated location and dangerous offshore currents of the Château d'If made it an ideal escape-proof prison, very much like the island of Alcatraz in California in more recent times. Its use as a dumping ground for political and religious detainees soon made it one of the most feared and notorious jails in France. Over 3,500 Huguenots (French Calvinists/identifying Christians) were sent to Château d'If, as was Gaston Crémieux, a leader of the Paris Commune, who was shot there in 1871.


title: Château d'If

text: The island became internationally famous in the 19th century when Alexandre Dumas used it as a setting for his novel "The Count of Monte Cristo", published to widespread acclaim in 1844. In the novel, the main character Edmond Dantès (a commoner who later purchases the noble title of Count) and his mentor, Abbé Faria, were both imprisoned in it. After fourteen years, Dantès makes a daring escape from the castle, becoming the first person ever to do so and survive. In reality, no one is known to have done this. The modern Château d'If maintains a roughly hewn dungeon in honour of Dantès as a tourist attraction.


title: Château d'If

text: As was common practice in those days, prisoners were treated differently according to their class and wealth. The poorest were placed at the bottom, being confined perhaps twenty or more to a cell in windowless dungeons under the castle. However, the wealthiest inmates were able to pay for their own private cells (or "pistoles") higher up, with windows, a garderobe and a fireplace.


title: Château d'If

text: The château's use as a prison ceased at the end of the 19th century. It was demilitarized and opened to the public on 23 September 1890. It can be reached by boat from Marseille's old port. Its fame comes from the setting for Dumas' novel, "The Count of Monte Cristo". This fame has made the prison a popular tourist destination.


title: Château d'If

text: Mark Twain visited the château in July 1867 during a months-long pleasure excursion. He recounts his visit in his book, "The Innocents Abroad". He says a guide took his party into the prison, which was not yet open to the public, and inside the cells, one of which he says housed the "Iron Mask". There is a sign at the château that says "Prison dite de l'Homme au Masque de Fer" ("Said to be the prison of the Man in the Iron Mask"), but this is likely only legend since the famed Man in the Iron Mask was never held at the Château d'If.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza (), is one of the 32 states of Mexico.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila borders the Mexican states of Nuevo León to the east, Zacatecas to the south, and Durango and Chihuahua to the west. To the north, Coahuila accounts for a stretch of the Mexico–United States border, adjacent to the U.S. state of Texas along the course of the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte). With an area of , it is the nation's third-largest state. It comprises 38 municipalities "(municipios)". In 2020, Coahuila's population is 3,146,771 inhabitants.


title: Coahuila

text: The largest city and State Capital is the city of Saltillo; the second largest is Torreón (largest metropolitan area in Coahuila and 9th largest in Mexico); the third largest is Monclova (a former state capital); the fourth largest is Ciudad Acuña; and the fifth largest is Piedras Negras.


title: Coahuila

text: The name Coahuila derives from native terms for the region, and has been known by variations such as Cuagüila and Cuauila. Some historians believe that this means “flying serpent”, “place of many trees”, or “place where serpents creep”. The official name of the state is Coahuila de Zaragoza, in honor of General Ignacio Zaragoza.


title: Coahuila

text: The Spanish explored the north of Mexico some decades after their victory in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs. Such exploration was delayed because the northern climate was harsher and there was no gold. The first Spanish settlement in the region now called Coahuila was at Minas de la Trinidad in 1577. Saltillo was settled in 1586, to form part of the province of Nueva Vizcaya of the Vice-royalty of New Spain. Later it became one of the first provinces of Nueva Extremadura to be explored by Europeans. Among the 16th century settlers of Saltillo and other communities in Nueva Vizcaya were Tlaxcalans, who founded an independent community bordering Saltillo, called San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila y Tejas was one of the constituent states of the newly independent United Mexican States under their 1824 Constitution, and included Texas, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Later in the same year Nuevo León was detached, but Texas remained a part of the state until 1836, when it seceded to form the Republic of Texas. Monclova was the capital of the state from 1833 to 1835.


title: Coahuila

text: In 1840 Coahuila briefly became a member of the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande. In the mid-19th century, the Sánchez Navarro family owned a ranch of mostly in Coahuila. It was the largest privately-owned property in the Americas.


title: Coahuila

text: On February 19, 1856, Santiago Vidaurri annexed Coahuila to his state, Nuevo León, but it regained its separate status in 1868.


title: Coahuila

text: On April 4, 2004, the border city of Piedras Negras was flooded. More than 30 people died and more than 4,000 lost their homes. In 2007 Coahuila became the first state in Mexico to offer civil unions (Pacto Civil de Solidaridad) to same-sex couples.


title: Coahuila

text: The Sierra Madre Oriental runs northwest to southeast through the State, and the higher elevations are home to the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests. The northernmost fingers of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen, reach to the border with the United States at the Rio Grande.


title: Coahuila

text: East of the range, the land slopes gently toward the Rio Grande, and is drained by several rivers, including the Salado and its tributary, the Sabinas River. The Tamaulipan mezquital, a dry shrubland ecoregion, occupies the eastern portion of the State, and extends across the Rio Grande into southern Texas.


title: Coahuila

text: The portion of the State west of the Sierra Madre Oriental lies on the Mexican Plateau, and is part of the Chihuahuan Desert. The Bolsón de Mapimí is a large endorheic basin which covers much of the western portion of the State and extends into adjacent portions of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. The Nazas River, which flows east from Durango, and the Aguanaval River, which flows north from Zacatecas, empty into lakes in the Bolsón. Torreón, the most populous city in the State, lies on the Nazas in the irrigated Laguna Region, the "(Comarca Lagunera)", which straddles the border of Coahuila and Durango.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila contains two biosphere reserves. Maderas del Carmen lies on the northern border of the State, and includes sections of the Chihuahuan desert and sky islands of pine-oak forest in the Sierra del Carmen. The springs, lakes, and wetlands of the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin lie west of Monclova on the west slope of the Sierra Madre.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila is largely arid or semi-arid, but the rivers of the State support extensive irrigated agriculture, particularly cotton. The Parras district in the southern part of the State produces wines and brandies. The pine-oak forests of the Sierra Madre produce timber.


title: Coahuila

text: The last population census run across Mexico in the year 2020, reports Coahuila de Zaragoza as having 3,146,771 inhabitants, which, considering its size, means that the state has a very low density, in fact as low as only 15 persons per square kilometer.


title: Coahuila

text: Coahuila's population is mainly made up of Criollos along with Mestizos. Fewer than 7,500 natives reside in Coahuila, or merely 0.3% of the total population. The rest of the population is composed of Americans, Canadian, and Japanese communities. According to the 2020 Census, 1.46% of Coahuila's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.


title: Coahuila

text: The rest of the demographic particulars in the state are very similar to national averages, such as a high life expectancy (reaching 75 years of age) and a Catholic majority.


title: Coahuila

text: Basic public education in Coahuila is mainly managed by the state's Secretary of Education, but federal-sustained schools are also very common. There are also a lot of private schools in the main cities of the state.


title: Coahuila

text: Saltillo and the Southeast region have one of the largest automobile industry in the country and the major industry in the state, hosting companies such as General Motors and Chrysler assembly plants.


title: Coahuila

text: Torreón has Met-Mex Peñoles, a mining company. The city is the world's largest silver producer and Mexico's largest gold producer. It also has Lala, a dairy products company, which produces 40% of Mexico's milk consumption and distribution.


title: Coahuila

text: As of 2005, Coahuila's economy represents 3.5% of Mexico's total gross domestic product or US$22,874 million. Coahuila's economy has a strong focus on export oriented manufacturing (i.e. maquiladora / INMEX). As of 2005, 221,273 people are employed in the manufacturing sector. Foreign direct investment in Coahuila was US$143.1 million for 2005. The average wage for an employee in Coahuila is approximately 190 pesos per day.


title: Coahuila

text: On the other hand, Coahuila is the Mexican state with the highest level of public debt in the nation.


title: Coahuila

text: Newspapers of Coahuila include: "El Diario de Coahuila", "El Guardián", "El Heraldo de Saltillo", "El Siglo de Torreón", "Esto del Norte", "La I (Laguna)", "la I (Saltillo)", "La Opinión Milenio", "La Voz de Coahuila (Monclova)", "Noticias de El Sol de la Laguna", "Vanguardia", "Zócalo (Monclova)", "Zócalo (Piedras Negras)", "Zócalo El Periódico de Saltillo", and "Zócalo Saltillo."


title: New Order discography

text: The discography of New Order, an English rock band, consists of 10 studio albums, 12 compilation albums, six live albums, five extended plays (EPs), 45 singles, 12 video releases, 40 music videos and a number of soundtrack appearances. New Order were formed in 1980 by singer, guitarist and keyboardist Bernard Sumner, bassist Peter Hook and drummer Stephen Morris. The group began life as a continuation of their former incarnation Joy Division. Joy Division had disbanded after the death of the lead singer Ian Curtis. Gillian Gilbert, who was Morris' girlfriend at the time, soon joined the group and played guitar and keyboards.


title: New Order discography

text: Remarkably, New Order's first eight singles released between 1981 and 1984 were not taken from any album. In most cases they were not even released as a 7-inch, but exclusively available in the radio-unfriendly 12-inch format, an unusual approach for a pop-act in the eighties.


title: New Order discography

text: Despite the high anticipation that surrounded the group, their debut single "Ceremony" only peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart. The group's following two singles and their debut album met with similar moderate success. It would not be until the release of their fourth single, "Blue Monday", that New Order would break into the top 10, with the song peaking at number 9. "Blue Monday" became a defining single for the group and caused a sensation, becoming the biggest selling 12-inch single of all time.


title: New Order discography

text: New Order, like many other post-punk groups of the period, increasingly utilised keyboards, drum machine and sequencers in their music. As a result, they became associated with the synthpop and electronic dance movements of the 1980s. Beginning with "Power, Corruption & Lies" from 1983, all of the group's studio albums reached the top 10 in the United Kingdom. The group experienced a lull in popularity in the years 1985 and 1986 but the surprise international popularity of the "Bizarre Love Triangle" single re-launched the group across the world. The group cemented their success in 1987 with the single, "True Faith", and the compilation album "Substance".


title: New Order discography

text: New Order were at the peak of their popularity in the years 1987 to 1993, with a run of popular singles, including "Blue Monday 1988", "Fine Time", "Regret", "World (The Price of Love)" and in 1990 they scored their only number 1 single in the UK with the official England national football team song, "World in Motion". The two albums released during these years, "Technique" and "Republic"; each charted at number 1 in the UK. It was during this successful period that the group's internal dynamic began to falter. Sumner was not fond of touring, and wanted to take time off from the group and produce a solo album. He formed Electronic with Johnny Marr and the pair released their first single in 1989. Hook formed his own band, Revenge, in 1989, while Morris and Gilbert worked together as The Other Two, primarily scoring soundtracks. Of the three side projects, Sumner's was by far the most successful.


title: New Order discography

text: The recording and touring of 1993's "Republic", their first for London Records, was difficult and intra-band tensions were rife. The group went on hiatus until 1998. In the meantime two compilation albums, "The Best of New Order" and "The Rest of New Order", and several singles were released.


title: New Order discography

text: The group reconvened in 1998 for the Reading Festival but did not release new material until 2000. The group released the album "Get Ready" in 2001. It was met with critical warmth, but it was apparent that the group's popularity had lessened. The lead single from the album, "Crystal", reached the top 10 in the UK. The film "24 Hour Party People", a humorous chronicle of their label Factory Records, was released in 2002. New Order contributed a new song, "Here to Stay", and a re-recording of the Joy Division song "New Dawn Fades" with Moby, for the film's soundtrack. The compilation "International" and four-disc boxset "Retro" were released in winter 2002. New Order followed "Get Ready" with "Waiting for the Sirens' Call" in 2005. During this period Gilbert stepped down from live performances due to family commitments. Phil Cunningham stepped into her role and in 2005 became an official member of the group.


title: New Order discography

text: The group had intended to release a ninth album soon after "Waiting for the Sirens' Call", the majority of which had already been recorded. The lack of enthusiasm inside the group and relative failure of "Waiting for the Sirens' Call" stalled their career momentum. In 2007, Hook decided to leave the group, and stated that he and Sumner had no further plans to work together. Sumner formed Bad Lieutenant with Cunningham, and Hook formed Freebass. Morris continued to work with Sumner and Cunningham. In 2008, New Order released remastered and expanded editions of their first five albums with the intention of releasing the further three albums in a similar format in the future.


title: New Order discography

text: "Lost Sirens" was released in the United Kingdom on 14 January 2013. It is an eight-track album of tracks left out of "Waiting for the Sirens' Call". On 25 September 2015, the band released a new album, "Music Complete". The album was the first without Peter Hook, and was produced mostly by the band themselves, except "Singularity" and "Unlearn This Hatred", both produced by Tom Rowlands, while "Superheated" features additional production by Stuart Price. In 2020, New Order released "Be a Rebel", their first non-album single since "Here to Stay" in 2002.


title: New Order discography

text: In the US, the band has sold a certified 2 million albums, and in the UK a certified 1.24 million albums.


title: Tagalog people

text: The Tagalog people (; Baybayin: ᜋᜅ ᜆᜄᜎᜓᜄ᜔) are the largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines, numbering at around 30 million. An Austronesian people, the Tagalog have a well developed society due to their cultural heartland, Manila, being the capital city of the Philippines. They are native to the Metro Manila and Calabarzon regions of southern Luzon, and comprise the majority in the provinces of Bulacan, Bataan, Nueva Ecija and Aurora in Central Luzon and in the islands of Marinduque and Mindoro in Mimaropa.


title: Tagalog people

text: The commonly perpetuated origin for the endonym "Tagalog" is the term "tagá-ilog", which means "people from [along] the river" (the prefix "tagá-" meaning "coming from" or "native of"). However, this explanation is a mistranslation of the correct term "tagá-álog", which means "people from the ford".


title: Tagalog people

text: Before the colonial period, the term "Tagalog" was originally used to differentiate river dwellers ("taga-ilog") from mountain dwellers ("taga-bundok", less common "tingues") between Nagcarlan and Lamon Bay, despite speaking the same language. Further exceptions include the present-day Batangas Tagalogs, who referred to themselves as people of Kumintang - a distinction formally maintained throughout the colonial period.


title: Tagalog people

text: Allegiance to a bayan differentiated between its natives called "tawo" and foreigners, who either also spoke Tagalog or other languages - the latter called "samot" or "samok".


title: Tagalog people

text: Beginning in the Spanish colonial period, documented foreign spellings of the term ranged from "Tagalos" to "Tagalor".


title: Tagalog people

text: Like the majority of Filipinos, the Tagalog people primarily descend from seafaring Austronesians who migrated southwards to the Philippine islands from the island of Taiwan some 4,000 years ago. Contact with the much earlier Negritos resulted in a gradually developed scenario seen throughout the Philippine archipelago of coastal, lowland, predominantly Austronesian-speaking seafaring settlements and land-based Negrito hunter-gatherers confined to forested and mountainous inlands, along with inland Austronesians oriented towards rivers. Both groups variably mixed with each other from millennia of general coexistence, yet even up to Spanish advent social distinctions between them still remained.


title: Tagalog people

text: As Filipinos, the Tagalogs are related to the Austronesian-speaking peoples of present-day Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, and the more distant Micronesians, Polynesians, and Malagasy.


title: Tagalog people

text: Tagalog and other Philippine histories in general are highly speculative before the 10th century, primarily due to lack of written sources. Most information on precolonial Tagalog culture is documented by observational writings by early Spanish explorers in the mid-16th century, alongside few precedents from indirect Portuguese accounts and archaeological finds.


title: Tagalog people

text: The maritime oriented barangays of pre-Hispanic Tagalogs is shared with other coastal peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The roughly three-tiered Tagalog social structure of "maginoo" (royalty), "timawa"/"maharlika" (freemen usually of lower nobility), and "alipin" (bondsmen, slaves, debt peons) have almost identical cognates in Visayan, Sulu, and Mindanawon societies. Most barangays were networked almost exclusively by sea traffic, while smaller scale inland trade was typified as lowlander-highlander affairs. Barangays, like other Philippine settlements elsewhere, practiced seasonal sea raiding for vengeance, slaves, and valuables alongside headhunting, except for the relatively larger suprabarangay "bayan" of the Pasig River delta that served as a hub for slave trading. Such specialization also applied to other large towns like Cebu, Butuan, Jolo, and Cotabato.


title: Tagalog people

text: Tagalog barangays, especially around Manila Bay, were typically larger than most Philippine polities due to a largely flat geography of their environment hosting extensive irrigated rice agriculture (then a prestigious commodity) and particularly close trade relations with Brunei, Malacca, China ("sangley"), Siam, Champa, and Japan, from direct proximity to the South China Sea tradewinds. Such characteristics gave early Spanish impressions of Tagalogs as "more traders than warriors," although raids were practiced. Neighboring Kapampangan barangays also shared these characteristics.


title: Tagalog people

text: Although at the periphery of the larger Maritime Silk Road like much of Borneo, Sulawesi and eastern Indonesia, notable influences from Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to southwest Luzon and other parts of the Philippine archipelago by largely intermediate Bornean, Malay, Cham, and Javanese traders by this time period, likely much earlier. The earliest document in Tagalog and general Philippine history is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI), bearing several place names speculated to be analogous to several towns and barangays in predominantly Tagalog areas ranging from present-day Bulacan to coastal Mindoro.


title: Tagalog people

text: The text is primarily in Old Malay and shows several cultural and societal insights into the Tagalogs during time period. The earliest recognized Tagalog polity is Tondo, mentioned as Tundun, while several other place names are theorized to be present-day Pila or Paila, Bulacan (Pailah), Pulilan (Puliran), and Binuangan. Sanskrit, Malay, and Tagalog honorifics, names, accounting, and timekeeping were used. Chiefs were referred as either "pamagat" or "tuhan", while "dayang" was likely female royalty. All aforementioned polities seem to have close relations elswhere with the polities of Dewata and Mdang, theorized to be present-day area of Butuan in Mindanao and the Mataram Kingdom in Java.


title: Tagalog people

text: Additonally, several records from Song China and Brunei mention a particular polity called Ma-i, the earliest in 971. Several places within Tagalog-speaking areas contend for its location: Bulalacao (formerly "Mait"), Bay, and Malolos. Ma-i had close trade relations with the Song, directly importing manufactured wares, iron, and jewelry and retailing to "other islands," evident of earlier possible Tagalog predominance of resaling Chinese goods throughout the rest of the Philippine islands before its expicit role by Maynila in the 16th century.


title: Tagalog people

text: The growth of these Tagalog societies until the middle of the 16th century made it possible for other Tagalog societies to spread and develop various cultural practices such as those concerning the dambana. During the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the Sultanate of Brunei decided to break Tondo's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and establishing Selurung as a Bruneian satellite-state.


title: Tagalog people

text: The largest, most powerful bayan in the 16th century were Tondo (north Pasig delta), Maynila (south Pasig delta), Namayan (Pasig upstream), Kumintang (western coast of present-day Batangas), and Pangil (east and south coasts of Laguna de Bay). The first two barangay unification were most likely triggered by conflicts between the two Tagalog sides of the river, while the Namayan unification was most likely triggered by economic means as all trade between the barangays around Laguna de Bay and barangays at Manila Bay need to pass through Namayan via the Pasig river. The unification of Kumintang barangays was probably due to economic ties as traders from East Asia flocked the area, while the unification of Pangil barangays was said to be due to a certain Gat Pangilwhil unified the barangays under his lakanship. Present-day Tondo is the southern section of Manila's Tondo district, while present-day Maynila is Manila's Intramuros district. Present-day Namayan is Manila's Santa Ana district. Present-day Pangil is the eastern and southern shores of Laguna and a small portion of northern Quezon province. Present-day Kumintang is the areas of western Batangas. The Kumintang barangays are sometimes referred as the 'homeland' of the Tagalog people, however, it is contested by the Tagalogs of Manila.


title: Tagalog people

text: Tomé Pires noted that the Luções, people from Luzon, were "mostly heathen" and were not much esteemed in Malacca at the time he was there, although he also noted that they were "strong, industrious, given to useful pursuits". Pires' exploration led him to discover that in their own country, the Luções had foodstuffs, wax, honey, inferior grade gold, had no king, and were governed instead by a group of elders. They traded with tribes from Borneo and Indonesia and Filipino historians note that the language of the Luções was one of the 80 different languages spoken in Malacca. When Magellan's ship arrived in the Philippines, Pigafetta noted that there were Luções there collecting sandalwood. Contact with the rest of Southeast Asia led to the development of the baybayin script later used in the "Doctrina Cristiana", written by the 16th century Spanish colonizers.


title: Tagalog people

text: On May 19, 1571, Miguel López de Legazpi gave the title "city" to the colony of Manila. The title was certified on June 19, 1572. Under Spain, Manila became the colonial entrepot in the Far East. The Philippines was a Spanish colony administered under the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Governor-General of the Philippines who ruled from Manila was sub-ordinate to the Viceroy in Mexico City. Throughout the 333 years of Spanish rule, various grammars and dictionaries were written by Spanish clergymen, including "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala" by Pedro de San Buenaventura (Pila, Laguna, 1613), Pablo Clain's "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala" (beginning of the 18th century), "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala" (1835), and "Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog para la administración de los Santos Sacramentos" (1850) in addition to early studies of the language. The first substantial dictionary of Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by P. Juan de Noceda and P. Pedro de Sanlucar and published as "Vocabulario de la lengua tagala" in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly re-edited, with the last edition being in 2013 in Manila. The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar (1788–1862) is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, his most notable work being the early 19th-century epic "Florante at Laura".


title: Tagalog people

text: Prior to Spanish arrival and Catholic seeding, the ancient Tagalog people used to cover the following: present-day Calabarzon region except the Polillo Islands, northern Quezon, Alabat island, the Bondoc Peninsula, and easternmost Quezon; Marinduque; Bulacan except for its eastern part; and southwest Nueva Ecija, as much of Nueva Ecija used to be a vast rainforest where numerous nomadic ethnic groups stayed and left. When the polities of Tondo and Maynila fell due to the Spanish, the Tagalog-majority areas grew through Tagalog migrations in portions of Central Luzon and north Mimaropa as a Tagalog migration policy was implemented by Spain. This was continued by the Americans when they defeated Spain in a war.


title: Tagalog people

text: The first documented Asian-origin people to arrive in North America after the beginning of European colonization were a group of Filipinos known as "Luzonians" or Luzon Indians who were part of the crew and landing party of the Spanish galleon "Nuestra Señora de la Buena Esperanza". The ship set sail from Macau and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California coast on October 17, 1587, as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies (the colonial name for what would become the Philippines) and New Spain (Spain's Viceroyalty in North America). More Filipino sailors arrived along the California coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire. By 1763, "Manila men" or "Tagalas" had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana.


title: Tagalog people

text: The Tagalog people played an active role during the 1896 Philippine Revolution and many of its leaders were either from Manila or surrounding provinces. The first Filipino president was Tagalog creole Emilio Aguinaldo. The Katipunan once intended to name the Philippines as "Katagalugan," or the Tagalog Republic, and extended the meaning of these terms to all natives in the Philippine islands. Miguel de Unamuno described Filipino propagandist José Rizal (1861–1896) as the "Tagalog Hamlet" and said of him “a soul that dreads the revolution although deep down desires it. He pivots between fear and hope, between faith and despair.” In 1902, Macario Sakay formed his own Republika ng Katagalugan in the mountains of Morong (today, the province of Rizal), and held the presidency with Francisco Carreón as vice president.


title: Tagalog people

text: Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the in 1897. In 1935, the Philippine constitution designated English and Spanish as official languages, but mandated the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. After study and deliberation, the National Language Institute, a committee composed of seven members who represented various regions in the Philippines, chose Tagalog as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. President Manuel L. Quezon then, on December 30, 1937, proclaimed the selection of the Tagalog language to be used as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as "wikang pambansâ" (national language). In 1959, the language was further renamed as "Pilipino". The 1973 constitution designated the Tagalog-based "Pilipino", along with English, as an official language and mandated the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.


title: Tagalog people

text: The Tagalog number around 30 million, making them the largest indigenous Filipino ethno-linguistic group in the country. The second largest is the Sebwano with around 20 million. Tagalog settlements are generally lowland, commonly oriented towards banks near the delta or "wawà" (mouth of a river). With the Filipino language nearly monopolizing every national mainstream media outlet and the relatively vast area occupied by Tagalogs today, most tend to identify by province or town ("Batangueno", "Caviteno", "Bulakenyo", "etc") before ethnicity. Likewise, most cultural aspects of the Tagalog people orient towards decentralized specializations of provinces and towns.


title: Tagalog people

text: Tagalog cuisine is not defined ethnically or in centralized culinary institutions, but instead by town, province, or even region with specialized dishes developed largely at homes or various kinds of restaurants. Nonetheless, there are fundamental characteristics largely shared with most of the Philippines:


title: Tagalog people

text: Bulacan is known for "chicharon" (fried pork rinds), steamed rice and tuber cakes like puto"," "panghimagas" (desserts), like "suman", "sapin-sapin", "ube halaya", "kutsinta", "cassava cake", and "pastillas de leche". Rizal is also known for its "suman" and cashew products. Laguna is known for "buko pie" and "panutsa". Batangas is home to Taal Lake, home to 75 species of freshwater fish. Among these, the "maliputo" and "tawilis" are unique local delicacies. Batangas is also known for "kapeng barako", "lomi", "bulalo", and "goto". "Bistek Tagalog" is a dish of strips of sirloin beef slowly cooked in soy sauce, calamansi juice, vinegar and onions. Records have also shown that "kare-kare" is the Tagalog dish that the Spanish first tasted when they landed in pre-colonial Tondo.


title: Tagalog people

text: Aside from panaderias, numerous roadside eateries serve local specialities. Batangas is home to many lomihan, gotohan, and bulalohan.


title: Tagalog people

text: The Tagalog people are also known for their tanaga, an indigenous artistic poetic form of the Tagalog people's idioms, feelings, teachings, and ways of life. The tanaga strictly has four lines only, each having seven syllables only.


title: Tagalog people

text: The Tagalog people were also craftsmen. The katolanan, specifically, of each barangay is tasked as the holder of arts and culture, and usually trains craftfolks if ever no craftfolks are living in the barangay. If the barangay has a craftsfolk, the present crafts-folks would teach their crafts to gifted students. Notable crafts made by ancient Tagalogs are boats, fans, agricultural materials, livestock instruments, spears, arrows, shields, accessories, jewelries, clothing, houses, paddles, fish gears, mortar and pestles, food utensils, musical instruments, bamboo and metal wears for inscribing messages, clay wears, toys, and many others.


title: Tagalog people

text: Paete, Baliuag furniture, Taal furniture, precolonial boat building, joinery, and woodcarving (Paete carving, Pakil woodshaving and whittling)


title: Tagalog people

text: The majority of Tagalogs before colonization wore garments woven by the locals, much of which showed sophisticated designs and techniques. The Boxer Codex also illuminates the intricate and high standard in Tagalog clothing, especially among the gold-draped high society. High society members, which include the datu and the katolonan, also wore accessories made of prized materials. Slaves on the other hand wore simple clothing, seldom loincloths.