title: Citizen's arrest

text: Criminal Procedure Law in Latvia gives a right to any person to apprehend someone in the act of committing a crime "(in flagrante delicto)" or fleeing from the crime scene, if punishment for the crime might be imprisonment. Also a person wanted by the police, for whom there is an arrest warrant, can be arrested by anyone at any time. A person stopping a criminal from committing a crime is not criminally responsible as long as the means employed are in proportion to the threat. The arrested person must be handed over to the police immediately.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Section 27(1) of the "Criminal Procedure Code" allows for a private person to arrest a person who, in his view, has committed a seizable offence or a non-bailable offence:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Sub-section 5 further allows the arrest of a person who commits an offence on or with respect to the property of another by any person who is using the property to which the injury is done, or by the servant of either of those persons or by any person authorized by or acting in aid of either of those persons:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A "seizable offence" is defined as an offence in which a police officer may ordinarily arrest without warrant as per defined by the Code.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Article 16 of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico allows any person to arrest a criminal found "in flagrante delicto". A non-police officer doing so must immediately bring them to the nearest civil authority. A person who fails to do so may be found guilty of illegal deprivation of liberty, a crime similar to kidnapping that can result in a prison sentence for the perpetrator. In 2006, the celebrity bounty hunter Duane 'Dog' Chapman was charged with unlawful deprivation of liberty for arresting an American fugitive in Mexico and attempting to take him across the border to California without consulting police.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: "If the police is not available for the time being at the time of commission of any offence, any person who is present at the time of commission of that offence or who is eye witness thereto may prevent the person committing such offence from going away or escaping and hand him or her over to the nearby police office."


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In New Zealand, some legal protection exists to those making a citizen's arrest as provided in the Crimes Act 1961 in that there may be justification or protection from criminal responsibility. Justification of the arrest ensures the arresting person is not guilty of an offence and is not liable to any civil proceeding. Protection from criminal responsibility means those who make the arrest are not liable to any criminal proceedings. They are however liable for civil proceedings. The legislation is carefully worded and only applies to offences covered in the Crimes Act 1961, not other offences such as those covered in the Summary Offences Act 1981.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Specifically, the Crimes Act 1961 states that everyone (not just New Zealand citizens) is justified in arresting without warrant:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Other situations where members of the public are protected from criminal responsibility when involved in arresting where:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In all cases a person making a citizens arrest must hand over the suspect to a police officer at the earliest possible time.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The Administration of Criminal Justice Act (2015) allows private citizens to arrest a person who commits a criminal offense in their presence or a person who they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime for which a police officer would be legally entitled to arrest them without a warrant. Property owners are entitled to arrest those found damaging their private property and to authorize people working for them to arrest anyone damaging their property as well. Anyone damaging public property may be arrested by a private citizen. Private citizens who make arrests are legally obligated to immediately hand over the suspect to a police officer, or, in the absence of a police officer, to turn the suspect over to the nearest police station. After turning in the suspect, the private person who made the arrest must give a formal witness statement on the circumstances of the arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Norway, pursuant to § 176 of the Criminal Procedure Act any person may arrest a suspect caught at the scene or pursued from it. The arrestee must be handed over to the police immediately.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The Code of Criminal Procedure allows private citizens to arrest persons caught "in flagrante delicto" in the commission of a crime. Private citizens who make an arrest are obligated to immediately turn over the detainee to the police.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Although the Philippines does not have a national law covering citizen's arrest, the local government of Quezon City passed "Ordinance 2307" or the "Citizen's Arrest Ordinance of Quezon City". Any citizens within the Quezon City area can arrest a person even without a warrant in the instances mentioned and provided by law.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Poland anyone has the right to apprehend a person caught in the act of committing an offence, or seized in a pursuit undertaken directly following the commission of an offence, if it is feared that such person may go into hiding or if his identity cannot be established. The apprehended person should be surrendered to the police without delay.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Portugal one isn't civilly liable for restraining another person as long as one has used proportional force in order to defend themselves or someone else or anyone's property, under Articles 336, 337 and 339 of the Portuguese Civil Code (self defense, necessity and alike), and as long as there is an impossibility to resort to law enforcement. The main requirement of proportionality is that one doesn't give way to property rights over personal rights, the latter prevailing at all costs. There is also an exception to the proportionality principle which applies when, even though the defensive violence was excessive, it was triggered by a legitimate fear of the offended.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: With regards to the criminal aspects of the citizen's arrest, Article 255 of the Portuguese Code of Criminal Procedure gives any person the right to detain another in flagrante delicto if and only if the latter's conduct in question is punishable with imprisonment by law and the criminal procedure doesn't require private complaint, and no law enforcement authority is available in due time. The arrester must immediately bring the detainee into the custody of law enforcement.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Russia, any person is allowed to arrest someone in the act of committing a crime pursuant to articles 37 and 38 of the Criminal Code of Russia and the Ruling of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of Russia of 27 September 2012 if the person performing the arrest is certain that the arrestee has committed a crime. The arrest must be carried out with applying as little force as required for the apprehension and the arrestee should be surrendered to the police without delay.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Serbia anybody can arrest somebody in the act of committing a crime that the arrested would otherwise be pursued after in official capacity, provided that the police are notified.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Spain, any person is allowed to arrest someone in the act of committing a crime or a fugitive as described in article 490 of the Criminal Code of Spain.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Sweden, any person may arrest someone in the act of committing a crime, or fleeing from the crime scene, if the crime committed is punishable by imprisonment. A person wanted by the police, for whom there is an arrest warrant, can be arrested by anyone at any time. After the arrest, the police must be contacted as soon as possible.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: According to the Swiss Criminal Procedure Code § 218, citizens have the right to arrest a person when there is insufficient time to obtain police assistance, provided that


title: Citizen's arrest

text: When making an arrest, private individuals may only use force as a last resort and any force used must be reasonable. Arrested persons must be handed over to the police as quickly as possible.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: An arrest without a warrant is explicitly forbidden by the Article 8 in the Constitution of the Republic of China, "except in case of flagrante delicto as provided by law", as shown below:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: However, the first additional circumstance, i.e. "pursued with cries" has been considered ambiguous in recent years, leading to many ongoing discussions and controversies of whether this would cause an infringement of the personal freedom.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A citizen's arrest can be lawfully carried out on any person under section 24A of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 for an indictable offence, including either way offences (in this section referred to simply as "an offence"), but with some exceptions listed below. A few examples of indictable and either way offences are theft, criminal damage, burglary, assault occasioning actual bodily harm, possession of an offensive weapon in a public place, possession of a controlled substance.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Where an arrest is made "after" an offence has been committed, the person who makes the arrest must actually "know", not simply "suspect" that an offence has actually been committed. If it later turns out that an offence had not been committed, such an arrest would be unlawful.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: "Any person" powers can be used to arrest "before" an offence occurs as long as the offence in question falls within the Criminal Attempts Act 1981. This act creates the offence of an "attempted" offence, as long as the offence being attempted is an indictable. For this to apply, the offence must actually be in the process of being attempted—preparatory steps are not sufficient. Furthermore, the definition of what constitutes a "crime" was clarified in "R v Jones (Margaret)" which stated under the S3 CLA1967 meaning, it was held to be any domestic crime in England/Wales. Kent Police have released a brief yet comprehensive guide on reasonable force.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: An arrest may not be made by a someone of their own husband, wife or civil partner for the offences of theft or criminal damage where they are the victim.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Although a person cannot make a citizen's arrest before an offence takes place, they may use the power provided section 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 to use reasonable force for the prevention of crime. This would not allow a citizen's arrest before an offence takes place in this sense but would allow any person to use reasonable force to prevent an offence from occurring; for example, restraining a suspected offender who raised a brick in their hand in order to imminently smash a window. A citizen's arrest is a form of lawful custody and anyone attempting to flee would commit the offence of escape from lawful custody. Similarly, a person who uses force to resists a citizen's arrest would commit the offence of assault with intent to resist arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In addition to an arrest without a warrant, where an arrest warrant is issued by a court, the warrant may name people (other than police officers) who are able to use it to arrest the person against whom it has been issued.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A citizen's arrest is a form of lawful custody and anyone attempting to flee may be guilty of attempting to escape from lawful custody. Furthermore, the offence of 'assault with intent to resist arrest or lawful apprehension or detainer of himself' may apply if the arrestee assaulted the arrestor under Section 38 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. Both assault with intent to resist arrest/lawful apprehension and escaping from lawful custody are indictable, the former being so by the mode of trial of the offence, the latter is a common law offence and therefore indictable only. Therefore, these offences—whether fully carried out or merely attempted—are citizen's arrestable in themselves.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A citizen's arrest may also be made technically for a warrant for an arrest if the offence listed is indictable as there is no law prohibiting a re-citizen's arrest or the number of times they may be arrested for it nor is there a time limit. The warrant would satisfy the requirement for the arrester to have reasonable grounds to suspect the guilt of the arrestee. For example, if an offender failed to attend Crown Court this would satisfy two conditions for a lawful citizen's arrest at a later date – that the offence "had" taken place and that it was obviously indictable by way of being tried in Crown Court.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Although not technically citizen's arrest powers, any person also has the power to arrest for a common law breach of the peace which also provides any person with a power of entry. Section 3 Criminal Justice Act 1967 also provides any person the power to apprehend a person unlawfully at large e.g. an offender on a recall to prison or in the circumstances where someone has managed to escape from lawful custody.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Until 2006, there was an "any person" power of arrest under part of the Theft Act 1968 in England and Wales that related to poaching, which was used by private water bailiffs (as opposed to Environment Agency bailiffs). This ceased to have effect as a result of a general repeal of such arrest powers by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. An officer or agent of certain companies may seize and detain any person who has committed an offence against the provisions of the Companies Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 whose name and residence shall be but unknown to such officer or agent, and take them before a justice of the peace, who "shall proceed with all convenient dispatch to the hearing and determining of the complaint against such offender".


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Under the Standing Orders of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, the Serjeant at Arms has the power to take into custody any member of the public who is in a Members-only area of the House, or who misconducts themselves, or who fails to leave when the House sits in private.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Court security officers in England and Wales have the additional power to restrain and remove persons from court buildings under s53 Courts Act 2003 as well as powers of search and seizure of certain articles.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Similar provisions apply to Northern Ireland as to England and Wales, implemented through the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (SI 1989/1341) as amended by the Police and Criminal Evidence (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order (SI 2007/288).


title: Citizen's arrest

text: While no statutory provision for citizen's arrest exists in Scots law, there is a common law position that anyone committing an offence can be arrested using minimum force if necessary with consideration to what is reasonable in the relevant circumstances. The offence must be a serious one and not merely for a breach of the peace. The person exercising the power must have witnessed the offence occurring therefore they cannot act upon information from another person.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In the United States, a private person may arrest another without a warrant for a crime occurring in their presence. However, the crimes for which this is permitted vary by state. This procedure was criticized in the state of Georgia for the potential of abuse and racial bias after the murder of Ahmaud Arbery. As a result, Georgia repealed its citizen's arrest law.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Most states have codified the common law rule that a warrantless arrest may be made by a private person for a felony, misdemeanor, or "breach of peace". "Breach of peace" covers a multitude of violations in which the Supreme Court has even included a misdemeanor seatbelt violation punishable only by a


title: Citizen's arrest

text: fine. The term historically included theft, "nightwalking", prostitution, and playing card and dice games. Texas courts have defined and interpreted the term "breach of the peace" to mean an act that disturbs or threatens to disturb the tranquility enjoyed by the citizens.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: "Public offense" is read similarly as breach of peace in this case and includes felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. Note that there is generally no provision for an investigative detention by a private person under the law. With certain exceptions (see below), an arrest must be made. "Holding them until the police get there" is simply a form of arrest. The officer is accepting the arrest and processing the prisoner on behalf of the private person.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In the case of felonies, a private person may make an arrest for a felony occurring outside their presence, but the rule is that a felony must have, in fact, been committed. For example, consider a suspect that has been seen on surveillance video vandalizing a building to the extent that the arrestor believes it rises to a felony due to the damage. If they find the suspect and make the arrest but it later turns out that it was misdemeanor damage, the arrestor is liable for false arrest because a felony had not, in fact, been committed.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Because most states have codified their arrest laws, there are many variations. For example, in Pennsylvania, the


title: Citizen's arrest

text: courts have been clear that a non-law enforcement officer cannot make an arrest for a "summary offense". In North Carolina, there is no de jure "citizen's arrest". Although it is essentially the same, North Carolina law refers to it as a "detention".


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Other states seem to allow only arrests in cases of felonies, but court decisions have ruled more broadly. For example, in Virginia, the statute appears to only permit warrantless arrests by officers listed in the Code. However, Virginia courts have upheld warrantless arrests by non-law enforcement personnel for breach of the peace misdemeanors. Other non-police persons are granted arrest authority by statute, in the case of those who are state-certified, armed security officers: "A registered armed security officer of a private security services business while at a location which the business is contracted to protect shall have the power to effect an arrest for an offense occurring (i) in his presence on such premises or (ii) in the presence of a merchant, agent, or employee of the merchant the private security business has contracted to protect" and "For the purposes of § 19.2-74, a registered armed security officer of a private security services business shall be considered an arresting officer."


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In general, a private person is justified in using non-deadly force upon another if they reasonably believe that: (1) such other person is committing a felony, or a misdemeanor amounting to a breach of the peace; and (2) the force used is necessary to prevent further commission of the offense and to apprehend the offender. The force must be reasonable under the circumstances to restrain the individual arrested. This includes the nature of the offense and the amount of force required to overcome resistance. In at least one state, a civilian may use reasonable force, including deadly force if reasonable, to prevent an escape from a lawful citizen's arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In some states of the United States, the courts recognize a common law shopkeeper's privilege under which a shopkeeper is allowed to detain a suspected shoplifter on store property for a reasonable period of time, so long as the shopkeeper has cause to believe that the person detained in fact committed, or attempted to commit, theft of store property. The purpose of this detention is to recover the property and make an arrest if the merchant desires.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Private persons are occasionally granted immunity from civil or criminal liability, like the police are, when arresting others. While the powers to arrest are similar, police are entitled to mistake of fact in most cases, while civilians can be held to a stricter liability depending on the individual state. Police can also detain anyone upon reasonable suspicion. However, ordinary citizens cannot claim "qualified immunity" to attempt to defend against a civil complaint for false arrest.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The New Guinea campaign of the Pacific War lasted from January 1942 until the end of the war in August 1945. During the initial phase in early 1942, the Empire of Japan invaded the Australian-administered Mandated Territory of New Guinea (23 January) and the Australian Territory of Papua (21 July) and overran western New Guinea (beginning 29/30 March), which was a part of the Netherlands East Indies. During the second phase, lasting from late 1942 until the Japanese surrender, the Allies—consisting primarily of Australian forces—cleared the Japanese first from Papua, then the Mandate and finally from the Dutch colony.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The campaign resulted in a crushing defeat and heavy losses for the Empire of Japan. As in most Pacific War campaigns, disease and starvation claimed more Japanese lives than enemy action. Most Japanese troops never even came into contact with Allied forces, and were instead simply cut off and subjected to an effective blockade by Allied naval forces. Garrisons were effectively besieged and denied shipments of food and medical supplies, and as a result, some claim that 97% of Japanese deaths in this campaign were from non-combat causes.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: According to John Laffin, the campaign "was arguably the most arduous fought by any Allied troops during World War II".


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The struggle for New Guinea began with the capture by the Japanese of the city of Rabaul at the northeastern tip of New Britain Island in January 1942 (the Allies responded with multiple bombing raids, of which the action off Bougainville was one). Rabaul overlooks Simpson Harbor, a considerable natural anchorage, and was ideal for the construction of airfields. Over the next year, the Japanese built up the area into a major air and naval base.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The Japanese 8th Area Army (equivalent to an Anglo-American army), under General Hitoshi Imamura at Rabaul, was responsible for both the New Guinea and Solomon Islands campaigns. The Japanese 18th Army (equivalent to an Anglo-American corps), under Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi, was responsible for Japanese operations on mainland New Guinea.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The colonial capital of Port Moresby on the south coast of Papua was the strategic key for the Japanese in this area of operations. Capturing it would both neutralize the Allies' principal forward base and serve as a springboard for a possible invasion of Australia. For the same reasons, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander Allied Forces South West Pacific Area was determined to hold it. MacArthur was further determined to conquer all of New Guinea in his progress toward the eventual recapture of the Philippines. General Headquarters South West Pacific Area Operational Instruction No.7 of 25 May 1942, issued by Commander-Allied-Forces, General Douglas MacArthur, placed all Australian and US Army, Air Force and Navy Forces in the Port Moresby Area under the control of New Guinea Force.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Due north of Port Moresby, on the northeast coast of Papua, are the Huon Gulf and the Huon Peninsula. The Japanese entered Lae and Salamaua, two locations on Huon Gulf, on 8 March 1942 unopposed. MacArthur would have liked to deny this area to the Japanese, but he had neither sufficient air nor naval forces to undertake a counterlanding. The Japanese at Rabaul and other bases on New Britain would have easily overwhelmed any such effort (by mid-September, MacArthur's entire naval force under Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender consisted of 5 cruisers, 8 destroyers, 20 submarines, and 7 small craft). The only Allied response was a bombing raid of Lae and Salamaua by aircraft flying over the Owen Stanley Range from the carriers and , leading the Japanese to reinforce these sites.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Operation Mo was the designation given by the Japanese to their initial plan to take possession of Port Moresby. Their operation plan decreed a five-pronged attack: one task force to establish a seaplane base at Tulagi in the lower Solomons, one to establish a seaplane base in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of New Guinea, one of transports to land troops near Port Moresby, one with a light carrier to cover the landing, and one with two fleet carriers to sink the Allied forces sent in response. In the resulting 4–8 May 1942 Battle of the Coral Sea, the Allies suffered higher losses in ships, but achieved a crucial strategic victory by turning the Japanese landing force back, thereby removing the threat to Port Moresby, at least for the time being.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: After this failure, the Japanese decided on a longer term, two-pronged assault for their next attempt on Port Moresby. Forward positions would first be established at Milne Bay, located in the forked eastern end of the Papuan peninsula, and at Buna, a village on the northeast coast of Papua about halfway between Huon Gulf and Milne Bay. Simultaneous operations from these two locations, one amphibious and one overland, would converge on the target city.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Buna was easily taken as the Allies had no military presence there (MacArthur wisely chose not to attempt an occupation by paratroopers since any such force would have been easily wiped out by the Japanese). The Japanese occupied the village with an initial force of 1,500 on 21 July and by 22 August had 11,430 men under arms at Buna. Then began the grueling Kokoda Track campaign, a brutal experience for both the Japanese and Australian troops involved. On 17 September, the Japanese had reached the village of Ioribaiwa, just from the Allied airdrome at Port Moresby. The Australians held firm and began their counterdrive on 26 September. According to Morison, "...the Japanese retreat down the Kokoda Trail had turned into a rout. Thousands perished from starvation and disease; the commanding general, Horii, was drowned." Thus was the overland threat to Port Moresby permanently removed.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Since Port Moresby was the only port supporting operations in Papua, its defence was critical to the campaign. The air defences consisted of P-39 and P-40 fighters. RAAF radar could not provide sufficient warning of Japanese attacks, so reliance was placed on coastwatchers and spotters in the hills until an American radar unit arrived in September with better equipment. Japanese bombers were often escorted by fighters which came in at —too high to be intercepted by the P-39s and P-40s—giving the Japanese an altitude advantage in air combat. The cost to the Allied fighters was high. Before June, between 20 and 25 P-39s had been lost in air combat, while three more had been destroyed on the ground and eight had been destroyed in landings by accident. The following month at least 20 fighters were lost in combat, while eight were destroyed in July. The Australian and American anti-aircraft gunners of the Composite Anti-Aircraft Defences played a crucial part. The gunners got a lot of practice; Port Moresby suffered its 78th raid on 17 August 1942. A gradual improvement in their numbers and skill forced the Japanese bombers up to higher altitude, where they were less accurate, and then, in August, to raiding by night.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Although RAAF PBY Catalinas and Lockheed Hudsons were based at Port Moresby, because of the Japanese air attacks, long-range bombers like B-17s, B-25s, and B-26s could not be safely based there and were instead staged through from bases in Australia. This resulted in considerable fatigue for the air crews. Due to USAAF doctrine and a lack of long-range escorts, long-range bomber raids on targets like Rabaul went in unescorted and suffered heavy losses, prompting severe criticism of Lieutenant General George Brett by war correspondents for misusing his forces. But fighters did provide cover for the transports, and for bombers when their targets were within range. Aircraft based at Port Moresby and Milne Bay fought to prevent the Japanese from basing aircraft at Buna, and attempted to prevent the Japanese reinforcement of the Buna area. As the Japanese ground forces pressed toward Port Moresby, the Allied Air Forces struck supply points along the Kokoda Track. Japanese makeshift bridges were attacked by P-40s with bombs.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: While it was beyond MacArthur's capabilities to deny Buna to the Japanese, the same could not be said of Milne Bay, which was easily accessible by Allied naval forces. In early June, US Army engineers, Australian infantry and an anti-aircraft battery were landed near the Lever Brothers coconut plantation at Gili Gili, and work was begun on an airfield. By 22 August, about 8,500 Australians and 1,300 Americans were on site. The Japanese arrived and the 25 August – 7 September Battle of Milne Bay was underway. Historian Samuel Eliot Morison summed up the results this way:


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The D'Entrecasteaux Islands lie directly off the northeast coast of the lower portion of the Papuan peninsula. The westernmost island of this group, Goodenough, had been occupied in August 1942 by 353 stranded troops from bombed Japanese landing craft. The destroyer "Yayoi", sent to recover these men, was itself bombed and sunk on 11 September. A force of 800 Australian troops landed on 22 October on either side of the Japanese position. Beleaguered, the survivors of the Japanese garrison were evacuated by submarine on the night of 26 October. The Allies proceeded to turn the island into an air base.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The Japanese drive to conquer all of New Guinea had been decisively stopped. MacArthur was now determined to liberate the island as a stepping-stone to the reconquest of the Philippines. MacArthur's rollback began with the 16 November 1942 – 22 January 1943 Battle of Buna-Gona. The experience of the green US 32nd Infantry Division, just out of training camp and utterly unschooled in jungle warfare, was nearly disastrous. Instances were noted of officers completely out of their depth, of men eating meals when they should have been on the firing line, even of cowardice. MacArthur relieved the division commander and on 30 November instructed Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger, commander of the US I Corps, to go to the front personally with the charge "to remove all officers who won't fight ... if necessary, put sergeants in charge of battalions ... I want you to take Buna, or not come back alive."


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The Australian 7th Division under the command of Major General George Alan Vasey, along with the revitalized US 32nd Division, restarted the Allied offensive. Gona fell to the Australians on 9 December 1942, Buna to the US 32nd on 2 January 1943, and Sanananda, located between the two larger villages, fell to the Australians on 22 January.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Operation Lilliput (18 December 1942 – June 1943) was an ongoing resupply operation ferrying troops and supplies from Milne Bay, at the tip of the Papuan Peninsula, to Oro Bay, a little more than halfway between Milne Bay and the Buna–Gona area.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Wau is a village in the interior of the Papuan peninsula, approximately southwest of Salamaua. An airfield had been built there during an area gold rush in the 1920s and 1930s. This airfield was of great value to the Australians during the fighting for northeast Papua.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Once the Japanese had decided to give up on Guadalcanal, the capture of Port Moresby loomed even larger in their strategic thinking. Taking the airfield at Wau was a crucial step in this process, and to this end, the 51st Division was transferred from Indochina and placed under General Hitoshi Imamura's Eighth Area Army at Rabaul; one regiment arrived at Lae in early January 1943. In addition, about 5,400 survivors of the Japanese defeat at Buna-Gona were moved into the Lae-Salamaua area. Opposing these forces were the Australian 2/5th, 2/6th and 2/7th Battalions along with Lieutenant Colonel Norman Fleay's Kanga Force.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The Australians decisively turned back the Japanese assault in the ensuing 29–31 January 1943 Battle of Wau. "Within a few days, the enemy was retreating from the Wau Valley, where he had suffered a serious defeat, harassed all the way back to Mubo..." About one week later, the Japanese completed their evacuation of Guadalcanal.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: General Imamura and his naval counterpart at Rabaul, Admiral Jinichi Kusaka, commander Southeast Area Fleet, resolved to reinforce their ground forces at Lae for one final all-out attempt against Wau. If the transports succeeded in staying behind a weather front and were protected the whole way by fighters from the various airfields surrounding the Bismarck Sea, they might make it to Lae with an acceptable level of loss, i.e., at worst half the task force would be sunk en route. It is indicative of the extent to which Japanese ambitions had fallen at this point in the war that a 50% loss of ground troops aboard ship was considered acceptable.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Three factors conspired to create disaster for the Japanese. First, they had woefully underestimated the strength of the Allied air forces. Second, the Allies had become convinced that the Japanese were preparing a major seaborne reinforcement and so had stepped up their air searches. Most important of all, the bombers of MacArthur's air forces, under the command of Lieutenant General George C. Kenney, had been modified to enable new offensive tactics. Their noses had been refitted with eight 50-caliber machine guns for strafing slow-moving ships on the high seas. In addition, their bomb bays were filled with 500-pound bombs to be used in the newly devised practice of skip bombing.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: About 6,900 troops aboard eight transports, escorted by eight destroyers, departed Rabaul at midnight 28 February under the command of Rear Admiral Masatomi Kimura. Through the afternoon of 1 March, the overcast weather held at which point everything began to go wrong for the Japanese. The weather changed direction and Kimura's slow-moving task force was spotted by an Allied scout plane. By the time the Allied bombers and PT boats finished their work on 3 March, Kimura had lost all eight transports and four of his eight destroyers.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The remaining destroyers with about 2,700 surviving troops limped back to Rabaul. According to Morison, the Japanese "...never again risked a transport larger than a small coaster or barge in waters shadowed by American planes. His contemplated offensive against Wau died a-borning."


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Marshal Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto promised the emperor that he would pay back the Allies for the disaster at the Bismarck Sea with a series of massive air strikes. For this, he ordered the air arm of Vice Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa's Third Fleet carriers to reinforce the Eleventh Air Fleet at Rabaul. To demonstrate the seriousness of the effort to the Supreme War Council, multiple shifts of high-ranking personnel were also effected: Both Yamamoto and Ozawa moved their headquarters to Rabaul; and Eighth Fleet commander Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa as well as General Imamura's chief of staff were sent to Tokyo with advice and explanations for the respective General Staffs (Admiral Tomoshige Samejima replaced Mikawa as Eight Fleet commander).


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The first strike, on 7 April, was against Allied shipping in the waters between Guadalcanal and Tulagi. At 177 planes, this was the largest Japanese air attack since Pearl Harbor. Yamamoto then turned his attention to New Guinea: 94 planes struck Oro Bay on 11 April; 174 planes hit Port Moresby on 12 April; and in the largest raid of all, 188 aircraft struck Milne Bay on 14 April.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: I-Go demonstrated that the Japanese command was not learning the lessons of air power that the Allies were. The Allied reduction of Rabaul was only made possible by relentless air strikes that took place day after day, but Yamamoto thought the damage inflicted by a few attacks of large formations would derail Allied plans long enough for Japan to prepare a defense in depth. Also, Yamamoto accepted at face value his fliers' over-optimistic reports of damage: they reported a score of one cruiser, two destroyers and 25 transports, as well as 175 Allied planes, a figure that should certainly have aroused some skepticism. Actual Allied losses amounted to one destroyer, one oiler, one corvette, two cargo ships and approximately 25 aircraft. These meager results were not commensurate with either the resources expended or the expectations that had been promoted.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: The umbrella term for the series of strategic actions taken by the Allies to reduce and capture the vast Japanese naval and air facilities at Rabaul was Operation Cartwheel. Two major moves were planned for the end of June:


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Eventually, the Joint Chiefs of Staff realized that a landing and siege of "Fortress Rabaul" would be far too costly, and that the Allies' ultimate strategic purposes could be achieved by simply neutralizing and bypassing it. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, the leaders of the Allied nations agreed to this change in strategy focusing on neutralizing Rabaul rather than capturing it.


title: New Guinea campaign

text: Despite the disaster of the Bismarck Sea, the Japanese could not give up on recapturing Wau. The remote but crucial airfield lay 25 miles south/southeast of the port town of Salamaua.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Ilocanos (/), Ilokanos, or Iloko people are the third largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group and mostly reside within the Ilocos Region in the northwestern seaboard of Luzon, Philippines. The native language of the Ilocano people is the Ilocano (or Ilokano) language.


title: Ilocano people

text: Historically, the Ilocano people have developed a near-stereotypical reputation among Filipinos of resourcefulness, frugality and industriousness, their resilience likely stemming from their geographical location and extreme weather patterns, and their high average savings rate in the Ilocos Region throughout the years. Ilocanos have an elaborate network of beliefs and social practices.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Ilocano diaspora has reached nearly all parts of the Philippines, as well as to places in the Western world, particularly Hawaii and California. Emigration was caused by dense population pressures in a land with limited agricultural potential. The Ilocos Region is one of the most densely populated regions in the country. Agricultural production is not sufficient to meet local needs, thus, much of the population historically went into the labor market and interregional trade. Tobacco is the leading cash crop of the Ilocano people. The textile industry in the area has a long tradition. Fishing is second only to agricultural production.


title: Ilocano people

text: Among the more dominant of the ethnic groups, Ilocanos have figured prominently in the political, educational, economic, religious, and other sectors of Philippine society. Intensely regionalistic like most of the other major groups, the Ilocano people generally take pride in their roots and language.


title: Ilocano people

text: The word "Ilocano" or "Ilokano" originates from the word "Iloko" (archaic Spanish form, "Yloco"), the conjugation of (meaning 'of') and (meaning 'bay'), which means 'from the bay' in Ilocano. Alternatively, according to some records, the name term is derived from "l-"(originating from) and "luku" or "lukung (a valley or depression of land, hence "lowland"). It is located between the "gulod" (mountains) and the "luek" (sea or bay). Iloc"ano" is the Spanish word for "us" ano, which refers to the people (e.g., "americano", "italiano", "africano", "mexicano", etc.). Males are referred to as Ilocano or Ilokano while females are referred to as Ilocana or Ilokana.


title: Ilocano people

text: Two theories are prominent among historians regarding the spread of what historians call the Austronesian peoples.


title: Ilocano people

text: While Spain applied the term barangay to the settlements in the Ilocos region upon contact, the Ilocano people called their towns "íli" and a smaller group of houses "purók".


title: Ilocano people

text: These residents of the "íli" were organized in a class society. At the top of the class system was a chief or "agtúray" or "ári" and his family. The ári earned his position due to strength, wealth or wisdom"." This position could also be inherited and usually reserved for a male; however, in the event that no male heir was available, a strong female heir was accepted.


title: Ilocano people

text: If the heir was found to be weak by the "íli", then another "ári" family would be put in place and the former "ári" family could fall down in class. Together with a community of elders called "amáen" or "panglakáyen íli", the ári administered justice and governed the daily lives of the "íli" and led his or her people to war if necessary.


title: Ilocano people

text: Below the "ári" were the wealthy "babaknáng", or "maharlika" in Tagalog, some of whom could easily move into the position of "ári". Their wealth was maintained by their control of trade with primarily the Chinese, Japanese, Igorots, and the Tagalogs. Goods often traded were rice, cotton, gold, wax, iron, glass beads, honey, and stoneware jars called "burnáy".


title: Ilocano people

text: Below the "babaknáng" were the "kailianes", a class that helped the "ári" in sailing, working his or her fields, and preparing for celebrations. In exchange, the "kailianes" were given gifts directly from the "ári."


title: Ilocano people

text: The "katalonan" were below the "babaknáng" and the "kailianes" and they were tenant farmers who consisted of the majority of the population in an "íli". They largely practiced wet-rice agriculture which included rice and taro as well as dry agriculture that included cotton.


title: Ilocano people

text: At the bottom of the pre-colonial Ilocano society were the "ubíng" and below them, the "tagábu", also called "adípen". The "ubíng" were servants while the "tagábu" were slaves. The "tagábu" acquired their status through unresolved debt, insulting a member of the "babaknáng" or "ári", by being prisoners of war, or even inheriting the debt of their ancestor.


title: Ilocano people

text: At the time of the Spanish conquest, the "Ilocanos" had long hair like the "Igorots", but it was not as long as the "Cagayanons"’ "(Ibanag and Itawes)" whose hair covered their backs. Women wore their hair in a charming "bun" on the crown of their heads. Both men and women took care of their hair, using shampoo decoctions made from the barks of specific trees, coconut oil mixed with musk and other perfumes, "gogo", and lye made from rice husk, which is still used in Ilocos today.


title: Ilocano people

text: They polished and sharpened their teeth with "betel nut husk" and stones since childhood, making them all even or sometimes serrated like saw teeth. They would color them red or black, just like the Igorots, to preserve them. The wealthy, particularly women, decorated or encrusted them with gold to make them more powerful or flashy.


title: Ilocano people

text: Men entertained themselves by pulling the hairs out of their beards using clam shells fashioned into tweezers; that is why they did not have beards and mustaches like they do today.


title: Ilocano people

text: Women, and men in some places, adorned their ears with large gold rings, and children had their earlobes pierced. The more ripped and larger the holes, the higher the social status. There were two types of ear piercings: one for a small earflap and one for a larger earflap. The preceding was written by a chronicler about Filipinos in general. Thus, according to "Isabelo de los Reyes", old Ilocano women did not wear earrings, whereas today's women consider them a sign of coquetery. Although the old Ilocano men do not recall their ancestors wearing earrings, it is highly likely that they did so in imitation of their Igorot neighbors.


title: Ilocano people

text: The men wore a long narrow cloth called "“bangal”" ("Tagalogs" called them “"potong”") that they wrapped around their heads like "Tinguians" or fashioned into a "Muslim-style turban". Those who were proud of their bravery draped the bangal over their shoulder, the embroidered ends touching the back of their knees. The bangal's colors represented the wearer's accomplishments and status: "red" indicated that the wearer had killed someone; only those who had killed seven or more could wear a striped bangal. However, by the time of "Morga", thirty years after the Spanish conquest, men were already wearing hats.


title: Ilocano people

text: In addition to the "bangal", farmers and fishermen also wore a gourd hat called a "kattukong" on sunny or rainy days. The "kattukong" was made from a hollowed and dried calabash gourd ("tabúngaw" in Ilocano) with a woven interior made of "anahaw", nipa, bamboo, or rattan. Also often worn during rainy days was a cape called a "annangá", also called "lábig" or "kalapiáw", which was often made of nipa palm leaves.


title: Ilocano people

text: Men wore a collarless waist-length fitted jacket made of cloth that was sewn in front, similar to the Tinguians' koton. It had short, wide blue or black sleeves. The principalia had them in fine red "chininas crepe" from "India" or "silk".


title: Ilocano people

text: For trousers, Ilocanos wore a richly colored cloth, usually gold striped, rolled up at the waist, and passing between the legs such that they were decently covered until mid-thigh; from the thigh down, their legs and feet remained uncovered. Ilocanos called them "babaques", according to the author of "Lavor Evangelica" (Evangelical Labor); Morga corroborates the observation.


title: Ilocano people

text: In the 21st century, Ilocano women have followed suit when wearing traditional dress, gathering up the skirt in front, passing it between their legs and hitching it at the back of their waist, "thereby covering until their mid-thigh and leaving the rest down to their legs and feet uncovered."


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos' main accessories were "precious stones, gold jewelry", and "expensive trinkets". According to Morga, the Ilocano men wore many gold chains around their necks, “fashioned like spun gold and linked in the same style as ours”. Gold and ivory "kalombiga" bracelets were wrapped around their arms from hand to elbow, and some wore strings of carnelian, agate, and other blue and white stones.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos also wore "anklets" or "strings" made of the same stones, as well as many black-dyed strings. According to Morga, they used to walk around barefoot, but after the Spaniards arrived, they began wearing shoes. Many of the women were dressed in gold-embroidered velvet slippers. They wore stone and gold rings on their fingers. They wore a sash, which was a rich shawl draped over the shoulder and tied beneath the arm.


title: Ilocano people

text: The women wore a multicolored overskirt over a floor-length white underskirt that was usually as wide on top as it was on the bottom.


title: Ilocano people

text: The pleats were paced at one side after it was gathered at the waist. In Ilocos, where it is still used today, the pleats are called "“salupingping”."


title: Ilocano people

text: Ladies of the "principalia" wore crimson silk or other cloth woven with gold and decorated with thick fringes whenever they went out. Morga and Father Colin speak for Filipinos in general. During ceremonies, the principalia and others wore a black, floor-length cloak with long sleeves over their clothes; the old ladies also wore them. This style of clothing would eventually replace the Ilocano women's gleaming black shawl.


title: Ilocano people

text: Women wore gold and precious stone jewelry on their ears, wrists, fingers, and neck. The Ilocanos would prick themselves, then rub the area with permanent black pitch powder or smoke; they did not do it as commonly as the Visayans, who painted themselves as a matter of course.


title: Ilocano people

text: “In time the practice became more popular and dividing society into different classes brought with it some requirements; the Indio principalia showed off their bedaubed clothing while the comm man of the people was naked,” wrote Morga y Jimenez.


title: Ilocano people

text: Indeed, the Ilocanos must have been naked in the beginning with only a small loincloth of smoothened balete like the Igorots of Abra, and they most probably only started wearing clothes when the Asians brought over cloth from their own countries which they have used since then to exploit the wealth of this country.


title: Ilocano people

text: However, when the Spaniards arrived, the rich wore clothing that, according to all the chronicles, was luxurious and in good taste.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo explored the northern regions of the Philippines in 1571, where he traveled to the Ilocos region (among other places), colonizing the north, and establishing several Spanish municipalities, including Villa Fernandina (present-day Vigan) and Tagudin.


title: Ilocano people

text: In 1660, Andres Malong, a chief of San Carlos, Pangasinan or Binalatongan as it was called then, allied with the people of Zambales in an effort to remove the Spanish and subdue those who supported Spain. Malong was formerly employed by the Spanish to help colonize non-Christian towns and villages in Pangasinan, however, as Malong subjugated others, he realized he could also overcome the outnumbered Spanish.


title: Ilocano people

text: With his Zambales allies, Malong crowned himself the king of Pangasinan and sent out letters to all the chiefs of the Ilocos Region, Pampanga and Cagayan Valley and demanded that they too align and recognize Malong as their king and kill any Spaniards among them. If they did not, Malong warned that he would invade and punish them for not joining his cause.


title: Ilocano people

text: Unlike Pangasinan and the Zambales, The Ilocos at the time was a region that the Spanish invested its soldiers and missionaries in and routinely secured. Towns such as Vigan, Ilocos Sur and Tagudin, Ilocos Sur were quickly conquered by the Spanish "encomiendas", fortifications and Catholic churches quickly established to subjugate the Ilocano people into the Spanish Empire. The Spanish were swift in this process to stake their claim on the region's gold trade with the Igorots. They sought to prevent Chinese and Japanese pirates and different European powers such as the Dutch or English from taking these trade routes. Considering this relatively recent history with the Spanish and primarily under the influence of Catholic missionaries, many of the Ilocano chiefs rejected Andres Malong's offer.


title: Ilocano people

text: In response to their rejection, Malong sent a Zambales chief named Don Pedro Gumapos, who had recently conquered the Pampanga region with 6,000 men, to invade the Ilocos as well as Cagayan regions. Gumapos and his men were met with only 1,500 Spanish loyalist Ilocanos under the command of the "alcalde mayor" of the region and even missionaries. As such, the Zambales and Pangasinese army quickly defeated them and marched as far north as Vigan, Ilocos Sur where they sacked and burned the Spanish stronghold and nearby villages. With many of the Spanish missionaries and colonial authorities in Ilocos evacuated or in retreat, Malong then asked Gumapos to assist him in Pangasinan, where the Spanish were beginning to advance on him. As Gumapos and his troops traveled back down through Narvacan, Ilocos Sur, they continued to raid Ilocano towns and villages for supplies. Ultimately, the people of Narvacan responded with guerrilla tactics aided by their Tinguian allies. This retaliation by the Ilocano people was devastating and caused more fatalities on Gumapos' army than with the Spanish lead Ilocano forces.


title: Ilocano people

text: As the invading army headed south, they sacked and/or burned the coastal towns of Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur, San Esteban, Ilocos Sur, Santiago, Ilocos Sur and Candon, Ilocos Sur. When they finally approached Santa Cruz, Ilocos Sur, Gumapos encountered a Spanish led army who had just finished reconquering Pangasinan and captured Andres Malong. Despite learning of Malong's defeat, Gumapos led his army to battle. Gumapos and his army were defeated after two large battles. After being captured, Gumapos was sent back to Vigan, Ilocos Sur where he was executed by hanging. The Ilocos Region would not see another revolt against the Spanish until 1762.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Basi Revolt, also known as the Ambaristo Revolt, erupted on September 16, 1807 in the present-day town of Piddig, Ilocos Norte. Led by Pedro Mateo, a "cabeza de barangay" of Piddig, and Saralogo Ambaristo, an Ilocano and Tinguian, and composed of townspeople from Piddig, Badoc, Sarrat, Laoag, Sinait, Cabugao, Magsingal and other towns of Ilocos, they marched under their own flag of yellow and red horizontal bands and made their way southward towards the provincial capital of Vigan to protest against the abuses of the Spanish colonial government.


title: Ilocano people

text: According to historical accounts, in 1786, people's frustration grew over the "basi" (the local beverage of the Ilocos) wine monopoly imposed by the Spanish colonial government that prohibited the private manufacture of "basi", forcing Ilocanos to buy from government stores.


title: Ilocano people

text: Even before the arrival of the Spaniards, "basi" was an important part of the Ilocanos' society and culture. Drinking "basi" played such a great importance in Ilocano culture; from marriage to childbirth and to death, it was a part of their ritual, tradition, and daily life. "Basi" was a major industry in the Ilocos region at the time, therefore in addition to the grief of Ilocanos had also lost their livelihood, in other words, they had been robbed of their happiness as well as an essential part of their culture and heritage.


title: Ilocano people

text: Fueled by these abuses, people were prompted to start the uprising in Piddig town and later spread in the northern and southern towns of Ilocos province. On September 28, 1807, Ilocano forces on their way to the capital Vigan were assassinated by Spanish forces while crossing the Bantaoay River in San Ildefonso, Ilocos Sur, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Ilocano forces. Those who survived the battle were hanged and their heads pierced with wooden poles and flagged by the Spaniards as a warning to anyone who wanted to strike and fight against the Spaniards.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Basi Revolt lasted for 13 days. The series of unrest also led the colonial government to divide the province into the now Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur. Despite failing to attain their ultimate goal of liberation, the Basi Revolt succeeded in inspiring future movements for justice and freedom in northern Luzon.


title: Ilocano people

text: During 1945, the combined American and the Philippine Commonwealth troops including with the Ilocano and Pangasinan guerillas liberated the Ilocos Region from Japanese forces during the Second World War.


title: Ilocano people

text: Several modern presidents of the Republic of the Philippines hailed from the Region: Elpidio Quirino, Ferdinand Marcos. Marcos expanded the scope of the original Ilocos Region by transferring the province of Pangasinan from Region III into Region I in 1973, and imposed a migration policy for Ilokanos into Pangasinan; He also expanded Ilokano influence amongst the ethnic peoples of the Cordilleras by including Abra, Mountain Province, and Benguet in the Ilocos region in 1973, although these were later integrated into the Cordillera Administrative Region in 1987. A third "Ilocano" President, Fidel V. Ramos, hailed from Pangasinan.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos were also among the victims of human rights violations during the martial law era which began in September 1972, despite public perception that the region was supportive of Marcos' administration. In Ilocos Norte, various farmers from the towns of Vintar, Dumalneg, Solsona, Marcos and Piddig were documented to have been tortured, and eight farmers in Bangui and three indigenous community members in Vintar were "salvaged" in 1984.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos who were critical of Marcos' authoritarian rule included Roman Catholic Archbishop and Agoo, La Union native Antonio L. Mabutas, who spoke actively against the torture and killings of church workers. Another prominent opponent of the martial law regime was human rights advocate and Bombo Radyo Laoag program host David Bueno, who worked with the Free Legal Assistance Group in Ilocos Norte during the later part of the Marcos administration and the early part of the succeeding Aquino administration. Bueno was assassinated by motorcycle-riding men in fatigue uniforms on October 22, 1987 – part of a wave of assassinations which coincided with the 1986–87 coup d'etat which tried to unseat the democratic government set up after the 1986 People Power Revolution.


title: Ilocano people

text: Others critics included student activists student activists Romulo and Armando Palabay of San Fernando, La Union, who were tortured and killed in a Military camp in Pampanga; and Purificacion Pedro, a Catholic lay social worker who tried to help the indigenous peoples in the resistance against the Chico River Dam Project, was caught in the crossfire of a military operation, and was later murdered in the hospital by a soldier who claimed she was a rebel sympathizer.


title: Ilocano people

text: Bueno, Pedro, and the Palabay brothers would later be honored as martyrs of the fight against the dictatorship at the Philippines' Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial.


title: Ilocano people

text: The historic town of Vigan was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1999, and the local community effort to preserved it has since been recognized as "a model of best practices in World Heritage site management."


title: Ilocano people

text: In international ethnic studies, University of California, Davis professor Robyn Rodriguez founded the Bulosan Center for Filipino Studies, named after the Binalonan-born author Carlos Bulosan.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano entrepreneurs such as Niña Corpuz have revived the popularity of Inabel fabrics by incorporating it into high fashion, creating a new demand for the material.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos number 8,074,536 in the Philippines in 2010. A few Ilocanos living in the Cordilleras have some Cordillerano blood.


title: Ilocano people

text: "Ilocandia" or "Kailokuan" / "Kailukuan" is the term given to the traditional homeland of the Ilocano people, which constitutes present-day Ilocos Norte and the northern portions of Ilocos Sur, hence in early history and early Ilocano inhabitants of the region called their place as "Samtoy", from “"sao mi toy",” which literally means "our language here".


title: Ilocano people

text: The mounting population pressure due to the substantial population density during the mid-19th century caused the migration of the Ilocanos out of their traditional homeland. By 1903, more than 290,000 Ilocanos migrated to Central Luzon, Cagayan Valley, and Metro Manila. More than 180,000 moved to the provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija; there is a visible Ilocano population in Aurora and in Quezon Province when the 2 provinces were one and part of Southern Tagalog, the concentration of Ilocano population in the present Southern Tagalog and Calabarzon is now Quezon Province. Almost 50,000 moved to Cagayan Valley; half of them resided in Isabela. Around 47,000 lived in Zambales and more than 11,000 in Sultan Kudarat.


title: Ilocano people

text: Later migrations brought Ilocanos to the Cordilleras, Mindoro, Palawan, and Mindanao provinces of Sultan Kudarat, North Cotabato, and South Cotabato.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Ilocano diaspora continued in 1906 when Ilocanos started to migrate to Hawaii and California. They are called the "manongs" or "sakadas", the first generation of Filipino immigrants to the United States of America, primarily in California and Hawaii. In Ilocano, the term "manong" is loosely used to refer to an elderly gentleman. "Sakadas" "imported ones" "lower-paid workers recruited out of the area" and a term for "migrant workers" in and from the Philippines, doing manual agricultural labor. Within the Philippines, "sakadas" work in provinces other than their own. In the 20th century, Filipino men were imported by the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association to work in the sugarcane and pineapple fields to Hawaii as skilled laborers from 1906 to 1946 mainly from the Ilocos region of the Philippines to seek their fate, or "gasat" in Iloco, for a better life for themselves and their families.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association approved a plan to recruit labor from the Philippines in April 1906 and asked Albert F. Judd to represent them. The first Filipino farm laborers in Hawaii arrived in December 1906 from Candon, Ilocos Sur, aboard the SS Doric (1883).


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos composed the largest number of expatriates in the United States, though most are bilingual with Tagalog. There is a significant Ilocano community in Hawai'i, in which they make up more than 85% of the Filipino population there.


title: Ilocano people

text: Most Ilocanos speak the Ilocano language, which is part of the Northern Philippine subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages. They also speak Tagalog, and English as second languages.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano, like all Philippine languages, is an Austronesian language, it is related to Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Tetum, Chamorro, Fijian, Māori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Paiwan, and Malagasy. It is closely related to some of the other Austronesian languages of Northern Luzon, and has slight mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language and the eastern dialects of the Bontoc language.


title: Ilocano people

text: Austronesian is a very expansive language family believed to originate in Taiwan. Ilocano comprises its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran language subfamily. It is spoken as first language by seven million people.


title: Ilocano people

text: A lingua franca of the northern region (Northern Luzon) of the Philippines, it is spoken as a secondary language by more than two million people who are native speakers of Ibanag, Ivatan, Ibaloi, Itneg, Itawes, Pangasinan, Kankanaey, Kalinga, and other languages in Northern Luzon. Many Ilocanos speak those languages in North Luzon.


title: Ilocano people

text: Most Ilocanos are Roman Catholics, though some are members of the Aglipayan Church, which originated in Ilocos Norte.


title: Ilocano people

text: In Ilocano cosmology, there is the concept of the upstream "“surong”" and downstream "“puyupoyan”," among 3 other cosmological regions. "Surong" represented creation, birth, and life and "puyupoyan" represented the death and the afterlife. They would giv"e ata"ng, or food offerings, that were put on a raft and drifted downstream as an offering to the spirits.


title: Ilocano people

text: Throughout several ethnic groups the Milky Way was seen as something connected with water. For the Ilocano people, they called the Milky Way as “"Rimmuok dagiti Bitbituen”". They saw it as a river in the night sky.


title: Ilocano people

text: Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Ilocanos were animists who believed in spirits called "anito," who were either bad or good. The "anito" ruled over all aspects of the universe. For example, "litao" were the "anitos" of water; "kaibáan", also called "kanibáan", were "anitos" of the undergrowth in a forest; and "mangmangkik" were anitos of trees. The "mangmangkik" were often feared for causing sickness when a fellow tree was cut down. To appease the "mangmangkik" before cutting down a tree, the following chant was made:


title: Ilocano people

text: This chant calls on the "mangmangkik" and beseeches them not to curse the people cutting the tree down. Similar chants and phrases are uttered to appease the "kaibáan" when hot cooking water is thrown out into the yard for disposal. The "kaibáan" can be befriended, giving luck and blessing to the person. Likewise, if a "kaibáan" is angered, illness and in some cases death would plague the person's health and family.


title: Ilocano people

text: Other ways anitos were respected and appeased were through offerings and sacrifices to idols on platforms called a "simbaan" or designated caves where the "anito" frequents. These offerings, called "atang", consisted of various foodstuffs and sweets, as well as cigars and "paan".


title: Ilocano people

text: "Atang" is also offered to the deceased during prayers for the dead or on Pista ti Natay, Undas or All Soul's Day. Plates of food prepared for an "atang" consist of delicacies such as suman, dudul, linapet, baduya, patopat or balisongsong (snacks made from sticky rice or rice flour); "busi" (caramelized popped rice); linga (black sesame seeds); sticky rice with coconut milk; and bagas (uncooked rice) shaped in a crucifix and topped with fresh eggs. The food may also be accompanied by bua ken gawed (betel nut and piper leaf), apog (lime powder), basi (fermented sugarcane wine), and tabako (tobacco). These offerings are placed in front of a photo of the departed and/or image of Jesus, Mary, or the Holy Family during wakes and anniversaries in homes or in front of the graves, after which the family and/or mourners of the deceased may also offer prayers.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos generally believe that the soul has not yet left the world of the living during the wake and still needs sustenance, hence the offering of food as they transcend onto the afterlife. It is also believed that the soul returns to the land of the living after the nine-day wake and must be welcomed back. In instances when the deceased appears in a dream or when a family member suddenly experiences unexplainable sickness, atang is performed as an appeasement ritual for the deceased who may have been offended or disturbed. It is also interpreted as asking the deceased to intercede for their loved ones, and thanking them for warning against bad omen through dreams. The significance of the atang for the Ilocanos goes beyond the remembrance and honoring of the dead loved ones. It connotes their view of life after death and the relation of the living to the departed.


title: Ilocano people

text: According to one Ilocano mythological tale, the sky was created by a giant named "Aran", who hung the sun, moon, and stars in it. Aran's companion, the giant "“Angalo”," could see the land under their light, which he then molded into mountains and valleys. The giants discovered their world to be windswept and desolate. Angalo spat on the ground, and the first man and woman emerged from his spit. He put them in a "bamboo tube" and tossed it into the sea. The bamboo washed up on the shores of the Ilocos region, and the Ilocano people descended from this couple.


title: Ilocano people

text: Like other Filipinos, Ilocanos recognize an array of supernatural beings, such as the “"katawtaw-an”" (the spirits of infants, who died unbaptized who in turn victimize newborns).


title: Ilocano people

text: A mantra in Ilocano religion is "Water is life. It is death." In many ethnic groups in the Philippines, water represents a cosmological cycle of both. Water plays a vital role in Ilocano folklore, from the Ilocano god of the rivers and sea, Apo Litao, to cosmological beliefs involving the water and sea.


title: Ilocano people

text: Apo Litao is the Ilocano god of the sea and rivers. It is said that Apo Litao is a small man who lives in the branches of the bamboo trees along the river banks. In one tale, there was once a girl who lived with her mother near the banks of the river. One day her sewing needle fell into the river and her mother warned her not to get it. However, she went anyway and once she got the needle, the waves swept her away. She was taken in by Apo Litao who gave her the gift of enchantment and she became his wife. She became a mermaid, or sirena and the queen of the waters. She is described to have long, thick hair and sharp nails. To those who speak ill of her, she would kill them. But to those who gained her favor, she used her gifts to entertain and give them gifts.


title: Ilocano people

text: Water, especially the rivers, is seen by the majority of ethnic groups in the Philippines as pathways to the afterlife. There is a belief that the soul travels on a boat that is ferried by a deity or spirit. The most famous depiction of this concept is through the "manunggul jar", that was found in a cave in Palawan. For the Ilocanos, this concept is also found. When the deceased was buried, they would give offerings and money in the coffin so that they would be able to pay the toll to the "agrakrakit", the spirit who ferries the dead souls, so that they would be able to cross the waters to the afterlife safely.


title: Ilocano people

text: Crocodiles were once abundant in the Philippines. They were deeply respected and historical records state that they were seen as divine creatures, even representing the ancestors and were called "nono". They would give offerings ("panagyatang") to them as signs of respect. Fishermen would throw the first catch to the crocodile.


title: Ilocano people

text: Another practice that survived well into the 19th century was "sibróng", associated with human sacrifice and headhunting, "sibróng" was a prevalent practice in the Ilocos region. The person who carried out the executions was called the "mannibróng"; this term now means 'thief' in modern Ilocano. Before the death of a community leader or a member of the "principalía", the dying person would lift his hand raised with a certain number of fingers. The number of fingers raised would be the indicator of how many people would have to be killed in order to accompany the dying to the afterlife. In other cases, the people chosen by the "mannibróng" would have their fingers cut off instead of being executed. "Síbrong" can also refer to the practice of placing a human head in the foundations of the building to protect the structure from damage.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocandia boasts a vibrant culture that bears some resemblance back to colonial times. The colonial city of Vigan, sometimes known as the "Intramuros of the North", still has its original Castillan colonial architecture. Old Spanish-style dwellings (often known as "bahay na bato" or Vigan houses) line the small and cobblestoned streets. Enormous, high-pitched roofs, large and rectangular living rooms with life-sized mirrors, ancient, wooden furniture, and elegant Vienna sets characterize these majestic mansions.


title: Ilocano people

text: The churches of the Ilocos region are a lasting emblem of the Ilocano's triumphant transformation from practitioners of local religions to believers in theistic Christianity. The Vigan Cathedral in Ilocos Sur, with its gigantic hand-carved pictures of the route crucis; the Magsingal Cathedral (also in Ilocos Sur), with its centuries-old wooden altar; the St. Augustine Church in Paoay (Ilocos Norte), with its massive buttresses; and Santa Maria Church (Ilocos Sur) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that is located on a hill with an 80-step stone stairway.


title: Ilocano people

text: Dances were mainly a reflection of the gracious ways of the Ilocano. The "dinaklisan" (a dance common to fisher folks), the "agabel" (a weaver's dance) and the "agdamdamili" (a pot dance) illustrate in simple steps the ways of the industrious Ilocano. Other popular dances among the Ilocanos are Tadek, Habanera, Comintan, Saimita, Kinotan, Kinnalogong.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos boast of a diet heavy in boiled or steamed vegetables and freshwater fish and are particularly fond of dishes flavored with "bugguong" (fermented fish paste). Most people are unaware that Ilocano cuisine arose out of necessity. Due to the severe conditions of the region, Ilocanos had no choice but to make do with what they had, including the bitterest bitter gourd. Ilocandia is known for its strong culinary traditions all around the country. It's an island-strewn, salt-loving, porcine-dominated regional cuisine known for its delectable dishes.


title: Ilocano people

text: Prominent ingredients include ""sukang iloko"" (sugarcane vinegar), "bugguong", "bawang" (garlic), and "karne ("meats) with a crispy finish.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocanos often season boiled vegetables with "bugguong monamon" (fermented anchovy paste) to produce "pinakbet", "dinengdeng", "inabraw", "buridibod" and many others local dishes. Local specialties include the "abuos", soft white larvae of ants, and "“jumping salad”" or tiny live shrimp "ipon" with calamansi juice.


title: Ilocano people

text: "Dinakdakan," made from "masskara" or grilled pig's head parts and "offal", blended with "lasoná" or "sibuyas" and pig's brain; "Insarabasab," made out of chopped flame grilled pork mixed with chillies, "lasoná" or sibuyas (onion), "sukang Iloko" (vinegar) and other spices; "Ilocos Empanada," an orange-tinged glutinous rice flour with atsuete fried dish stuffed with vegetables or green papaya, skinless longganisa, and egg; "bagnet", a pork belly boiled and deep fried until it is crispy; "chicharon"; ""poqui poqui"," made of eggplant, tomatoes, and eggs; "igado", strips of meat, liver, and other internal organs such as kidney, heart, and intestines, this dish reflects the influence of the Spanish cuisine, from higado; "pinapaitan" (composed of cow or goat innards and bile); "sinanglaw" (beef innards, tendon, face and bile); and "dinardaraan" (dry pork blood stew) are another popular dish among Ilocanos and Filipinos.


title: Ilocano people

text: Another food that is popular for many Ilocanos is "marunggay". It is a condiment for meat soup called "La'uya" (e.g. tinola) or it can be mixed with the famous "dinengdeng", a soup made of mainly vegetables with prawn "aramang or armang." Most households grow this tree in their backyards and usually offered free for all the neighbors who may want them. Many Ilocanos from Hawaii are fond of eating them. The Ilocano people are also known to be the first ethnic group in the Philippines to eat the larvae and eggs of "abuos" (weaver ants). The practice has since been infused as well with other ethnic groups in northern Luzon.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano animistic past offers a rich background in folklore, mythology and superstition (see Religion in the Philippines). There are many stories of good and malevolent spirits and beings. Its creation mythology centers on the giants Aran and her husband Angalo, and Namarsua ("the creator").


title: Ilocano people

text: Pre-colonial Iloko literature were composed of folk songs, riddles, proverbs, lamentations called "dung-aw", and epic stories in written or oral form. Ancient Ilokano poets expressed themselves in folk and war songs as well as the "dallot", an improvised, versified and at times impromptu long poem delivered in a sing-song manner.


title: Ilocano people

text: During the Spanish regime, Iloko poetry was generally patterned after Spanish models. In fact, the earliest known written Iloko poems were the romances translated from Spanish by Francisco Lopez, an Augustinian friar who, in 1621, published his own Iloko translation of the "Doctrina Cristiana" by Cardinal Bellarmine, the first book to be printed in Iloko.


title: Ilocano people

text: A study of Iloko poetry could be found in the "Gramatica Ilokana", published in 1895, based on Lopez's "Arte de la Lengua Iloca", earlier published in 1627, but was probably written before 1606.


title: Ilocano people

text: Some Iloko writers credit Pedro Bucaneg, who collaborated with Lopez in the translation of the Doctrina into Iloko, for having been the first known Ilokano poet, and as the "Father of Ilokano Poetry and Literature." Bucaneg, blind since childhood, authored the popular epic known as "Biag ni Lam-ang" ("Life of Lam-ang") written in the 17th century. One of the most well-known Ilocano literary works written in Iloco is the "Biag ni Lam-Ang" ("The Life of Lam-Ang"), an epic poem about the fantastic life and escapades of an Ilocano hero named Lam-ang. "Biag ni Lam-ang" is a testament in the Ilocano literature, It reflects values important to traditional Ilocano society; it is a hero's journey steeped in courage, loyalty, pragmatism, honor, and ancestral and familial bonds.


title: Ilocano people

text: The earliest written form of the epic poem was given by Fr. Gerardo Blanco to Isabelo de los Reyes, who published it in "El Ilocano" from December 1889 to February 1890, with Spanish translation in prose, and also reprinted it in his El Folklore Filipino, under the title "Vida de Lam-ang."


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano literature developed in many ways. During the 18th century, the missionaries used religious as well as secular literatures among other means to advance their mission of converting the Ilokanos to Christianity. The century also saw the publication of religious works like Fr. Jacinto Rivera's "Sumario de las Indulgencias de la Santa Correa" in 1719 and the "Pasion", a translation of St. Vincent Ferrer's sermons into Iloko by Fr. Antonio Mejia in 1845.


title: Ilocano people

text: The 19th century likewise saw the appearance of Leona Florentino, who has since been considered by some as the "National Poetess of the Philippines". Her poems which have survived, however, appear to the modern reader as being too syrupy for comfort, too sentimental to the point of mawkishness, and utterly devoid of form.


title: Ilocano people

text: The Ilocano writer Elizabeth Medina is probably the most remarkable living Ilocano writer in the Spanish language.


title: Ilocano people

text: Numerous Ilocano writers have won national and international acclaim – among the most notable being early 20th century author and World War II guerilla hero Manuel Arguilla, whose prose was known for capturing the unique accent of Ilocano culture and the textures of the Ilocos region; Binalonan-born early 20th century writer and poet Carlos Bulosan, whose novel "America is in the Heart" has become regarded as "[t]he premier text of the Filipino-American experience"; and mid-19th century writer and activist Isabelo de los Reyes of Vigan who helped publish the earliest currently-extant text of "Biag ni Lam-Ang".


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano culture revolves around life rituals, festivities, and oral history. These were celebrated in songs ("kankanta"), dances ("salsala"), poems ("dandaniw"), riddles ("burburtia"), proverbs ("pagsasao"), literary verbal jousts called "bucanegan" (named after the writer Pedro Bucaneg, and is the equivalent of the Balagtasan of the Tagalogs), and epic stories.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano folk songs are all about the "natural world, home" and "family", "friendship" or "love", "worksongs", and "nonsense songs". Other songs address issues such as "love, marriage, death, kinship, religion," and "politics". Regarding the virtues reflected in the folksongs, the Ilocanos' characteristics are reflected in these folksongs. The Ilocano character and culture are simple in life, heart, and taste, humble, religious, industrious, and thrifty.


title: Ilocano people

text: "Pamulinawen" is a popular old Ilocano folk song possibly from the pre-Spanish era, It is about a girl with a "hardened heart", who does not need her lover's pleading, It is about courtship and love; "Manang Biday" This song implies the courtship of a young maiden named Manang Biday. "Serenading a love interest" is a custom of the Filipinos; "O Naraniag A Bulan" literally means "“O Bright / Shiny Moon”" is a paradox because the girl who is singing is sad; her love story is very sad. If she doesn't get some enlightenment soon, she is now contemplating suicide ("samsam-itek ni Patay") and yet the music has a fast beat and it is uplifting; "Ti Ayat Ti Maysa A Ubing" Is an Ilocano folk song which means “"love of a child”" which depicts the love of a child is pure, unbiased, and untapped; "Bannatiran" refers to the "bannatiran bird" that is supposedly native to the Ilocos region on the island of Luzon in the Philippines, this song was composed by a Don Claro for a Señorita Valentina (late of Laoag, Ilocos Norte), basically referring to her as a “bannatiran” because of her highly sought after kayumanggi (brown) complexion; "Dungdungwen Kanto" "(Lullaby of Love)" an Ilocano love / wedding song and it's also sung as a lullaby; "Osi-osi" this folksong portrays the traditional ways of courtship; "Ayat ti Ina" (Love of a Mother)" is a song that expresses how a mother loves and takes care of her child; "Napateg A Bin-I" (Cherished Seed)" this song basically uses metaphors comparing a woman to a seed; "Duayya ni Ayat" (Love’s Lullaby)" is a song that expresses a man’s love for his lady. The man asks the lady to be careful in changing her mind and choosing another man; "Siasin ti Agayat" "Kenka" "(Who is in love with you?)" this song expresses an insistent love; "No Duaduaem Pay" (If You Still Doing)" this is an folksong that gives the idea that the lover feels that his loved one doubts him. The man asks the lady to understand him and convince her to believe that his love is true; "Teng-Nga Ti Rabii" (Midnight)" is a song that tells a lover who sees the image of his loved one in the middle of the night and is awakened by her voice; "Dinak Kad Dildilawen" (Do Not Criticize Me)" is an Ilocano song that expresses patriotism. This song conveys service to love of country; "Kasasaad ti Kinabalasang" "(The life of a Maiden)" is an advice for the young maidens to consider carefully their plans of getting married.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano folk dances reflect the "humble", "religious", "lively", "hardworking", and "thrifty" way of life and "history" of the Ilocano people. Ilocano dances are form part of Ilocano expression and most importantly, values and consciousness. Ilocano folk dances are fuselage of infinite cultural elements that constitute the vast and dynamic social, "political, economic, artistic," and "religious" "landscapes" of Ilocandia.


title: Ilocano people

text: The “"kumintang”" step is one example. There are kumintang steps in other parts of the Philippines, however Ilocano kumintang is done "inwards" and with a "half-closed hand", but not too closed like a hand feast. Through the kumintang, we may demonstrate and internalize the fact that Ilocanos save for the future.


title: Ilocano people

text: The “"korriti”" step demonstrates that Ilocanos are lively, hardworking, and fast on their feet. That's why Ilocanos work on vast farmlands, and also search for place where can earn living.


title: Ilocano people

text: The “"sagamantika”" step is a dance with soft gestures. It is a forward and backward movement. It portrays Ilocano saying that even if you leave, you will always return to your origin since this is where you were born, this is where you experienced love, and this is where you lived for a long time.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocano folk dances are composed of "courtship dances, occupational dances, ritual dances, celebration dances" and others with heavily influences by Cordilleran (Igorot), Spanish, American etc. dance steps.


title: Ilocano people

text: "Ilocana A Nasudi" "(Chaste Ilocano / The Lovely Ilocan"a) — it is a dance that portrays a chaste and virtuous Ilocana. This dance may be performed by four pairs and depiction of the beauty, modesty, and grace of the Ilokana. Originally, this dance was accompanied by a kutibeng, a five-stringed instrument, and as was practiced by the settlers of Barrio Naglayaan, Dingras"; "Binigan-Bigat" (Every Morning) — is a courtship dance that narrates the story of a boy who is in love with a girl from whom he asks pity; "Dinaklisan" — a dance common to fisher folks originated from Currimao, a town where fishing is the chief industry. It is also an Ilocano term with the variety, "agdaklis", meaning to fish with the use of a net. It has been a testament to hard work, resilience, and endurance that is espoused by the town’s fisherfolks; "Sileledda-Ang" "(Grief-stricken or Laden with Sorrow)" — a courtship dance showing the lover’s fondness for each other; "Sabunganay" (Banana Blossom)" — it symbolizes a young lady who is still too young to be courted; "Binatbatan" — is an occupational dance. The dance depicts the beating of cotton pods to separate the seeds from the fibers with the use of two sticks called “"batbat"”. To process the raw material used in weaving, ginne cotton was beaten with a pair of sticks sounding a clear and distinct rhythm on a carabao hide to separate fiber strands. The people of Paoay are known for their fabled skill in weaving a heritage cloth called abel; "Pandanggo Laoagueña" — it is a courtship dance performed by either young or old Ilocanos; "Agdamdamili" — a pot dance, illustrate in simple steps the ways of the industrious Ilocano; "Vintareña" — it is a dance performed by one or two couples in social gatherings like baptismal, wedding, birthday, or thanksgiving parties; "Kutsara Pasuquiña" — it is a dance during birthday parties and festivities; "Surtido Norte" "(Assorted Dances from the North)" — this dance is a combination of different Ilocano dance steps manifesting thrift as a trait of the people; "Rabong" "(Bamboo Shoot)" — it is a dance glorifying the bamboo shoot as a delicacy of the Ilocanos. In Rabong, the participants sing the lyrics themselves; "Kinoton" was derived from the Ilocano word “"koton”" which means ants. This comic dance from the Ilocos region depicts the movements of a person bitten by ants. In social gatherings where close friends and intimates are in attendance, this dance is performed to make people merry. Usually, a male requested to perform this dance.


title: Ilocano people

text: The indigenous writing system and script of the Ilocano people is known as "kur-itan". There have been proposals to revive the "kur-itan" script by teaching it in Ilocano-majority public and private schools in Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur.


title: Ilocano people

text: Pre-colonial Ilocano people of all classes wrote in a syllabic system known as "baybayin" prior to European arrival. They used an abugida, or an alphasyllabary. It was similar to the Tagalog and Pangasinan scripts, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. The Ilocano version, however, was the first to designate coda consonants with a diacritic mark – a cross or virama – shown in the "Doctrina Cristiana" of 1621, one of the earliest surviving Ilocano publications. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants. The reader, on the other hand, had to guess whether a consonant not succeeding a vowel is read or not, for it is not written. Vowel kudlits interchange between "e" or i, and o or u. Due to this, vowels e and i are interchangeable and letters o and u, for instance "tendera" and "tindira" ("shop-assistant").


title: Ilocano people

text: The traditional Ilocano dress made from "inabel" reflects the admirable qualities of the Ilocana – her aura of "quiet beauty, appealing" "shyness", and "dignity" in her manners. She selected colors expressing her "modesty" and "simplicity". Her typical dress came in a two-piece ensemble – "blouse and skirt". The blouse called “"kimona”" is either plain white or pastel, usually with a cowl neckline. Her full-length skirt called “"pandilíng”" is "cone-shaped" with a drawstring around the waist. This is made from hand loom-woven textiles which she herself has meticulously woven and sewn by hand.


title: Ilocano people

text: The designs of the weave are inspired by things in nature such as diamonds, milkyway, shells and stripes or checkered. The dress is worn over a full slip called kamison. The Sunday dress is more elaborately designed. A colorful wrap-around called tapis is in colors which compliment the pandilíng. The "tsinelas" are everyday footwear made of leather, while the formal footwear called “"kutso”" are made of beaded felt and leather which are worn on Sundays and fiestas.


title: Ilocano people

text: The traditional Ilocano headgear or hat “"kattukong”" or “"tabúngaw”" are made from a hollowed and dried “"calabash gourd"” or tabúngaw in Ilocano, "Upo" in Tagalog also known as bottle gourd or white pumpkin which are part of the Cucurbitaceae family of plants, with a woven interior made of "anahaw", “"nipa”, “bamboo”" or “"rattan”". Kattukong is weatherproof and worn as protection against the sun and rain by "mannalon" (farmers) and "mangngalap" (fishermen).


title: Ilocano people

text: This gourd casque is a master's creation that exhibits finest workmanship of "National Living Treasure" or Manlilikha ng Bayan "Teofilo Garcia" of San Quintin, Abra who was awarded with the prestigious title. National Living Treasure awardee Teofilo Garcia is the last of the gourd hat makers, involved from the planting of the seeds to the varnishing of the hat. He intends to pass on the knowledge and skills to preserve the practice.


title: Ilocano people

text: "“Kukudisi”" is a uniquely Ilocano game. "An an-anak" (stick) is placed on a baseline scratched into the ground. One player launches the stick into the air, while the other tries to catch it before it hits the ground. If the latter is unable to do so, a second, longer stick (the "in-ina") is placed across the baseline, and the player attempts to hit it with the an-anak. The next two phases of the game involve competing to see who can hit the an-anak (which has been thrown in the air and stuck into the baseline) the farthest with the in-ina.


title: Ilocano people

text: The "“inabel”" is one of the many prides of the Philippines' Ilocos region. “"Abel"” is the Ilocano word for "weave", and “"inabel”" refers to any type of woven fabric. However, in the world of weaving, inabel is specifically used to refer to fabrics that are distinctly Ilocano in origin. Cotton is used to make inabel fabric, which can be plain or patterned. The softness, beautiful designs, and strength of abel cloth are well known and much loved.


title: Ilocano people

text: Ilocos weavers weave on "hardwood pedal" "looms" with a variety of design techniques. The dizzying "“binakul pattern”" is meant to ward off and distract evil spirits, protecting the wearer. The multi-heddle design technique, the "“pinilian”" or brocade weave, the "“suk-suk”" or discontinuous supplementary weft technique, and the "“ikat”" tie-dye technique are some other patterns. Each province has its own design style. The process of creating inabel, like other forms of handweaving in the country, is intricate and labor-intensive. "Cat's paws, fans, stars," and "windows" are popular patterns.


title: Ilocano people

text: The traditional process of weaving abel cloth begins with preparing the "“kapas”" or cotton, from picking cotton balls, removing seeds, pounding or beating, twisting using a spindle, and winding the cotton yarn into the skeiner. The skeined yarn is then brushed to make it glossy and durable before it is wound to a bamboo spool. Once the yarn is ready, it’s time to prepare the loom.


title: Ilocano people

text: The weaver winds the spool yarn into the warping reel. The warp yarn is then wound into the warp beam rod. Next comes heddling, in which the warp yarn is inserted through the eye of the heddle using a weaving hook. After that, the weaver inserts the warp yarn through the spaces of the reed and “dresses” the loom by tying the heddles behind the beater. Only then can agabel, or weaving, commence.


title: Ilocano people

text: Plain weaves are the most commonly produced inabel, and these are used for everything from hand towels and placemats to blankets and dress material. In Ilocos, it is not uncommon for inabel to be used as material for everyday household items such as "curtains, tablecloths, bath towels, table runners, bed linen, bags," and even "mosquito nets."


title: Ilocano people

text: Although the skill is now rare due to a dearth in both practitioners and raw materials, "inabel" textile products are in high demand in the fashion and interior design industries due to their softness, durability, suitability in tropical climates, and for its austere design patterns.


title: Ilocano people

text: In Pinili, Ilocos Norte, centuries of history and tradition are best embodied in the hands of 97-year-old Magdalena Gamayo. Magdalena Gamayo, born in 1924, is a master weaver of the inabel cloth, a historical cotton fabric bartered for gold in the Galleon Trade and mentioned in the classic Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang. She has been a mag-aabel for over 80 years, having learned the craft at the age of 15 by watching her aunts work during the "Second World War."


title: Ilocano people

text: Magdalena has since honored her craft on her own, teaching herself traditional inabel patterns like “"binakol”" (whirlwinds, her specialty), "“inuritan”" (geometric patterns), “"sinan-sabong”" (flowers), and “"kusikos”" (spiral forms). She has also taught herself to recreate patterns even when she does not have a sample to refer to. Her unrivaled command of inabel weaving was recognized in 2012 when she received the GAMABA, or "National Living Treasures Award". She is one of only 16 awardees to date.


title: Ilocano people

text: A prominent traditional craft of the Ilocano people, particularly in the area of Vigan, is the creation of unglazed earthenware jars locally called “"burnáy”". The tradition dates back to before the arrival of European colonizers, when the peoples of northwestern Luzon traded extensively with merchants from China, and since then, become a staple in traditional Filipino kitchens, where they are used to store basic goods such tea drinking, storage for "“danum”" (water), "“bagas”" (rice grains) and as container for "“asin”" (salt), brown "“asukar”" sugar, "“basi”" (local wine) a "“bugguong”" (fermented fish). It is even said basi and bugguong taste much better when stored inside burnáys.


title: Talking Heads: 77

text: Talking Heads: 77 is the debut studio album by American rock band Talking Heads. It was recorded in April 1977 at New York's Sundragon Studios and released on September 16 of that year by Sire Records. The single "Psycho Killer" reached number 92 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Talking Heads: 77

text: From the group's earliest days as a trio in 1975, Talking Heads were approached by several record labels for a potential album deal. The first person to approach the band was Mark Spector for Columbia Records, who saw Talking Heads perform at CBGB and invited them to record a demo album. Next would come Mathew Kaufman for Beserkley Records. Kaufman brought the trio to K&K Studios in Great Neck, Long Island, to record a three-song, 16-track demo tape containing "Artists Only", "Psycho Killer" and "First Week, Last Week". Kaufman was pleased with the results, but the band felt that they would need to improve drastically before re-entering a recording studio. The group also sent the Columbia demo to Arista Records, but when drummer Chris Frantz called Bob Feilden about it a few weeks later, he claimed the tape was lost.


title: Talking Heads: 77

text: In November 1975, Seymour Stein, a representative of Sire Records, had heard Talking Heads open for the Ramones. He liked the song "Love → Building on Fire", and the next day, offered a record deal, but the group was still unsure about their studio abilities, and wanted a second guitarist as well as a keyboard player to help improve their sound. They agreed to let him know when they felt more confident.


title: Talking Heads: 77

text: A month later, Lou Reed, who had seen a few Talking Heads shows at CBGB, invited the trio to his New York apartment, where he began to critique the group's act, telling them to slow down "Tentative Decisions", which had originally been fast and bass-heavy. Reed also suggested to David Byrne that he never wear short sleeves on stage, in order to hide his hairy arms. Over breakfast at a local restaurant, Reed expressed a desire to produce the group's first album and wanted to introduce them to his manager, Jonny Podell. That same day Podell called the trio to meet at his office, where he immediately offered them a recording contract.


title: Talking Heads: 77

text: To assist with the contracting, the group sought out assistance from lawyer Peter Parcher, a friend of Frantz's father. The next day, the trio visited Parcher's office, where Parcher asked his partner Alan Shulman to look over the contract. Shulman told the group not to sign the deal, or else Reed and Podell would own full rights to the album and collect all profit. Talking Heads declined the deal, but maintained a respectful relationship with Reed.