title: Korean shamanism

text: Shamanism can be traced back to 1,000 BC. The religion has been part of the culture of the Korean Peninsula since then. “Historically, Korean Shamanism (Musok) was an orally transmitted tradition that was mastered mainly by illiterate low-ranking women within the neo-Confucian hierarchy.” However, several records and texts have documented the origin of Korean Shamanism. One of these texts is "Wei Shi" which traces Shamanism to the third century. Chinese dynastic histories mention the importance of designated shamans among early religious practices in Japan but not Korea. The Korean studies scholar Richard D. McBride thus asserts that non-shamans were able to practice "under their own authority". Evidently, the history of Korean Shamanism remains a mystery. However, foreign religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have influenced the development of Korean Shamanism.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The development of Korean Shamanism can be categorized into different groups. The first category involves simple transformation. In this transformation, the influence of the practices and beliefs of other religions on Korean Shamanism was superficial. The second category of transmission was syncretistic. This category involves Shamanism being incorporated into the practices and beliefs of other cultures, including Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Buddhism. These religions had different levels of influence on Korean Shamanism. The third category involves the formation of new religions through the mixing of beliefs and practices of Shamanism with those of other dominant religions.


title: Korean shamanism

text: Although many Koreans converted to Buddhism when it was introduced to the peninsula in the 4th century, and adopted as the state religion in Silla and Goryeo, it remained a minor religion compared to Korean shamanism.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The term "mu" is first recorded in the 12th-century "Yisanggugjip". It also appears in the "Samguk Sagi" from that century.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The Goryeo kingdom was replaced by the Joseon dynasty, which saw an increase in governmental persecution of the mudang. Confucianism was the dominant ideology in Joseon Korea, contributing to these suppressions; later historians argued that this was connected to the elite's desire to gain more power by challenging rivals to their Confucian system. Confucians accepted the existence of the spirits invoked in the "mudang's" rites, but argued that there were better ways of dealing with these supernatural beings. They regarded the "musok" rituals as improper, criticising the presence of both sexes together in environments where alcohol was being consumed. Korea's Neo-Confucian scholars used the derogatory term "ŭmsa" for non-Confucian ceremonies, of which they considered the "mudang" rituals among the lowest.


title: Korean shamanism

text: In the Joseon dynasty, "mudang" belonged to one of eight outcast groups that were expelled from the capital city. The "Gyeonggukdaejeon" law book prescribed 100 lashes in public for anyone found to be supporting them. This persecution could prove deadly; in an extreme case, a "mudang" was beheaded in 1398. In 1702, Cheju governor Yi Hyǒngsang initiated a purge of "simbang " on the island, destroying 129 shrines. Taxes were levied on the "mudang's" rituals, both to discourage the practice but also to raise revenues for the government; these taxes remained in place until the 1895 Kabo reforms. At the same time as the government persecuted the "mudang", they also turned to them in emergencies like epidemics, droughts, and famines.


title: Korean shamanism

text: By the late 19th century, many Korean intellectuals eager to embrace modernisation came to regard the "mudang" as superstition that should be eradicated; they increasingly applied the term "misin" ("superstition") to the tradition. These ideas were endorsed in the "Independent", Korea's first vernacular newspaper. Many of these intellectuals were Christian, thus regarding the "mudang's" spirits as evil demons. In 1896, police launched a crackdown by arresting "mudang", destroying shrines, and burning paraphernalia.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The Japanese Empire invaded Korea in 1910. During the Japanese occupation, the occupiers tried to incorporate the "mugyo" religion within, or replace it with, State Shinto. The Japanese colonial Governor-General of Chōsen presented the "mudang" as evidence for Korean cultural backwardness, an approach intended to legitimate Japanese imperial rule. Japanese efforts to suppress the tradition included the Mind Cultivation Movement launched in 1936. Korean elites largely supported these suppressions, hoping to prove Korean cultural advancement to the Japanese overlords.


title: Korean shamanism

text: It was in this colonial context that scholars developed the idea that the "mudang" were continuing an ancient Korean religion and thus represented the spiritual and cultural repository of the Korean people. Influenced by the Western use of the term "shamanism" as a cross-cultural category, some Korean scholars speculated that the "mudang" tradition descended from Siberian traditions. The Japanese scholar Torii Ryūzō proposed the "mudang" as a remnant of a primordial Shinto, with both stemming from Siberian "shamanism." These ideas were built on by nationalist Korean scholars Ch'oe Nam-sŏn and Yi Nŭnghwa in the 1920s. Cho'e reversed Torii's framework by emphasising the primacy of ancient Korean over Japanese tradition as the transmitter of Siberian religion, while Yi promoted the "mudang" tradition as the residue of what he called "sin'gyo" ("divine teachings"), meaning a primordial Korean religion that lost its purity through the arrival of Confucianism and Buddhism. At the time, Korean elites remained wary about this new positive reassessment.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The situation of Korean shamanism worsened after the division of Korea and the establishment of a northern Socialist government and a southern pro-Christian government. The Korean War and subsequent urbanisation of Korean society resulted in many Koreans moving around the peninsula, impacting the distinct regional traditions of the "mudang". This migration meant that by the early 21st century, god-descended practitioners like "mansin" were increasingly dominant in areas like Jeju where hereditary "mu" historically predominated, generating rivalry between the two traditions.


title: Korean shamanism

text: In North Korea, most formal religious activity was suppressed. "Mudang" and their families were targeted as members of the "hostile class" and were considered to have "bad songbun", "tainted blood". In South Korea, Christianity spread rapidly from the 1960s onward, becoming the country's dominant religion by the start of the 21st century. South Korean leader Rhee Syngman launched the Sin Saenhwal Undong (New Life Movement) which destroyed many village shrines. This policy continued as the Saemaul Undong ("New Community Movement") of his successor, Park Chung-hee, which led to a surge in the police suppression of "mudang" during the 1970s. Such outright persecution ended after Park's assassination in 1979.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The popularisation of folklore studies in the 1970s resulted in the notion of "mugyo" as Korea's ancient tradition gaining acceptance among growing numbers of educated South Koreans. In 1962, South Korea had introduced a Cultural Properties Protection Law that recognised performing arts as intangible cultural heritage; some folklorists used this to help defend the "mudang". In the latter part of the 20th century, the "mudang" rituals were increasingly revived as a form of theatrical performance linked to cultural conservation and tourism. From the 1980s onward, South Korea's government designated certain "mudang" as Human Cultural Treasures. One of the best-known examples was Kim Geum-hwa (Kim Kŭm-hwa), who from the 1980s performed for foreign anthropologists, toured Western countries, and appeared in documentaries. Reflecting the view of "mugyo" as an important part of Korea's cultural heritage, a "kut" was depicted on a South Korean postage stamp while "mugyo" elements were included at the Seoul 1988 Olympic Arts Festival and the 1988 inauguration of President Roh Tae-woo.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The "mudang" were often regarded favorably within South Korea's "minjung" (Popular Culture Movement) pro-democracy campaign from the 1970s; several "mudang" were active in the movement and became emblematic of its struggle. Advocacy groups were also formed to advance the cause of the "mu", keen to present the tradition as lying at the heart of Korean culture, while the 1980s also saw "mudang" begin to write books about themselves. "Mudang" also adapted to new technologies; from the 1990s they increasingly used the Internet to advertise their services, while portrayals of "mudang" became widespread on South Korean television in the 2010s. This increasing cultural visibility improved the "mudang's" social image.


title: Korean shamanism

text: Since the early 19th century, a number of movements of revitalisation or innovation of traditional Korean shamanism arose. They are characterised by an organised structure, a codified doctrine, and a body of scriptural texts. They may be grouped into three major families: the family of Daejongism or Dangunism, the Donghak-originated movements (including Cheondoism and Suunism), and the family of Jeungsanism (including Jeungsando, Daesun Jinrihoe, the now-extinct Bocheonism, and many other sects).


title: Korean shamanism

text: Most "mudang" are female, with the religion being dominated by women. This may link to the many origin myths that present the "mudang" tradition first developing among priestesses. Chongho Kim cautioned that the notion of "mugyo" being a "women's religion" ignored the antagonistic attitude that most Korean women had towards it. Approximately a fifth of "mansin" are male "paksu", although the latter are proportionately over-represented in 21st-century media representations. On Jeju Island, there were more male than female "simbang" prior to the 1950s, and proportions of male practitioners remain higher than on the Korean mainland.


title: Korean shamanism

text: "Mudang" have conventionally belonged to the lowest social class. Chongho Kim noted that most "mudang" he encountered in the 1990s had a "very poor educational background", and were also typically financially poor.


title: Korean shamanism

text: Determining the number of "mudang" is difficult. In the early 21st century, Sarfati noted that the number of "mudang" was estimated at being over 200,000, a number that was "not diminishing". However, in 2019 Yun noted that the hereditary "mudang", including the Jeju "simbang", were "in steep decline". There is also regional variation in the presence of "mudang", with Yun observing that the practice was "undeniably more prominent" on Jeju than on the mainland. "Musok" is not recorded in the South Korean census because the government does not regard adherence to it as being akin to identifying as a Christian or a Buddhist. A late 20th-century survey by the Korean Gallup Research Institute indicated that 38 percent of the adult population of South Korea had used a "mudang".


title: Korean shamanism

text: In North Korea, according to demographic analyses, approximately 16% of the population practises some form of traditional ethnic religion or shamanism.


title: Korean shamanism

text: Since at least the 20th century, "mudang" have travelled abroad to perform rituals; many for instance travel to Japan to serve clients in Japan's Korean minority. There are also "mudang" living in Europe, and a small number of non-Koreans have become "mudang"; a 2007 documentary covered the story of a German "mudang".


title: Korean shamanism

text: The "mugyo" religion has been continually suppressed throughout Korean history, under a succession of dominant ideologies including Confucianism, Japanese colonialism, and Christianity. At the start of the 21st century, the "mudang" remained widely stigmatized in South Korean society, facing widespread prejudice. In 2021, Sarfati observed that while the religion was "still stigmatized," it was experiencing "growing acceptance" in South Korea. South Korea's government often embrace "kut" as a traditional performing artform, but marginalise its religious function.


title: Korean shamanism

text: The religion's critics often regard "mudang" as swindlers, people who manipulate the gullible. Critics regularly focus their critique on the large sums of money that the "mudang" charge, and maintain that the expenses of its rituals are wasteful. Critics have also accused "mudang" of disrupting the civil order with their rituals.


title: Korean shamanism

text: Kendall noted that there was a "generally adversarial relationship" between "mudang" and Protestants in South Korea, the latter regarding "mugyo" as "Devil worship". Mainline Protestant theologians have sometimes blamed "mugyo" for predisposing Koreans to Pentecostalism and the idea that prayer can generate financial reward. Christians have sometimes harassed "mudang" at their places of work or during their ceremonies, something which some "mudang" regard as religious discrimination.


title: Korean shamanism

text: "Mudang" began appearing in South Korean film in the 1960s. Early portrayals in the 1960s and 1970s generally showed them as harmful, frightening, and anti-modern figures, as in "Ssal" (1963), "Munyǒdo" (1972) and "Iǒdo" (1977). From the mid-2000s, films increasingly portrayed them as members of a living tradition situated in modern urban environments, as in "Ch'ǒngham Posal" (2009) and "Paksu Kǒndal" (2013). The 2000s also saw several successful documentaries about "mudang" appear in Korean cinemas, as well as increasing appearances of "mudang" on Korean television. "Musok" has also been presented in museums, although often with emphasis placed on its folkloric and aesthetic value rather than its role as a religious practice.


title: Korean shamanism

text: "Musok" has influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism, and some Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in "musok".


title: Eleanor Matsuura

text: Eleanor Matsuura is a British actress best known for her roles as Yumiko in "The Walking Dead", Hannah Santo in "", Bev in "Utopia" and as PC Donna Prager in "Cuffs".


title: Eleanor Matsuura

text: Matsuura was born in Tokyo and raised in Hertfordshire, England. She is of half-English and half-Japanese descent and does not speak Japanese. She was trained at the Central School of Speech and Drama in London and graduated in 2004. She is trained in modern and period dance.


title: Eleanor Matsuura

text: Matsuura worked on stage at the Royal Court Theatre, Old Vic Theatre and several West End theatres. She has also appeared in several British TV dramas, including "EastEnders", "Thorne", "Extras", "Holby City", "Lead Balloon", "Doctor Who" and "Hustle"; and in British films. In 2015 she appeared as Isobel in "Bull" at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield.


title: Eleanor Matsuura

text: Matsuura is in the fourth series of the hit BBC One drama series "Sherlock", playing the role of Detective Inspector Hopkins. She has done voice acting for video games such as "" and "Dreamfall Chapters".


title: Eleanor Matsuura

text: Matsuura married Canadian actor Trevor White in 2014. They live in London. In November 2017, Matsuura gave birth to a baby girl, the couple's first child.


title: Child support

text: Child support (or child maintenance) is an ongoing, periodic payment made by a parent for the financial benefit of a child (or parent, caregiver, guardian) following the end of a marriage or other similar relationship. Child maintenance is paid directly or indirectly by an "obligor" to an "obligee" for the care and support of children of a relationship that has been terminated, or in some cases never existed. Often the obligor is a non-custodial parent. The obligee is typically a custodial parent, a caregiver, a guardian.


title: Child support

text: Depending on the jurisdiction, a custodial parent may pay child support to a non-custodial parent. Typically one has the same duty to pay child support irrespective of sex, so a mother is required to pay support to a father just as a father must pay a mother. In some jurisdictions where there is joint custody, the child is considered to have two custodial parents and no non-custodial parents, and a custodial parent with a higher income (obligor) may be required to pay the other custodial parent (obligee). In other jurisdictions, and even with legally shared residence, unless they can prove exactly equal contributions, one parent will be deemed the non-resident parent for child support and will have to pay the other parent a proportion of their income; the "resident" parent's income or needs are not assessed.


title: Child support

text: Child support is often arranged as part of a divorce, marital separation, annulment, determination of parentage or dissolution of a civil union and may supplement alimony (spousal support) arrangements.


title: Child support

text: The right to child support and the responsibilities of parents to provide such support have been internationally recognized. The 1992 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a binding convention signed by every member nation of the United Nations and formally ratified by all but the United States. It declares that the upbringing and development of children and a standard of living adequate for the children's development is a common responsibility of both parents and a fundamental human right for children, and asserts that the primary responsibility to provide such for the children rests with their parents. Other United Nations documents and decisions related to child-support enforcement include the 1956 New York Convention on the Recovery Abroad of Maintenance created under the auspices of the United Nations, which has been ratified by the 64 of the UN member states.


title: Child support

text: In addition, the right to child support, as well as specific implementation and enforcement measures, has been recognized by various other international entities, including the Council of Europe, the European Union and the Hague Conference.


title: Child support

text: Within individual countries, examples of legislation pertaining to, and establishing guidelines for, the implementation and collection of child maintenance include the 1975 Family Law Act (Australia), the Child Support Act (United Kingdom) and the Maintenance and Affiliation Act (Fiji). Child support in the United States, 45 C.F.R. 302.56 requires each state to establish and publish a Guideline that is presumed correct (but rebuttable), and Review the Guideline, at a minimum, every four years. Child-support laws and obligations are known to be recognized in a vast majority of world nations, including the majority of countries in Europe, North America and Australia, as well as many in Africa, Asia and South America.


title: Child support

text: Child support is based on the policy that both parents are obliged to financially support their children, even when the children are not living with both parents. Child support includes the financial support of children and not other forms of support, such as emotional support, intellectual support, physical care, or spiritual support.


title: Child support

text: When children live with both parents, courts rarely, if ever, direct the parents on how to provide financial support for their children. However, when the parents are not together, courts often order one parent to pay the other an amount set as financial support for the child. In such situations, one parent (the "obligee") receives child support, and the other parent (the "obligor") is ordered to pay child support. The amount of child support may be set on a case-by-case basis or by a formula estimating the amount thought that parents should pay to financially support their children.


title: Child support

text: Child support may be ordered to be paid by one parent to another when one is a non-custodial parent and the other is a custodial parent. Similarly, child support may also be ordered to be paid by one parent to another when both parents are custodial parents (joint or shared custody) and they share the child-raising responsibilities. In some cases, a parent with sole custody of their children may even be ordered to pay child support to the non-custodial parent to support the children while they are in the care of that parent.


title: Child support

text: Child support paid by a non-custodial parent or obligor does not absolve the obligor of the responsibility for costs associated with their child staying with the obligor in their home during visitation. For example, if an obligor pays child support to an obligee, this does not mean that the obligee is responsible for food, shelter, furniture, toiletries, clothes, toys or games, or any of the other child expenses directly associated with the child staying with the non-custodial parent or obligor.


title: Child support

text: In most jurisdictions, there is no need for the parents to be married, and only paternity and/or maternity (filiation) need to be demonstrated for a child-support obligation to be found by a competent court. Child support may also operate through the principle of estoppel where a "de facto" parent that is "in loco parentis" for sufficient time to establish a permanent parental relationship with the child or children.


title: Child support

text: Canadian courts differ in that the "Divorce Act" sets out in detail, the financial responsibilities of the "Non-Custodial" parent whilst the "Custodial" parent's responsibilities are not mentioned. Consequently, Canadian courts limit themselves to dividing the "Non-Custodial" parents income and providing it to the "Custodial" parent. While the courts recognize that the child has an "expectation of support from both parents", there is no legal precedent under the "Divorce Act" indicating that the "Custodial" parent has any obligation to support the child. In addition, courts have vehemently opposed any attempt by "Non-Custodial" parents to ensure "Child Support" is actually used for the child.


title: Child support

text: While the issues of child support and visitation or contact may be decided in the same divorce or paternity settlement, in most jurisdictions the two rights and obligations are completely separate and individually enforceable. Custodial parents may not withhold contact to "punish" a noncustodial parent for failing to pay some or all child support required. Conversely, a noncustodial parent is required to pay child support even if they are partially or fully denied contact with the child. Furthermore, child support is established between parents also if joint custody is awarded, but the child spends most of the time with one of the parents.


title: Child support

text: Additionally, a non-custodial parent is responsible for child-support payments even if they do not wish to have a relationship with the child. Courts have maintained that a child's right to financial support from parents supersedes an adult's wish not to assume a parenting role.


title: Child support

text: While child support and contact are separate issues, in some jurisdictions, the latter may influence the former. In the United Kingdom, for example, the amount of support ordered may be reduced based on the number of nights per week the child regularly spends at the support-giving parent's home.


title: Child support

text: Most international and national child-support regulations recognize that every parent has an obligation to support their child. Under this obligation, both parents are expected to share the responsibility for their child(ren)'s expenses. What differs between jurisdictions is which "expenses" are covered by "Child Support" and which are "Extraordinary" and fall outside the definition of "Child Support".


title: Child support

text: Support moneys collected are often assumed to be used for the child's expenses, such as food, clothing, and ordinary educational needs, but that is not required. Under California law, for example, child-support money may be used to "improve the standard of living of the custodial household" and the recipient does not have to account for how the money is spent.


title: Child support

text: Child support orders may earmark funds for specific items for the child, such as school fees, day care, and medical expenses. In some cases, obligors parents may pay for these items directly. For example, they may pay tuition fees directly to their child's school, rather than remitting money for the tuition to the obligee. Orders may also require each parent to assume a percentage of expenses for various needs. For instance, in the U.S. state of Massachusetts, custodial parents are required to pay for the first $100 of annual uninsured medical costs incurred by each child. Only then will the courts consider authorizing child-support money from a non-custodial parent to be used for said costs. Canadian courts provide child support through the "Federal Child Support Guidelines" based on income; however, "Extraordinary Expenses" can be ordered.


title: Child support

text: Many American universities also consider non-custodial parents partially responsible for paying college costs, and will consider parents' income in their financial aid determinations. In certain states, non-custodial parents may be ordered by the court to assist with these expenses. Canadian Universities all have different standards but essentially mimic the provincial standards required for student loan eligibility. While both parents are expected to provide support, "Custodial Parents" are rarely ordered to provide it whilst "Non-Custodial" parents are required to provide it under the law.


title: Child support

text: In the United States, obligors may receive a medical order that requires them to add their children to their health insurance plans. In some states both parents are responsible for providing medical insurance for the child/children. If both parents possess health coverage, the child may be added to the more beneficial plan, or use one to supplement the other. Children of active or retired members of the U.S. armed forces are also eligible for health coverage as military dependents, and may be enrolled in the DEERS program at no cost to the obligor.


title: Child support

text: Accountability regulations for child support money vary by country and state. In some jurisdictions, such as Australia, child support recipients are trusted to use support payments in the best interest of the child, and thus are not required to provide details on specific purchases. In California, there is no limitations, accountability, or other restriction on how the obligee spends the child support received, it is merely presumed that the money is spent on the child. However, in other jurisdictions, a child support recipient might legally be required to give specific details on how child support money is spent at the request of the court or the non-custodial parent. In the United States, 10 states (Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Indiana, Louisiana, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Washington) allow courts to demand an accounting on expenses and spending from custodial parents. Additionally, Alabama courts have authorized such accounting under certain specific circumstances.


title: Child support

text: Child-support laws and regulations vary around the world. Legal intervention is not mandatory: some parents have informal or voluntary agreements or arrangements that do not involve the courts, where financial child support and/or other expenses are provided to the other parent to assist in supporting their child(ren). A voluntary maintenance arrangement can in certain jurisdictions be approved by judicial authorities.


title: Child support

text: A major impetus to collection of child support in many places is recovery of welfare expenditure. A resident or custodial parent receiving public assistance, as in the United States, is required to assign their right to child support to the Department of Welfare before cash assistance is received. Another common requirement of welfare benefits in some jurisdictions is that a custodial parent must pursue child support from the non-custodial parent.


title: Child support

text: In divorce cases, child-support payments may be determined as part of the divorce settlement, along with other issues, such as alimony, custody and visitation. In other cases, there are several steps that must be undertaken to receive court-ordered child support. Some parents anticipating that they will receive child support may hire lawyers to oversee their child support cases for them; others may file their own applications in their local courthouses.


title: Child support

text: While procedures vary by jurisdiction, the process of filing a motion for court ordered child support typically has several basic steps.


title: Child support

text: Various approaches to calculating the amount of child-support award payments exist. Many jurisdictions consider multiple sources of information when determining support, taking into account the income of the parents, the number and ages of children living in the home, basic living expenses and school fees. If the child has special needs, such as treatment for a serious illness or disability, these costs may also be taken into consideration.


title: Child support

text: Guidelines for support orders may be based on laws that require obligors to pay a flat percentage of their annual income toward their children's expenses. Often two approaches are combined. In the United Kingdom, for instance, there are four basic rates of child support based on the obligors' income, which are then modified and adjusted based on several factors. In the United States, the federal government requires all states to have guideline calculations. Guidelines are either a percentage of income or more usually in the form of tables listing incomes and the amount needed to support one to six children. These computations are often performed by computer programs upon input of certain financial information including, earnings, visitation (overnights with the non-custodial parent (NCP)), health insurance costs, and several other factors.


title: Child support

text: If tables are used in the guidelines those tables are computed by economists such as Policy Studies, Inc. They examine spending patterns of couples without children and couples with children in the consumer expenditure survey. The amount of additional money spent on the children (for expenses such as automobile insurance; AP exams; cell phones and plans; Christmas presents; educational expenses (trips, pictures, study guides, tutoring, AP and SAT exams, books, supplies, and uniforms); laptops; music lessons; parking fees; private school tuition; sports activities; and summer camps is computed and reduced to a table. Separating parents then find their incomes in the table and how much average intact families pay on children. In the widely used income shares model that amount is divided in proportion to the parents income.


title: Child support

text: Once established, child-support orders typically remain static unless otherwise reviewed. Obligors and obligees reserve the right to request a court review for modification (typically six months to one year or more after the issuance of the order or if the circumstances have changed such that the child support would change significantly). For instance, if the obligor has a change in income or faces financial hardship, they may petition the court for a reduction in support payments. Examples of financial hardship include supporting other children, unemployment, extraordinary healthcare expenses, etc. Likewise, if the obligor is spending more time with the child, they may petition the court for a reduction or even a reversal in support payments. Conversely, if the child's expenses increase, the obligee may ask the court to increase payments to cover the new costs


title: Child support

text: Although both parents have the right to petition the court for a support order adjustment, modifications are not automatic, and a judge may decide not to alter the amount of support after hearing the facts of the case. That is to say, simply because an obligors's income has decreased, a court may find that the decrease in income is of no fault of the child, and will not decrease the child's expenses, and therefore should not affect him or her financially. Likewise, a court may find that an increase in the child's expenses may have been calculated by the receiving parent and is not necessary, and therefore the support obligation of the paying parent should not increase.


title: Child support

text: In United States law, the Bradley Amendment (1986, ) requires state courts to prohibit retroactive reduction of child-support obligations. Specifically, it:


title: Child support

text: Child-support payments are distributed in a variety of ways. In cases where an obligor is liable for specific expenses such as school tuition, they may pay them directly instead of through the obligee.


title: Child support

text: In some jurisdictions, obligors (paying parents) are required to remit their payments to the governing federal or state child-support enforcement agency (State Disbursement Unit). The payments are recorded, any portion required to reimburse the government is subtracted, and then the remainder is passed on to the obligee (receiving parent), either through direct deposit or checks.


title: Child support

text: The first payee for child support depends on the current welfare status of the payee. For example, if the obligee is currently receiving a monthly check from the government, all current support collected during said month is paid to the government to reimburse the monies paid to the obligee. Regarding families formerly on assistance, current support is paid to the family first, and only after said support is received, the government may then collect additional payments to reimburse itself for previously paid assistance to the obligee (receiving parent). See 42 USC 657: "(A) Current Support Payments: To the extent that the amount so collected does not exceed the amount required to be paid to the family for the month in which collected, the State shall distribute the amount so collected to the family.".


title: Child support

text: Within the United States, a 2007 study conducted through the University of Baltimore estimates that 50% of all child-support arrears are owed to the government to reimburse welfare expenses. Half of U.S. states pass along none of the child support they collect to low-income families receiving welfare and other assistance, instead reimbursing themselves and the federal government. Most of the rest only pass along $50.00 per month. The bipartisan 2006 Deficit Reduction Act and other measures have sought to reduce the amount of money claimed by the government and to ensure that more funds are accessible by children and families, noting that more obligors (paying parents) are willing to pay child support when their children directly benefit from payments.


title: Child support

text: Most U.S. states deliver child-support benefits through direct deposit, but many states make payments to recipients who do not have a bank account through a prepaid debit card. State use of prepaid cards has helped increase the popularity of federal benefit debit cards, such as the Direct Express Debit MasterCard prepaid debit card offered by MasterCard, Visa, Chase, and Comerica Bank.


title: Child support

text: The duration of support orders varies both by jurisdiction and by case. Requirements for support typically end when the child reaches the age of majority, which may range in age from 16 to 23 (Massachusetts and Hawaii) or graduates from high school. Some countries and states have provisions that allow support to continue past the age of majority if the child is enrolled as a full-time, degree-seeking post-secondary student. If the obligor owes back child support, they must continue to make payments until the debt is satisfied, regardless of the age of the child.


title: Child support

text: Several circumstances exist which allow for the termination of a support order for a child under the age of majority. These include the child's marriage, legal emancipation or death.


title: Child support

text: With respect to child support obligations, a "deadbeat" parent is one who has refused to provide child support payments or expenses.


title: Child support

text: US Governmental child support agencies typically refer to clients as being "in compliance", "not in compliance" or "criminally non-compliant". Compliance is judged by the paying party's performance in meeting the financial terms of the legal child support court order. In some circumstances, obligors found "not in compliance" or "criminally non-compliant" have even had their professional (e.g. doctors, lawyers, dentists, etc.) and other (e.g. driver's) licenses suspended or revoked in an effort to collect monies for support and shared expenses.


title: Child support

text: While the US has an extremely negotiable system, Canadian laws are fairly automatic and "No-Fault". Child support is determined by the number of children and the obligor's income.


title: Child support

text: Regulations and laws on the enforcement of child-support orders vary by country and state. In some jurisdictions, such as Australia, enforcement is overseen by a national office. In others, such as Canada, the responsibility to enforce child-support orders rests with individual provinces, with financial and logistical assistance from the federal government. In the United States, child-support enforcement is also handled largely at the state level, but non-compliant parents who meet certain criteria, such as traveling across state lines to circumvent orders or owing more than two years of support payments, may be subjected to federal prosecution under the Federal Deadbeat Punishment Act.


title: Child support

text: One focus of Article 27 of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child is the establishment and strengthening of international treaties to further aid in child-support order enforcement across national and international boundaries. Under these agreements, orders established in one country are considered valid and enforceable in another country, and may be pursued through local court processes. The goal of such conventions is to ensure that noncompliant parents will not be able to evade support payments by crossing an international border.


title: Child support

text: To this end, various international conventions regarding interjurisdictional enforcement of maintenance orders have been created, including the 1956 United Nations Convention on the Recovery Abroad of Maintenance, the Hague Conference's 1973 Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions relating to Maintenance Obligations and the 1956 United Nations Convention on the Recovery Abroad of Maintenance and the 2007 Hague Maintenance Convention.


title: Child support

text: More than 100 nations currently have reciprocal arrangements for child support orders. Examples of reciprocal agreements include the UK Reciprocal Enforcement of Maintenance Orders (REMO) and those of Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the United States and the European Union.


title: Child support

text: Consequences of non-payment vary by jurisdiction, the length of time the parent has been noncompliant, and the amount owed. Typical penalties include wage garnishment and denial or suspension of drivers, hunting and professional licenses. In the United States, noncompliant parents who are more than $2500 in arrears may be denied passports under the Passport Denial Program. Australia, Austria, and Finland do not imprison persons for failure to pay child-support arrears. In the U.S., in contrast, non-payment of child support may be treated as a criminal offense or a civil offense, and it can result in a prison or jail term. In New York, continuous failure to provide child support is an E felony punishable by up to 4 years in prison. In addition, child-support debtors are subject to fines and property seizure.


title: Child support

text: Since the duty to provide child support is separate from the civil requirement to obey a court order regarding visitation, it is exceptionally rare for a parent to be jailed for violating that part of the court order.


title: Child support

text: In jurisdictions where child support is reduced or partially reduced when care is provided by both parents, there may be a financial incentive for the resident parent to restrict the amount of time the other parent can see the children. If a parent seeks a custody order with the goal of maximizing child support, the effect could be to reduce the amount of contact that the children have with the other parent without regard to their needs or wishes.


title: Child support

text: Payment is not made to children but between parents, and the payee is not required to account for how child-support money is spent. Critics of child support argue that, as a result, the support payments do not need to be used to support the child and can be regarded as a punishment to the parent who is paying child support. A response to that criticism is that if a parent is caring for the children, that parent will incur costs in providing that support, even if they have no duty to account for their expenditures in support of the child.


title: Child support

text: Critics of child support, such as father's rights groups, complain that the law does not necessarily require that the child support money be used for the child. Barring unusual circumstances, most jurisdictions do not require accountings on the request of a child support payor. The custodial parent also has a duty to support the children, yet in countries like Canada, it has been shown that "over a wide range of reasonable assumptions, the [custodial parent] does not financially contribute to the support of the children but in fact receives a net wealth transfer from the system." Child-support amounts are considerably higher than the costs of raising children.


title: Child support

text: Critics of child support suggest that support orders carry the threat of state violence to give the resident parent a degree of financial control over the non-resident parent, and even that the enforcement of child support can be considered domestic violence or abuse. No jurisdiction has accepted that argument, and a parent ordered to pay child support will not face any legal consequence if payments are made as ordered by the court.


title: Child support

text: Some parents argue that they should be permitted to directly provide for their children, with those provisions being credited against child support or taking the place of any payment to the other parent. Some argue that being ordered to pay child support reduces their ability to directly provide for their children. However, courts uniformly recognize that the custodial parent will incur expenses for the care of children that a non-custodial parent might prefer not to pay, and that giving the non-custodial parent direct control over how child support is used would in many cases result in abusive or controlling behavior by the child support payor.


title: Child support

text: Some child-support laws and formulas do not adequately reflect the extent to which the child-support payor supports the children, and the expenses the payor incurs in caring for the children. Many jurisdictions have tried to develop child-support formulas and models that take into account the extent to which parents share custody, and adjust child-support amounts in shared parenting arrangements in relation to the division of parenting time. In the UK a "non-resident" parent caring for the children 174 nights a year would have to pay the other parent (4/7) 57% of the maintenance they would have paid if they had provided no care. Thus, a "non-resident" parent may be obligated to pay up to 17% (31%*4/7) of their income as child support.


title: Child support

text: In the United States, each state receives money from the federal government to offset some of the expenses it incurs in processing paternity, spousal support and child-support cases. It has been argued that this creates an incentive for each state to enforce larger than necessary support orders, since doing so creates a larger financial incentive for each state. However, as a matter of law, when the federal government mandates state action it is broadly required to reimburse the state for the cost of the required action. It has also been argued that a Defendant in a child-support matter cannot get a fair trial due to the fact that the Courts have a financial interest in keeping child-support orders higher than necessary. However, there has never been a showing that states have created or modified their child-support formulas in such a manner, nor would doing so actually increase federal reimbursements.


title: Child support

text: Another criticism of child support is that it can be difficult for a man who has been mistakenly identified as a child's father, or who later discovers that he is not a child's biological parent, to be excused from an order to pay child support, and recover the money already taken from him.


title: Child support

text: Child-support policies have been criticized by fathers' rights advocacy groups, as well as by some feminists, who state that child-support policy violates gender equality and denies reproductive choice to men. Child support is based principally upon income and custody arrangements and not on gender, and male and female parents report similar levels of satisfaction with support awards. As child support is payable for the benefit of the children, not the parent, courts are not sympathetic to the idea that a parent should be able to refuse to support a child by claiming that he would have preferred that the child not be born.


title: Child support

text: Child-support guidelines and policies have also been criticized for requiring boys and men that are victims of sexual assault to pay child support to the women who sexually assaulted them; a precedent-setting case in US law is "Hermesmann v. Seyer", whereby a male victim of statutory rape was required to pay child support to the mother. In the case of "S.F. vs T.M." (1996), a man who produced evidence that the mother of the child raped him while he was unconscious was nevertheless ordered to pay child support. Men who assert that a child was conceived as a result of deception, birth-control fraud or sperm theft have also challenged their obligation to pay child support.


title: Child support

text: Melanie McCulley, a South Carolina attorney, coined the term male abortion in 1998, suggesting that a father should be allowed to disclaim his obligations to an unborn child early in the pregnancy. Proponents hold that concept begins with the premise that when an unmarried woman becomes pregnant, she has the option of abortion, adoption, or sole parenthood; and argues, in the context of legally recognized gender equality, that in the earliest stages of pregnancy, the putative (alleged) father should have the same human rights to relinquish all future parental rights and financial responsibility—leaving the informed mother with the same three options. McCulley's male-abortion concept aims to equalize the legal status of unwed men and unwed women by giving the unwed man by law the ability to 'abort' his rights and obligations to the child. If a woman decides to keep the child, the father may choose not to by severing all ties legally (in the same way a sperm donor usually rescinds all parental rights).


title: Child support

text: This same concept has been supported by a former president of the feminist organization National Organization for Women, attorney Karen DeCrow, who wrote that "if a woman makes a unilateral decision to bring pregnancy to term, and the biological father does not, and cannot, share in this decision, he should not be liable for 21 years of support...autonomous women making independent decisions about their lives should not expect men to finance their choice."


title: Child support

text: The legal concept was tried in the case of "Dubay v. Wells" and was rejected by the court, since legislation in the various jurisdictions currently sets forth guidelines for when child support is owed as well as its amount. Accordingly, legislation would be required to change the law to implement McCulley's concept.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: An alcoholic beverage (also called an alcoholic drink, adult beverage, or a drink) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol that acts as a drug and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The consumption of alcoholic drinks, often referred to as "drinking", plays an important social role in many cultures. Most countries have laws regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Regulations may require the labeling of the percentage alcohol content (as ABV or proof) and the use of a warning label. Some countries ban such activities entirely, but alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world. The global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2018.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Alcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes euphoria, reduces anxiety, and increases sociability. In higher doses, it causes drunkenness, stupor, unconsciousness, or death. Long-term use can lead to an alcohol use disorder, an increased risk of developing several types of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and physical dependence.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Alcohol is one of the most widely used recreational drugs in the world, and about 33% of all humans currently drink alcohol. In 2015, among Americans, 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, with 70% drinking it in the last year and 56% in the last month. Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period (). Several other animals are affected by alcohol similarly to humans and, once they consume it, will consume it again if given the opportunity, though humans are the only species known to produce alcoholic drinks intentionally.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash. It is typically made from barley or a blend of several grains and flavored with hops. Most beer is naturally carbonated as part of the fermentation process. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink becomes a spirit. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Cider or cyder ( ) is a fermented alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice; apple juice (traditional and most common), peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% ABV to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called "apple wine".


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Fermented tea (also known as post-fermented tea or dark tea) is a class of tea that has undergone microbial fermentation, from several months to many years. The tea leaves and the liquor made from them become darker with oxidation. Thus, the various kinds of fermented teas produced across China are also referred to as dark tea, not be confused with black tea. The most famous fermented tea is kombucha which is often homebrewed, pu-erh, produced in Yunnan Province, and the Anhua dark tea produced in Anhua County of Hunan Province. The majority of kombucha on the market are under 0.5% ABV.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Fermented water is an ethanol-based water solution with approximately 15-17% ABV without sweet reserve. Fermented water is "exclusively" fermented with white sugar, yeast, and water. Fermented water is clarified after the fermentation to produce a colorless or off-white liquid with no discernible taste other than that of ethanol.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Mead () is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. The alcoholic content of mead may range from as low as 3% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived from honey. Mead can also be referred to as "honeywine."


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Pulque is the Mesoamerican fermented drink made from the "honey water" of maguey, "Agave americana". The drink distilled from pulque is tequila or mescal Mezcal.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes and sometimes other fruits. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Sparkling wine like French Champagne, Catalan Cava or Italian Prosecco can be made by means of a secondary fermentation.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Distilled beverages (also called liquors or spirit drinks) are alcoholic drinks produced by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called "spirits". For the most common distilled drinks, such as whiskey and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The term "hard liquor" is used in North America to distinguish distilled drinks from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Vodka, gin, baijiu, shōchū, soju, tequila, whiskey, brandy and rum are examples of distilled drinks. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry, to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added. Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, commandaria, and the aromatized wine vermouth.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The term "neutral" refers to the spirit's lack of flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% ABV. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and tinctures, and also as a household solvent.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: In the alcoholic drinks industry, congeners are substances produced during fermentation. These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired other alcohols, like propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol, but also compounds that are never desired such as acetone, acetaldehyde and glycols. Congeners are responsible for most of the taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic drinks, and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks. It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover. Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins adds balance, complexity, structure and makes a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: The average number of people who drink was 39% for males and 25% for females (2.4 billion people in total). Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while males drink 1.7 drinks per day. The rates of drinking varies significantly in different areas of the world.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: An apéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate the appetite, while a digestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal for the stated purpose of improving digestion. Fortified wine, liqueurs, and dry champagne are common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, they are usually dry rather than sweet. One example is Cinzano, a brand of vermouth. Digestifs include brandy, fortified wines and herb-infused spirits (Drambuie).


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: The USDA uses a figure of per gram of alcohol ( per ml) for calculating food energy. For distilled spirits, a standard serving in the United States is , which at 40% ethanol (80 proof), would be 14 grams and 98 calories. For other than distille spirits, many alcoholic drinks contain carbohydrates, which adds to the calories per serving.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Alcoholic drinks are considered empty calorie foods because other than food energy they contribute no essential nutrients. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women in the US ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams/day and men consume on average 15.5 grams/day.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Alcohol is known to potentiate the insulin response of the human body to glucose, which, in essence, "instructs" the body to convert consumed carbohydrates into fat and to suppress carbohydrate and fat oxidation. Ethanol is directly processed in the liver to acetyl CoA, the same intermediate product as in glucose metabolism. Because ethanol is mostly metabolized and consumed by the liver, chronic excessive use can lead to fatty liver. This leads to a chronic inflammation of the liver and eventually alcoholic liver disease.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume  (ABV, the number of milliliters (ml) of pure ethanol in 100 ml of beverage) or as "proof". In the United States, "proof" is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). "Degrees proof" were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% by weight, which is about 97.2% ABV (194.4 proof) because at that point alcohol is an azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and "does not contain any added flavoring" is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 US proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limit for the strength of fermented drinks such as wine, beer, and sake. However, some strains of yeast have been developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Shot sizes vary significantly from country to country. In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). A single serving size of spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof. Beer is typically served in pints (568 ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints. In Israel, a single serving size of spirits is about twice as much, 50 or 60 mL.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A Cornell University study of students and bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses. Aiming to pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more) respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into the short glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experienced bartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wide glasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses have more volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: There is no single standard, but a "standard drink" of 10g alcohol, which is used in the WHO AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test)'s questionnaire form example, have been adopted by more countries than any other amount. 10 grams is equivalent to 12.7 millilitres.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: A standard drink is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of pure alcohol. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. It is usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drink always contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the type of alcoholic beverage. The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is 7.62 ml (6 grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25 ml (19.75 grams).


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: Alcohol laws regulate the manufacture, packaging, labelling, distribution, sale, consumption, blood alcohol content of motor vehicle drivers, open containers, and transportation of alcoholic drinks. Such laws generally seek to reduce the adverse health and social impacts of alcohol consumption. In particular, alcohol laws set the legal drinking age, which usually varies between 15 and 21 years old, sometimes depending upon the type of alcoholic drink (e.g., beer vs wine vs hard liquor or distillates). Some countries do not have a legal drinking or purchasing age, but most countries set the minimum age at 18 years. Some countries, such as the U.S., have the drinking age higher than the legal age of majority (18), at age 21 in all 50 states. Such laws may take the form of permitting distribution only to licensed stores, monopoly stores, or pubs and they are often combined with taxation, which serves to reduce the demand for alcohol (by raising its price) and it is a form of revenue for governments. These laws also often limit the hours or days (e.g., "blue laws") on which alcohol may be sold or served, as can also be seen in the "last call" ritual in US and Canadian bars, where bartenders and servers ask patrons to place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibit drunk driving.


title: Alcoholic beverage

text: In some jurisdictions, alcoholic drinks are totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with sharia law) or for reasons of local option, public health, and morals (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933). In jurisdictions which enforce sharia law, the consumption of alcoholic drinks is an illegal offense, although such laws may exempt non-Muslims.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Princess Deokhye (Korean: 덕혜옹주, "Deokhye-Ongju"; Japanese: 徳恵姫, "Tokue-hime"; 25 May 191221 April 1989) was the last princess of the Korean Empire.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: She was born on May 25, 1912, at Changdeok Palace, in Seoul, as the youngest daughter of Emperor Gojong from his concubine, then known as Yang Gwi-in. After her birth, Gojong bestowed the royal title "Boknyeong" on Lady Yang.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Deokhye was not formally recognized as a princess by Japan until 1917, because she was not the daughter of a Queen. In 1917, her name was formally entered into the Imperial Family's registry. Her father loved her greatly and established the Deoksugung Kindergarten for her in Junmyungdang (준명당), Hamnyeong Hall. Girls her age from noble families attended the kindergarten.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In Korea, she is called "Deokhye Ongju", not "Gongju". Gongju refers to the daughters of the Queen, and Ongju refers to the daughters of concubines.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Yi Deok-hye was born as the daughter of Yang Gwiin (later Lady Boknyeong) and the then-60-year-old Emperor Emeritus Gojong on May 25, 1912, nearly two years after the Japanese annexation of Korea. Immediately after birth, she was called Agi (아기, 阿只, meaning "baby") and then named Deok-hye. Her mother was a low-ranking court lady working in the kitchen of Deoksugung. Gojong had 16 children with his 10 wives, but Deok-hye was his first daughter; his four other daughters were not counted as they all died under the age of one. Gojong was delighted with the birth of his first daughter and raised her with meticulous love. In 1916, he established the Deoksugung Kindergarten dedicated to her, where Deok-hye would attend. However, apart from her father, because she didn't have an official title, she was ignored and treated like she did not exist. Later, she was nicknamed "Boknyeong-dang".


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In 1917, her father persuaded Terauchi Masatake, the then-ruling Governor-General of Korea, to enter her name into the registry of the Imperial Family, offering her legitimacy and granting her the title of princess.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In 1919, Emperor Gojong planned a secret engagement between Princess Deokhye and Kim Jang-han, the nephew of Kim Hwang-jin, a court chamberlain. He had sought to protect his daughter through it, but the engagement failed due to Japan's intervention and Kim Hwang-jin was not permitted to enter Deoksu Palace again. Emperor Gojong died suddenly on January 21, 1919.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In 1925, the Princess was taken to Japan under the pretense of continuing her studies. Like her brothers, she attended the Gakushuin, where Yukika Sohma was among her schoolmates. In Japan she was known as Princess Tokue (徳恵姫, "Tokue-hime"). According to Yukika, she was untalkative and struggled with exercising.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Upon the news of her mother's death in 1929, Deokhye was finally given permission to visit Korea temporarily, in order to attend the funeral. However, she was not allowed to wear the proper clothing.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In the Spring of 1930, upon the onset of a psychological condition (manifested by sleepwalking), she moved to King Yi's Palace, the Tokyo house of her brother, Crown Prince Eun. During this period, she often forgot to eat and drink. Her physician diagnosed her illness as precocious dementia (today called schizophrenia), but by the following year, her condition seemed to have improved. This may be attributed to her upbringing.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: In May 1931, after "matchmaking" by Empress Teimei, the consort of Emperor Taishō of Japan, Princess Deokhye married Count Sō Takeyuki (武志; 1908–1985), a Japanese aristocrat. The marriage had in fact been decided in 1930. Her brother had protested against it, and it had been postponed because of her condition, but when she recovered, she was immediately given instructions that the wedding was to take place.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: She gave birth to a daughter, Masae (), or Jeonghye () in Korea, on August 14, 1932. In 1933, Deokhye was again experiencing mental illness, and after this, she spent many years in various mental health clinics.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: With the defeat of Japan in World War II, Korea once again became independent and her husband lost his noble title, as the Japanese peerage was abolished.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Her daughter, Masae, graduated from Waseda University's Department of Literature and met Suzuki Noboru, whom she married in 1955. Her son-in-law would eventually take on her husband’s last name as the heir to the family.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: As Deokhye continued to be in a poor health condition, and after having permission from Crown Prince Uimin, Sō Takeyuki eventually divorced in 1955; he later remarried to a Japanese woman named Yoshie Katsumura who he had three children with.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Having suffered an unhappy marriage, Deokhye's grief was compounded by the loss of her only daughter, who disappeared on 26 August 1956, reportedly committing suicide due to the stress of her parents' divorce. Her daughter’s suicide note was found in the mountains. As a result, Deokhye's condition deteriorated at a slow yet considerable pace.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: She returned to Korea at the invitation of the South Korean government on January 26, 1962, after 37 years. At first, the Korean government refused to allow the return of the last royal bloodline, because President Rhee Syng-man wanted to avoid political chaos. However, reporter Kim Eul-han found the princess and persuaded the government to allow her return. She cried while approaching her motherland, and despite her mental state, accurately remembered the complex royal court etiquette and protocol.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: The princess reunited with her kindergarten and elementary school classmate, Min Yong-ah (민용아, 閔龍兒), and her 72-year-old wet nurse, Byeon Bok-dong (변복동, 卞福童), when they went to pick her up at Gimpo Airport. After meeting her sister-in-law, Empress Sunjeonghyo, the second wife of her older half-brother Emperor Sunjong, she was admitted to Seoul National University Hospital in later that day for surgery to remove a polyp in the uterus.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Despite being born in Korea, the princess was able to restore her Korean citizenship and finalized her name, Yi Deok-hye, on 8 February 1962, and was soon discharged from the hospital as her condition was proven stable on 4 May 1964. In the fall of 1968, she lived in Nakseon Hall, Changdeok Palace, with Prince Uimin and Princess Masako, their son Prince Gu, his wife Julia Mullock, and Mrs. Byeon Bok-dong.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Sometime before her death, around ten years before, her ex-husband flew from Japan to Korea to visit her and see how she’s doing, but this visit was rejected by her family.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: He begged Yi Gong-jae, a member of the family, to let him meet his ex-wife. But Yi said, "I can't forgive him for having an unwanted arranged marriage with King Gojong's daughter (a marriage that the head of the family or parental authority orders regardless of the person's will for their own benefit or purpose), eventually putting the princess in a psychiatric hospital and getting a divorce. The princess doesn't even have anything to talk about meeting him, and there's no reason for him to meet. If she met you, she would think of the past and make her condition worse. So, people like you are not allowed to visit at all, so please go back”.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: Her last years were filled with visits to different hospitals, but on 24 May 1983, she was admitted and stayed temporarily at Hallym University Hangang Sacred Heart Hospital due to her old age.


title: Princess Deokhye

text: The princess died on 21 April 1989, at Sugang Hall, Changdeok Palace, and was buried at Hongryureung in Namyangju, near where her father, Emperor Gojong, and older half-brother, Emperor Sunjong, were buried.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: The Samsung Galaxy A52 is a mid-range Android-based smartphone developed and manufactured by Samsung Electronics as a part of its Galaxy A series. The phone was announced on 17 March 2021 at Samsung's virtual "Awesome Unpacked" event alongside the Galaxy A72.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: It serves as the successor of the Galaxy A51. It is similar to its predecessor, but features an upgraded 64 MP main camera, an increased-capacity 4500 mAh battery, and IP67 water and dust resistance.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: An upgraded device, Galaxy A52s, was first released in August 2021 with a different chipset (Qualcomm Snapdragon 778G), Wi-Fi 6 support and a new device color (Awesome Mint).


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: Galaxy A52 has a similar design with its predecessor Galaxy A51. It has a Infinity-O display with a cutout for the selfie camera and slim bezels just like the A51. Unilke A51, A52 has matte color options rather than glossy gradient finishes.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: The display is protected by Corning Gorilla Glass 5 while the frame and back panel is made of plastic. Both 4G and 5G variants share the identical design. It is available with Awesome Black, Awesome White, Awesome Violet, Awesome Blue options. Both variants have IP67 water and dust resistance.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: The Galaxy A52 is powered by Qualcomm Snapdragon 720G SoC with 8 nm process, an octa-core CPU and Adreno 618 GPU. The Galaxy A52 5G is, on the other hand, powered by Qualcomm Snapdragon 750G SoC with 8 nm process, an octa-core CPU and Adreno 619 GPU. The Galaxy A52s received a Qualcomm SM7325 Snapdragon 778G 5G with 6 nm process, an Octa-core CPU (4x2.4 GHz Kryo 670 & 4x1.9 GHz Kryo 670) and an Adreno 642L GPU.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: Both A52 and A52 5G feature 6.5 inch Super AMOLED display with 800 nits maximum brightness, 20:9 aspect ratio, 1080x2400 pixels resolution, 411 ppi pixel density and ~84.1% screen-body ratio; however, the display on the A52 has 90 Hz refresh rate and the display on the A52 5G has 120 Hz refresh rate.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: Both 4G and 5G variants have a quad rear camera setup with a 64 MP main camera with optical image stabilization (OIS), a 12 MP wide-angle camera, a 5 MP depth camera and a 5 MP depth sensor, and a 32 MP selfie camera.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: The device mounts a 3.5mm Audio jack and uses the top earpieces, with the bottom speaker, to deliver stereo sound. Both 4G and 5G variants have a 4500 mAh batteries with 25W fast charging support; however, there is a 15W charger in the box and users need to buy the 25W charger separately.


title: Samsung Galaxy A52

text: Both 4G and 5G variants are shipped with Android 11 and Samsung's proprietary user interface One UI 3.1. Samsung stated that both 4G and 5G variants will get 3 OS version updates, 3 years of monthly updates and 4 years of security updates.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is a form of vitamin used to treat vitamin deficiency except in the presence of cyanide toxicity. The deficiency may occur in pernicious anemia, following surgical removal of the stomach, with fish tapeworm, or due to bowel cancer. It is less preferred than hydroxocobalamin for treating vitamin deficiency. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or as a nasal spray.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is generally well tolerated. Minor side effects may include diarrhea and itchiness. Serious side effects may include anaphylaxis, low blood potassium, and heart failure. Use is not recommended in those who are allergic to cobalt or have Leber's disease. Vitamin is an essential nutrient meaning that it cannot be made by the body but is required for life.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin was first manufactured in the 1940s. It is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2020, it was the 105th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 6million prescriptions.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is usually prescribed after surgical removal of part or all of the stomach or intestine to ensure adequate serum levels of vitamin . It is also used to treat pernicious anemia, vitamin deficiency (due to low intake from food or inability to absorb due to genetic or other factors), thyrotoxicosis, hemorrhage, malignancy, liver disease and kidney disease. Cyanocobalamin injections are often prescribed to gastric bypass patients who have had part of their small intestine bypassed, making it difficult for to be acquired via food or vitamins. Cyanocobalamin is also used to perform the Schilling test to check ability to absorb vitamin .


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is also produced in the body (and then excreted via urine) after intravenous hydroxycobalamin is used to treat cyanide poisoning.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Possible side effects of cyanocobalamin injection include allergic reactions such as hives, difficult breathing; redness of the face; swelling of the arms, hands, feet, ankles or lower legs; extreme thirst; and diarrhea. Less-serious side effects may include headache, dizziness, leg pain, itching, or rash.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Treatment of megaloblastic anemia with concurrent vitamin deficiency using vitamers (including cyanocobalamin), creates the possibility of hypokalemia due to increased erythropoiesis (red blood cell production) and consequent cellular uptake of potassium upon anemia resolution. When treated with cyanocobalamin, patients with Leber's disease may develop serious optic atrophy, possibly leading to blindness.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Vitamin is the "generic descriptor" name for any vitamers of vitamin . Animals, including humans, can convert cyanocobalamin to any one of the active vitamin compounds.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is one of the most widely manufactured vitamers in the vitamin family (the family of chemicals that function as when put into the body), because cyanocobalamin is the most air-stable of the forms. It is the easiest to crystallize and therefore easiest to purify after it is produced by bacterial fermentation. It can be obtained as dark red crystals or as an amorphous red powder. Cyanocobalamin is hygroscopic in the anhydrous form, and sparingly soluble in water (1:80). It is stable to autoclaving for short periods at . The vitamin coenzymes are unstable in light. After consumption the cyanide ligand is replaced by other groups (adenosyl, methyl) to produce the biologically active forms. The cyanide is converted to thiocyanate and excreted by the kidney.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: In the cobalamins, cobalt normally exists in the trivalent state, Co(III). However, under reducing conditions, the cobalt center is reduced to Co(II) or even Co(I), which are usually denoted as and , for reduced and super reduced, respectively.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: For example, cyanocobalamin can be converted to its analog cobalamins via reduction to , followed by the addition of the corresponding alkyl halides, acyl halides, alkene or alkyne. Steric hindrance is the major limiting factor in the synthesis of the coenzyme analogs. For example, no reaction occurs between neopentyl chloride and , whereas the secondary alkyl halide analogs are too unstable to be isolated. This effect may be due to the strong coordination between benzimidazole and the central cobalt atom, pulling it down into the plane of the corrin ring. The trans effect determines the polarizability of the Co–C bond so formed. However, once the benzimidazole is detached from cobalt by quaternization with methyl iodide, it is replaced by or hydroxyl ions. Various secondary alkyl halides are then readily attacked by the modified to give the corresponding stable cobalamin analogs. The products are usually extracted and purified by phenol-methylene chloride extraction or by column chromatography.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cobalamin analogs prepared by this method include the naturally occurring coenzymes methylcobalamin and cobamamide, and other cobalamins that do not occur naturally, such as vinylcobalamin, carboxymethylcobalamin and cyclohexylcobalamin. This reaction is under review for use as a catalyst for chemical dehalogenation, organic reagent and photosensitized catalyst systems.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is commercially prepared by bacterial fermentation. Fermentation by a variety of microorganisms yields a mixture of methylcobalamin, hydroxocobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. These compounds are converted to cyanocobalamin by addition of potassium cyanide in the presence of sodium nitrite and heat. Since multiple species of "Propionibacterium" produce no exotoxins or endotoxins and have been granted GRAS status (generally regarded as safe) by the United States Food and Drug Administration, they are the preferred bacterial fermentation organisms for vitamin production.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Historically, the physiological form was initially thought to be cyanocobalamin. This was because hydroxocobalamin produced by bacteria was changed to cyanocobalamin during purification in activated charcoal columns after separation from the bacterial cultures (because cyanide is naturally present in activated charcoal). Cyanocobalamin is the form in most pharmaceutical preparations because adding cyanide stabilizes the molecule.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: The total world production of vitamin B, by four companies (the French Sanofi-Aventis and three Chinese companies) in 2008 was 35 tonnes.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: The two bioactive forms of vitamin are methylcobalamin in cytosol and adenosylcobalamin in mitochondria. Multivitamins often contain cyanocobalamin, which is presumably converted to bioactive forms in the body. Both methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin are commercially available as supplement pills. The MMACHC gene product catalyzes the decyanation of cyanocobalamin as well as the dealkylation of alkylcobalamins including methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. This function has also been attributed to cobalamin reductases. The MMACHC gene product and cobalamin reductases enable the interconversion of cyano- and alkylcobalamins.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Cyanocobalamin is added to fortify nutrition, including baby milk powder, breakfast cereals and energy drinks for humans, also animal feed for poultry, swine and fish. Vitamin becomes inactive due to hydrogen cyanide and nitric oxide in cigarette smoke. Vitamin also becomes inactive due to nitrous oxide commonly known as laughing gas, used for anaesthesia and as a recreational drug. Vitamin becomes inactive due to microwaving or other forms of heating.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Methylcobalamin and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate are needed by methionine synthase in the methionine cycle to transfer a methyl group from 5-methyltetrahydrofolate to homocysteine, thereby generating tetrahydrofolate (THF) and methionine, which is used to make SAMe. SAMe is the universal methyl donor and is used for DNA methylation and to make phospholipid membranes, choline, sphingomyelin, acetylcholine, and other neurotransmitters.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: The enzymes that use as a built-in cofactor are methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (PDB 4REQ) and methionine synthase (PDB 1Q8J).


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: The metabolism of propionyl-CoA occurs in the mitochondria and requires Vitamin (as adenosylcobalamin) to make succinyl-CoA. When the conversion of propionyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA in the mitochondria fails due to Vitamin deficiency, elevated blood levels of methylmalonic acid (MMA) occur. Thus, elevated blood levels of homocysteine and MMA may both be indicators of vitamin deficiency.


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Adenosylcobalamin is needed as cofactor in methylmalonyl-CoA mutase—MUT enzyme. Processing of cholesterol and protein gives propionyl-CoA that is converted to methylmalonyl-CoA, which is used by MUT enzyme to make succinyl-CoA. Vitamin is needed to prevent anemia, since making porphyrin and heme in mitochondria for producing hemoglobin in red blood cells depends on succinyl-CoA made by vitamin .


title: Cyanocobalamin

text: Inadequate absorption of vitamin may be related to coeliac disease. Intestinal absorption of vitamin requires successively three different protein molecules: haptocorrin, intrinsic factor and transcobalamin II.


title: Marionette

text: A marionette (; , ) is a puppet controlled from above using wires or strings depending on regional variations. A marionette's puppeteer is called a marionettist. Marionettes are operated with the puppeteer hidden or revealed to an audience by using a vertical or horizontal control bar in different forms of theatres or entertainment venues. They have also been used in films and on television. The attachment of the strings varies according to its character or purpose.


title: Marionette

text: In French, "marionette" means "little Mary". In France, during the Middle Ages, string puppets were often used to depict biblical events, with the Virgin Mary being a popular character, hence the name.


title: Marionette

text: In France, the word "marionette" can refer to any kind of puppet, but elsewhere it typically refers only to string puppets.


title: Marionette

text: Puppetry is an ancient form of performance. Some historians claim that they predate actors in theatre. There is evidence that they were used in Egypt as early as 2000 BC when string-operated figures of wood were manipulated to act kneading bread and other string-controlled objects. Wire-controlled, articulated puppets made of clay and ivory have been found in Egyptian tombs. Marionette puppetry was used to display rituals and ceremonies using these string-operated figurines back in ancient times and is still used today.


title: Marionette

text: Puppetry was practiced in Ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be found in the works of Herodotus and Xenophon, dating from the 5th century BC. The Greek word translated as "puppet" is "νευρόσπαστος" ("nevróspastos"), which literally means "drawn by strings, string-pulling", from "νεῦρον" ("nevron"), meaning either "sinew, tendon, muscle, string", or "wire", and "σπάω" ("spáō"), meaning "draw, pull".


title: Marionette

text: The movements of animals may be compared with those of automatic puppets, which are set going on the occasion of a tiny movement; the levers are released and strike the twisted strings against one another.


title: Marionette

text: Archimedes is known to have worked with marionettes. Plato's work also contains references to puppetry. The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were presented using puppetry. The roots of European puppetry probably extend back to the Greek plays with puppets played to the "common people" in the 5th century BC. By the 3rd century BC these plays would appear in the Theatre of Dionysus at the Acropolis.


title: Marionette

text: In ancient Greece and Rome clay and ivory dolls, dated from around 500 BC, were found in children's tombs. These dolls had articulated arms and legs, some of which had an iron rod extending up from the tops of their heads. This rod was used to manipulate the doll from above, exactly as is done today in Sicilian puppetry. A few of these dolls had strings in place of the rods. Some researchers believe these ancient figures were mere toys and not puppets due to their small size.


title: Marionette

text: The Indian word "sutradhara", from "sutra", refers to the show-manager of theatrical performances (or a puppet-player), and also means literally "string-puller" or "string-holder".


title: Marionette

text: The sides of donkey carts are decorated with intricate, painted scenes from the Frankish romantic poems, such as "The Song of Roland". These same tales are enacted in traditional puppet theatres featuring hand-made marionettes of wood, an art form called "L'Opera deî Pupi" ("Opera of the puppets") in Sicilian. The opera of the puppets and the Sicilian tradition of cantastorî (singers of tales) are rooted in the Provençal troubadour tradition in Sicily during the reign of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the first half of the 13th century. A great place to see this marionette art is the puppet theatres of Palermo, Sicily.


title: Marionette

text: In the 18th century, operas were specifically composed for marionettes. Mozart as a child had seen marionettes. Gluck, Haydn, de Falla and Respighi all composed adult operas for marionettes. Lewis Carroll composed marionette operas and plays for his siblings' entertainment. Today in Salzburg in Austria, the Salzburg Marionette Theatre continues the tradition of presenting full-length opera using marionettes in their own theatre.


title: Marionette

text: The "Opera di Pupi", Sicilian puppet theatre, was relisted on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008.


title: Marionette

text: Marionettes are sometimes referred to as "puppets", but the term "marionettes" is more precise, distinguishing them from other forms of puppetry, such as finger, glove, rod, and shadow puppetry.


title: Marionette

text: In the UK the renaissance of Marionettes during the late 19th and early 20th century was driven by W. H. Whanslaw and Waldo Lanchester, two of the co-founders of the "British Puppet and Model Theatre Guild". The only purpose-built UK marionette theatre is "The Harlequin Puppet Theatre" (built 1958) in Rhos on Sea, North Wales, Founded by Eric Bramall FRSA and continued by Chris Somerville. Other theatres that occasionally perform with marionettes are the Little Angel Theatre founded by John and Lyndie Wright in Islington, London, whose first-ever show "The Wild Night Of The Witches" was a marionette play. It opened the theatre in 1961 and was revived for the 50th anniversary in 2011. The Norwich Puppet Theatre founded by Ray & Joan DaSilva sometimes presents marionette shows and the Puppet Theatre Barge, founded by Gren Middleton and Juliet Rogers, continues to perform using long string marionettes throughout the year. The barge is based in Little Venice, London during the winter months and tours to places such as Richmond Upon Thames during the summer.


title: Marionette

text: In Scotland, Dr Malcolm Knight has championed the art form and over the last 25 years, the Scottish Mask and Puppet Centre has acted as a catalyst, a lead agency, and as a resource centre for all those with an interest in mask and puppet theatre.


title: Marionette

text: In Germany, the Augsburger Puppenkiste since 1948 has produced theatrical adaptations of fairy tales and serious pieces. In 1953, it began producing television series with productions such as "Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer" and "Urmel aus dem Eis".


title: Marionette

text: In Austria, the Salzburg Marionette Theatre was founded in 1913 by Professor Anton Aicher. Aicher was heavily influenced by Count Franz Pocci who founded the Munich Marionette Theatre in Germany in 1855. Until 2012, the Salzburg Marionette Theatre was under the artistic direction of his granddaughter, Gretl Aicher, who commented on her lasting interest in marionettes, "What then is the fascination of a life with marionettes? Is it the pleasure of performing? The appeal of mastering an 'instrument' to the point of virtuosity? The transformation of one's own self? For me, it is the process of empathizing with mind and soul, of feeling at one with music and movement that bring these much-loved creatures to life. The Salzburg Marionette Theatre performs mainly operas such as "Die Fledermaus" and "The Magic Flute" and a small number of ballets such as "The Nutcracker". The Salzburg Marionette Theatre productions are aimed at adults although children are welcome. There is also a marionette theatre at Schoenbrunn Palace in Vienna.


title: Marionette

text: In the Czech Republic marionette theatre has a very long history in entertainment in Prague. An important organisation is the National Marionette Theatre. Its repertoire mainly features a marionette production of Mozart's famous "Don Giovanni". The production has period costumes and a beautifully designed 18th-century setting. There are numerous other companies including, Buchty a Loutky ("Cakes and Puppets") founded by Marek Bečka. "Rocky IX" and "Tibet" are just two works in the repertoire.


title: Marionette

text: In Australia, like in many other countries, there is a continuing tradition of marionette puppetry. Norman Hetherington OAM, Peter Scriven (founder of the Marionette Theatre of Australia) Richard Bradshaw OAM and David Splatt (Smallpox Theatre), David Hamilton and Murray Raine are notable puppeteers. The late Phillip Edmiston performed with his Queensland Marionette Theatre a range of productions including the spectacular "The Grand Adventure".


title: Marionette

text: In Picardy, Lafleur is a marionette from Amiens. The "Cabotans d'Amiens" are hand-carved, using wood, with a central rod and strings for the arms and legs. In France, the most famous puppet is the Guignol which is a hand puppet created in Lyon in 1808.


title: Marionette

text: In the United States, several groups have established permanent theatres or touring programs dedicated to spotlighting marionette performances. The Cole Marionettes were founded by George and Lucille Cole in Chicago circa 1934. The Bob Baker Marionette Theater in Los Angeles is now considered a historical landmark, presented a variety of cabaret marionette shows. The Puppetworks theatre in New York under the direction of Nick Coppola has been in operation since 1980. The Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta develops and fosters marionette performers from across the globe. Le Theatre de Marionette in Dallas has recreated a traditional marionette theatre with puppeteer bridge and full stage productions. The theatre is open year-round. The National Marionette Theater with David Syrotiak at its helm has developed some of the most artistically staged shows to grace the American stage. The Fratello Marionettes of Danville, California stage shows that are well crafted and display an almost Disney-esque quality. The Bil Baird theatre in Greenwich Village closed in 1987 but was a nationally recognized treasure that presented countless shows to families for over a decade, including their contribution to film and television with the famous Lonely Goatherd scene from "The Sound of Music". The Frisch Marionettes in Cincinnati were founded by Kevin Frisch, who has been considered one of the best stage marionette artists of his time. His manipulation and ability to transfer lifelike movement to the inanimate has been compared to the German master puppeteer, Albrecht Roser. Joseph Cashore has been touring the United States for over 30 years with a collection of self-designed marionettes.


title: Marionette

text: With the rise in popularity of television and film, marionettes found a rise in popularity, especially in children's programming. The story of Pinocchio and its Disney adaptation ("Pinocchio"), which was released in 1940, is a story about a marionette. In 1947, "Howdy Doody" introduced marionettes to children's television, with Howdy Doody (the main character) being a marionette, as well as some other characters.


title: Marionette

text: In the 1950s, Bil Baird and Cora Eisenberg presented a great number of marionette shows for television, and were also responsible for the Lonely Goatherd sequence from the classic film "The Sound of Music". Bil Baird also wrote a classic book on his work. In Australia, a program called "Mr. Squiggle", using a marionette central character of the same name, ran for just over 40 years (1959–1999). Another program for children using puppetry was the "Magic Circle Club" featuring puppets Cassius Cuckoo and Leonardo de Funbird.


title: Marionette

text: From the 1940s onwards, the BBC in the United Kingdom, produced a wide series of marionette programmes for children and then created The "BBC Television Puppet Theatre" based in "Lime Grove Studios" from 1955–1964, Usually under the title "Watch With Mother" The various programmes included "Whirligig", "The Woodentops", "Bill and Ben", "Muffin The Mule", "Rubovia" a series created by Gordon Murray and "Andy Pandy". Later in the 1960s, Gerry Anderson with his wife, Sylvia Anderson and colleagues made a number of hit series, "Fireball XL5", "Stingray" and "Thunderbirds", which pioneered a technique combining marionettes and electronics. This allowed for radio control moving of the mouth of a marionettes. The technique was patented and called "supermarionation". The programs have been shown all around the world and are now widely distributed on DVD. Anderson also made two films, "Thunderbirds Are Go" and "Thunderbird 6". During the 1970s in the UK TV series using marionettes include "The Adventures of Rupert Bear", "Mumfie" and "Cloppa Castle". Some marionettes appear in "Pipkins" namely Octavia Ostrich.


title: Marionette

text: More recently marionettes are starting to re-emerge on the TV screen, "Coca-Cola" have used marionettes to create a series of adverts based in an office and music videos use them regularly as metaphors.