title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In 1953, Harvey Comics published the first "Ripley's Believe It or Not!" comic book, titled "Ripley's Believe It or Not! Magazine" and lasted for four issues until March 1954.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: From 1965 until 1980, Gold Key Comics published the second "Ripley's Believe It or Not!" comic book, lasted for 94 issues.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In 2002, Dark Horse Comics published the third "Ripley's Believe It or Not!" comic book, written by Haden Blackman an lasted for three issues and later collected in a trade paperback published by Dark Horse in May 2003 entitled "Ripley's Believe It or Not!" ()


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: On April 14, 1930, Ripley brought "Believe It or Not" to radio, the first of several series heard on NBC, CBS and the Mutual Broadcasting System. As noted by the website Ripley On Radio, Ripley's broadcasts varied in length from 15 minutes to 30 minutes and aired in numerous different formats. When Ripley's 1930 debut on "The Collier Hour" brought a strong listener reaction, he was given a Monday night NBC series beginning April 14, 1930, followed by a 1931–32 series airing twice a week. After his strange stories were dramatized on NBC's "Saturday Party", Ripley was the host of "The Baker's Broadcast" from 1935 to 1937. He was scheduled in several different 1937–38 NBC timeslots and then took to the road with popular remote broadcasts. "See America First with Bob Ripley" (1938–40) on CBS expanded geographically into "See All the Americas", a 1942 program with Latin music. In 1944, he was heard five nights a week on Mutual in shows with an emphasis on World War II. "Romance, Rhythm and Ripley" aired on CBS in 1945, followed by "Pages from Robert L. Ripley's Radio Scrapbook" (1947–48).


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: Robert Ripley is known for several radio firsts. He was the first to broadcast nationwide on a radio network from mid-ocean, and he also participated in the first broadcast from Buenos Aires to New York City. Assisted by a corps of translators, he was the first to broadcast to every nation in the world simultaneously.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: As the years went on, the show became less about oddities and featured guest-driven entertainment such as comedy routines. Sponsors over the course of the program included Pall Mall cigarettes and General Foods. The program ended its successful run in 1948 as Ripley prepared to convert the show format to television.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In October 2004, Paramount Pictures announced plans for a film that would chronicle the life of Robert Ripley. The film was to be produced by James Jacks and his Alphaville Films company, associated with Paramount. Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were hired to write the script. Jacks explained: "It's about the exploits of Robert Ripley, one of the most popular newspaper cartoonists in the '30s and '40s, who was well known for going around the world and looking for oddities and getting into adventures while doing so. We want to make a series of movies that, if not quite the truth, are the adventures that should have happened. We want to turn it into an "Indiana Jones", a goofy version, as played by Johnny Depp. When they saw we had the writers from "Larry Flynt", they thought that we wanted to make the kinky version, but we saw a chance to do a Spielberg-type movie with one of their characters".


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In November 2005, Tim Burton was attached to direct the film, with Jim Carrey starring as Robert Ripley. Filming was to begin in October 2006, for a 2007 release. Paramount hinted that the film, if successful, could be the start of a "Ripley's" film series. In addition to Jacks, Sean Daniel and Richard D. Zanuck were to serve as producers for the film. Zanuck spent six weeks in China to scout filming locations for the project.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In June 2006, Paramount delayed the start of production on the film for at least a year because its projected budget went over the allowed $150 million. Carrey had waived his entire upfront salary to help keep costs low, but the project remained over budget. Burton and Carrey also wanted to have Alexander and Karaszewski make changes to the film's script to focus more on Ripley's "Believe It or Not" column. Carrey was adamant on avoiding what happened with his previous project "Fun with Dick and Jane", which required reshoots and additional editing as a result of beginning production without a script. Filming had been scheduled to begin in China in November 2006. Although Paramount could have delayed production to spring 2007, the film was delayed further to allow Burton to film "".


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In December 2006, Burton and Carrey approved writer Steve Oedekerk to rewrite the script. Oedekerk had worked with Carrey on several previous projects. Production was to begin in China in winter 2008, for a 2009 release. Later in January, Zanuck said he was no longer involved with the project, and that he was unaware that it was proceeding. Oedekerk's draft was completed in June 2007, and was approved that month by Paramount, Burton, and Carrey. At that time, Carrey hoped to have production finished by summer 2008. Later that month, Paramount was searching for a new director.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: In October 2008, Chris Columbus pitched an idea for the film that was approved by Carrey and Paramount. Columbus' idea involved scrapping the previous China-based storyline entirely. Negotiations were underway that month to hire Columbus as director, with plans to hire a writer afterwards. Paramount planned to release the film in 2011, and hoped that it would be the start of a "Ripley's" film series. In January 2011, Eric Roth was hired to write the script, with Carrey still attached to star. Ken Atchity and Chi-Li Wong joined the project as producers, alongside Jacks and Daniel.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: When Ripley first displayed his collection to the public at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933, it was labeled Ripley's Odditorium and attracted over two million visitors during the run of the fair (in an apparent promotional gimmick, beds were provided in the Odditorium for people who "fainted" daily). That successful exhibition led to trailer shows across the country during the 1930s, and Ripley's collections were exhibited at many major fairs and expositions, including San Francisco, San Diego, Dallas, and Cleveland. In New York City, the famed Times Square exhibit opened in 1939 on Broadway. In 1950, a year after Ripley's death, the first permanent Odditorium opened in St. Augustine, Florida. The Odditorium is housed in the Castle Warden, built in 1888 by an associate of Henry Flagler, President of the Florida East Coast Railway.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: , there are 28 Ripley's "Believe It or Not!" Odditoriums around the world. Odditoriums, in the spirit of "Believe It or Not!", are often more than simple museums cluttered with curiosities. Some include theaters and arcades, such as the ones in Gatlinburg, Tennessee and Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin. Others are constructed oddly, such as the Orlando, Florida Odditorium which is built off-level as if the building is sinking.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: The aquarium, opened in 1997 at Broadway at the Beach, does scientific research and veterinary care for sharks, turtles and other fish but is not always taken seriously because of the Ripley's reputation.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: Authorities at the company insist that they thoroughly investigate everything and ensure their accuracy before they publish their research. This is emphasized on its television show, where they often say "If you see it on Ripley's, you can bet that it's real". However, two claims appearing in their books have been dubbed "myths" by the Discovery Channel television show "MythBusters". One claim which had previously appeared in Ripley's books, concerning an accidental execution of 1,200 Turkish prisoners ordered under Napoleon Bonaparte, has had its accuracy called into question by Snopes.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: Ripley's has reported the urban legend of Frank Tower – an individual who was supposed to have survived the sinkings of the RMS "Titanic", RMS "Empress of Ireland", and RMS "Lusitania" – as being factual, but this story has been debunked by several sources.


title: Ripley's Believe It or Not!

text: Ripley's has also repeated the Muhlenberg legend, which claims that German was once one vote short of becoming the official language of the United States.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Old World sparrows are a group of small passerine birds forming the family Passeridae. They are also known as true sparrows, a name also used for a particular genus of the family, "Passer". They are distinct from both the New World sparrows, in the family Passerellidae, and from a few other birds sharing their name, such as the Java sparrow of the family Estrildidae. Many species nest on buildings and the house and Eurasian tree sparrows, in particular, inhabit cities in large numbers. They are primarily seed-eaters, though they also consume small insects. Some species scavenge for food around cities and, like gulls or pigeons, will eat small quantities of a diversity of items.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Generally, Old World sparrows are small, plump, brown and grey birds with short tails and stubby, powerful beaks. The differences between sparrow species can be subtle. Members of this family range in size from the chestnut sparrow ("Passer eminibey"), at and , to the parrot-billed sparrow ("Passer gongonensis"), at and . Sparrows are physically similar to other seed-eating birds, such as finches, but have a vestigial dorsal outer primary feather and an extra bone in the tongue. This bone, the preglossale, helps stiffen the tongue when holding seeds. Other adaptations for eating seeds are specialised bills and elongated and specialised alimentary canals.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The family Passeridae was introduced (as Passernia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Under the classification used in the "Handbook of the Birds of the World" ("HBW") main groupings of the sparrows are the true sparrows (genus "Passer"), the snowfinches (typically one genus, "Montifringilla"), and the rock sparrows ("Petronia" and the pale rockfinch). These groups are similar to each other, and are each fairly homogeneous, especially "Passer". Some classifications also include the sparrow-weavers ("Plocepasser") and several other African genera (otherwise classified among the weavers, Ploceidae) which are morphologically similar to "Passer". According to a study of molecular and skeletal evidence by Jon Fjeldså and colleagues, the cinnamon ibon of the Philippines, previously considered to be a white-eye, is a sister taxon to the sparrows as defined by the "HBW". They therefore classify it as its own subfamily within Passeridae.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Many early classifications of the Old World sparrows placed them as close relatives of the weavers among the various families of small seed-eating birds, based on the similarity of their breeding behaviour, bill structure, and moult, among other characters. Some, starting with P. P. Suskin in the 1920s, placed the sparrows in the weaver family as the subfamily Passerinae, and tied them to "Plocepasser". Another family sparrows were classed with was the finches (Fringillidae).


title: Old World sparrow

text: Some authorities previously classified the related estrildid finches of the Old World tropics and Australasia as members of the Passeridae. Like sparrows, the estrildid finches are small, gregarious and often colonial seed-eaters with short, thick, but pointed bills. They are broadly similar in structure and habits, but tend to be very colourful and vary greatly in their plumage. The 2008 Christidis and Boles taxonomic scheme lists the estrildid finches as the separate family Estrildidae, leaving just the true sparrows in Passeridae.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Despite some resemblance such as the seed-eater's bill and frequently well-marked heads, New World sparrows are members of a different family, Passerellidae, with 29 genera recognised. Several species in this family are notable singers. New World sparrows are related to Old World buntings, and until 2017, were included in the Old World bunting family Emberizidae.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The Old World sparrows are indigenous to Europe, Africa and Asia. In the Americas, Australia, and other parts of the world, settlers imported some species which quickly naturalised, particularly in urban and degraded areas. House sparrows, for example, are now found throughout North America, Australia (every state except Western Australia), parts of southern and eastern Africa, and over much of the heavily populated parts of South America.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The Old World sparrows are generally birds of open habitats, including grasslands, deserts, and scrubland. The snowfinches and ground-sparrows are all species of high latitudes. A few species, like the Eurasian tree sparrow, inhabit open woodland. The aberrant cinnamon ibon has the most unusual habitat of the family, inhabiting the canopy of cloud forest in the Philippines.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Old World sparrows are generally social birds, with many species breeding in loose colonies and most species occurring in flocks during the non-breeding season. The great sparrow is an exception, breeding in solitary pairs and remaining only in small family groups in the non-breeding season. They form large roosting aggregations in the non-breeding seasons that contain only a single species (in contrast to multi-species flocks that might gather for foraging). Sites are chosen for cover and include trees, thick bushes and reed beds. The assemblages can be quite large with up to 10,000 house sparrows counted in one roost in Egypt.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The Old World sparrows are some of the few passerine birds that engage in dust bathing. They will first scratch a hole in the ground with their feet, then lie in it and fling dirt or sand over their bodies with flicks of their wings. They will also bathe in water, or in dry or melting snow. Water bathing is similar to dust bathing, with the sparrow standing in shallow water and flicking water over its back with its wings, also ducking its head under the water. Both activities are social, with up to a hundred birds participating at once, and is followed by preening and sometimes group singing.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The house sparrow typically lays 3-6 eggs, but has been known to lay as few as 1 and as many as 8 greenish-white eggs. The incubation period is typically 10-14 days.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Old World sparrows may be the most familiar of all wild birds worldwide. Many species commonly live in agricultural areas, and for several, human settlements are a primary habitat. The Eurasian tree and house sparrows are particularly specialised in living around humans and inhabit cities in large numbers. 17 of the 26 species recognised by the "Handbook of the Birds of the World" are known to nest on and feed around buildings.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Grain-eating species, in particular the house and Sudan golden sparrows, can be significant agricultural pests. They can be beneficial to humans as well, especially by eating insect pests. Attempts at large-scale control have failed to affect populations significantly, or have been accompanied by major increases in insect attacks probably resulting from a reduction of numbers, as in the Great Sparrow Campaign in 1950s China.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Because of their familiarity, the house sparrow and other species of the family are frequently used to represent the common and vulgar, or the lewd. Birds usually described later as Old World sparrows are referred to in many works of ancient literature and religious texts in Europe and western Asia. These references may not always refer specifically to Old World sparrows, or even to small, seed-eating birds, but later writers who were inspired by these texts often had the house sparrow and other members of the family in mind. In particular, Old World sparrows were associated by the ancient Greeks with Aphrodite, the goddess of love, due to their perceived lustfulness, an association echoed by later writers such as Chaucer and Shakespeare.


title: Old World sparrow

text: Jesus's use of "sparrows" as an example of divine providence in the Gospel of Matthew also inspired later references, such as that in the final scene of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" and the Gospel hymn "His Eye Is on the Sparrow".


title: Old World sparrow

text: Old World sparrows have been kept as pets at many times in history, even though most are not particularly colourful and their songs are unremarkable. They are also difficult to keep, as pet sparrows must be raised by hand and a considerable amount of insects are required to feed them. Nevertheless, many people succeed at hand-raising orphaned or abandoned baby sparrows.


title: Old World sparrow

text: The earliest mentions of pet sparrows are from the Romans. Not all the "passeri" mentioned, often as pets, in Roman literature were necessarily sparrows, but some accounts of them clearly describe their appearance and habits. The pet "passer" of Lesbia in Catullus's poems may not have been a sparrow, but a thrush or European goldfinch. John Skelton's "The Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe" is a lament for a pet house sparrow belonging to a Jane Scrope, narrated by Scrope.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Dumbledore's Army (or D.A. for short) is a fictional student organisation in J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series that is founded by the main characters, Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, to stand up against the regime of Hogwarts High Inquisitor Dolores Umbridge, as well as to learn practical Defence Against the Dark Arts. It was founded in the fifth book, "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix".


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: In "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Dolores Umbridge, chooses to teach only the basic theoretical principles of the subject in her classes instead of practical applications, due to Minister of Magic Cornelius Fudge's erroneous fear that Albus Dumbledore is preparing to assemble a student army to overthrow him. This theory-only approach is widely unpopular among the students, especially those characters like Harry, who are in their fifth year and have to take their O.W.L. exams on the subject later in the year. Harry also believes that lack of practical experience makes them more vulnerable to Lord Voldemort's forces, though the Ministry staunchly refuses to accept that Lord Voldemort has returned. This prompts Hermione Granger to suggest founding a student group where Harry would teach practical Defence Against the Dark Arts.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: After Umbridge learns about the project, she bans all unapproved student organisations, so meetings are secretly held in the Room of Requirement and announced to members through the use of enchanted fake Galleons created by Hermione. Cho Chang suggests the "Defence Association", shortened to "D.A.", as the official name for the group, but Ginny Weasley's suggestion of "Dumbledore's Army", to mock the Ministry's paranoia and to show the group's loyalty to Dumbledore, is chosen.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: When Cho's friend Marietta Edgecombe betrays the group to Umbridge (Cho herself while under the influence of the truth potion Veritaserum in the film), Marietta is cursed with pimples on her face as a result of Hermione's casting a spell on the D.A. membership list. Later on, to prevent Harry's expulsion and the incrimination of other members, Dumbledore claims responsibility for organising the group, then escapes when Ministry officials attempt to arrest him. Though the D.A. stops meeting following these events, three members — Ginny, Neville and Luna — join Harry, Ron and Hermione in the battle in the Department of Mysteries towards the end of the fifth book. In "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince", Neville and Luna are distraught due to the fact that the D.A. no longer exists. When Hogwarts is invaded by Death Eaters, they are among the members who join the Order of the Phoenix in the ensuing battle.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: In "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows", with Harry, Ron and Hermione absent from Hogwarts, Neville, Ginny and Luna begin a covert rebellion against new headmaster Severus Snape by reactivating the D.A. However, Luna is abducted at Christmas and Ginny leaves during Easter, leaving Neville for a few weeks as the D.A.'s leader. Neville tells Harry that most of the D.A.'s activity ceased shortly after Michael Corner was tortured by Death Eater siblings Alecto and Amycus Carrow for trying to rescue a first-year boy from imprisonment. The group thereafter hide from the Death Eaters in the Room of Requirement, using a secret passage to the Hog's Head to find food. The D.A. believed that if Harry returned he would lead them in a revolution against Snape and the Carrows and are disappointed when he initially refuses to let them help. Harry does lead an impromptu revolt, but only himself, Luna and Professors McGonagall, Sprout, Flitwick and Slughorn take part in it, with Harry and Luna taking out the Carrows, and the professors (rallied by McGonagall and Harry) driving off Snape. In the book's climax, the D.A. (alongside the Order of the Phoenix) plays an important role in the Battle of Hogwarts, giving Harry enough time to find the remaining Horcruxes.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: In the play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child", an alternate timeline is created in which Voldemort has won the Battle of Hogwarts, killed Harry and triumphed over the wizarding world. Ron and Hermione maintained the last remnants of the D.A. Twenty years later, they still wage hopeless resistance against the all-powerful Voldemort, clandestinely helped by Snape – in this reality still alive and still teaching at Hogwarts. Eventually, these remnants of the D.A. sacrifice themselves to cover the escape of Scorpius Malfoy and let him restore the timeline where Harry wins.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Lavender Brown is a Gryffindor student in Harry's year. She is a close friend of housemate Parvati Patil, and the two also seem to have a reasonably close relationship with Professor Trelawney, comforting and supporting her in her various crises. In "Order of the Phoenix", she initially believes the Ministry's smear campaign against Harry, but is among the original members of Dumbledore's Army. In "Half-Blood Prince", Lavender becomes Ron's first girlfriend for several months; he relishes the opportunity to make Hermione jealous and prove that he can snog people whenever he wants. It becomes increasingly evident that Ron is not particularly enamoured with Lavender and actually finds her irritating. Lavender becomes jealous of Ron's friendship with Hermione, and finally splits up with him when she sees them leaving Harry's dormitory together, as she is under the impression that they had been alone together, not realising Harry was there under his invisibility cloak. In "Deathly Hallows", during the Battle of Hogwarts, Lavender is attacked by Fenrir Greyback, who is repelled by a crystal ball hurled by Professor Trelawney. "Deathly Hallows – Part 2" depicts her as explicitly dying from the attack, while her fate is never made clear for the context of the books.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Jennifer Smith portrayed Lavender in a brief non-speaking role in "Prisoner of Azkaban". Jessie Cave played the character in a larger role from "Half-Blood Prince" onwards.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Cho Chang is a Ravenclaw student one year above Harry, and is the Seeker for the Ravenclaw Quidditch team. She is best known for being Harry's first love interest, is described as being "very pretty" with long dark hair and is frequently accompanied by a group of giggling girls. In "Goblet of Fire", Harry's crush on Cho intensifies and he works up the courage to ask her out to the Yule Ball, one of the necessary events in the Triwizard Tournament, but Cho apologises and replies that she had previously accepted Cedric Diggory's offer. Nonetheless, Cho is still kind to Harry, much to his relief, and she refuses to wear one of Draco Malfoy's "Potter Stinks" badges. She and Cedric maintain their relationship until he is murdered by Peter Pettigrew on Voldemort's orders.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Cho is one of the first students to believe Harry's declaration of Voldemort's return in "Order of the Phoenix", and when invited by Hermione to join the D.A., she joins because she is determined to fight against Voldemort and avenge Cedric's murder. Cho initiates a kiss under the mistletoe with Harry after the last D.A. session before the Christmas holidays; much to Ron's amusement, Harry describes the kiss as "wet," but then explains that Cho was crying. Harry and Cho go out on a date on Valentine's Day, but her sustained grief over Cedric's death, her jealousy over Harry's friendship with Hermione, and Harry's lack of knowledge about girls all make for a miserable experience. Their relationship ends when the D.A. is exposed following Marietta Edgecombe's betrayal of the group to Umbridge. Cho defends her friend's actions by saying that Marietta simply made a mistake. After the last Quidditch match, Cho begins dating Michael Corner.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: In the series finale, Cho demonstrates her loyalty to Hogwarts when she returns to join other D.A. members in hiding in the Room of Requirement prior to engaging in the Battle of Hogwarts; Harry and Cho, united by a common cause, appear on amicable and friendly terms. She shares with Harry the little information known about Ravenclaw's diadem (one of Voldemort's Horcruxes). Rowling said during an October 2007 book signing that Cho marries a Muggle.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Cho, who is described in UK media as a British Asian character, was played by Scottish actress Katie Leung in the film series starting from the character's debut in "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire". In the "Order of the Phoenix" film, she exposes Dumbledore's Army to Umbridge while under the influence of Veritaserum, whereas in the novel the betrayal is willfully carried out by Marietta Edgecombe. Rowling has been criticized for perpetuating stereotypes of East Asians through Cho's name and shallow characterization.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Colin and Dennis Creevey are two Muggle-born brothers sorted into Gryffindor; Colin is in Ginny's year, and Dennis is two years younger than Colin. Both are delighted at the discovery that they are wizards, and are star-struck by Harry. Colin takes photographs of memorable people, objects and events to send home to his family. Colin's camera later proves to be a lifesaver when he attempts to take a picture of the basilisk, and the camera lens shields him from the creature's direct and fatal eye contact, and Colin is only petrified. Despite being too young to take part in the Battle of Hogwarts, Colin sneaks back into the castle to participate, and dies in combat.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Hugh Mitchell played Colin in the film version of "Chamber of Secrets", and voiced the character in the "Order of the Phoenix" video game. Dennis never appeared in any of the films. In the "Goblet of Fire" and subsequent films, the roles of Colin and Dennis were morphed into a second-year character named Nigel Wolpert, portrayed by William Melling.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Seamus Finnigan is an Irish Gryffindor student in Harry's year who is described as having sandy hair. His mother is a witch and his father a Muggle, who only found out his wife's secret after their marriage. His best friend is Dean Thomas, whom he is housemates with. In "Order of the Phoenix", Seamus is initially influenced by the Ministry's smear campaign against Harry, and his mother nearly prevents him from returning to Hogwarts. However, he later realises his mistake, offers his apologies to Harry, and becomes a late addition to the D.A. In "Half-Blood Prince", Seamus refuses to allow his mother to take him home before Dumbledore's funeral. In "Deathly Hallows", it is stated that Seamus is taking shelter in the Room of Requirement along with several D.A. members; his face is bruised so badly after being punished by the Carrows that Harry initially fails to recognise him until he speaks. During the battle, he, Luna, and Ernie help Harry fight the Dementors by conjuring their respective Patronuses. He is last seen entering the Great Hall to take part in the final stage of the battle, when Harry shields him and Hannah Abbott from one of Voldemort's curses.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Devon Murray played Seamus in the "Harry Potter" film series and voiced the character in the eighth game. He has appeared in all eight films, one of the few characters to do so. A recurring theme is a tendency to cause items to explode when casting spells. This is recognised by Professor McGonagall who asks him to use his talent to bring down a connecting bridge during the battle of Hogwarts.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Parvati Patil is a Gryffindor student in Harry's year and the twin sister of Ravenclaw student Padma Patil. Her best friend is Lavender Brown; they are particularly fond of Trelawney's Divination class, and share many common interests. In "Goblet of Fire", when Harry needs a date to the Yule Ball, he asks Parvati and she accepts. However, her evening is a disappointment as Harry spends the evening jealously preoccupied over Cho's date with Cedric and disdains dancing with Parvati; she eventually abandons him to dance with a Beauxbatons boy whom she then later meets in Hogsmeade. In her fifth year, Parvati joins Dumbledore's Army along with her sister. In "Half-Blood Prince", the twins are almost removed from Hogwarts by their parents, and ultimately do return home after Dumbledore's death. However, the Patil twins return to their seventh year at Hogwarts, and participate in the Battle of Hogwarts.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: The Patils' names and appearance in the films imply that they are of Indian descent. "Patil" is a common Marathi surname in the state of Maharashtra, India. "Parvati" means 'daughter of the mountains', a name for the Hindu goddess Parvati, the goddess of fertility, while "Padma" is the Sanskrit word for lotus, an alternate name for the Hindu goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity. Together, they form a part of the trinity of the Hindu goddesses.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Parvati was portrayed by Sitara Shah in "Prisoner of Azkaban". Shefali Chowdhury took over the part for "Goblet of Fire", along with the film and game versions of "Order of the Phoenix" and "Half-Blood Prince".


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Dean Thomas is a Gryffindor student in Harry's year, and is Seamus Finnigan's best friend. He is a Half-blood: his mother is a Muggle and his father was a pure blood wizard who kept his blood status a secret. Dean's father left his family when Dean was very young in an attempt to protect them against the Death Eaters, and was slain when he refused to join them. Dean originally prefers football over Quidditch, and has a West Ham United poster in his dormitory. Dean was subsequently raised by his mother and stepfather, and has several half-brothers and sisters. Dean was named "Gary" in the original drafts of "Philosopher's Stone". Rowling omitted his physical description ("a black boy taller than Ron") from the British version of the book following her editor's request to reduce the length of the chapter, but it was included in the American edition. His backstory was originally expanded in "Chamber of Secrets", but she ultimately cut it due to her inability to work it into the storyline.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: In "Order of the Phoenix", Dean joins the D.A. and also believes Harry and Dumbledore when they insist that Voldemort has returned; but, when Harry and Seamus engage in a heated row over the "Daily Prophet"s allegations that Harry had merely fabricated the story, Dean refuses to take sides. At the end of the term, he begins seeing Ginny Weasley. The two of them are still dating in "Half-Blood Prince", but Ginny thinks that Dean is being pushy and overprotective, which leads to the fight that ends their relationship. Dean temporarily fills in for Katie Bell on the Gryffindor Quidditch team after she is hospitalised. Dean's role is expanded in "Deathly Hallows". Unable to prove that he is actually a half-blood, he does not return to Hogwarts and goes on the run from the Ministry, who are rounding up Muggle-borns upon Voldemort's orders. Harry, Ron, and Hermione first come across him during their mission as they eavesdrop on his conversation with fellow runaways Ted Tonks, Dirk Cresswell, and the goblins Griphook and Gornuk. Snatchers soon viciously attack the group; Dean and Griphook are the lone survivors but are captured along with Harry, Ron, and Hermione and taken to Malfoy Manor. They are all rescued by Dobby, who transports them to Bill and Fleur's Shell Cottage for protection. Dean returns to Hogwarts towards the end of the book and fights in the Battle of Hogwarts, battling with Parvati Patil against Antonin Dolohov.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: Alfred Enoch played Dean in the "Harry Potter" film series and voiced the character in the "Order of the Phoenix" and "Deathly Hallows: Part 1" video game.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: The group has been analyzed as a metonym and as a fictional example of student activism and inspirational educational practices.


title: Dumbledore's Army

text: The goal of Dumbledore's Army inspired actor/comedian Andrew Slack, a "Harry Potter" fan, to create a group called Harry Potter Alliance to highlight the crisis in Sudan and social inequalities. In an interview, Slack compared Harry and the D.A. to Darfur, claiming, "With both the Ministry of Magic and the "Daily Prophet" (the Wizarding World's mainstream news source) in denial that Voldemort has returned and evil is afoot, Harry and his underground rebel group, 'Dumbledore's Army,' work with the adult group, 'The Order of the Phoenix,' to awake the world into peace."


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: Night Shift is Stephen King's first collection of short stories, first published in 1978. In 1980, "Night Shift" won the Balrog Award for Best Collection, and in 1979 it was nominated as best collection for the Locus Award and the World Fantasy Award.


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: The book was published on the heels of "The Shining" (1977 Doubleday) and is King's fifth published book (including "Rage", which was published under the pseudonym of Richard Bachman). Nine of the twenty stories had first appeared in issues of "Cavalier Magazine" from 1970 to 1975; others were originally published in "Penthouse", "Cosmopolitan", "Gallery", "Ubris", and "Maine Magazine". The stories "Jerusalem's Lot", "Quitters, Inc.", "The Last Rung on the Ladder", and "The Woman in the Room" appeared for the first time in this collection.


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: "Night Shift" is the first book for which King wrote a foreword. The introduction was written by one of King's favorite authors, John D. MacDonald.


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: With the publication of "Night Shift" and the rise in King's popularity as a best-selling author, and with the success of Brian De Palma's motion picture adaptation of "Carrie" (1976), student film makers began submitting requests to King to adapt stories from the collection. King formed a policy he deemed the Dollar Deal, which allowed the students the permission to make an adaptation for $1.


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: In the 1980s, entrepreneurial film producer Milton Subotsky purchased the rights to six of the stories in this collection to produce feature films and a television anthology based on multiple stories. Although Subotsky was involved with several King adaptations ("Cat's Eye", "Maximum Overdrive", "Sometimes They Come Back", "The Lawnmower Man") the television series never happened due to conflicts with the networks' Standards and Practices.


title: Night Shift (short story collection)

text: The following film, television, and theatre adaptations are adapted from the stories in "Night Shift":


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: The 2016 Uri attack was carried out on 18 September by four Jaish-e-Mohammed insurgents from Pakistan against an Indian Army brigade headquarters near the town of Uri in the erstwhile Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. 19 Indian soldiers were killed in the attack, and 19–30 others were injured. It was reported by the BBC as having been "the deadliest attack on security forces in Kashmir in two decades".


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Jaish-e-Mohammed, a Pakistan-based Jihadist organization (designated as terrorist organization by mainly US, UK & India), was involved in the planning and execution of the attack. At the time it was carried out, the Kashmir Valley was experiencing high levels of violent unrest.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Since 2015, the insurgents had increasingly taken to high-profile "fidayeen" attacks (suicide attacks) against the Indian security forces: in July 2015, three insurgents attacked a bus and police station in Gurdaspur and earlier in 2016, 4–6 terrorists attacked the Pathankot Air Force Station. Indian authorities blamed Jaish-e-Mohammad for the latter attack.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Also, since 8 July 2016, the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir has been undergoing continuous unrest following the killing of Burhan Wani, the leader and local commander of the Hizb-ul-Mujahideen. The killing sparked violent protests against the Indian government in the valley, leading to the protests being described as the "largest anti-India protests" against Indian rule in recent years.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: At around 5:30 a.m. on 18 September, four insurgents attacked an Indian Army brigade headquarters in Uri, near the Line of Control in a pre-dawn ambush. They were said to have lobbed 17 grenades in three minutes. As a rear administrative base camp with tents caught fire, 17 army personnel were killed during the attack. An additional 19–30 soldiers were reported to have been injured. A gun battle ensued lasting six hours, during which all the four individuals were killed.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Most of the Indian soldiers had suffered casualties and subsequently those who died were from the 10th battalion, Dogra Regiment (10 Dogra) and 6th battalion, Bihar Regiment (6 Bihar). One of the injured soldiers succumbed to his injuries on 19 September at RR Hospital in New Delhi, followed by another soldier on 24 September, bringing the death toll to 19.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: The casualties were primarily believed to have occurred as a result of non-fire retardant transition tents. This was the time of a troops shift, whereby troops from 6 Bihar were replacing troops from 10 Dogra. The incoming troops were housed in tents, which are normally avoided in sensitive areas around the LoC like Uri. The insurgents snuck into the camp breaching heavy security and seemed to know exactly where to strike. Seven of the personnel killed were support staff, including cooks and barbers.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 19 September, Home Minister Rajnath Singh, Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar, Chief of the Army Staff Dalbir Singh, National Security Advisor Ajit Doval and other officials of the Home and Defence ministries met to review the security situation in Kashmir, particularly in areas along the Line of Control. The National Investigation Agency filed a first information report regarding the attack and took over the investigation from Jammu and Kashmir Police on 20 September.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Pakistan International Airlines cancelled flights to some parts of Kashmir on 21 September in the aftermath of the attack. Security around the army installation in Uri was intensified following the attack, while soldiers on both the Indian and Pakistani side of Line of Control were placed on high alert.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: In the wake of the attack, India cancelled its participation in the 19th SAARC summit to be held in November in Islamabad, Pakistan. The Ministry of External Affairs issued a statement, saying, "India has conveyed to current SAARC Chair Nepal that increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in the region and growing interference in the internal affairs of Member States by one country have created an environment that is not conducive to the successful holding of the 19th SAARC Summit in Islamabad in November 2016." "In the prevailing circumstances, the Government of India is unable to participate in the proposed Summit in Islamabad", the statement said.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On India withdrawing from the scheduled SAARC summit in Islamabad, Pakistan's Foreign Office termed the withdrawal "unfortunate", and posted a rejoinder stating: "As for the excuse used by India, the world knows that it is India that has been perpetrating and financing terrorism in Pakistan." The statement included a reference to Indian national Kulbhushan Jadhav, detained by Pakistan for espionage, and accused India of violating international laws by interfering inside Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Later, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan also withdrew from the summit. On 30 September 2016, Pakistan stated that the summit scheduled for 9 and 10 November in Islamabad would be held on an alternative date.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 28 September, eleven days after the attack, the Indian Army conducted retaliatory surgical strikes on alleged launch-pads used by terrorists in Pakistan administered Kashmir. Indian Director General of Military Operations (DGMO) Lt Gen Ranbir Singh said that it had made a preemptive strike against "terrorist teams" who were preparing to "carry out infiltration and conduct terrorist strikes inside Jammu and Kashmir and in various metros in other states". "The Economist" while citing Indian reports, reported that Indian commandos crossed the Line of Control and struck at the safe houses, allegedly killing approximately 150 Pakistan-sponsored terrorists.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Following the uproar after the Uri attack, Indian Motion Picture Producers Association (IMPPA) decided to ban all Pakistani actors, actresses and technicians working in India till the situation returns to normal. Bollywood artists were divided towards the ban with some justifying it while some questioning its benefits. Indian TV entertainment channel "Zindagi" announced discontinuation of airing Pakistani TV shows on the channel. The Pakistani government responded in October with a blanket ban on all Indian television and radio programming in Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), the national governing body for cricket in India, ruled out the possibility of reviving bilateral cricket ties with Pakistan in the near future. BCCI also asked the International Cricket Council (ICC) to not group Indian and Pakistan cricket teams together in international tournaments, keeping in mind border tensions between the two countries. Badminton Association of India, the governing body for badminton in India, decided to boycott the Pakistan International Series scheduled to be held in Islamabad in October, as an act of "solidarity" with the government's diplomatic offensive against Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: An initial investigation into the attack indicated that there were several procedural lapses at the camp. According to the standard security procedures, any tall grass and bushes around vital security installations should be trimmed. However, this procedure was not followed by the Uri camp which might have allowed insurgents to sneak into the camp undetected using the tall grass and bushes around the perimeter. In addition, the probe also indicated that two manned guard posts failed to detect the intrusion because the coordination between them might have been poor. It also indicated that the terrorists had infiltrated the Indian territory through Haji Pir Pass on the intervening night of 16–17 September and stayed in Sukhdar village which is located at a vantage point that allows an unhindered view of the layout of the camp as well as movement of the personnel in it.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: The Director General of military operations, Lieutenant-General Ranbir Singh, said that there was evidence that the individuals involved in the attack belonged to Jaish-e-Mohammad. He established a hotline contact with his Pakistani counterpart and conveyed India's serious concern on the issue. Singh also stated that the militants used incendiary ammunition to set fire to the tents.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Former Pakistani General Pervez Musharraf said the weapons that India reported as used by militants, and reported to have Pakistani markings, could be procured anywhere in the world, not just in Pakistan. Musharraf further said since many American weapons had inadvertently fallen into the hands of the Taliban, it is possible for Pakistani weapons to have been acquired by the perpetrators without Pakistani involvement.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 25 September, the Indian Army said that two Pakistani nationals from Pakistan administered Kashmir were arrested by the Border Security Force in the Uri sector. They were said to have been recruited by Jaish-e-Muhammad two years ago for the purpose of acting as guides to infiltrating groups in the Uri sector. These guides themselves did not have a role in the Uri attack. They were being questioned for gathering intelligence about infiltration attempts. Pakistan denied these allegations. On 26 February 2017, India's National Investigative Agency (NIA) decided to file a closure report after failing to find any evidence against the two men whom they accused of facilitating the Uri army base attack.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 25 October 2016, the Indian media reported that street "posters" in Gujranwala, Pakistan, attributed to Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) claimed responsibility for the Uri attack. The posters claimed that one of LeT's fighters Mohammad Anas, code-named Abu Saraqa, died in the Uri attack, and there would be a funeral prayer followed by a speech by the LeT chief Hafiz Saeed on 25 October. The poster also claimed death of 17 Indian soldiers in Uri attack. After the images of the poster circulated on the Internet, the organisation claimed that it was a hoax. Abbas Nasir, the former editor of "Dawn", confirmed the report about the posters on Twitter but stated that the funeral prayers have been postponed.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Prime Minister Narendra Modi and members of his cabinet condemned the attack. Minister of Defence Manohar Parrikar and Indian Army chief General Dalbir Singh visited Kashmir soon after the attack to assess the ongoing military operations and review the security situation in the region. Parrikar instructed the army to take firm action against those responsible for the attack and also stated that the deaths of the soldiers "will not go in vain." Home Minister Rajnath Singh accused Pakistan of what he called its "continued and direct support to terrorism and terrorist groups," calling Pakistan a "terrorist state" that should be "isolated." Minister of State for Defence Subhash Bhamre stated that the "entire nation was traumatised" over the death of the soldiers and was "united in this hour of grief." He also stated that the Prime Minister, Home Minister and Defence Minister had come to a conclusion that some sort of a "response" needs to be given to Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Minister of State for External Affairs Sushma Swaraj and former Army chief Vijay Kumar Singh stated that India will give a "befitting reply" to the attack. He called upon the Indian Armed Forces to scale up their security and described a cold and calculated response as the need of the hour. He also called for an investigation into the shortcomings which led to the attack while stating that the Army should decide its response "coolly" with proper planning. Many Indian politicians and public figures have condemned the attack. Former Indian diplomats and foreign policy experts have said that India had been driven to the wall and that a measured and effective response was needed. The opposition Indian National Congress has said that there was no more scope for constructive dialogue with Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Later on the same day, India called upon the United Nations Human Rights Council to urge Pakistan to put an end to cross-border infiltration and dismantle the non-state militant infrastructure since the likes of Hafeez Saeed (the chief of Lashkar-e-Taiba) and Syed Salahuddin (the chief of Hizbul Mujahideen) can hold huge rallies in Pakistan's main cities. It suggested that active support for such groups has become the "new normal" in Pakistan. It claimed that "zero tolerance" to non-state militancy was an international obligation. The Indian government summoned the Pakistani envoy and handed him a dossier that alleged Pakistani involvement as well as a warning that Pakistan needs to rein in militants they say operate from Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 24 September, Prime Minister Modi formally responded to the attack during a BJP rally in Kozhikode, Kerala; in his address, he charged Pakistan with responsibility for the attack, saying that India would "never forget" Uri and would "leave no stone unturned to isolate Pakistan in the world." He called upon the citizens of both India and Pakistan to fight against poverty. "I want to say that India is ready for a war... India is ready for a war on poverty. Let both countries fight to see who would eradicate poverty first... I want to tell the youth of Pakistan, let's have a war on ending unemployment... I want to call out to the children in Pakistan, let's declare war on illiteracy. Let's see who wins."


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: In further responding to the attack, on 26 September, the Indian government stated it would exercise its rights under the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty to the full and would expand its utilisation of its rivers flowing through Jammu and Kashmir. Talks under the aegis of the Permanent Indus Commission, to which any disputes may be submitted, would cease "until terror comes to an end." The body had most recently met in July 2016. The government subsequently stated it would review Pakistan's most-favoured-nation (MFN) trade status, which India had granted in 1996.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Pakistan's Foreign Ministry rejected India's allegations of involvement in the attack. The ministry asserted that India had a "tendency" of accusing Pakistan for incidents inside its territory, adding that "in the past many Indians were involved in the terrorist acts for which India had blamed Pakistan." The ministry deemed Indian statements as "vitriolic."


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: During a press conference in London, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif linked the incident to the recent unrest and human rights issues in Kashmir. Interior Minister Nisar Ali Khan said there were several contradictions within Indian media reports over the evidence, and claimed India was imposing censorship when their "lies were exposed." Defence Minister Khawaja Muhammad Asif termed the attack an "inside job", saying that no proof was provided substantiating India's allegations, and said India was not serious about solving the Kashmir dispute. Pakistan's envoy in New Delhi, Abdul Basit, told India's Foreign Secretary S. Jaishankar that India sought to divert world attention from state atrocities in Kashmir by blaming the attack on Pakistan. Basit also added that if India was serious about the investigations, it should not avoid allowing independent investigators to probe it.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: In the hours following the attack, Pakistan's military established a hotline with the Indian military. The Pakistani military rejected Indian accusations, saying that infiltration was not possible across the heavily guarded LOC. Pakistan's Director General of Military Operations also asked the Indian military to provide actionable intelligence.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff Raheel Sharif claimed that India was propagating a "hostile narrative" in response the attack and also stated that the Pakistani armed forces were "prepared to respond to the entire spectrum of direct and indirect threat."


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: In response to India's suspension of cooperation over the Indus Waters Treaty, Sartaj Aziz said India could not revoke the treaty unilaterally as per the IWT's provisions and international laws, and said such a move would be taken as an act of "war and hostilities." Aziz said Pakistan would approach the United Nations Security Council in that event.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: The "Deutsche Welle" noted that Kashmir was already in international headlines at the time of the Uri attack due to the anti-India protests. It further noted that immediately after the attack, mainstream media in India and Pakistan engaged in "angry" rhetoric towards each other. A video of Indian soldiers chanting "Pakistan, hear this loud and clear: If ... war breaks out you will be obliterated" went viral. "The Diplomat" noted that many Indian media had openly called for a war on Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: "India Today" suggested that the fallout from the Uri attack would hurt Pakistani artists in India. Maharashtra Navnirman Sena gave all Pakistani artists in India 48 hours to leave the country and warned that they would be "hunted down". Subhash Chandra also said Pakistani artists should leave. Zee TV considered terminating Pakistani shows. The Indian Motion Picture Producers Association (IMPPA) decided to ban all Pakistani actors, actresses and technicians in India till the situation returned to normal. However Bollywood artists were divided towards the ban with some justifying it while some questioning its benefits.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: On 18 September, the Times of India revealed that the army personnel recovered a map from the attackers which had markings in the Pashtun language and indicated a detailed plan of action. Four AK-47 rifles and four under barrel grenade launchers along with ammunition were also recovered. According to the Indian Army, some of the items had Pakistani markings. This was denied by the National Investigation Agency.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: "The Diplomat" noted that the timing of the attack coincided with the Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's visit to New York to address the United Nations General Assembly the following week. "The Diplomat", in another article, said that the attack was "designed" to increase public pressure against the Modi government's engagement with Pakistan.


title: 2016 Uri attack

text: It also reported that there was specific intelligence input from the Intelligence Bureau two days earlier that an attack was being planned against army formations close to the LOC. The intelligence agency had said that three "fidayeen" squads were launched from Pakistan-administered Kashmir. One of them attacked Uri, another went to Poonch where it was engaged by the security forces, and the third is believed to be targeting Srinagar highway. The India Today Television mentioned that, according to unnamed intelligence sources, Pakistan was plotting a "spectacular event" ahead of Nawaz Sharif's speech to the UN General Assembly.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Khitan () or Khatna () is the Arabic term for circumcision, and the Islamic term for the recommended practice of male circumcision in Islamic culture. Male circumcision is widespread in the Muslim world, and accepted as an established practice by all Islamic schools of jurisprudence. It is considered a sign of belonging to the wider Muslim community ("Ummah").


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Islamic male circumcision is analogous but not identical to Jewish circumcision. Muslims are currently the largest single religious group in which the practice is widespread, although circumcision is never mentioned in the Quran itself but is mentioned in the "ḥadīth" literature and "sunnah" (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime). Whether or not it should be carried out after converting to Islam is debated among Muslim legal scholars ("Ulama").


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: The Quran itself does not mention circumcision explicitly in any verse. In the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, both male and female circumcision were carried out by Pagan Arabian tribes, and male circumcision by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for religious reasons. This has also been attested by the classical Muslim scholar al-Jāḥiẓ, as well as by the Roman-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: According to some "ḥadīth" reports, Muhammad was born without a foreskin (a birth defect and medical condition known as aposthia), while others maintain that his grandfather, ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, circumcised him when he was seven days old. Some "ḥadīth" report that Heraclius, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, had referred to Muhammad as "the king of the circumcised".


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Some "ḥadīth" reports mention circumcision in a list of practices known as "fitra" (acts considered to be of a refined person). Abū Hurayra, one of the companions of Muhammad, was quoted saying: "five things are fitra: circumcision, shaving pubic hair with a razor, trimming the mustache, paring one's nails and plucking the hair from one's armpits" (reported in the "ḥadīth" of "Sahih al-Bukhari" and "Sahih Muslim"). However, there are other "ḥadīth" which don't name circumcision as part of the characteristics of "fitra", and yet another "ḥadīth" which names ten characteristics, again without naming circumcision; in "Sahih Muslim", Aisha, one of Muhammad's wives, is quoted with saying: "The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Ten are the acts according to fitra: clipping the mustache, letting the beard grow, using toothpicks, snuffing water in the nose, cutting the nails, washing the finger joints, plucking the hair under the armpits, shaving pubic hair and cleaning one's private parts with water. The narrator said: I have forgotten the tenth, but it may have been rinsing the mouth." Hence, the different "hadiths" do not agree on whether circumcision is part of "fitra" or not.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Muhammad's wife Aisha supposedly quoted Muhammad as saying that "if the two circumcised parts have been in touch with one another, "ghusl" is necessary". According to some other "ḥadīth" reports, Muhammad supposedly circumcised his grandsons, Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī and Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, on the seventh day after their birth.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: "Sahih al-Bukhari" and "Sahih Muslim" also quote from Muhammad that Abraham allegedly performed his own circumcision at the age of eighty. It is also reported by Abū Dāwūd and Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal that Muhammad stated that circumcision was a "law for men and a preservation of honor for women".


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Circumcision was introduced to many lands of the Middle East and North Africa for the first time through Islam itself following the early Muslim conquests under the Rāshidūn Caliphate, whose commanders were the companions and contemporaries of Muhammad. An example are the Persians, which practiced neither male nor female circumcision before the advent of Islam. Post-Islamic converts such as Afshin were found guilty in trials of remaining uncircumcised.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be "sunnah" (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah. According to historians of religion and scholars of Religious studies, the Islamic tradition of circumcision was derived from the Pagan practices and rituals of pre-Islamic Arabia, and is never mentioned in the Quran. Shīʿīte traditions, however, such as those practised in Iran, have the most stringent requirements for male circumcision, since it is seen as a ritual of purification akin to Christian baptism rather than an initiation to adulthood.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: In the Sunnī branch of Islam, the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence have different opinions and attitudes towards circumcision: some state that it's recommendable, others that it's permissible but not binding, while others regard it as a legal obligation. Amongst Muslim legal scholars ("Ulama"), there are differing opinions about the compulsory or non-obligatory status of circumcision in accordance with the Islamic law ("sharīʿa"). Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (founder of the Ḥanbalī school), Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (founder of the Ḥanafī school), and Mālik ibn Anas (founder of the Mālikī school) all maintain that circumcision is not obligatory. The Shāfiʿī school instead regards it as binding on all Muslims, both males and females. According to Shāfiʿī and Ḥanbalī jurists both male and female circumcision are legally obligatory for Muslims, while Ḥanafī jurists consider circumcision to be recommendable exclusively for Muslim males on the seventh day after birth. Some Salafis have argued that circumcision is required in Islam to provide ritual cleanliness based on the covenant with Abraham, while the purpose of female circumcision for Muslim women is to "regulate" and reduce their sexual desires.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Within the Shīʿīte branch of Islam, most Shīʿīte denominations regard the practice as obligatory. They rely on sayings that come from classical Shīʿīte Muslim scholars. In one narration Muhammad was asked if an uncircumcised man could go to pilgrimage. He answered "not as long as he is not circumcised". They quote ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as saying: "If a man becomes Muslim, he must submit to circumcision even if he is 80 years old." Another narration from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, says: "Circumcise your sons when they are seven days old as it is cleaner (athar) and the flesh grows faster and because the earth hates the urine of the uncircumcised." It is also believed that the urine of the uncircumcised is impure, while if one prays with unclean genitals their prayer may not be considered as acceptable, even of those who have been circumcised, meaning that it may have to be repeated again at a time when the believer has purified themselves and removed the impurity. Another "hadith" attributed to Muhammad states: "the earth cries out to God in anguish because of the urine of the uncircumcised", and that "the earth becomes defiled from the urine of the uncircumcised for forty days".


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Islamic sources do not fix a particular time for circumcision. Therefore, there is a wide variation in practice among Muslim communities, with children often being circumcised in late childhood or early adolescence. It depends on family, region, and country. The preferred age is usually seven, although some Muslims are circumcised as early as on the seventh day after birth and as late as at the commencement of puberty.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: There is no fixed age for circumcision in Islam, and the age when boys get circumcised, and the procedures used, tends to change across countries, cultures, families, and time. In some Muslim-majority countries, circumcision is performed on Muslim boys after they have learned to recite the whole Quran from start to finish.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Circumcisions are usually carried out in health facilities or hospitals, and performed by trained medical practitioners. The circumciser can be either male or female, and is not required to be a Muslim.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: The occasion is widely celebrated in Turkey and called "Sünnet Töreni", which marks the child's transition to adulthood. The custom is also done in Muslim areas in the Balkans where the celebration is called "Synet".


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: Due to the dual gender use of the word "khitan" in Arabic, Female genital mutilation (FGM) is sometimes referred to as "khitan" by its proponents in an effort to seek justification for the practice in Islamic scripture. This interpretation is incorrect, however, as the Islamic use of terminology is restricted to male circumcision. The more precise Arabic term for specifically 'female circumcision' or FGM is "Khafḍ". In many communities, "khafd" is a rite of passage and refers to excision of the female genital organs. According to UNICEF, over 200 million women in Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Southeast Asia have been subjected to the practice and are living with FGM. It is not in the Quran, and the Islamic position on it was historically unclear, with a few 'weak' "hadith" encouraging it, and others discouraging it.


title: Khitan (circumcision)

text: In 2007, in a landmark ruling on the practice, the authoritative Al-Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research in Cairo declared that FGM has "no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions".


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Khaidi No. 150 () is a 2017 Indian Telugu-language action drama film directed by V. V. Vinayak and produced by Ram Charan. The film stars Chiranjeevi and Kajal Aggarwal, marking Chiranjeevi's return to films in a lead role after a decade, also his 150th film.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: The third entry of the "Khaidi" trilogy, the film is an official remake of the 2014 Tamil film "Kaththi". Principal photography began in June 2016 in Hyderabad. The film was released theatrically on 11 January 2017, on Sankranthi weekend. It became the second highest-grossing Telugu film of 2017, grossing over worldwide.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: In Kolkata, prisoner Kaththi Seenu (Chiranjeevi), a petty criminal, helps the police capture an escaping prisoner, but he himself escapes afterwards. He goes to Hyderabad and decides to escape to Bangkok. However, he drops this plan after meeting and falling in love with Subbalakshmi (Kajal Aggarwal), his childhood friend at the airport, who dupes him into believing that she gave him her phone number realizing that he has a crush on her. Later, Seenu and his assistant Malli (Ali) notice a doppelgänger of Seenu named Shankar (Chiranjeevi), being shot by a group of thugs. They admit him to hospital, following which Seenu decides to impersonate the injured Shankar to escape from the police. Under the name of his doppelgänger, Seenu and Malli enter an old-age home run by Shankar with the aim of collecting 25 lakhs (which is meant for the inmates of the old-age home) for their Bangkok trip, until he learns about his doppelgänger's mission.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Shankar is a post-graduate in hydrology from the arid village of Neeruru in Rayalaseema, who had discovered groundwater under some lands of the village which could be used as an irrigation source not only for the village, but for the entire Rayalaseema and the neighbouring areas as well. But, an MNC owned by Aggarwal (Tarun Arora) cheated the villagers into giving their lands for the construction of a factory. Shankar was arrested by the police, and the six villagers commit suicide so as to convince the issue with the media and release of Shankar. On learning of the plight of Shankar and the villagers, Seenu decides to fight for their cause while still under the name of Shankar. The people of the old home and Seenu go to the jury and try to convince him to go in favour of them, but Seenu starts stating rules and scares the main jury person (whom Aggarwal had bribed). Seenu then sends a person (disguised as a hairdresser) to Aggarwal and makes him lay a fingerprint on Aggarwal's neck. After that Aggarwal sends 50 men to kill Seenu, but he soon defeats them using the coins the Lion Club member gave when he was attending a ceremony for him.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Meanwhile, the real Shankar gains consciousness and finds himself in the Kolkata prison where Seenu was locked up. With the help of the man who Seenu helped capture, who has heard his story and has plans to kill Seenu in revenge for getting him caught and thrown back into prison, he soon escapes along with the prisoner's henchmen.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Not knowing that Shankar and the henchmen are headed for Hyderabad, Seenu makes efforts to convince the media to bring the plight of the villagers to the national consciousness, but the media is not interested as they feel that it is not sensational news. A few days later, at the high court, the judge declares the verdict in favour of Seenu and the villagers, but adds that Aggarwal has claimed that certain villagers who are working abroad have shown their support for the factory. If they cannot prove that their support was faked by Aggarwal within the next five days, the verdict will then go in favour of Aggarwal and the villagers will lose their lands. Since the villagers, who have denied supporting the factory, are abroad and cannot come to Hyderabad within five days to rebut Aggarwal's claims, and the verdict is to be decided within five days, Seenu decides to take drastic measures to sensationalize the issue. He, Lakshmi, Malli, and the inmates of the old-age home block water supply to Hyderabad by sitting on the pipelines which carry water to Hyderabad. With the plight of the Hyderabad people due to lack of water supply having gained national attention, Seenu comes out of the pipeline after a few days and highlights the villagers' plight in an emotionally charged speech to the media, which is telecast nationwide and moves many people.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Meanwhile, Shankar and the henchmen reach Hyderabad, but Shankar is soon kidnapped by Aggarwal's henchmen. While in Aggarwal's custody, he sees Seenu's speech on television and is moved by the efforts made by his doppelgänger to help the villagers. On the night before the verdict, Seenu's bluff is exposed, but he assures the old men that he is genuinely interested in their cause, that Shankar is alive and that he will rescue Shankar from Aggarwal and hand him back over to the villagers with the assurance of a positive verdict. Seenu goes to Aggarwal's office, where Shankar is being held. He rescues Shankar and fights Aggarwal. Shankar kills Aggarwal when he is about to kill Seenu. The next day, the verdict is declared in favour of Shankar and the villagers. The Kolkata police find Seenu and arrest him. Seenu assures Lakshmi that he will be back shortly.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Chiranjeevi 150th full-length feature film began filming in April 2016. The film is the remake of 2014 Tamil film, "Kaththi", featuring Vijay and Samantha Ruth Prabhu which dealt with issues such as farmer suicides and water scarcity in India. The film was financed by Chiranjeevi's son Ram Charan and producer A. Subashkaran and V. V. Vinayak directed Chiranjeevi for the second time. The Paruchuri Brothers wrote the script based on A.R. Murugadoss' original story. Devi Sri Prasad composed music for the film.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: The film features Chiranjeevi and Kajal Aggarwal was finalised as the heroine in late July 2016. Tarun Arora was selected as the antagonist for the film.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Principal photography commenced on 23 June 2016 as key sequences being shot at Chanchalguda Central Jail in Hyderabad. Later, in August 2016 Chiranjeevi and Kajal joined the shooting at Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Hyderabad. A special song was shot with Raai Laxmi and Chiranjeevi in October 2016. In November, two songs were shot with the lead pair Chiranjeevi and Kajal in Europe. Raghava Lawrence, Jani Master and Sekhar choreographed the dances. Kanal Kannan and the duo Ram Lakshman choreographed the fights. The visual effects for the film were made by Red Chillies VFX, a subsidiary of Red Chillies Entertainment.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Devi Sri Prasad. The soundtrack album consists of five tracks.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Khaidi No. 150 grossed 50.45 crore on the opening day. KN150 crossed the 95.4 crore mark in 2 days. It grossed over $2.45 million in the USA. the film has grossed 164 crore.


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Times of India gave the film 3 out of 5 writing "Yes, Chiranjeevi is back for sure, although we can’t quite say he’s back with a bang." 123 Telugu gave the film 3.25 writing "On the whole, Khaidi No 150 is a typical mass entertainer. The film is set to take record openings and has everything that we expect from a star hero like Chiranjeevi. He makes a thumping comeback and proves that even at this age he can give every star hero a run for their money. If you ignore the predictable story line and dull climax, Chiru’s one man show, superb songs, and a good message makes this film a good watch this festival season." Indian Express gave the film 3.5 writing "DSP songs do pump up the narrative but a slight disappointment is that dancer Chiru of Indra and Tagore is quite not in shape for a new step. There is modified Veena step and a “buckle lift” step with his son, Ram Charan Teja, who makes a 30-second cameo in a song, but the same agility and lithe is missing."


title: Khaidi No. 150

text: Great Andhra gave the film 3 out of 5 writing "Over all, "Khaidi No 150" is a film that has some nice mass moments and has dealt on a topical issue with cliched script. It is Chiru's act that works rather than the content of the movie." Firstpost gave the film 3 out of 5 writing "Directed by VV Vinayak, "Khaidi No 150"'s objective, in the end, isn't to really tell an emotional story. It's to announce the return of the Megastar. And it serves its purpose. The story is just bonus. Nothing else matters."


title: Visual system

text: The visual system comprises the sensory organ (the eye) and parts of the central nervous system (the retina containing photoreceptor cells, the optic nerve, the optic tract and the visual cortex) which gives organisms the sense of sight (the ability to detect and process visible light) as well as enabling the formation of several non-image photo response functions. It detects and interprets information from the optical spectrum perceptible to that species to "build a representation" of the surrounding environment. The visual system carries out a number of complex tasks, including the reception of light and the formation of monocular neural representations, colour vision, the neural mechanisms underlying stereopsis and assessment of distances to and between objects, the identification of a particular object of interest, motion perception, the analysis and integration of visual information, pattern recognition, accurate motor coordination under visual guidance, and more. The neuropsychological side of visual information processing is known as visual perception, an abnormality of which is called visual impairment, and a complete absence of which is called blindness. Non-image forming visual functions, independent of visual perception, include (among others) the pupillary light reflex and circadian photoentrainment.


title: Visual system

text: This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, humans in particular, although other animals have similar visual systems (see bird vision, vision in fish, mollusc eye, and reptile vision).


title: Visual system

text: Together, the cornea and lens refract light into a small image and shine it on the retina. The retina transduces this image into electrical pulses using rods and cones. The optic nerve then carries these pulses through the optic canal. Upon reaching the optic chiasm the nerve fibers decussate (left becomes right). The fibers then branch and terminate in three places.


title: Visual system

text: Most of the optic nerve fibers end in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Before the LGN forwards the pulses to V1 of the visual cortex (primary) it gauges the range of objects and tags every major object with a velocity tag. These tags predict object movement.


title: Visual system

text: V1 performs edge-detection to understand spatial organization (initially, 40 milliseconds in, focusing on even small spatial and color changes. Then, 100 milliseconds in, upon receiving the translated LGN, V2, and V3 info, also begins focusing on global organization). V1 also creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention or gaze shift.


title: Visual system

text: V2 both forwards (direct and via pulvinar) pulses to V1 and receives them. Pulvinar is responsible for saccade and visual attention. V2 serves much the same function as V1, however, it also handles illusory contours, determining depth by comparing left and right pulses (2D images), and foreground distinguishment. V2 connects to V1 - V5.


title: Visual system

text: V3 helps process ‘global motion’ (direction and speed) of objects. V3 connects to V1 (weak), V2, and the inferior temporal cortex.


title: Visual system

text: V4 recognizes simple shapes, and gets input from V1 (strong), V2, V3, LGN, and pulvinar. V5’s outputs include V4 and its surrounding area, and eye-movement motor cortices (frontal eye-field and lateral intraparietal area).


title: Visual system

text: V5’s functionality is similar to that of the other V’s, however, it integrates local object motion into global motion on a complex level. V6 works in conjunction with V5 on motion analysis. V5 analyzes self-motion, whereas V6 analyzes motion of objects relative to the background. V6’s primary input is V1, with V5 additions. V6 houses the topographical map for vision. V6 outputs to the region directly around it (V6A). V6A has direct connections to arm-moving cortices, including the premotor cortex.


title: Visual system

text: The inferior temporal gyrus recognizes complex shapes, objects, and faces or, in conjunction with the hippocampus, creates new memories. The pretectal area is seven unique nuclei. Anterior, posterior and medial pretectal nuclei inhibit pain (indirectly), aid in REM, and aid the accommodation reflex, respectively. The Edinger-Westphal nucleus moderates pupil dilation and aids (since it provides parasympathetic fibers) in convergence of the eyes and lens adjustment. Nuclei of the optic tract are involved in smooth pursuit eye movement and the accommodation reflex, as well as REM.


title: Visual system

text: The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the region of the hypothalamus that halts production of melatonin (indirectly) at first light.


title: Visual system

text: A major function of the visual system is to categorize visual objects. It has been shown that humans can per perform categorization in briefly presented images in a fraction of a second. These experiments consisted in asking subjects to categorize images that do or do not contain animals. The results showed that humans were able to perform this task very well (with a success rate of more than 95%) but above all that a differential activity for the two categories of images could be observed by electroencephalography, showing that this differentiation emerges with a very short latency in neural activity. These results have been extended to several species, including primates. Different experimental protocols have shown for example that the motor response could be extremely fast (of the order of 120 ms) when the task was to perform a saccade. This speed of the visual cortex in primates is compatible with the latencies that are recorded at the neuro-physiological level. The rapid propagation of the visual information in the thalamus, then in the primary visual cortex takes about 45 ms in the macaque and about 60 ms in humans. This functioning of visual processing as a forward pass is most prominent in fast processing, and can be complemented with feedback loops from the higher areas to the sensory areas.


title: Visual system

text: These are components of the visual pathway also called the optic pathway that can be divided into anterior and posterior visual pathways. The anterior visual pathway refers to structures involved in vision before the lateral geniculate nucleus. The posterior visual pathway refers to structures after this point.


title: Visual system

text: Light entering the eye is refracted as it passes through the cornea. It then passes through the pupil (controlled by the iris) and is further refracted by the lens. The cornea and lens act together as a compound lens to project an inverted image onto the retina.


title: Visual system

text: The retina consists of many photoreceptor cells which contain particular protein molecules called opsins. In humans, two types of opsins are involved in conscious vision: rod opsins and cone opsins. (A third type, melanopsin in some retinal ganglion cells (RGC), part of the body clock mechanism, is probably not involved in conscious vision, as these RGC do not project to the lateral geniculate nucleus but to the pretectal olivary nucleus.) An opsin absorbs a photon (a particle of light) and transmits a signal to the cell through a signal transduction pathway, resulting in hyper-polarization of the photoreceptor.


title: Visual system

text: Rods and cones differ in function. Rods are found primarily in the periphery of the retina and are used to see at low levels of light. Each human eye contains 120 million rods. Cones are found primarily in the center (or fovea) of the retina. There are three types of cones that differ in the wavelengths of light they absorb; they are usually called short or blue, middle or green, and long or red. Cones mediate day vision and can distinguish color and other features of the visual world at medium and high light levels. Cones are larger and much less numerous than rods (there are 6-7 million of them in each human eye).


title: Visual system

text: In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells, transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion.


title: Visual system

text: The retina adapts to change in light through the use of the rods. In the dark, the chromophore retinal has a bent shape called cis-retinal (referring to a "cis" conformation in one of the double bonds). When light interacts with the retinal, it changes conformation to a straight form called trans-retinal and breaks away from the opsin. This is called bleaching because the purified rhodopsin changes from violet to colorless in the light. At baseline in the dark, the rhodopsin absorbs no light and releases glutamate, which inhibits the bipolar cell. This inhibits the release of neurotransmitters from the bipolar cells to the ganglion cell. When there is light present, glutamate secretion ceases, thus no longer inhibiting the bipolar cell from releasing neurotransmitters to the ganglion cell and therefore an image can be detected.


title: Visual system

text: The final result of all this processing is five different populations of ganglion cells that send visual (image-forming and non-image-forming) information to the brain:


title: Visual system

text: A 2006 University of Pennsylvania study calculated the approximate bandwidth of human retinas to be about 8960 kilobits per second, whereas guinea pig retinas transfer at about 875 kilobits.


title: Visual system

text: In 2007 Zaidi and co-researchers on both sides of the Atlantic studying patients without rods and cones, discovered that the novel photoreceptive ganglion cell in humans also has a role in conscious and unconscious visual perception. The peak spectral sensitivity was 481 nm. This shows that there are two pathways for sight in the retina – one based on classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) and the other, newly discovered, based on photo-receptive ganglion cells which act as rudimentary visual brightness detectors.


title: Visual system

text: The functioning of a camera is often compared with the workings of the eye, mostly since both focus light from external objects in the field of view onto a light-sensitive medium. In the case of the camera, this medium is film or an electronic sensor; in the case of the eye, it is an array of visual receptors. With this simple geometrical similarity, based on the laws of optics, the eye functions as a transducer, as does a CCD camera.


title: Visual system

text: In the visual system, retinal, technically called "retinene" or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the retina. Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of light into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the central nervous system. In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result, a nerve impulse is generated.


title: Visual system

text: The information about the image via the eye is transmitted to the brain along the optic nerve. Different populations of ganglion cells in the retina send information to the brain through the optic nerve. About 90% of the axons in the optic nerve go to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus. These axons originate from the M, P, and K ganglion cells in the retina, see above. This parallel processing is important for reconstructing the visual world; each type of information will go through a different route to perception. Another population sends information to the superior colliculus in the midbrain, which assists in controlling eye movements (saccades) as well as other motor responses.


title: Visual system

text: A final population of photosensitive ganglion cells, containing melanopsin for photosensitivity, sends information via the retinohypothalamic tract to the pretectum (pupillary reflex), to several structures involved in the control of circadian rhythms and sleep such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (the biological clock), and to the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (a region involved in sleep regulation). A recently discovered role for photoreceptive ganglion cells is that they mediate conscious and unconscious vision – acting as rudimentary visual brightness detectors as shown in rodless coneless eyes.


title: Visual system

text: The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm, at the base of the hypothalamus of the brain. At this point, the information coming from both eyes is combined and then splits according to the visual field. The corresponding halves of the field of view (right and left) are sent to the left and right halves of the brain, respectively, to be processed. That is, the right side of primary visual cortex deals with the left half of the "field of view" from both eyes, and similarly for the left brain. A small region in the center of the field of view is processed redundantly by both halves of the brain.


title: Visual system

text: Information from the right "visual field" (now on the left side of the brain) travels in the left optic tract. Information from the left "visual field" travels in the right optic tract. Each optic tract terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus.


title: Visual system

text: The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a sensory relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain. The LGN consists of six layers in humans and other primates starting from catarrhines, including cercopithecidae and apes. Layers 1, 4, and 6 correspond to information from the contralateral (crossed) fibers of the nasal retina (temporal visual field); layers 2, 3, and 5 correspond to information from the ipsilateral (uncrossed) fibers of the temporal retina (nasal visual field). Layer one contains M cells, which correspond to the M (magnocellular) cells of the optic nerve of the opposite eye and are concerned with depth or motion. Layers four and six of the LGN also connect to the opposite eye, but to the P cells (color and edges) of the optic nerve. By contrast, layers two, three and five of the LGN connect to the M cells and P (parvocellular) cells of the optic nerve for the same side of the brain as its respective LGN. Spread out, the six layers of the LGN are the area of a credit card and about three times its thickness. The LGN is rolled up into two ellipsoids about the size and shape of two small birds' eggs. In between the six layers are smaller cells that receive information from the K cells (color) in the retina. The neurons of the LGN then relay the visual image to the primary visual cortex (V1) which is located at the back of the brain (posterior end) in the occipital lobe in and close to the calcarine sulcus. The LGN is not just a simple relay station, but it is also a center for processing; it receives reciprocal input from the cortical and subcortical layers and reciprocal innervation from the visual cortex.


title: Visual system

text: The optic radiations, one on each side of the brain, carry information from the thalamic lateral geniculate nucleus to layer 4 of the visual cortex. The P layer neurons of the LGN relay to V1 layer 4C β. The M layer neurons relay to V1 layer 4C α. The K layer neurons in the LGN relay to large neurons called blobs in layers 2 and 3 of V1.


title: Visual system

text: There is a direct correspondence from an angular position in the visual field of the eye, all the way through the optic tract to a nerve position in V1 (up to V4, i.e. the primary visual areas. After that, the visual pathway is roughly separated into a ventral and dorsal pathway).


title: Visual system

text: The visual cortex is the largest system in the human brain and is responsible for processing the visual image. It lies at the rear of the brain (highlighted in the image), above the cerebellum. The region that receives information directly from the LGN is called the primary visual cortex, (also called V1 and striate cortex). It creates a bottom-up saliency map of the visual field to guide attention or eye gaze to salient visual locations, hence selection of visual input information by attention starts at V1 along the visual pathway. Visual information then flows through a cortical hierarchy. These areas include V2, V3, V4 and area V5/MT (the exact connectivity depends on the species of the animal). These secondary visual areas (collectively termed the extrastriate visual cortex) process a wide variety of visual primitives. Neurons in V1 and V2 respond selectively to bars of specific orientations, or combinations of bars. These are believed to support edge and corner detection. Similarly, basic information about color and motion is processed here.


title: Visual system

text: Heider, et al. (2002) have found that neurons involving V1, V2, and V3 can detect stereoscopic illusory contours; they found that stereoscopic stimuli subtending up to 8° can activate these neurons.


title: Visual system

text: As visual information passes forward through the visual hierarchy, the complexity of the neural representations increases. Whereas a V1 neuron may respond selectively to a line segment of a particular orientation in a particular retinotopic location, neurons in the lateral occipital complex respond selectively to complete object (e.g., a figure drawing), and neurons in visual association cortex may respond selectively to human faces, or to a particular object.


title: Visual system

text: Along with this increasing complexity of neural representation may come a level of specialization of processing into two distinct pathways: the dorsal stream and the ventral stream (the Two Streams hypothesis, first proposed by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982). The dorsal stream, commonly referred to as the "where" stream, is involved in spatial attention (covert and overt), and communicates with regions that control eye movements and hand movements. More recently, this area has been called the "how" stream to emphasize its role in guiding behaviors to spatial locations. The ventral stream, commonly referred to as the "what" stream, is involved in the recognition, identification and categorization of visual stimuli.


title: Visual system

text: However, there is still much debate about the degree of specialization within these two pathways, since they are in fact heavily interconnected.


title: Visual system

text: Horace Barlow proposed the "efficient coding hypothesis" in 1961 as a theoretical model of sensory coding in the brain. Limitations in the applicability of this theory in the primary visual cortex (V1) motivated the V1 Saliency Hypothesis that V1 creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously. With attentional selection as a center stage, vision is seen as composed of encoding, selection, and decoding stages.


title: Visual system

text: The default mode network is a network of brain regions that are active when an individual is awake and at rest. The visual system's default mode can be monitored during resting state fMRI:


title: Visual system

text: Fox, et al. (2005) have found that "The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks'", in which the visual system switches from resting state to attention.


title: Visual system

text: In the parietal lobe, the lateral and ventral intraparietal cortex are involved in visual attention and saccadic eye movements. These regions are in the Intraparietal sulcus (marked in red in the adjacent image).


title: Visual system

text: Newborn infants have limited color perception. One study found that 74% of newborns can distinguish red, 36% green, 25% yellow, and 14% blue. After one month, performance "improved somewhat." Infant’s eyes don’t have the ability to accommodate. The pediatricians are able to perform non-verbal testing to assess visual acuity of a newborn, detect nearsightedness and astigmatism, and evaluate the eye teaming and alignment. Visual acuity improves from about 20/400 at birth to approximately 20/25 at 6 months of age. All this is happening because the nerve cells in their retina and brain that control vision are not fully developed.


title: Visual system

text: Depth perception, focus, tracking and other aspects of vision continue to develop throughout early and middle childhood. From recent studies in the United States and Australia there is some evidence that the amount of time school aged children spend outdoors, in natural light, may have some impact on whether they develop myopia. The condition tends to get somewhat worse through childhood and adolescence, but stabilizes in adulthood. More prominent myopia (nearsightedness) and astigmatism are thought to be inherited. Children with this condition may need to wear glasses.


title: Visual system

text: Along with proprioception and vestibular function, the visual system plays an important role in the ability of an individual to control balance and maintain an upright posture. When these three conditions are isolated and balance is tested, it has been found that vision is the most significant contributor to balance, playing a bigger role than either of the two other intrinsic mechanisms. The clarity with which an individual can see his environment, as well as the size of the visual field, the susceptibility of the individual to light and glare, and poor depth perception play important roles in providing a feedback loop to the brain on the body's movement through the environment. Anything that affects any of these variables can have a negative effect on balance and maintaining posture. This effect has been seen in research involving elderly subjects when compared to young controls, in glaucoma patients compared to age matched controls, cataract patients pre and post surgery, and even something as simple as wearing safety goggles. Monocular vision (one eyed vision) has also been shown to negatively impact balance, which was seen in the previously referenced cataract and glaucoma studies, as well as in healthy children and adults.


title: Visual system

text: According to Pollock et al. (2010) stroke is the main cause of specific visual impairment, most frequently visual field loss (homonymous hemianopia, a visual field defect). Nevertheless, evidence for the efficacy of cost-effective interventions aimed at these visual field defects is still inconsistent.


title: Visual system

text: Proper function of the visual system is required for sensing, processing, and understanding the surrounding environment. Difficulty in sensing, processing and understanding light input has the potential to adversely impact an individual's ability to communicate, learn and effectively complete routine tasks on a daily basis.


title: Visual system

text: In children, early diagnosis and treatment of impaired visual system function is an important factor in ensuring that key social, academic and speech/language developmental milestones are met.


title: Visual system

text: Cataract is clouding of the lens, which in turn affects vision. Although it may be accompanied by yellowing, clouding and yellowing can occur separately. This is typically a result of ageing, disease, or drug use.


title: Visual system

text: Presbyopia is a visual condition that causes farsightedness. The eye's lens becomes too inflexible to accommodate to normal reading distance, focus tending to remain fixed at long distance.


title: Visual system

text: Glaucoma is a type of blindness that begins at the edge of the visual field and progresses inward. It may result in tunnel vision. This typically involves the outer layers of the optic nerve, sometimes as a result of buildup of fluid and excessive pressure in the eye.