title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Since the early 2000s, there has been a continuously increasing number of buildings in Chinatown, neighboring Two Bridges, and the Lower East Side, taken over by new landlords and real estate developers, who then charged higher rents and/or demolished the buildings to build newer structures. Often, whenever this happens, many Fuzhounese tenants are more likely to be evicted, especially in the eastern portion of Chinatown, where illegal subdivision, overcrowding, lack of leases, and lack of immigrant paperwork are common. In addition, since the 2000s, there have been city officials inspecting apartment buildings and cracking down on illegal units. With tenants that have rent-stabilized leases, legal residency documents, no apartment subdivisions, and a lesser probability of subletting over capacity—most of whom are long-time Cantonese residents—it is usually harder for the newer landlords to be able to force these tenants out, especially including the western portion of Chinatown, which is still mainly Cantonese populated. However, newer landlords still continuously try find other loopholes to force them out.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: By 2009, many newer Chinese immigrants settled along East Broadway instead of the historic core west of Bowery. In addition Mandarin began to eclipse Cantonese as the predominant Chinese dialect in New York's Chinatown during the period. "The New York Times" says that the Flushing Chinatown now rivals Manhattan's Chinatown in terms of being a cultural center for Chinese-speaking New Yorkers' politics and trade.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Despite the area's gentrification, it is still a popular Chinese commercial shopping district, frequented by residents of the New York metropolitan area as well as tourists. In addition, high-income professionals are moving into the area and patronizing Chinese businesses. However, commercial activity is not concentrated evenly through Chinatown. The western half of Chinatown (the original Cantonese Chinatown), known as Little Hong Kong/Guangdong, is still relatively active. However, the eastern/southern part of Chinatown, known as Little Fuzhou, has become primarily residential, and thus, the most primarily affected by the decline in business. Businesses in Little Fuzhou may be affected by the spread of gentrification from the nearby Lower East Side and East Village.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: In 2016, the oldest continuously run business in Manhattan’s Chinatown was up for sale: Wing on Wo and Co, established in 1890. The building was worth around $10 million, including six stories and a store front, one of the only buildings left of its kind in the area. Mei Lum, a grandchild of the original owner, stepped in before the sale, deciding to take over the business and preserve its history and position within the neighborhood, to "regenerate, encourage and protect" Chinatown's culture. Lum started the "W.O.W. Project", which hopes to "preserve Chinatown’s creative scene through art and activism". Events such as Open Mic nights and exhibitions would start conversations about this neighborhood's past and the people that have lived there. For example, in February 2020, the W.O.W. Project exhibited ethnographic research and oral history interviews that highlighted stories of migration, displacement, and everyday resilience in Chinatowns all over the world. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, the W.O.W. Project started a project called Love Letters to Chinatown.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Chinese greengrocers and fishmongers are clustered around Mott Street, Mulberry Street, Canal Street (by Baxter Street), and all along East Broadway (especially by Catherine Street). The Chinese jewelers' district is on Canal Street between Mott and Bowery. There are many Asian and American banks in the neighborhood. Canal Street, west of Broadway (especially on the Northside), is filled with street vendors selling knock-off brands of perfumes, watches, and handbags. This section of Canal Street was previously the home of warehouse stores selling surplus/salvage electronics and hardware.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: In addition, tourism and restaurants are major industries. The district boasts many historical and cultural attractions, and it is a destination for tour companies like Manhattan Walking Tour, Big Onion, NYC Chinatown Tours, and Lower East Side History Project. Tour stops often include landmarks like the Church of the Transfiguration and the Lin Zexu and Confucius statues. The enclave's many restaurants also support the tourism industry. In Chinatown, more than 300 Chinese restaurants provide employment. Notable and well-reviewed Chinatown establishments include Joe's Shanghai, Jing Fong, New Green Bo and Amazing 66.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Other contributors to the economy include factories. The proximity of the fashion industry has kept some garment work in the local area, though much of the garment industry has since moved to China. The local garment industry now concentrates on quick production in small volumes and piece work, which is generally done at the worker's home. Much of the population growth is due to immigration.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The September 11, 2001 attacks caused a decline in business for stores and restaurants in Chinatown. Chinatown was adversely affected by the attacks; being so physically close to Ground Zero, Chinatown saw a very slow return of tourism and business. Part of the reason was the NYPD closure of Park Row, one of two major roads linking the Financial District with Chinatown (the other being Centre Street). However, the area's economy, as well as tourism, have rebounded since then. A Chinatown business improvement district was established in 2011 despite opposition from business owners in the community.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The neighborhood is home to several large Chinese supermarkets. In August 2011, a new branch of New York Supermarket opened on Mott Street in the central district of grocery and food shopping of Manhattan's Chinatown. Just a block away from New York Supermarket, is a Hong Kong Supermarket located on the corner of Elizabeth and Hester Streets. These two supermarkets are among the largest Chinese supermarkets carrying all different food varieties within the long-time established Cantonese community in the western section of Manhattan's Chinatown. A Hong Kong Supermarket at East Broadway and Pike Street burned down in 2009 and plans to construct a 91-room Marriott Hotel in its place resulted in community protests. The New York Supermarkets chain, which also operates markets in Elmhurst and Flushing, settled with the New York State Attorney General in 2008 in which it paid back wages and overtime to workers. Many of the Chinese restaurant menus in the U.S. are printed in Chinatown, Manhattan.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Manhattan's Chinatown has had a history of mini malls with varieties of small shops, however due to the gentrification, this trend has been declining. However, two significant well known mini malls in Manhattan's Chinatown still exist and stand out the most, which are Elizabeth Center at "13 Elizabeth Street" right next to NYPD's 5th precinct and East Broadway Mall at "88 East Broadway" under the Manhattan Bridge. Elizabeth Center is a Hong Kong style shopping center with varieties of shops with most of them being owned by Cantonese speakers along with some owned by other Chinese speakers as well and is located in the longer time established western Cantonese Chinatown, therefore their customer base are largely Cantonese speakers from the local neighborhoods as well as from other places, however other Chinese speakers from the local area and from other places including Chinese tourists also come to shop at this mini mall. Elizabeth Center also attracts a lot of Non-Asian tourists and visitors and it is often very popular with younger generation customers of Chinese and non-Chinese descents due to the significant concentration of stores that sell varieties of affordable accessories as well as cartoon figure and Action figure products.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: East Broadway Mall, at 88 Broadway, was developed in the late 1980s on a city-owned plot of land under the Manhattan Bridge. When East Broadway Mall opened, it was predominantly Cantonese, although a Fuzhouese-speaking population began congregating there by the 1990s. The area's Fuzhouese-speaking population declined in the 2010s due to gentrification, and many residents relocated to New York City's outer boroughs. The COVID-19 pandemic in New York City exacerbated the situation at East Broadway Mall, and the dim sum restaurant upstairs, which had operated for a long time, was closed. Elizabeth Center has done marginally better, and many tenants remained during the COVID-19 pandemic. By contrast, East Broadway Mall went from having around 80 stores to roughly 17 during the pandemic. Media sources reported in November 2021 that the New York state government was giving $20 million to revitalize several city-owned properties in the area. Some proposals have been made to convert the interiors of the East Broadway Mall into a community theater, with commercial stores outdoors. However, Curbed reported in October 2022 that the government grant was being rescinded from East Broadway Mall.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: For a long time, Manhattan's Chinatown has always been the most largely concentrated Chinese population in New York City, a city where 6% of the overall population is Chinese American. However, in recent years growing Chinese populations in the outer boroughs have tremendously outnumbered Manhattan's Chinese population. Other New York City Chinese communities have been settled over the years, including that of Flushing in Queens, particularly along from Roosevelt Avenue to Main Street through Kissena Boulevard.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Another Chinese community is located in Sunset Park in Brooklyn, particularly along 8th Avenue from 40th to 65th Streets. New York City's newer Chinatowns have recently sprung up in Elmhurst and Corona, Queens (which border each other and are part of the same Chinatown), on Avenue U in the Homecrest section of Brooklyn, as well as in Bensonhurst, also in Brooklyn. Outside of New York City proper, rapidly growing suburban Chinatowns are developing within the New York metropolitan area in nearby Edison, New Jersey and Nassau County, Long Island.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: While the composition of these satellite Chinatowns are as varied as the original, the political factions in the original Manhattan Chinatown (Tongs, Republic of China loyalists, People's Republic of China loyalists, and those apathetic) have led to some factionalization in the satellite Chinatowns.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The Flushing Chinatown was spearheaded by many Chinese following the Handover of Hong Kong in 1997 as well as Taiwanese who used their considerable capital to buy out the land from the former residents. The Chinatowns of Flushing and Elmhurst are more middle class and were initially mainly small Taiwanese Mandarin-speaking enclaves, but have since grown very large and very diversified with Chinese migrants from many various regions from mainland China also often speaking Mandarin along with their regional dialects. Flushing is now the largest Chinatown of New York City and has taken over as being the main Chinese cultural center due to the very high diversity of Chinese immigrants from many various regions of Mainland China and Taiwan.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: There are three major Brooklyn Chinatowns. Unlike the Chinese enclaves in Queens, which has a very high diversity of Chinese immigrants from various regions of Mainland China and Taiwan, the Brooklyn Chinatowns are very segregated into Cantonese dominated enclaves in Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay and the Fuzhou dominated enclave in Sunset Park, although with some significant limited population of long-time Cantonese residents. The Sunset Park Chinatown originally emerged as a small Cantonese enclave, but with the large influx of Fuzhou immigrants arriving into Sunset Park since the 2000s, it has grown into becoming the largest Fuzhou Chinatown of New York City, although some Cantonese people remain in the Sunset Park area. The Bensonhurst and Sheepshead Bay Chinatowns are primarily Cantonese populated as a result of many of them migrating away from both Chinatowns of Manhattan and Brooklyn Sunset Park including new Cantonese immigration. Bensonhurst Chinatown's Chinese population is growing faster than that of Sunset Park as well as it is slowly becoming the largest Cantonese Chinatown in New York City. According to the 2010 census information, Bensonhurst and the nearby neighborhood of Bath Beach in Brooklyn together constituted New York City's largest concentrated community of Hong Kong Residents (with 3,723 in Bensonhurst and 1,049 in Bath Beach totaling together at 4,772), even though they are very heavily mixed in with the area's much larger Cantonese community consisting mostly of Cantonese speaking immigrants from Mainland China's Guangdong Province, and although most of the Hong Kong residents are scattered across many other neighborhoods of New York City while only roughly about less than a quarter of New York City's Hong Kong residents reside in Bensonhurst/Bath Beach.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: NYC Dept. Of City Planning provided updated 2020 census data on the Asian population of New York City. Bensonhurst now has 46,000 Asian Residents while Sunset Park had 31,400 Asian Residents, which means Bensonhurst now has the highest Asian population of Brooklyn surpassing Sunset Park as the original epicenter of Brooklyn's Asian population. The Asian population in Bensonhurst and Sunset Park are still overwhelmingly Chinese residents. Queens neighborhoods of Flushing (54,200 Asian Residents) and Elmhurst(55,800 Asian Residents) still hold the largest Asian populations in all of New York City though. Manhattan's Chinatown Asian population ranks at 27,200 residents.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: For much of Chinatown's history, there were few unique architectural features to announce to visitors that they had arrived in the neighborhood (other than the language of the shop signs). In 1962, the Lieutenant Benjamin Ralph Kimlau Memorial archway at Chatham Square was erected in memorial of the Chinese-Americans who died in World War II, designed by local architect Poy Gum Lee (1900–1968). This memorial bears calligraphy by the great Yu Youren 于右任 (1879–1964). A statue of Lin Zexu (林則徐), also known as Commissioner Lin, a Foochowese Chinese official who opposed the opium trade, is also located at the square; it faces uptown along East Broadway, now home to the bustling Fuzhou neighborhood and known locally as Fuzhou Street (Fúzhóu jiē 福州街).


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: More decorations and cultural institutions followed. In the 1970s, New York Telephone, then the local phone company, started capping the street phone booths with pagoda-like decorations. In 1976, the statue of Confucius in front of Confucius Plaza became a common meeting place. In the 1980s, banks that opened new branches and others that were renovating started to use Chinese traditional styles for their building facades. The Church of the Transfiguration, a national historic site built in 1815, stands off Mott Street. The Chinese American experience has been documented at the Museum of Chinese in America in Manhattan's Chinatown since 1980. In addition, Pearl River Mart, which opened in 1971, has become one of the more notable family-owned stores in Chinatown.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: In 2010, Chinatown and Little Italy were listed in a single historic district on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The housing stock of Chinatown is still mostly composed of cramped tenement buildings, some of which are over 100 years old. It is still common in such buildings to have bathrooms in the hallways, to be shared among multiple apartments. A federally subsidized housing project, named Confucius Plaza, was completed on the corner of Bowery and Division Street in 1976. This 44-story residential tower block gave much needed new housing stock to thousands of residents. The building also housed a new public grade school, PS 124 (or Yung Wing Elementary). Besides being the first and largest affordable housing complex specifically available to the Chinatown population Confucius Plaza is also a cultural and institutional landmark, springing forth community organization, Asian Americans for Equality (AAFE), one of Chinatown's oldest political/community organizations, founded in 1974.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: In the past, Chinatown had Chinese movie theaters that provided entertainment to the Chinese population. The first Chinese-language theater in the city was located at 5–7 Doyers Street from 1893 to 1911. The theater was later converted into a rescue mission for the homeless from Bowery. In 1903, the theater was the site of a fundraiser by the Chinese community for Jewish victims of a massacre in Kishinev.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Among the theaters that existed in Chinatown in later years were the Sun Sing Theater under the Manhattan Bridge and the Pagoda Theater, both on the street of East Broadway, the Governor Theater on Chatham Square, the Rosemary Theater on Canal Street across the Manhattan Bridge, as well as the Music Palace on the Bowery, which was the last Chinese theater to close. Others have existed in different sections of Chinatown. These theaters now have all closed because of more accessibility to videotapes, which were more affordable and provided more genres of movies and much later on DVDs and VCDs became available. Other factors such as, availability of Chinese cable channels, karaoke bars, and gambling in casinos began to provide other options for the Chinese to have entertainment also influenced the Chinese theaters to go out of business.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Chinatown is patrolled by the 5th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 19 Elizabeth Street. The 5th Precinct and the adjacent 7th Precinct ranked 58th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 42 per 100,000 people, Chinatown and the Lower East Side's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 449 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The 5th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories that have decreased by 77.1% between 1990 and 2019. The precinct reported 6 murders, 14 rapes, 91 robberies, 210 felony assaults, 101 burglaries, 585 grand larcenies, and 16 grand larcenies auto in 2019.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Chinatown and the Lower East Side than in other places citywide. In Chinatown and the Lower East Side, there were 82 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 10.1 teenage births per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Chinatown and the Lower East Side have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 11%, slightly less than the citywide rate of 12%.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Chinatown and the Lower East Side is , more than the city average. Twenty percent of Chinatown and Lower East Side residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Chinatown and the Lower East Side, 10% of residents are obese, 11% are diabetic, and 22% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 16% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Eighty-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is about the same as the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 70% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," less than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Chinatown and the Lower East Side, there are 18 bodegas.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The nearest major hospital is NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Chinatown is located within two primary ZIP Codes. The area east of Bowery is part of 10002, while the area west of Bowery is part of 10013. The United States Postal Service operates two post offices in Chinatown:


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Chinatown and the Lower East Side generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . A plurality of residents age 25 and older (48%) have a college education or higher, while 24% have less than a high school education and 28% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Chinatown and the Lower East Side students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011 and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same period.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Chinatown and the Lower East Side's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In Chinatown and the Lower East Side, 16% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 77% of high school students in Chinatown and the Lower East Side graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Residents are zoned to schools in the New York City Department of Education. PS 124, The Yung Wing School is located in Chinatown. It was named after Yung Wing, the first Chinese person to study at Yale University. PS 130 Hernando De Soto is located in Chinatown. PS 184 Shuang Wen School, a bilingual Chinese-English School which opened in 1998, is a non-zoned school in proximity to Chinatown.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates the Chatham Square branch at 33 East Broadway. The branch was founded in 1899; the current Carnegie library building opened in 1903 and was renovated in 2001. The four-story library contains a large Chinese collection, which has been housed at the library since 1911.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: There are two New York City Subway stations that are directly in the neighborhood—Grand Street () and Canal Street ()—although other stations are also nearby. New York City Bus routes include .


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The Manhattan Bridge connects Chinatown to Downtown Brooklyn. The FDR Drive runs along the East River, where the East River Greenway, a pedestrian walkway and bikeway, is also present.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: The major cultural streets are Mott Street and East Broadway; on the other hand, Canal Street, Allen Street, Delancey Street, Grand Street, East Broadway, and Bowery are the main traffic arteries.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: Streets in Chinatown also have Chinese names, which are noted on bilingual street signs in Chinatown. Prior to the 1960s, Chinatown residents named the streets informally, and streets could carry several Chinese names. The first bilingual street signs installed by the city government were placed on police call boxes in 1966. The first 44 bilingual street signs, displaying the street name in English with a smaller street name in Chinese below, were installed in 1969. These signs were installed in an area bounded by Canal Street to the north, Bowery to the east, Chatham Square to the southeast, Worth Street to the south, and Mulberry Street to the west. The street names were selected to match phonetic transliterations of English names in Taishanese and Cantonese, the two Chinese varieties most frequently spoken in Chinatown at the time. As different Chinese varieties may have widely varying pronunciations for the same word, the signs did not account for pronunciations in Mandarin and Fujianese, the varieties spoken by many immigrants who came in the 1970s.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: In the early 1980s, the program was expanded following an effort by urban planner Jerry S. Y. Cheng and Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) president Li Boli. The New York City Department of Transportation commissioned a study in 1985 to identify places for new signs, but most records have been lost or destroyed. The expansion would have extended the signs north to Broome Street, east to Allen and Pike Streets, southeast to Madison Street (between Oliver and Pike Streets), and west to Lafayette Street. The newer street names were proposed by CCBA members and affiliated merchants, who mostly spoke Taishanese and Cantonese. Calligrapher Tan Bingzhong manually wrote the Chinese characters on street signs for 40 streets, leading to slight variations in each sign.


title: Chinatown, Manhattan

text: While there were 155 street signs at the program's peak, only 101 signs remained , and almost half of the 40 streets no longer have bilingual signs. A "New York Times" analysis of the program found that many damaged signs were replaced with English-only signs, as translated street names are not part of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, or else were not replaced at all. Furthermore, many of the people involved in the street-sign programs during the 1960s and 1980s had died, and the relocation of the neighborhood's Chinese residents had shrunken the area's Chinese presence over time. According to the "Times", there was little awareness in the neighborhood that the bilingual signs were disappearing, even among community leaders.


title: My Father Is Strange

text: My Father is Strange () is a 2017 South Korean television series starring Kim Yeong-cheol, Kim Hae-sook, Ryu Soo-young, Lee Yoo-ri, Lee Joon, Jung So-min, Min Jin-woong, Ryu Hwa-young, and Ahn Hyo-seop. The series aired on KBS2 every Saturday and Sunday from 7:55 p.m. to 9:15 p.m. (KST). The TV series gained huge popularity and was extended by 2 episodes (original 50).


title: My Father Is Strange

text: About a middle class family that lives on the outskirts of Seoul which consists of the father, his wife, their three daughters, and their one son. However, one day, a young man, who is a celebrity, shows up at the household claiming that he is the son of the family.


title: Office

text: An office is a space where an organization's employees perform administrative work in order to support and realize objects and goals of the organization. The word "office" may also denote a position within an organization with specific duties attached to it (see officer, office-holder, official); the latter is in fact an earlier usage, office as place originally referring to the location of one's duty. When used as an adjective, the term "office" may refer to business-related tasks. In law, a company or organization has offices in any place where it has an official presence, even if that presence consists of (for example) a storage silo rather than an establishment with desk-and-chair. An office is also an architectural and design phenomenon: ranging from a small office such as a bench in the corner of a small business of extremely small size (see small office/home office), through entire floors of buildings, up to and including massive buildings dedicated entirely to one company. In modern terms an office is usually the location where white-collar workers carry out their functions. According to James Stephenson, "Office is that part of business enterprise which is devoted to the direction and co-ordination of its various activities."


title: Office

text: Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. The High Middle Ages (1000–1300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written and where laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. With the growth of large, complex organizations in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy grew dramatically, requiring many clerks, and as a result more office space was assigned to house their activities. The time-and-motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor (1856-1915) led to the "Modern Efficiency Desk" of 1915 with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers.


title: Office

text: However, by the middle of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, and gradually the cubicle system evolved.


title: Office

text: The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their jobs. Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing, and computer work. There are nine generic types of work space, each supporting different activities. In addition to individual cubicles, one can find meeting rooms, lounges, and spaces for support activities, such as photocopying and filing. Some offices also have a kitchen area where workers can make their lunches. There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific companies can be even more important.


title: Office

text: While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult, such as requirements for light, networking, and security. The major purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment - primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas. The chief operating officer (COO) is responsible for handling administration and maintenance of an office building.


title: Office

text: The structure and shape of the office are impacted by both management thought as well as construction materials and may or may not have walls or barriers. The word stems from the Latin officium, and its equivalents in various, mainly romance, languages. An officium was not necessarily a place, but rather an often mobile 'bureau' in the sense of a human staff or even the abstract notion of a formal position, such as a magistrature. The relatively elaborate Roman bureaucracy would not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, even partially reverting to illiteracy, while the East preserved a more sophisticated administrative culture, both under Byzantium and under Islam.


title: Office

text: Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. There was usually a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work. Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices". These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists and the general press because one often associates scrolls with literature. In fact, they were true offices since the scrolls were meant for record-keeping and other management functions such as treaties and edicts, and not for writing or keeping poetry or other works of fiction.


title: Office

text: The High Middle Ages (1000–1300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was usually the place where most government letters were written and where laws were copied in the administration of a kingdom. The rooms of the chancery often had walls full of pigeonholes, constructed to hold rolled up pieces of parchment for safekeeping or ready reference, a precursor to the bookshelf. The introduction of printing during the Renaissance did not change these early government offices much.


title: Office

text: Medieval illustrations, such as paintings or tapestries, often show people in their private offices handling record-keeping books or writing on scrolls of parchment. All kinds of writings seemed to be mixed in these early forms of offices. Before the invention of the printing press and its distribution there was often a very thin line between a private office and a private library since books were read or written in the same space at the same desk or table, and general accounting and personal or private letters were also done there.


title: Office

text: It was during the 13th century that the English form of the word first appeared when referring to a position involving duties (ex. the office of the ...). Geoffrey Chaucer appears to have first used the word in 1395 to mean a place where business is transacted in "The Canterbury Tales".


title: Office

text: As mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in the same buildings, which might include retail sales, warehousing and clerical work. During the 15th century, population density in many cities reached the point where stand-alone buildings were used by merchants to conduct their business, and there was a developing a distinction between church, government/military, and commerce uses for buildings.


title: Office

text: With the growth of large, complex organizations such as the Royal Navy and the East India Company in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. The Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) was built in 1726 as a three-storey U-shaped brick building and was the first purpose-built office building in Great Britain. As well as offices, the building housed a board room and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. In the 1770s, many scattered offices for the Royal Navy were gathered into Somerset House, the first block purpose-built for office work.


title: Office

text: The East India House was built in 1729 on Leadenhall Street as the headquarters from which the East India Company administered its Indian colonial possessions. The Company developed a very complex bureaucracy for the task, which required thousands of office employees to process the necessary paperwork. The Company recognized the benefits of centralized administration, and required that all workers sign in and out at the central office, daily.


title: Office

text: As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy dramatically grew in size and complexity. To transact business, an increasingly large number of clerks were needed to handle order-processing, accounting, and document filing, with increasingly specialized office space required to house these activities. Most of the desks of the era were top-heavy with paper storage bins extending above the desk-work area, giving the appearance of a cubicle and offering the workers some degree of privacy.


title: Office

text: The relatively high price of land in the central core of cities lead to the first multi-story buildings, which were limited to about 10 stories until the use of iron and steel allowed for higher structures. The first purpose-built office block was the Brunswick Building, built in Liverpool in 1841. The invention of the safety elevator in 1852 by Elisha Otis saw the rapid escalation upward of buildings. By the end of the 19th century, larger office buildings frequently contained large glass atriums to allow light into the complex and improve air circulation.


title: Office

text: By 1906, Sears, Roebuck and Co had opened their mail order and headquarters operation in a building in Chicago, at the time the largest building in the world. The time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor and later applied to the office environment by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, led to the idea that managers needed to play an active role in directing the work of subordinates in order to increase the efficiency of the workplace. F.W. Taylor advocated the use of large, open floor plans, and desks that faced supervisors. As a result, in 1915, the Equitable Life Insurance Company in New York City introduced the “Modern Efficiency Desk” with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers. This led to a demand for a large square footages per floor in buildings, and a return to the open spaces that were seen in pre–industrial revolution buildings.


title: Office

text: However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required discretion in the control of privacy, which is needed to combat tedium linked to poor productivity, and to encourage creativity. In 1964, the Herman Miller (office equipment) company engaged Robert Propst, a prolific industrial designer, who came up with the concept of the Action Office which later evolved into the cubicle office furniture system.


title: Office

text: Japanese businesses have set themselves apart from their American counterparts by implementing different techniques in the way they handle business. The Japanese office layout improves work productivity, harmony in the office, and holds every employee accountable for the work they produce. The type of office layout used in Japan is called an open plan, and relies on ergonomics to help make employees as productive as possible. The Japanese open office layout allows them to use an organizational structure known as the horizontal structure. In the typical Japanese office there are no walls dividing desks, no cubicles, and no individual offices. Also they are able to implement policies using the ringi-sho consensus.


title: Office

text: In order to get group members to work effectively in the open office floor plan the use of island-style desks are used. The most dominant feature of the Japanese island-style office layout is that each group forms an island. Kageyu Noro, Goroh Fujimaki & Shinsuke Kishi, researchers of ergonomics in the workplace, stated,” Japanese offices have traditionally adhered to island layouts because these reflect the Japanese style of teamwork and top-down style of management.” The group leader will then sit at the prominent position and ensure productivity.


title: Office

text: The group leader will assign a task to the group, and each member of the group then receives their individual task to complete. Island-style seating also gives the group the benefit of being able to speak to one another at any time, and ask for help if needed. Being in such close proximity to one another in the office gives another advantage to the supervisor in that he can call an uchi-awase. Uchi-awase is an informal meeting in order to get an important message across, and also allows all members of the team to be creative in the office. “The open office layout allows for this because there are hardly any independent rooms or enclosures. If the supervisor stands at his desk he can glance at his associates and easily call them over.”, according to Durlabhji, Subhash, Norton E. Marks, and Scott Roach, authors of Japanese Business: Cultural Perspective. Once all individual tasks are complete the group then combines each person's work and the project is the put together as a whole and returned to the supervisor. The work is viewed as a team effort and that each member of the group receives equal credit for being part of a team completing the goal assigned. The group itself holds each member accountable for ensuring that the work is getting done, and that no one individual is doing more work than another. Another motivating factor is that the group's boss is also seated at the same desk, and the effect that this has on the individuals is that they must work hard just like the boss. The role of having an open layout with island-type seating allows the office to be structured so the employees are put together as teams.


title: Office

text: The type of organizational structure found within the Japanese office is known as a horizontal structure. According to Andrew, Ghillyer, author of Management Now,” Horizontal structure is an organization structure consisting of two groups: the first composed of senior management responsible for strategic decisions and policies and the second composed of empowered employees working together in different process teams; also known as a team structure.” The benefit of using this type of structure is that hierarchy is flattened to reduce supervision, teams are able to self-manage, team performance, not just the individual is rewarded, and training is highly emphasized amongst all employees. With the heightened sense of empowerment and responsibility workers are motivated to complete objectives in a timely manner. Having the office structured horizontally allows for easy communication of introducing new policies and ideas amongst the groups.


title: Office

text: “Ringisho” is the concept of submitting proposals and making decisions off those ideas. By unifying everyone together in the Japanese office it helps to make better-informed decisions on policies of the company that all managers and employees have input on. The idea behind this is to get a hold of various thinking individuals to see if there is a good way in writing their policies that come to benefit the company better. Richard Lewis, author of "When Cultures Collide", states “Suggestions, ideas and inventions make their way up the company hierarchy by a process of collecting signatures among workers and middle managers. Many people are involved. Top executives take the final step in ratifying items that have won sufficient approval.” With this system in place changes to policies are only passed if there is an overall consensus to pass it. Allowing each group to have a say on which policies should be implemented improves overall job satisfaction and harmony throughout the office.


title: Office

text: The way Japanese offices are structured allow them to be more efficient when conducting business. The efficiency at which they operate has been noticed by such companies as General Motors, Ford, Motorola, and Chrysler Company. They continue to look for other ways to be more efficient and productive with the office layout and employee productivity.


title: Office

text: The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their job—preferably at minimum cost and to maximum satisfaction. With different people performing different tasks and activities, however, it is not always easy to select the right office spaces. To aid decision-making in workplace and office design, one can distinguish three different types of office spaces: workspaces, meeting spaces and support spaces. For new, or developing businesses, remote satellite offices and project rooms, serviced offices can provide a simple solution and provide all of the former types of space.


title: Office

text: Workspaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing and computer work. There are nine generic types of workspace, each supporting different activities.


title: Office

text: Open office: An open workspace for more than ten people, suitable for activities which demand frequent communication or routine activities which need relatively little concentration


title: Office

text: Team space: A semi-enclosed workspace for two to eight people; suitable for teamwork which demands frequent internal communication and a medium level of concentration


title: Office

text: Cubicle: A semi-enclosed workspace for one person, suitable for activities which demand medium concentration and medium interaction


title: Office

text: Private office: An enclosed workspace for one person, suitable for activities which are confidential, demand a lot of concentration or include many small meetings


title: Office

text: Shared office: An enclosed workspace for two or three people, suitable for semi-concentrated work and collaborative work in small groups


title: Office

text: Team room: An enclosed workspace for four to ten people; suitable for teamwork which may be confidential and demands frequent internal communication


title: Office

text: Study booth: An enclosed workspace for one person; suitable for short-term activities which demand concentration or confidentiality


title: Office

text: Work lounge: A lounge-like workspace for two to six people; suitable for short-term activities which demand collaboration and/or allow impromptu interaction


title: Office

text: Touch down: An open workspace for one person; suitable for short-term activities which require little concentration and low interaction


title: Office

text: Meeting spaces in an office typically use interactive processes, be it quick conversations or intensive brainstorms. There are six generic types of meeting space, each supporting different activities.


title: Office

text: Small meeting room: An enclosed meeting space for two to four persons, suitable for both formal and informal interaction


title: Office

text: Large meeting room: An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people, suitable for formal interaction


title: Office

text: Small meeting space: An open or semi-open meeting space for two to four persons; suitable for short, informal interaction


title: Office

text: Large meeting space: An open or semi-open meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for short, informal interaction


title: Office

text: Brainstorm room: An enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for brainstorming sessions and workshops


title: Office

text: Support spaces in an office are typically used for secondary activities such as filing documents or taking a break. There are twelve generic types of support space, each supporting different activities.


title: Office

text: Filing space: An open or enclosed support space for the storage of frequently used files and documents


title: Office

text: Print and copy area: An open or enclosed support space with facilities for printing, scanning and copying


title: Office

text: Pantry area: An open or enclosed support space where employees can get refreshments and supplies for visitor hospitality are kept.


title: Office

text: Games room: An enclosed support space where employees can play games (e.g. computer games, pool, darts)


title: Office

text: Lactation room: as of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, a requirement for companies in the United States.


title: Office

text: Waiting area: An open or semi-open support space where visitors can be received and can wait for their appointment


title: Office

text: Circulation space: Support space which is required for circulation on office floors, linking all major functions


title: Office

text: There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst these vary according to function, managerial fashions, and the culture of specific companies can be even more important. Choices include, how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker will have their own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office can be made up of one main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space. Open-plan offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have shown that they can improve short-term productivity, i.e. within a single software project. At the same time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by the cubicle desk, possibly made most famous by the "Dilbert" cartoon series, which solves visual privacy to some extent, but often fails on acoustic separation and security. Most cubicles also require the occupant to sit with their back towards anyone who might be approaching; workers in walled offices almost always try to position their normal work seats and desks so that they can see someone entering, and in some instances, install tiny mirrors on things such as computer monitors.


title: Office

text: While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult. These requirements can be both legal ("e.g. light levels must be sufficient") or technical ("e.g. requirements for computer networking"). Alongside, other requirements such as security and flexibility of layout, has led to the creation of special buildings which are dedicated only or primarily for use as offices. An office building, also known as an office block or business center is a form of commercial building which contains spaces mainly designed to be used for offices.


title: Office

text: The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas.


title: Office

text: An office building will be divided into sections for different companies or may be dedicated to one company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting rooms, singular or open-plan offices, as well as toilets.


title: Office

text: Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Many office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, which means that those occupying a space or building can share facilities.


title: Office

text: Rental rates for office and retail space are typically quoted in terms of money per floor-area–time, usually money per floor-area per year or month. For example, the rate for a particular property may be $29 per square-foot per year ($29/s.f/yr) - $290 per square-meter–year ($290/m/a), and rates in the area could range $20–$50/s.f./yr ($200–$500/m·a).


title: Office

text: In a "gross lease", the rate quoted is an all-inclusive rate. One pays a set amount of rent per time and the landlord is responsible for all other expenses such as costs of utilities, taxes, insurance, maintenance, and repairs.


title: Office

text: The "triple net" lease is one in which the tenant is liable for a share of various expenses such as property taxes, insurance, maintenance, utilities, climate control, repairs, janitorial services and landscaping.


title: Office

text: Office rents in the United States are still recovering from the high vacancy rates that occurred in the wake of the 2008 depression.


title: Office

text: The Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) classifies office space into three categories: Class A, Class B, and Class C. According to BOMA, Class A office buildings have the "most prestigious buildings competing for premier office users with rents above average for the area". BOMA states that Class A facilities have "high-quality standard finishes, state of the art systems, exceptional accessibility and a definite market presence". BOMA describes Class B office buildings as those that compete "for a wide range of users with rents in the average range for the area". BOMA states that Class B buildings have "adequate systems" and finishes that "are fair to good for the area", but that the buildings do not compete with Class A buildings for the same prices. According to BOMA Class C buildings are aimed towards "tenants requiring functional space at rents below the average for the area". The lack of specifics allows considerable room for "fudging" the boundaries of the categories. Oftentimes, the above categories are further modified by adding the plus or minus sign to create subclasses, such as Class A+ or Class B-.


The 2022 UEFA European Under-19 Championship (also known as UEFA Under-19 Euro 2022) was the 19th edition of the UEFA European Under-19 Championship (69th edition if the Under-18 and Junior eras are included), the annual international youth football championship organised by UEFA for the men's under-19 national teams of Europe. Slovakia hosted the tournament between 18 June and 1 July 2022. A total of eight teams played in the tournament, with players born on or after 1 January 2003 eligible to participate.


title: 2022 UEFA European Under-19 Championship

text: Same as previous editions held in even-numbered years, the tournament acted as the UEFA qualifiers for the FIFA U-20 World Cup. The top five teams of the tournament qualified for the 2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Indonesia as the UEFA representatives.


text: Spain were the defending champions, having won the last tournament held in 2019, with the 2020 and 2021 editions cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe and the title was not awarded. They were not able to defend the title after failing to qualify for the competition.


text: For the UEFA European Under-19 Championship final tournaments of 2021 and 2022, Romania and Slovakia were selected as hosts respectively.


text: The UEFA Executive Committee originally decided on 29 May 2019 to test a new qualifying format for the Under-19 Championship in 2022 and 2023. The qualifying competition would have been played in four rounds over a two-year period from autumn 2020 to spring 2022, with teams divided into three leagues, and promotion and relegation between leagues after each round similar to the UEFA Nations League. However, on 17 June 2020, UEFA announced that the introduction of the new format had been postponed to the 2023 edition due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, and qualification for the 2022 edition would use the previous format involving two rounds only.


text: A total of 54 (out of 55) UEFA nations entered the competition, and with the hosts Slovakia qualifying automatically, the other 53 teams will compete in the qualifying competition, which consisted of two rounds: the Qualifying round, which took place in autumn 2021, and the Elite round, which took place in spring 2022, to determine the remaining seven spots in the final tournament. The draw for the qualifying round was held on 9 December 2020, 10:30 CET (), at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.


text: The group winners and runners-up advanced to the semi-finals and qualify for the 2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Greece in the Roman era describes the Roman conquest of Greece, as well as the period of Greek history when Greece was dominated first by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The Roman era of Greek history began with the Corinthian defeat in the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC. However, before the Achaean War, the Roman Republic had been steadily gaining control of mainland Greece by defeating the Kingdom of Macedon in a series of conflicts known as the Macedonian Wars. The Fourth Macedonian War ended at the Battle of Pydna in 148 BC with the defeat of the Macedonian royal pretender Andriscus.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The definitive Roman occupation of the Greek world was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), in which Augustus defeated Cleopatra VII, the Greek Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, and the Roman general Mark Antony, and afterwards conquered Alexandria (30 BC), the last great city of Hellenistic Egypt. The Roman era of Greek history continued with Emperor Constantine the Great's adoption of Byzantium as "Nova Roma", the capital city of the Roman Empire; in 330 AD, the city was renamed Constantinople. Afterwards, the Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire, including Roman and Greek culture.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The Greek peninsula fell to the Roman Republic during the Battle of Corinth (146 BC), when Macedonia became a Roman province. Meanwhile, southern Greece also came under Roman hegemony, but some key Greek "poleis" remained partly autonomous and avoided direct Roman taxation.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: In 88 BC, Athens and other Greek city-states revolted against Rome and were suppressed by General Lucius Cornelius Sulla. During the Roman civil wars, Greece was physically and economically devastated until Augustus organised the peninsula as the province of Achaea, in 27 BC. Initially, Rome's conquest of Greece damaged the economy, but it readily recovered under Roman administration in the postwar period. Moreover, the Greek cities in Asia Minor recovered from the Roman conquest more rapidly than the cities of peninsular Greece, which had been much damaged in the war with Sulla.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: As an empire, Rome invested resources and rebuilt the cities of Roman Greece, and established Corinth as the capital city of the province of Achaea, and Athens prospered as a cultural hub of philosophy, education and learned knowledge.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Life in Greece continued under the Roman Empire much the same as it had previously. Roman culture was highly influenced by the Greeks; as Horace said, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit" ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror"). The epics of Homer inspired the "Aeneid" of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles. Some Roman nobles regarded the Greeks as backwards and petty, but many others embraced Greek literature and philosophy. The Greek language became a favorite of the educated and elite in Rome, such as Scipio Africanus, who tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in 66 AD, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. He was honoured with a victory in every contest, and in the following year, he proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games in Corinth, just as Flamininus had over 200 years previously.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Many temples and public buildings were built in Greece by emperors and wealthy Roman nobility, especially in Athens. Julius Caesar began construction of the Roman agora in Athens, which was finished by Augustus. The main gate, the Gate of Athena Archegetis, was dedicated to the patron goddess of Athens, Athena. The Agrippeia was built in the centre of the Ancient Agora of Athens by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Emperor Hadrian was a philhellene who before he became emperor had served as eponymous archon of Athens. He saw himself as an heir to Pericles and made many contributions to Athens. He built the Library of Hadrian in the city and completed the construction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus, some 638 years after its construction had been started by Athenian tyrants but ended because of the belief that building on such a scale would cause hubris. The Athenians built the Arch of Hadrian to honor Emperor Hadrian. The side of the arch facing the Athenian agora and the Acropolis had an inscription stating, "This is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus." The side facing the Temple of Zeus and the 'new city' (this was still part of the ancient city; e.g. the Panathenaic Stadium has always been on that side) had an inscription stating, "This is the city of Hadrian, and not of Theseus". Adrianou (Hadrian Street) exists to this day, leading from the arch to the Ancient Agora.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The Pax Romana was the longest period of peace in Greek history, and Greece became a major crossroads of maritime trade between Rome and the Greek speaking eastern half of the empire. The Greek language served as a "lingua franca" in the eastern provinces and in Italy, and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: During this time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman east came under the influence of Early Christianity. The apostle Paul of Tarsus preached in Philippi, Corinth and Athens, and Greece soon became one of the most highly Christianized areas of the empire.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Greece was divided into provinces including Achaea, Macedonia, Epirus and Thrace. During the reign of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, Moesia was organized as a diocese, and was ruled by Galerius. Under Constantine (who professed Christianity) Greece was part of the prefectures of Macedonia and Thrace. Theodosius divided the prefecture of Macedonia into the provinces of Creta, Achaea, Thessalia, Epirus Vetus, Epirus Nova, and Macedonia. The Aegean islands formed the province of Insulae in the Diocese of Asia.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Greece faced invasions from the Heruli, Goths, and Vandals during the reign of Romulus Augustulus. Stilicho, who pretended he was a regent for Arcadius, evacuated Thessaly when the Visigoths invaded in the late 4th century. Arcadius' chief advisor Eutropius allowed Alaric to enter Greece, and he looted Athens, Corinth and the Peloponnese. Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 AD and Alaric was made "magister militum" in Illyricum. Eventually, Alaric and the Goths migrated to Italy, sacked Rome in 410, and built the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia, which lasted until 711 with the advent of the Arabs.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Greece remained part of and became the center of the remaining relatively cohesive and robust eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (now historiographically referred to as the Byzantine Empire), for nearly a thousand more years after the Fall of Rome, the city which once conquered it.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: Contrary to outdated visions of Late Antiquity, the Greek peninsula was most likely one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire. Older scenarios of poverty, depopulation, barbarian destruction, and civil decay have been revised in light of recent archaeological discoveries. In fact, the polis, as an institution, appears to have remained prosperous until at least the 6th century. Contemporary texts such as Hierocles' "Syndekmos" affirm that late antiquity Greece was highly urbanised and contained approximately eighty cities. This view of extreme prosperity is widely accepted today, and it is assumed between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, Greece may have been one of the most economically active regions in the eastern Mediterranean.


title: Greece in the Roman era

text: The Roman emperor Heraclius in the early 7th century changed the empire’s official language from Latin to Greek. As the eastern half of the Mediterranean has always been predominantly Greek, the eastern half of the Roman Empire gradually became Hellenized following the fall of the Latin western half. Over the course of the following centuries, mainland Greece was mainly contested between the Roman and Bulgarian Empires, and suffered from invasions by Slavic tribes and Normans. Crete and Cyprus were contested between the Romans and Arabs and were later taken by the Crusaders who, following the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, established the Latin Empire in Thrace and Greece. The Romans retook Constantinople and re-established control in most of the Greek peninsula, although Epirus would remain an independent splinter state until the early 14th century when Roman control was re-established. As a civil war raged within the empire, the Serbian Empire took the opportunity to conquer most of mainland Greece, while a resurgent Bulgarian Empire invaded from the north. In the century that followed, the Ottoman Empire would establish its dominance in the region, annexing all three empires and finishing its conquest of Greece with the fall of the Morea in 1460.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Edward Edmund Maximilian George Windsor, Lord Downpatrick (born 2 December 1988), known professionally as Eddy Downpatrick, is an English fashion designer and former financial analyst. He is the co-founder and creative director of the British fashion label FIDIR. As second-in-line to the Dukedom of Kent, he uses one of his grandfather's subsidiary titles, Baron Downpatrick, by courtesy. He is the most senior person excluded from the line of succession to the British throne due to being a Roman Catholic.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Downpatrick was born on 2 December 1988 at St Mary's Hospital, London, and grew up in Cambridge. He is the eldest child of George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, son and heir apparent of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. Downpatrick's mother, Sylvana, Countess of St Andrews, by birth member of the Austrian Tomaselli family, is a Canadian born historian of Austro-Italian and French extraction. Diana, Princess of Wales, was Downpatrick's godmother, but she died before he got to know her well.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Downpatrick is close to his third cousin Princess Beatrice and to his younger sisters Lady Marina and Lady Amelia Windsor, a fashion model. His great-grandmother Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, was the British royal family's fashion icon in the post-war era.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Downpatrick was educated at Eton College and matriculated at Keble College, Oxford, where he studied Modern Languages with a specialisation in French and German. At Oxford he was the president of the Bullingdon Club. He wanted to join the British Army after the university, but had not recovered from rugby injuries.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Downpatrick first had the idea to launch a fashion brand while hiking in Scotland in 2009, but decided to first focus on his studies and career as a financial analyst at JP Morgan.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: Downpatrick left JP Morgan and began working as a fashion designer in 2016. He is a co-founder and the creative director of the fashion label FIDIR, which he launched with Justine Dalby in 2017. The brand is a collection of outdoor-wear and accessories. He designs handbags, wallets, sweatshirts, wash bags, and T-shirts. His designs are inspired by the Scottish Highlands.


title: Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick

text: In 2003, aged 15, following the example of his grandmother the Duchess of Kent and his uncle Lord Nicholas Windsor, Downpatrick, who was baptised in the Church of England, chose to be confirmed into the Roman Catholic Church. He was therefore barred from the line of succession to the British throne according to the Act of Settlement 1701. As a second cousin once removed of King Charles III, Downpatrick is the most senior person excluded from the line of succession for being a Roman Catholic. , he would have been 42nd in line. He remains second in the line of succession, after his father, to the Dukedom of Kent.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Lou Andreas-Salomé (born either Louise von Salomé or Luíza Gustavovna Salomé or Lioulia von Salomé, ; 12 February 1861 – 5 February 1937) was a Russian-born psychoanalyst and a well-traveled author, narrator, and essayist from a Russian-German family. Her diverse intellectual interests led to friendships with a broad array of distinguished thinkers, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Paul Rée, and Rainer Maria Rilke.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Lou Salomé was born in St. Petersburg to Gustav Ludwig von Salomé (1807–1878), and Louise von Salomé (née Wilm) (1823–1913). Lou was their only daughter; they had five sons. Although she would later be attacked by the Nazis as a "Finnish Jew", her parents were actually of French Huguenot and Northern German descent. The youngest of six children, she grew up in a wealthy and well-cultured household, with all children learning Russian, German, and French; Salomé was allowed to attend her brothers' classes.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Born into a strictly Protestant family, Salomé grew to resent the Reformed church and Hermann Dalton, the Orthodox Protestant pastor. She refused to be confirmed by Dalton, officially left the church at age 16, but remained interested in intellectual pursuits in the areas of philosophy, literature and religion.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: In fact, she was fascinated by the sermons of the Dutch pastor Hendrik Gillot, known in St. Petersburg as an opponent of Dalton's. Gillot, 25 years her senior, took her on as a student, engaging with her in the fields of theology, philosophy, world religions, and French and German literature. Together they studied innumerable authors, philosophers, theological and religious subjects, and all of this wide-ranging study laid the groundwork for her intellectual encounters with very well-known thinkers of her time. Gillot became so smitten with Salomé that he wanted to divorce his wife and marry his young student. Salomé refused, for she was not interested in marriage and sexual relations. Though disappointed and shocked by this development, she remained friends with Gillot.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Following her father's death in 1879, Salomé and her mother went to Zürich, so Salomé could acquire a university education as a "guest student". In her one year at the University of Zurich—one of the few schools that accepted female students—Salomé attended lectures in philosophy (logic, history of philosophy, ancient philosophy, and psychology) and theology (dogmatics). During this time, Salomé's physical health was failing due to lung disease, causing her to cough up blood. Due to this, she was instructed to heal in warmer climates, so in February 1882, Salomé and her mother went to Rome.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé's mother took her to Rome when Salomé was 21. At a literary salon in the city, Salomé became acquainted with the author Paul Rée. Rée proposed to her, but she instead suggested that they live and study together as 'brother and sister' along with another man for company, and thereby establish an academic commune. Rée accepted the idea, and suggested that they be joined by his friend Friedrich Nietzsche. The two met Nietzsche in Rome in April 1882, and Nietzsche is believed to have instantly fallen in love with Salomé, as Rée had earlier done. Nietzsche asked Rée to propose marriage to Salomé on his behalf, which she rejected. She had been interested in Nietzsche as a friend, but not as a husband. Nietzsche nonetheless was content to join Rée and Salomé touring through Switzerland and Italy together, planning their commune. On 13 May, in Lucerne, when Nietzsche was alone with Salomé, he earnestly proposed marriage to her again, and she again rejected him. He was happy to continue with the plans for an academic commune. After discovering the situation, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth became determined to get Nietzsche away from what she described as the "immoral woman". The three travelled with Salomé's mother through Italy and considered where they would set up their "Winterplan" commune. This commune was intended to be set up in an abandoned monastery, but as no suitable location was found, the plan was abandoned.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: After arriving in Leipzig in October 1882, the three spent a number of weeks together. However, the following month Rée and Salomé parted company with Nietzsche, leaving for Stibbe without any plans to meet again. Nietzsche soon fell into a period of mental anguish, although he continued to write to Rée, asking him, "We shall see one another from time to time, won't we?" In later recriminations, Nietzsche would blame the failure in his attempts to woo Salomé both on Salomé, Rée, and on the intrigues of his sister (who had written letters to the families of Salomé and Rée to disrupt their plans for the commune). Nietzsche wrote of the affair in 1883 that he felt "genuine hatred for [his] sister".


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé would later (1894) write a study, "Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken" ("Friedrich Nietzsche in his Works"), of Nietzsche's personality and philosophy.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: In 1884 Salomé became acquainted with Helene von Druskowitz, the second woman to receive a philosophy doctorate in Zurich. It was also rumoured that Salomé later had a romantic relationship with Sigmund Freud.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé and Rée moved to Berlin and lived together until a few years before her celibate marriage to linguistics scholar Friedrich Carl Andreas. Despite her opposition to marriage and her open relationships with other men, Salomé and Andreas remained married from 1887 until his death in 1930.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé's co-habitation with Andreas caused the despairing Rée to fade from Salomé's life despite her assurances. Throughout her married life, she engaged in affairs and/or correspondence with the German journalist and politician Georg Ledebour, the Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke, about whom she wrote an analytical memoir, and the psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Victor Tausk, among others. Accounts of many of these are given in her volume "Lebensrückblick". Her relationship with Freud was still quite intellectual despite gossip about their romantic involvement. In one letter Freud commends Salomé's deep understanding of people so much that he believed she understood people better than they understood themselves. The two often exchanged letters.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: In May 1897, in Munich, she met Rilke, who had been introduced to her by Jacob Wassermann. She was 37 while Rilke was only 21. She had already published with some success "Im Kampf um Gott" "where she exposed the problem of loss of faith (which had been her own for a long time)", several articles, and the study "Jesus der Jude" that Rilke had read.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: As Philippe Jaccottet reports, Salomé wrote in "Lebensrückblick": "I was your wife for years because you were the first reality, where man and body are indistinguishable from each other, an indisputable fact of life itself. I could have said literally what you told me when you confessed your love to me: Only you are real. That is how we became husband and wife even before we became friends, not by choice, but by this unfathomable marriage [...] We were brother and sister, but as in a distant past, before the marriage between brother and sister became sacrilegious".


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: In 1899 with her husband Friedrich-Carl, then again in 1900, Lou travelled to Russia, the second time with Rilke, whose first name she changed from René to Rainer. She taught him Russian, to read Tolstoy (whom he would later meet) and Pushkin. She introduced him to patrons and other people in the arts, remaining Rilke's advisor, confidante, and muse throughout his adult life. The romance between the poet and Lou lasted three years, then turned into a friendship, which would continue until Rilke's death, as evidenced by their correspondence. In 1937, Freud said of Salomé's relationship with Rilke: "she was both the muse and the attentive mother of the great poet".


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: At the age of 74, Salomé ceased to work as a psychoanalyst. She was increasingly weak, suffered from a heart condition and diabetes, and had to be treated several times in the hospital. Her husband visited her daily during a six-week stay after a foot operation, which was arduous for the old, rather ill man, and this made them grow very close after a forty-year marriage marked by hurtful behaviour on both sides and long periods of non-communication. Freud appreciated this from afar, writing: "only what is true proves itself so long-lasting" ("So dauerhaft beweist sich doch nur das Echte."). Friedrich Carl Andreas died of cancer in 1930, and Salomé herself underwent a difficult cancer operation in 1935.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: On the evening of 5 February 1937, Salomé died in her sleep due to uremia in Göttingen. Her urn was laid to rest in her husband's grave in the cemetery on the Groner Landstraße in Göttingen. She is commemorated in the city by a memorial plaque outside the property where her house stood, a street named after her (Lou-Andreas-Salomé-Weg), and the name of the Lou Andreas-Salomé Institut für Psychoanalyse und Psychotherapie. A few days before her death, the Gestapo confiscated her library (according to other sources it was an SA group who destroyed the library shortly after her death). The reasons given for this confiscation were that she had been a colleague of Sigmund Freud's, had practised "a Jewish science", and owned many books by Jewish authors.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé was a prolific writer who wrote fiction, criticism and essays on religion, philosophy, sexuality and psychology. A uniform edition of her works is being published in Germany by MedienEdition Welsch. She authored a "Hymn to Life" that so deeply impressed Nietzsche that he was moved to set it to music. Salomé's literary and analytical studies became such a vogue in Göttingen, where she lived late in her life, that the Gestapo waited until shortly after her death to "clean" her library of works by Jews.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: She was one of the first female psychoanalysts and one of the first women to write psychoanalytically on female sexuality, before Helene Deutsch, for instance in her essay on the anal-erotic (1916), an essay admired by Freud. However, she had written about the psychology of female sexuality before she ever met Freud, in her book "Die Erotik" (1911).


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: She wrote more than a dozen novels and novellas, including "Im Kampf um Gott", "Ruth", "Rodinka", "Ma", "Fenitschka – eine Ausschweifung", as well as non-fiction studies such as "Henrik Ibsens Frauengestalten" (1892), a study of Ibsen's female characters, and a book on Nietzsche, "Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken" (1894). The first English translation of her novel "Das Haus" (1921) appeared in 2021 under the title "Anneliese's House", in an annotated edition by Frank Beck and Raleigh Whitinger.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé edited a memoir about Rilke after his death in 1926. Among her works is also her "Lebensrückblick", which she wrote during her last years based on memories of her life as a free woman. In her memoirs, first published in their original German in 1951, she goes into depth about her faith and her relationships.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé is said to have remarked in her last days, "I have really done nothing but work all my life, work ... why?" And in her last hours, as if talking to herself, she is reported to have said, "If I let my thoughts roam I find no one. The best, after all, is death."


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Fictional accounts of Salomé's relationship with Nietzsche occur in four novels: Irvin Yalom's "When Nietzsche Wept", Lance Olsen's "Nietzsche's Kisses", Beatriz Rivas', "La hora sin diosas" ("The time without goddesses"). and William Bayer's "The Luzern Photograph", in which two reenactments of the famous image of her with Nietzsche and Rée impact a murder in contemporary Oakland, California.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Mexican playwright Sabina Berman includes Lou Andreas-Salomé as a character in her 2000 play "Feliz nuevo siglo, Doktor Freud (Freud Skating)".


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: Salomé is also fictionalized in Angela von der Lippe's "The Truth about Lou", in Brenda Webster's "Vienna Triangle", in Clare Morgan's "A Book for All and None", in Robert Langs' two-act play "Freud's Bird of Prey"," and in Araceli Bruch's five-act play "Re-Call" (written in Catalan).


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: In Liliana Cavani's movie "" ("Beyond Good and Evil") Salome is played by Dominique Sanda. In Pinchas Perry's film version of "When Nietzsche Wept", Salome is played by Katheryn Winnick.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: "Lou Salome", an opera in two acts by Giuseppe Sinopoli with libretto from Karl Dietrich Gräwe, premiered 1981 at the Bavarian State Opera, with August Everding as General Director, staging by Götz Friedrich and set design by Andreas Reinhardt.


title: Lou Andreas-Salomé

text: "", a German-language movie directed by Cordula Kablitz-Post, released in German cinemas on 30 June 2016. Andreas-Salome is portrayed onscreen by Katharina Lorenz and as a young woman by Liv Lisa Fries. The film was released in New York City and Los Angeles in April 2018, with a wider release to follow.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: HM Prison Frankland is a Category A men's prison located in the village of Brasside in County Durham, England. Frankland is operated by His Majesty's Prison Service.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: Frankland was originally opened in 1980 with four wings each holding 108 in single cells. A further two wings opened in 1998 to an open gallery design to hold an additional 206. A specialist Dangerous and Severe Personality Disorder (DSPD) unit opened at the prison in May 2004.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: The prison has increased in size in recent years following major redevelopment work including the construction of the new DSPD 'Westgate Unit'. In March 2008, the Ministry of Justice announced that Frankland would be expanded again, with planning permission being granted for an extra 120 places at the prison.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: In 2011, two convicted prisoners, Nathan Mann and Michael Parr, disemboweled 23-year-old Mitchell Harrison, who had been convicted of raping a 13-year-old girl.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: Frankland is a Dispersal prison that holds male prisoners who are over 21 years of age, and whose sentence is usually 4 years or more, life sentences and high-risk remand prisoners. The prison has been dubbed the "Monster Mansion" due to many of its inmates being convicted murderers, high-risk sex offenders and those convicted of terrorism-related offences. Prison accommodation is divided between wings, with wings A to D holding 108 inmates each, wings F and G holding an additional 208, with J holding 120. All cells are single occupancy.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: The Healthcare Centre at the prison consists of a 4-bedded ward and 10 furnished rooms, a dental suite, X-ray and a Suicide Crisis Suite. A number of clinics are held, many conducted by visiting specialists. There are also telehealth services and wing-based treatment rooms. Primary care is contracted to the County Durham & Darlington Foundation Trust.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: Education at the prison is provided by The Manchester College, with a range of courses provided - from basic skills to higher education level. Frankland also runs workshops in furniture production, a charity workshop and a sight-and-sound workshop. The prison has a library and gym to support inmates' learning and recreation.


title: HM Prison Frankland

text: Frankland Prison has a visitors' centre. Facilities include a canteen and children's play area, all with disabled access.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn (), also known as al-Sajjād (, ) or simply as Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn (), , was an Imam in Shiʻi Islam after his father Husayn ibn Ali, his uncle Hasan ibn Ali, and his grandfather, Ali ibn Abi Talib.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali ibn al-Husayn survived the Battle of Karbala in 680 CE, after which he and the other survivors were taken to Yazid I in Damascus. He was eventually allowed to return to Medina, where he led a secluded life with a few close companions. He devoted his life to prayer and was regarded as an authority on law and hadith. Some of his supplications are collected in "Al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya" (), which is highly regarded by the Shia. He adopted a quiescent attitude towards the Umayyads and is seen by the Shia community as an example of patience and perseverance when numerical odds are against them.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: His name was Ali, though Husayn had two other sons named Ali, who were both killed in Karbala. The first was an infant, referred to as Ali al-Asghar () in the Shia literature. The second one was Ali al-Akbar () though some historians, such as al-Qadi al-Nu'man, maintain that Zayn al-Abidin was the eldest brother. Some Sunni historians, including Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Qutaybah, al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari, refer to Zayn al-Abidin as Ali al-Asghar.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: According to Kohlberg, Ali's is reported differently as Abu al-Ḥasan, Abu al-Ḥusayn, Abu Muḥammad, Abu Bakr, and Abu Abd Allah. He was given the honorific al-Sajjad (), as well as Zayn al-Abidin (), and al-Zaki (). He also became known as Dul-tafenat in reference to the calluses formed on his forehead from frequent prostration.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali was born to Husayn, who was the third Shia Imam after his brother Hasan, the second Shia Imam, and their father, Ali, the first Shia Imam.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali's mother is named variously as Barra, Gazala, Solafa, Salama, Sahzanan, and Sahbanuya. According to Ibn Qutaybah, Ali was born to a (freed) concubine () from Sind. Shia sources, however, maintain that Ali's mother was the daughter of Yazdegerd III, the last Sasanian Emperor. These traditions refer to Ali as Ibn al-Khiyaratayn (), signifying the union of the Quraysh, representing the Arabs, and the Persians, representing non-Arabs. According to some accounts, Shahrbanu, daughter of Yazdegerd III, was brought as a captive to Medina during the caliphate of Umar, who wanted to sell her. Ali, however, suggested allowing her to choose her husband, to which Umar agreed and she chose Ali's son, Husayn. She is said to have died shortly after giving birth to her only son, Ali.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali ibn al-Husayn was about two years old when his grandfather, Ali, died. He lived ten years during the imamate of his uncle, Hasan, and ten years during the imamate of his father, Husayn. His own imamate lasted for thirty-five years and he died in 94 or 95 AH at the age of fifty-seven, during the caliphate of al-Walid I or his younger brother, Hisham.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Most sources report that Ali ibn al-Husayn was born in Medina in 38 AH (658–9 CE). He may have been too young to have remembered his grandfather, Ali, and was raised in the presence of his uncle, Hasan, and his father, Husayn, who were Muhammad's two grandchildren.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: In 61 AH (680 CE), Muhammad's grandson, Husayn, and a small group of supporters and relatives were massacred in the Battle of Karbala by the large army of the Umayyad Caliph Yazid I, to whom Husayn had refused to pledge an oath of allegiance. Ali ibn al-Husayn was present in Karbala but too ill to participate in the fighting. After killing Husayn and his supporters, the Umayyad troops looted his camp and found Ali ibn al-Husayn lying deathly ill in one of the tents. Shimr is said to have wanted to kill him but his aunt, Zaynab, appealed to Umar ibn Sa'ad, the Umayyad commander, to spare his life and the latter let him be.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: After the battle, Ali ibn al-Husayn and the women and children were marched to Kufa as captives, alongside the heads of Husayn and his supporters. According to the Shia author al-Shaykh al-Mufid, the captives were carried on bare camels and chains were placed around Ali's bleeding neck while he was sapped by illness. Kufan women began to cry at the sight of the captives, and Ali is said to have commented that, "They are weeping and lamenting over us! So who has killed us?"


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: The governor of Kufa, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, is known to have treated the captives with considerable contempt. Ibn Ziyad at first intended to kill Ali but was dissuaded. Sharif al-Qarashi writes that, under the impression that all sons of Husayn were killed in Karbala, Ibn Ziyad asked Ali, "Did not God kill Ali ibn al-Husayn?" To this, Ali responded, "I used to have an older brother, also named Ali [al-Akbar], whom you killed. He will request you on the Day of Judgment." "God killed him," shouted Ibn Ziyad. Ali then quoted from verses 39:42 and 3:145 of the Quran, "God takes the souls away at the time of their death; none dies except with God’s permission," which implies that God does not kill. Ibn Ziyad was angered by this response and ordered Ali to be executed. He was, however, saved after Husayn's sister, Zaynab, pleaded with Ibn Ziyad.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali and the other survivors were then sent to Yazid in Damascus, who addressed the captives harshly, to which Ali and Zaynab responded in kind. Yazid, however, is said to have regretted the massacre later, possibly fearing the public outcry. He sent the descendants of Muhammad back to Medina after compensating them for their stolen property. Additional details are offered by Shia sources. For instance, it is related that Yazid celebrated the occasion, brought the captives before his guests, and publicly gloated over the head of Husayn. Ali asked permission to deliver a speech, which was not granted. Yazid, however, relented at the request of his guests and Ali defended the Ahl al-Bayt in a speech which was interrupted, at Yazid's order, by the call to prayer (). When the announced, "I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God," Ali ibn al-Husayn asked:


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: The Mashhad Ali, forming part of the great mosque in Damascus, is said to mark where Ali was incarcerated.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali led a quiet life upon his return to Medina, confining himself to a limited circle of followers who referred to him for religious matters. He took aloof from political activities and dedicated his time to prayer, which earned him the honorifics Zayn al-Abidin and Sajjad. According to Chittick, Zayn al-Abidin spent his time in worship and learning, was an authority on law and hadith, and best known for his virtuous character and piety.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Several accounts record Zayn al-Abidin's deep sorrow over the massacre. It is said that for thirty-four years after the events in Karbala, Ali would weep when food was placed before him. When asked if it was not time for his sorrows to come to an end, he made a reference to verse 12:84 of the Quran: "Jacob, the prophet, had twelve sons, and God made one of them disappear. His eyes turned white from constant weeping, his head turned grey out of sorrow, and his back became bent in the gloom, though his son was alive. But I watched while my father, my brother, my uncle, and seventeen members of my family were slaughtered all around me. How should my sorrow come to an end?"


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: The atrocities of Karbala were related by its survivors and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr soon aroused the indignant people of Medina and later Mecca to revolt against the Umayyads. Medinan forces were, however, crushed by the Umayyad army in the Battle of al-Harra.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Zayn al-Abidin kept his distance from both the Umayyad and Zubayri authorities. During the uprising, according to Jafri, he left Medina to emphasize his neutrality. After the Medinans' defeat in the Battle of al-Harra, unlike others, Ali was exempted from a renewed oath of allegiance to Yazid. This exemption was in part because he sheltered the Umayyad Marwan and his family on one occasion. Non-Shia sources describe a friendly relationship between Zayn al-Abidin and Marwan, who later succeeded Yazid's son, alleging that Marwan lent Ali money to buy a concubine and consulted him on a message received from the Byzantine emperor. Shia sources, however, argue that Ali's interactions with the authorities were based on the principle of to avoid prosecution.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: The massacre of Karbala in 61 AH had a profound impact on the Shia. The Tawwabin () in Kufa, led by Sulayman ibn Surad, was the first Shia group that sought to atone for their failure to assist Husayn and deliver the caliphate to Zayn al-Abidin. They remained underground until 65 AH and then marched against and were defeated by the much larger Umayyad army after three days of heavy fighting. Sulayman was killed in the battle. There is no evidence of Ali's involvement in this uprising.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Mukhtar al-Thaqafi arrived in Kufa in 64 AH, shortly before the Tawwabin's revolt, and campaigned among the Shia for the imamate of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, a son of the first Imam, Ali, but not with Fatima. After the defeat of the Tawwabun and in the absence of any alternatives, the campaign of Mukhtar grew in popularity and he eventually took over Kufa in 66 AH. Mukhtar chased down and killed those responsible for the massacre of Karbala, including Umar ibn Sa'ad and Shimr. According to Madelung, however, Mukhtar most likely sent their heads to Ibn al-Hanafiyya, rather than Zayn al-Abidin. Ibn Ziyad was also killed in battle and his head was taken to the same place in Kufa where Ibn Ziyad had received the head of Husayn. Mukhtar himself was killed in battle by Ibn Zubayr in 67 or 68 AH. Ibn Zubayr, however, did not view Zayn al-Abedin as responsible for Mukhtar's uprising and thus left him unharmed. Similarly, Zayn al-Abidin was not harmed by the Umayyad al-Hajjaj when the latter defeated and killed Ibn Zubayr, following the siege of Mecca in 73 AH.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Among the descendants of Muhammad, Ali was the natural candidate for the imamate as the only surviving son of Husayn after Karbala. Though he cannot accept or reject them, Jafri also lists a number of Shia traditions about the appointment of Ali as the next Imam by his father, Husayn. Nevertheless, after the death of Husayn, a number of factions within the Shia, including the Tawwabin, felt that the Umayyad Caliphate should be overthrown and that it fell to Imam to lead the rebellion. As a result of Zayn al-Abidin's quiescent policy, those groups rallied behind Mokhtar who revolted under the auspices of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah. Shia sources, however, emphasize that Mokhtar turned to Ibn al-Hanafiyaah only after only the rejection by Zayn al-Abidin.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: For his part, Ibn al-Hanafiyaah neither repudiated Mukhtar's propaganda nor made any public claims about succession to Husayn. Jafri suggests that Ibn al-Hanafiyaah, not being a descendant of Muhammad, might have been unwilling to claim the imamate for himself. Donaldson recounts a Shia tradition which describes how Zayn al-Abedin and Ibn Hanafiyyah agreed to appeal to the sacred Black Stone of the Kaaba to determine which of the two was the true successor. There, Ibn Hanafiyyah prayed for a sign to no avail. Zayn al-Abedin's prayer was, however, answered and the Black Stone spoke in favor of his imamate. The tradition notes that the miracle satisfied Ibn Hanafiyyah.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Abu Khalid al-Kabuli, a companion of Ibn Hanafiah, turned to Zayn al-Abidin afterwards. In addition to Abu Khalid, Shia sources list Qasim ibn Awf and a few others among the prominent Shias who abandoned Ibn al-Hanafiyyah. Ismailils maintain that Ibn Hanafiah was appointed by Husayn as a temporary Imam and a cover to protect the true Imam, Zayn al-Abidin.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: The question of rightful succession to Husayn, as between his son and Ibn al-Hanafiyyah, divided the Shia and diverted considerable support away from Zayn al-Abidin, at least until the death of al-Zubayr and, with it, the collapse of the political ambitions of the people of Hejaz and Iraq. Kasaniyya is a name given to all sects originated from Mokhtar's revolt who trace the imamate through Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah and his successors. The Kaysaniyya itself is divided to different sects, though its common view is that Hasan, Husayn, and Ibn Hanfiyyah were the true successors of Ali. However, some extreme sects within the Kaysaniyya reject the imamate of Hasan and Husayn.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: When Ibn Hanafiyyah died in 81 AH, some of his followers, who became known as the Karbiyya, came to believe that Ibn Hanafiyyah had not died but was in concealment at a mountain near Medina, and would reappear again as Mahdi to fill the earth with justice. Another group, called the Hashemiyya, admitted that Ibn Hanafiyya was dead and followed his son, Abu Hashim. All Keysaniyya sects are distinguished by the love for Ali and his family and the hatred for ruling dynasty. According to Kohlberg, when Ibn Hanafiyya died, some Kaysanites joined Zayn al-Abidin. It was around this time that the doctrine of , i.e., the Imam's explicit designation of his successor, found its modern importance in the Shia jurisprudence ().


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Ali ibn al-Husayn is said to have between eight and fifteen children, of whom four sons were born to Umm Abd Allah Fatima bint Hasan and the others were from concubines. According to Chittick, Zayn al-Abidin fathered fifteen children, eleven boys and four girls. Al-Shaykh al-Mufid reports their names as Muhammad al-Baqir, Zayd, Hasan, Husayn al-Akbar, Husayn al-Asghar, Abd Allah, Abd al-Rahman, Sulayman, Muhammad al-Asghar, Umar al-Ashraf, Ali, Umm Kulthum, Khadija, Fatima and Aliyya.


title: Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin

text: Zayn al-Abidin is said to have been poisoned in Medina at the instigation of the reigning Umayyad caliph, al-Walid, or his brother, Hisham. The year of his death is reported as 94 AH (712 CE) or 95 (713) and he is buried next to his uncle, Hasan, in the al-Baqi' cemetery in Medina. According to Madelung, after his death, many people discovered that their livelihoods had come from Ali. He would go out every night with a sack of food on his back, knocking at the doors of the poor, and gave freely to whoever answered while covering his face to remain anonymous.