title: Postage stamp

text: Summoned to give evidence before the Commission for Post Office Enquiry on 13 February 1837, Hill read from the letter he wrote to the Chancellor that included a statement saying that the notation of paid postage could be created... by using a bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp, and covered at the back with a glutinous wash..." This would eventually become the first unambiguous description of a modern adhesive postage stamp (though the term "postage stamp" originated at later date). Shortly afterward, Hill's revision of the booklet, dated 22 February 1837, containing some 28,000 words, incorporating the supplement given to the Chancellor and statements he made to the commission, was published and made available to the general public. Hansard records that on 15 December 1837, Benjamin Hawes asked the Chancellor of the Exchequer "whether it was the intention of the Government to give effect to the recommendation of the Commissioners of the Post-office, contained in their ninth report relating to the reduction of the rates of postage, and the issuing of penny stamps?"


title: Postage stamp

text: Hill's ideas for postage stamps and charging paid-postage based on weight soon took hold, and were adopted in many countries throughout the world. With the new policy of charging by weight, using envelopes for mailing documents became the norm. Hill's brother Edwin invented a prototype envelope-making machine that folded paper into envelopes quickly enough to match the pace of the growing demand for postage stamps.


title: Postage stamp

text: Rowland Hill and the reforms he introduced to the United Kingdom postal system appear on several of its commemorative stamps.


title: Postage stamp

text: In the 1881 book "The Penny Postage Scheme of 1837", Scotsman Patrick Chalmers claimed that his father, James Chalmers, published an essay in August 1834 describing and advocating a postage stamp, but submitted no evidence of the essay's existence. Nevertheless, until he died in 1891, Patrick Chalmers campaigned to have his father recognized as the inventor of the postage stamp.


title: Postage stamp

text: The first independent evidence for Chalmers' claim is an essay, dated 8 February 1838 and received by the Post Office on 17 February 1838, in which he proposed adhesive postage stamps to the General Post Office. In this approximately 800-word document concerning methods of indicating that postage had been paid on mail he states:


title: Postage stamp

text: Since Chalmers used the same postage denominations that Hill had proposed in February 1837, it is clear that he was aware of Hill's proposals, but whether he obtained a copy of Hill's booklet or simply read about it in one or both of the two detailed accounts (25 March 1837 and 20 December 1837) published in "The Times" is unknown. Neither article mentioned "a bit of paper just large enough to bear the stamp", so Chalmers could not have known that Hill had made such a proposal. This suggests that either Chalmers had previously read Hill's booklet and was merely elaborating Hill's idea, or he had independently developed the idea of the modern postage stamp.


title: Postage stamp

text: James Chalmers organized petitions "for a low and uniform rate of postage". The first such petition was presented in the House of Commons on 4 December 1837 (from Montrose). Further petitions organised by him were presented on 1 May 1838 (from Dunbar and Cupar), 14 May 1838 (from the county of Forfar), and 12 June 1839. At this same time, other groups organised petitions and presented them to Parliament. All petitions for consumer-oriented, low-cost, volume-based postal rates followed publication of Hill's proposals.


title: Postage stamp

text: Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s. Before then, ink and hand-stamps (hence the word 'stamp'), usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840. The invention of the stamp was part of an attempt to improve the postal system in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which, in the early 19th century, was in disarray and rife with corruption. There are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp.


title: Postage stamp

text: Before the introduction of postage stamps, mail in the United Kingdom was paid for by the recipient, a system that was associated with an irresolvable problem: the costs of delivering mail were not recoverable by the postal service when recipients were unable or unwilling to pay for delivered items, and senders had no incentive to restrict the number, size, or weight of items sent, whether or not they would ultimately be paid for. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, with the additional benefit of room for an element of beauty to be introduced. Concurrently with the first stamps, the United Kingdom offered wrappers for mail. Later related inventions include postal stationery such as prepaid-postage envelopes, post cards, lettercards, aerogrammes, postage meters, and, more recently, specialty boxes and envelopes provided free to the customer by the United States Postal Service for priority or express mailing.


title: Postage stamp

text: The postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries. Postage stamps during this era were the most popular way of paying for mail; however, by the end of the 20th century were rapidly being eclipsed by the use of metered postage and bulk mailing by businesses.


title: Postage stamp

text: As postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of postage stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of historical study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps and their mailing systems have always been involved with the history of nations.


title: Postage stamp

text: Although a number of people laid claim to the concept of the postage stamp, it is well documented that stamps were first introduced in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 May 1840 as a part of postal reforms promoted by Sir Rowland Hill. With its introduction, the postage fee was paid by the sender and not the recipient, though it was still possible to send mail without prepaying. From when the first postage stamps were used, postmarks were applied to prevent the stamps being used again.


title: Postage stamp

text: The first stamp, the "Penny black", became available for purchase 1 May 1840, to be valid as of 6 May 1840. Two days later, 8 May 1840, the Two penny blue was introduced. The Penny black was sufficient for a letter less than half an ounce to be sent anywhere within the United Kingdom. Both stamps included an engraving of the young Queen Victoria, without perforations, as the first stamps were separated from their sheets by cutting them with scissors.


title: Postage stamp

text: The first stamps did not need to show the issuing country, so no country name was included on them. The United Kingdom remains the only country to omit its name on postage stamps, using the reigning monarch's head as country identification. Following the introduction of the postage stamp in the United Kingdom, prepaid postage considerably increased the number of letters mailed. Before 1839, the number of letters sent in the United Kingdom was typically 76 million. By 1850, this increased five-fold to 350 million, continuing to grow rapidly until the end of the 20th century when newer methods of indicating the payment of postage reduced the use of stamps.


title: Postage stamp

text: Other countries soon followed the United Kingdom with their own stamps. The Canton of Zürich in Switzerland issued the Zurich 4 and 6 rappen on 1 March 1843. Although the Penny black could be used to send a letter less than half an ounce anywhere within the United Kingdom, the Swiss did not initially adopt that system, instead continuing to calculate mail rates based on distance to be delivered. Brazil issued the Bull's Eye stamp on 1 August 1843. Using the same printer used for the Penny black, Brazil opted for an abstract design instead of the portrait of Emperor Pedro II, so his image would not be disfigured by a postmark.


title: Postage stamp

text: In 1845, some postmasters in the United States issued their own stamps, but it was not until 1847 that the first official United States stamps were issued: 5 and 10 cent issues depicting Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. A few other countries issued stamps in the late 1840s. The famous Mauritius "Post Office" stamps were issued by Mauritius in September 1847. Many others, such as India, started their use in the 1850s, and by the 1860s most countries issued stamps.


title: Postage stamp

text: Perforation of postage stamps began in January 1854. The first officially perforated stamps were issued in February 1854. Stamps from Henry Archer's perforation trials were issued in the last few months of 1850; during the 1851 parliamentary session at the House of Commons of the United Kingdom; and finally in 1853/54 after the United Kingdom government paid Archer £4,000 for his machine and the patent.


title: Postage stamp

text: The Universal Postal Union, established in 1874, prescribed that nations shall only issue postage stamps according to the quantity of real use, and no living persons shall be taken as subjects. The latter rule lost its significance after World War I.


title: Postage stamp

text: After World War II, it became customary in some countries, especially small Arab nations, to issue postage stamps "en masse" as it was realized how profitable that was.


title: Postage stamp

text: During the 21st century, the amount of mail — and the use of postage stamps, accordingly — has reduced in the world because of electronic mail and other technological innovations. Iceland has already announced that it will not issue new stamps for collectors anymore because the sales have decreased and there are enough stamps in the stock.


title: Postage stamp

text: When the first postage stamps were issued in the 1840s, they followed an almost identical standard in shape, size and general subject matter. They were rectangular in shape. They bore the images of Queens, Presidents and other political figures. They also depicted the denomination of the postage-paid, and with the exception of the United Kingdom, depicted the name of the country from which issued. Nearly all early postage stamps depict images of national leaders only.


title: Postage stamp

text: Soon after the introduction of the postage stamp, other subjects and designs began to appear. Some designs were welcome, others widely criticized. For example, in 1869, the United States Post Office broke tradition of depicting presidents or other famous historical figures, instead using other subjects including a train, and horse.(See: 1869 Pictorial Issue.) The change was greeted with general disapproval, and sometimes harsh criticism from the American public.


title: Postage stamp

text: Perforations are small holes made between individual postage stamps on a sheet of stamps, facilitating separation of a desired number of stamps. The resulting frame-like, rippled edge surrounding the separated stamp defines a characteristic meme for the appearance of a postage stamp.


title: Postage stamp

text: In the first decade of postage stamps' existence (depending on the country), stamps were issued without perforations. Scissors or other cutting mechanisms were required to separate a desired number of stamps from a full sheet. If cutting tools were not used, individual stamps were torn off. This is evidenced by the ragged edges of surviving examples. Mechanically separating stamps from a sheet proved an inconvenience for postal clerks and businesses, both dealing with large numbers of individual stamps on a daily basis. By 1850, methods such as rouletting wheels were being devised in efforts of making stamp separation more convenient, and less time-consuming.


title: Postage stamp

text: The United Kingdom was the first country to issue postage stamps with perforations. The first machine specifically designed to perforate sheets of postage stamps was invented in London by Henry Archer, an Irish landowner and railroad man from Dublin, Ireland. The 1850 Penny Red was the first stamp to be perforated during trial course of Archer's perforating machine. After a period of trial and error and modifications of Archer's invention, new machines based on the principles pioneered by Archer were purchased and in 1854 the United Kingdom postal authorities started continuously issuing perforated postage stamps in the Penny Red and all subsequent designs.


title: Postage stamp

text: In the United States, the use of postage stamps caught on quickly and became more widespread when on 3 March 1851, the last day of its legislative session, Congress passed the "Act of March 3, 1851" ("An Act to reduce and modify the Rates of Postage in the United States"). Similarly introduced on the last day of the Congressional session four years later, the "Act of March 3, 1855" required the prepayment of postage on all mailings. Thereafter, postage stamp use in the United States quickly doubled, and by 1861 had quadrupled.


title: Postage stamp

text: In 1856, under the direction of Postmaster General James Campbell, Toppan and Carpenter, ("commissioned by the United States government to print United States postage stamps through the 1850s") purchased a rotary machine designed to separate stamps, patented in England in 1854 by William and Henry Bemrose, who were printers in Derby, England. The original machine cut slits into the paper rather than punching holes, but the machine was soon modified.


title: Postage stamp

text: The first stamp issue to be officially perforated, the 3-cent George Washington, was issued by the United States Post Office on 24 February 1857. Between 1857 and 1861, all stamps originally issued between 1851 and 1856 were reissued with perforations. Initial capacity was insufficient to perforate all stamps printed, thus perforated issues used between February and July 1857 are scarce and quite valuable.


title: Postage stamp

text: In addition to the most common rectangular shape, stamps have been issued in geometric (circular, triangular and pentagonal) and irregular shapes. The United States issued its first circular stamp in 2000 as a hologram of the Earth. Sierra Leone and Tonga have issued stamps in the shapes of fruit. Stamps that are printed on sheets are generally separated by perforations, though, more recently, with the advent of gummed stamps that do not have to be moistened prior to affixing them, designs can incorporate smooth edges (although a purely decorative perforated edge is often present).


title: Postage stamp

text: Stamps are most commonly made from paper designed specifically for them, and are printed in sheets, rolls, or small booklets. Less commonly, postage stamps are made of materials other than paper, such as embossed foil (sometimes of gold). Switzerland made a stamp that contained a bit of lace and one of wood. The United States produced one of plastic. East Germany issued a stamp of synthetic chemicals. In the Netherlands a stamp was made of silver foil. Bhutan issued one with its national anthem on a playable record.


title: Postage stamp

text: The subjects found on the face of postage stamps are generally what defines a particular stamp issue to the public and are often a reason why they are saved by collectors or history enthusiasts. Graphical subjects found on postage stamps have ranged from the early portrayals of kings, queens and presidents to later depictions of ships, birds and satellites, famous people, historical events, comics, dinosaurs, hobbies (knitting, stamp collecting), sports, holiday themes, and a wealth of other subjects too numerous to list.


title: Postage stamp

text: Artists, designers, engravers and administrative officials are involved with the choice of subject matter and the method of printing stamps. Early stamp images were almost always produced from an engraving — a design etched into a steel die, which was then hardened and whose impression was transferred to a printing plate. Using an "engraved" image was deemed a more secure way of printing stamps as it was nearly impossible to counterfeit a finely detailed image with raised lines for anyone but a master engraver. In the mid-20th century, stamp issues produced by other forms of printing began to emerge, such as lithography, photogravure, intaglio and web offset printing. These later printing methods were less expensive and typically produced images of lesser quality.


title: Postage stamp

text: Apart from these, there are also Revenue (used to collect taxes or fees on items such as documents, tobacco, alcoholic drinks, hunting licenses and medicines) and Telegraph stamps (for sending telegrams), which fall in a separate category from postage stamps.


title: Postage stamp

text: Postage stamps are first issued on a specific date, often referred to as the "First day of issue." A "first day cover" usually consists of an envelope, a postage stamp and a postmark with the date of the stamp's first day of issue thereon. Starting in the mid-20th century some countries began assigning the first day of issue to a place associated with the subject of the stamp design, such as a specific town or city. There are two basic types of "First Day Covers" (FDCs) noted by collectors. The first and often most desirable type among advanced collectors is a cover sent through the mail in the course of everyday usage, without the intention of the envelope and stamp ever being retrieved and collected. The second type of FDC is often referred to as "Philatelic", that is, an envelope and stamp sent by someone with the intention of retrieving and collecting the mailed item at a later time and place. The envelope used for this type of FDC often bears a printed design or cachet of its own in correspondence with the stamp's subject and is usually printed well in advance of the first day of issue date. The latter type of FDC is usually far more common, and is usually inexpensive and relatively easy to acquire. Covers that were sent without any secondary purpose are considered "non-philatelic" and often are much more challenging to find and collect.


title: Postage stamp

text: Postage stamps are sometimes issued in souvenir sheets or miniature sheets containing one or a small number of stamps. Souvenir sheets typically include additional artwork or information printed on the selvage, the border surrounding the stamps. Sometimes the stamps make up a greater picture. Some countries, and some issues, are produced as individual stamps as well as sheets.


title: Postage stamp

text: Stamp collecting is a hobby. Collecting is not the same as philately, which is defined as the study of stamps. The creation of a valuable or comprehensive collection, however, may require some philatelic knowledge.


title: Postage stamp

text: Stamp collectors are an important source of revenue for some small countries that create limited runs of elaborate stamps designed mainly to be bought by stamp collectors. The stamps produced by these countries may far exceed their postal needs. Hundreds of countries, each producing scores of different stamps each year, resulted in 400,000 different types of stamps in existence by 2000. Annual world output averages about 10,000 types.


title: Postage stamp

text: Some countries authorize the production of postage stamps that have no postal use, but are intended instead solely for collectors. Other countries issue large numbers of low denomination stamps that are bundled together in starter packs for new collectors. "Official reprints" are often printed by companies who have purchased or contracted for those rights and such reprints see no postal use. All of these stamps are often found "canceled to order", meaning they are postmarked without ever having passed through the postal system. Most national post offices produce stamps that would not be produced if there were no collectors, some to a far more prolific degree than others.


title: Postage stamp

text: Sales of stamps to collectors who do not use them for mailing can result in large profits. Examples of excessive issues have been the stamps produced by Nicholas F. Seebeck and stamps produced for the component states of the United Arab Emirates. Seebeck operated in the 1890s as an agent of Hamilton Bank Note Company. He approached Latin American countries with an offer to produce their entire postage stamp needs for free. In return. he would have exclusive rights to market stamps to collectors. Each year a new issue would be produced, but would expire at the end of the year. This assured Seebeck of a continuing supply of remainders. In the 1960s, printers such as the Barody Stamp Company contracted to produce stamps for the separate Emirates and other countries. The sparse population of the desert states made it wholly unlikely that many of these stamps would ever be used for mailing purposes, and earned them the name of the "sand dune" countries.


title: Eureka Seven

text: Eureka Seven, known in Japan as , is a 2005 Japanese anime series created by Bones. The series was directed by Tomoki Kyoda, with series composition by Dai Satō, character designs by Kenichi Yoshida and music by Naoki Satō. "Eureka Seven" tells the story of Renton Thurston and the outlaw group Gekkostate, his relationship with the enigmatic mecha pilot Eureka, and the mystery of the Coralians. The fifty-episode series aired in Japan on MBS between April 2005 and April 2006. It was licensed by Funimation in North America, Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand and by Anime Limited in the United Kingdom for English home video releases.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The series spawned six manga adaptations, a light novel, three video games and a feature-length anime film which was released in Japan in April 2009. One of the manga titled "Eureka Seven: AO" which was serialized in "Shōnen Ace" between January 2012 and October 2013, was further adapted into an anime series which aired twenty-four episodes in Japan between April and November 2012. "Eureka Seven" was well received by critics and earned several awards at numerous award shows in Japan, most notably the 2006 Tokyo International Anime Fair.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The series focuses on Renton Thurston, the fourteen-year-old son of Adrock Thurston, a military researcher who died saving the world. He lives what he considers a boring life with his grandfather in a boring town. He loves lifting, a sport similar to surfing but with trapar, a substance abundant throughout the air, as the medium. He dreams of joining the renegade group Gekkostate, led by his idol Holland Novak, a legendary lifter.


title: Eureka Seven

text: An opportunity to do so literally falls into his lap when a large mechanical robot, called the Nirvash type ZERO, and Eureka, its pilot and a member of Gekkostate, crash into Renton's room. Renton's grandfather orders him to deliver a special part to the Nirvash called the "Amita Drive", which releases the immense power dormant within the type ZERO called the "Seven Swell Phenomenon". Afterwards, Renton is invited to join Gekkostate, where he quickly discovers that the behind-the-scenes life of Gekkostate is hardly as glamorous or as interesting as printed in the glossy pages of their magazine, "ray=out". Only one thing makes it all worthwhile for him: the presence of Eureka, the mysterious pilot of the Nirvash. Renton, Eureka, and the Gekkostate embark on an adventure that will shape their future as well as the world's.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The series was made by Bones and co-produced by Bandai Entertainment. Bandai Entertainment provided the title and handled the creative aspects of the series. Bandai had originally proposed a mecha anime series to the animation studio Bones. The studio had initially rejected it, but later reversed its position because it had already planned to create an anime using mecha designs by Shoji Kawamori. With the appointment of director Tomoki Kyoda and writer Dai Satō, Bandai's proposal was more or less scrapped and the staff began work on their own series that would become "Eureka Seven."


title: Eureka Seven

text: While conceptualizing "Eureka Seven", Kyoda "wanted something that reflected the music and the subculture of his generation—and a love story." As such the show contains several references from music of the 1980s and the 1990s, and almost all of the show's episodes are named after real songs, composed by both Japanese and foreign artists.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The director wished to design the series as one that would at first focus on the personal elements and conflicts of the characters, then subsequently move the framework into a broader scale and perspective. The series' two halves each have their own very clear focus that reflects this design choice.


title: Eureka Seven

text: With the premise of the surfer robots in mind, Satō interviewed several real-life surfers and came to conclusion that they are close to nature. From this perception, he envisioned the environmental thematic as central point of the story. He said "I thought it might be an effective message for children, especially in Japan. It's pretty veiled. I didn't want to be preachy."


title: Eureka Seven

text: "Eureka Seven" consists of fifty episodes which aired from April 17, 2005, to April 2, 2006, on the Mainichi Broadcasting System and Tokyo Broadcasting System networks.


title: Eureka Seven

text: "Eureka Seven" was available for online viewing on the Adult Swim Fix, Adult Swim's online video service before its televised debut on the Adult Swim channel between April 16, 2006, and ended on April 29, 2007. Adult Swim traditionally cut down the opening and ending themes from each episode to fit the series to American television's time restraints, which resulted in the final episode's first airing having actual content cut from it as the episode originally had no theme song sequences; it was re-aired properly the following week. In Canada, "Eureka Seven" premiered on YTV's "Bionix" block on September 8, 2006.


title: Eureka Seven

text: Bandai Entertainment and its affiliates distributed the English version of "Eureka Seven". It was released in the United States and Canada by Bandai Visual USA, in the United Kingdom by Beez Entertainment, and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. The first translated Region 1 DVD volume of the series was released on April 25, 2006, in the U.S., while the European Region 2 version was released on September 25, 2006. The English version was produced by Bang Zoom! Entertainment in Burbank, California. Following the 2012 closure of Bandai Entertainment, Funimation acquired the rights to the TV series and re-released the series on Blu-ray and DVD in 2014.


title: Eureka Seven

text: An anime sequel titled "Eureka Seven: AO" began airing on April 12, 2012, and ended on November 20, 2012. There is a total of 24 episodes. It has been released in Japan on Blu-ray and DVD, along with an OVA titled "The Flower Fields of Jungfrau". On May 16, 2013, Funimation announced the official release date in English dub. The first twelve dubbed episodes were released on DVD/Blu-ray on August 13, 2013, and the rest of the series released on October 15, 2013. On January 6, 2014, Manga Entertainment had released the first half of the series.


title: Eureka Seven

text: "Eureka Seven" uses ten pieces of theme music. The opening themes of "Eureka Seven" are "Days" by Flow (episodes 1–13), by Home Made Kazoku (episodes 14–26), , by Bivattchee (episodes 27–32, 34–39) and "Sakura" by Nirgilis (episodes 40–49). The ending themes are by Kozue Takada (episodes 1–13, 26), "Fly Away", by Asami Izawa (episodes 14–25), "Tip Taps Tip", by Halcali (episodes 27–39) and "Canvas", by Coolon (episodes 40–49). The two insert songs are "Storywriter", by Supercar and , by Denki Groove (episode 50).


title: Eureka Seven

text: The soundtrack music is available on three different albums composed by Naoki Satō and a variety of other artists who composed insert songs used in the series. The first and second soundtrack albums were released on November 2, 2005 and April 5, 2006, respectively. The third soundtrack, titled "Eureka Seven: Complete Best" include the full-length versions of the opening and ending themes for both the series and game, as well as the insert song for the final episode.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The anime adaptation of "Eureka Seven: AO" uses six pieces of theme music. For the 13 first episodes, the opening theme is "Escape" performed by Hemenway and the ending theme is "stand by me" by Stereopony. Starting with episode 14, the opening theme changes to performed by FLOW and the ending theme changes to performed by joy. The two insert songs are "Parallel Sign" and "Seven Swell", both performed by LAMA.


title: Eureka Seven

text: A manga adaptation of the original anime was created by Jinsei Kataoka and Kazuma Kondou. The manga was published by Kadokawa Shoten and began serialization in "Monthly Shōnen Ace" from the March 2005 issue and ended in the January 2007 issue, with a total of 23 chapters. The chapters were later compiled into six volumes. Viz Media published the manga digitally. A second manga titled by Miki Kizuki, features the protagonists of the video games "New Wave" and "New Vision". It was published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in "Comptiq" magazine. Two volumes were released in Japan on November 7, 2005, and September 26, 2006, respectively. Viz Media also published this series digitally. A manga adapting a proposed alternative ending of the series, titled "Psalms of Planets Eureka Seven New Order" was serialized in "Comptiq" by Kadokawa Shoten between June 2012 and May 2013 and compiled into two volumes.


title: Eureka Seven

text: On December 22, 2011, Kadokawa Shoten's "Monthly Shōnen Ace" magazine announced that a sequel manga titled "Eureka Seven: AO" based on the sequel series would be launched in their January 2012 issue. It featured an original story by Bones and was illustrated by Yūichi Katō. The manga began in January 2012, and concluded in October 2013, with a total of 21 chapters spanning over five volumes. A spin-off manga titled "Eureka Seven AO - Save a Prayer" began in February in Kadokawa Shoten's "Newtype A" and concluded in June 2013, and focuses on a girl named Yuna and her two friends as they make their way from becoming trainees in Generation Bleu's Headquarters. It was compiled into two volumes. A manga titled "Eureka Seven nAnO" was published as a 4koma in Kadokawa Shoten's "4-koma Nano A" from July 2012 to January 2013, and featured characters from the "AO" series. It was compiled into one volume.


title: Eureka Seven

text: A light novel series written by Tomonori Sugihara and illustrated by Robin Kishiwada was published by Kadokawa Shoten under their male oriented Sneaker Bunko label in 2005 and 2006. Bandai Entertainment released all four volumed in English between 2009 and 2011. A novelization of the film "Pocketful of Rainbows" sharing the same name was also written by Tomonori Sugihara and illustrated by Hiroki Kazui and Seiji was released in Japan on May 1, 2009.


title: Eureka Seven

text: "Eureka Seven" has four video games, developed by Bandai and later Namco Bandai Games. The first to be released was , which was released in Japan on October 27, 2005, and in North America on October 24, 2006. The game features a different cast of characters and takes place two years before the anime. A sequel, , was released in Japan on May 11, 2006, and in North America on April 17, 2007. "New Vision" takes place two years after the events of "New Wave". Both games were released on the PlayStation 2 and feature the theme song "Realize", sung by Flow. A PlayStation Portable game sharing the same name of the anime was released on April 6, 2006, in Japan. This game is based on the events from the first half of the show. An action game based on the "AO" sequel series, "Eureka Seven: AO Attack the Legend", was released on the PlayStation 3 on September 20, 2012.


title: Eureka Seven

text: A theatrical adaptation, , was first announced in the May 2008 issue of "Newtype"; it was publicly released on April 25, 2009, during Golden Week, with the animation production handled by Kinema Citrus. It contained a new mythos in an alternative universe, despite still featuring Renton and Eureka as the main characters, and confirming the events of the original series happened in a parallel world. The main theme song for the film is "Space Rock", by iLL.


title: Eureka Seven

text: "Good Night, Sleep Tight, Young Lovers" screened at select theaters nationwide in the U.S. for a one night–only special event on September 24, 2009, courtesy of Fathom Events. The movie also played at the Fantasia festival in Montreal on July 28, 2009.


title: Eureka Seven

text: A second three-part theatrical adaptation, , was announced on March 17, 2017. The film trilogy takes place before and during the events of the original series, as well as having an original story. The first movie, , was released on September 16, 2017. It shows the "First Summer of Love" phenomenon, previously only alluded to in the series and retells the "Charles and Ray" arc (mainly episodes 22–27) of the original. The second film, taking place in an alternative universe and focusing on Anemone, was released on November 10, 2018, under the title . The last film, titled was originally planned for release in 2019, but was delayed to early summer 2021. It was delayed again to November 26, 2021.


title: Eureka Seven

text: At Anime Boston, Masahiko Minami confirmed that the first film of the trilogy will premiere in Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand in Fall 2017, and that Funimation will distribute the film in the United States. Madman Entertainment distributed the film in Australia and New Zealand. Anime Limited distributed the film in the UK. Odex distributed the film in Southeast Asian territories.


title: Eureka Seven

text: Towards the end of its original Japanese run, "Eureka Seven" won multiple awards at the 2006 Tokyo International Anime Fair, including Best Television Series, Best Screenplay for Dai Satō, and Best Character Designs for Kenichi Yoshida. Yoshida, the series' main animator and character designer, also received an individual award at the 10th Animation Kobe Awards in September 2005. The series also won an award at the 20th Digital Content Grand Prix in Japan in January 2006. At the Anime Expo 2006 SPJA Awards, "Eureka Seven" won the award for Best Television Series, and Best Female Character for Eureka. "Anime Insider" voted it "Best DVD Series of the Year" in 2006. During a conference in 2010, writer Dai Satō claimed that many anime fans dismissed "Eureka Seven" as a clone of "Neon Genesis Evangelion" without even watching it.


title: Eureka Seven

text: The sequel series, "Eureka Seven: AO", was met with mixed-to-negative reviews from fans and critics, who criticized the series for contradicting themes of "Eureka Seven". It was however awarded the jury selection prize by the 17th Japan Media Arts Festival Awards.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Nostalgia, Ultra (stylized as nostalgia,ULTRA. and occasionally nostalgia/ultra) is the debut mixtape by American singer-songwriter Frank Ocean. It was released on February 16, 2011. Ocean was inspired to make the mixtape after Hurricane Katrina in his native New Orleans and his subsequent relocation to Los Angeles. After joining alternative hip hop group Odd Future in 2010, he self-released the mixtape, without initial promotion. "Nostalgia, Ultra" has a unique R&B aesthetic and features surreal themes and nostalgic lyrics. The songs mostly focus on interpersonal relationships, personal reflection, and social commentary. Following its release, the mixtape received rave reviews from music critics. The cover features a picture of a bright orange BMW E30 M3, Ocean's "dream car", in plain sight amidst lush greenery.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: In May 2011, Def Jam announced its plans to release the mixtape as an EP on July 26, 2011. However, the release of the EP was indefinitely delayed in July 2011 and has since been cancelled. Two singles were released from the aborted EP version: "Novacane", and "Swim Good". Both songs received music videos directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin. Ocean embarked on a solo concert tour through North America and Europe to promote the record, playing a total of 7 shows. In addition, his 2012 performance at the Coachella Music Festival included several live renditions from the release including "Strawberry Swing" and "Lovecrimes".


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The mixtape appeared on several music critics' and publications' end-of-year albums lists. Controversy arose in March 2012 over the song "American Wedding", a remake of the song "Hotel California" by American rock band Eagles. Because of the Eagles’ legal action, "Nostalgia, Ultra" is still unavailable on Spotify, even a decade since its release; it is considered one of the most famous and acclaimed albums not to be accessible on the streaming service. Recording artist Kanye West was reportedly a fan of the mixtape, which led to Ocean appearing on the album "Watch the Throne". Subsequently, Ocean collaborated with artists Beyoncé Knowles and Jay-Z after they were introduced to the mixtape through West. Following its release, both Ocean and the mixtape have developed a cult following. The mixtape was followed by the release of Ocean's debut studio album "Channel Orange" to even greater critical acclaim in 2012.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Frank Ocean was born in Long Beach, California. When he was 10, his family moved to New Orleans, Louisiana. He made the decision to pursue a career in music at a young age, and as a teen, he did neighborhood chores to fund his early studio sessions. After Hurricane Katrina hit his hometown of New Orleans, Ocean moved to Los Angeles to pursue a recording career. He initially had problems maintaining a career while juggling a job, due to spending too much time in the recording studios, making him late for his jobs. He began to write songs and sold them to other recording artists, selling his first song to Noel Gourdin at the age of 19. Explaining why he writes songs, Ocean said that "I feel at a higher level of consciousness when I'm being creative."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Eventually, he landed songwriting gigs for established artists like Brandy, John Legend, and Justin Bieber where he made substantially more money. In late 2009, he met producer Tricky Stewart, who helped Ocean sign a contract with Def Jam Recordings as a solo artist. However, he was initially unable to build a relationship with the company. In protest, Ocean joined the rap collective Odd Future which introduced him to artists such as Tyler, The Creator and Hodgy Beats. His debut song was "SteamRoller" on the Domo Genesis album "Rolling Papers". Ocean garnered acclaim and generated interest while in the group, and "Rolling Stone" magazine's Jonah Weiner called him a "gifted avant-R&B smoothie". During his time with the group he recorded and self-released "Nostalgia, Ultra" without any pre-release promotion on his Tumblr account.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The mixtape samples songs from Coldplay, MGMT and the Eagles, which Ocean sings over. Ocean, when uploading the album to iTunes, labeled it as bluegrass and death metal, out of arbitrariness. When asked about why he uploaded the songs in that way, he replied; "I don't want to seem like I have a cause against genres, or maybe I do... Bluegrass is swag. Bluegrass is all the way swag." Ocean described the making of his mixtape as a labor of love, stating that "It was like difficult to make. Not like writing the songs [or] arranging the songs. That had a level of difficulty, too. But just piecing together all the levels to do it at the level, the quality of records I wanted to make… But, it was a process I appreciate so much."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Ocean calls the album "nostalgic." He explains, "it's a longing for the past. That's what this record felt like." The lyrical content, according to Ocean, relates to heartbreak and other familiar tropes of interpersonal relationships: "I wasn't trying to make a record that people could relate to. I was just trying to make a record with the shit that I wanted to express. The shit that I wanted to get off my chest. [...] A lot of this record is influenced by one relationship, but I don't owe that whole project to one situation. It doesn't matter what the details of it are." Discussing the writing process behind the album, he mused that he was just inspired to tell stories. He continued, "you gotta make sure the listener is listening to you, so if you put it into a song, often times, if the song is striking enough, then you can really deliver the story most effectively while keeping the ear of the listener the whole time. I guess it all starts with the stories for me."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: When asked by The Quietus if the songs from the album drew from his personal experiences, Frank commented "My kitchen is usually pretty clean, you know. But you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of satire." When asked if he made R&B music, Ocean replied that he disliked that in the United States, "if you're a singer and you're black, you're an R&B artist. Period." Ocean stated that the songs on the mixtape do contain R&B influences, but that it is not an R&B album entirely.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The album begins with a melodic cover of "Strawberry Swing" by English alternative rock band Coldplay. Connor O'Neill of The Miscellany News writes that the cover begins the album with "so much atmosphere you almost melt into it" and then "spreads you over an apocalyptic swan song". The song ends abruptly with the rude sound of an alarm clock, followed by the "nightmarish" song "Novacane". It has been called a love song of sorts, with influence taken from alternative hip hop group The Pharcyde. Lyrically the track explores a narrative in which the singer meets a girl attempting to pay her way through dental school by working in porn. Ocean meets the girl at Coachella, a musical festival which takes place in Indio, California. Ocean serves as the protagonist in the song, in love with a girl "so gone on drugs that Ocean, wanting to be close to her, has no choice but to get gone on those same drugs". The pair get high using dental local anesthetics. Ocean serves as an unreliable narrator.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Several interludes are placed throughout the album, named after video games, such as "Street Fighter", "Metal Gear Solid", "GoldenEye 007" and "Soulcalibur". This is reported to give the album a more nostalgic feel; the record is "held together by tiny interludes named after 1990s video games in which the unmistakable sounds of a cassette player rewinding, fast-forwarding, and stopping are heard". On the track "We All Try", Ocean speaks out against homophobia. According to "The Guardian", "Odd Future's frequent use of the word 'faggot' unsettled liberal stomachs", and that "Ocean was brave enough to stand alone once more, declaring on 'We All Try': 'I believe that marriage isn't between a man and woman, but between love and love'. On the same song he reveals his opinion of the pro-choice debate: 'I believe a woman's temple, gives her the right to choose/ But baby don't abort.'" He obliquely "announces his support of a woman's right to choose and gay marriage", both of which are "hardly typical r&b tropes."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Pitchfork Media wrote that "in a skit called "Bitches Talkin", the ladies tell him to cut it out with the damn Radiohead, while "Optimistic" is playing in the background; in 'Songs For Women', he obliges—he's an indie kid when it comes to alienation but a pragmatist when it comes to sex." "Songs For Women" is a song where Ocean can't decide whether to rue or revel in his conflicted feelings about women. The song offers a self-effacing perspective, with a numbed, restrained delivery. Lyrically the track expresses a narrative where he tries to arrange an after-school meeting in his dad's empty house and brags about harmonizing to Otis, Isley and Marvin. He laments that his woman doesn't listen to him or his music: "It's like she never heard of me." In spite of the "suave delivery and the song's inherent tunefulness", the object of Ocean's affection soon ditches his love songs in favor of those sung "by real R&B big-shots (Drake included)".


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The mixtape also contains several references to American director Stanley Kubrick and his films, most notably "Eyes Wide Shut". Nicole Kidman's adulterous soliloquy from the film can be heard during the song "Lovecrimes", adding a sense of manic dread." The film is also referenced on the track "Novacane", where Ocean also sings that he's "feelin like Stanley Kubrick". Following that is the track "There Will Be Tears". The song has been described as emotional in nature, containing a "glitchy beat and with heavily synthesised vocals". "There Will Be Tears" has a strong bass line accompanying a busy electronic drum track from Roland TR-808. Ocean sings about not having a father; "Hide my face, hide my face, can't let 'em see me crying / Cause these boys didn't have no fathers neither / And they weren't crying", where he "lets his guard down completely."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Swim Good" has been called an "astonishing suicide song" and that Ocean finds himself dressed in black ('Like I'm ready for a funeral'), tormented by heartbreak and on the verge of driving his car into the sea. The song is a grim escape fantasy describing a murder suicide, which "has the singer driving his car to the shore, his trunk 'bleeding' with 'broken hearts'." The hook of the song ends with the refrain of "I feel like a ghost, no Swayze, ever since I lost my baby." "Dust" uses books as an extended metaphor for memories and experience, with lines like "so many pages I wrote, wish I could revise 'em / But there's no erasing".


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The penultimate track is "American Wedding", a 7-minute remake of "Hotel California" by American rock band Eagles. The track expresses an extended tale of a shotgun marriage and subsequent divorce. It's here that we "might get a little peek into the psychology of the man shirking the foremost genre for love songs: He doesn't believe in love. At least not in the United States." The song has a "totally unexpected ending for a song told as a flashback." The album ends with "Nature Feels". The song exhibits Ocean as an "openly fun character", opening the song with the line "I've been meaning to fuck you in the garden." According to Pitchfork, no matter the mood, Ocean is always "quick to add fine particulars that make his songs his songs". Pitchfork called "Nature Feel" an "MGMT-sampling Garden of Eden fuck ode".


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Novacane" was officially released as the first single from "Nostalgia, Ultra" on May 31, 2011. "Novacane" first charted on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs on May 11, 2011, at number 65. The subsequent week, it rose to number 58, and on its third week, the single rose to number 52. In its fourth week, it rose to number 17. The music video for "Novacane" was released on June 16, directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin. When discussing the video, Ocean commented "I was just trying to connect or articulate visually the feeling of being numb. The feeling of wanting to feel something you can't feel. A lot of things can cause that numbing, but in the video it was some sort of topical aesthetic and a little bit of special effects." The song also charted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at position 82 and at 6 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers Songs.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Swim Good" was released as the second single from the mixtape on October 18, 2011, and the song charted at position 70 on the "Billboard" R&B chart for three weeks. It entered the top 40 in Belgium. The music video (directed by Nabil Elderkin) was released via Ocean's tumblr account on September 16. Ocean performed "Novacane" and "She" with Tyler, The Creator at an Odd Future performance in New York City. During Odd Future 2012's tour promoting "The Odd Future Tape Vol. 2", Frank performed with the group.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Ocean embarked on a six-date concert tour from November 5 to November 15, 2011, through North America and Europe to promote both the mixtape and his other musical projects. Originally, six shows were scheduled with a New York City performance at the Bowery Ballroom on the 6th. The original date for that show was postponed to the 27th, and that an additional show on the 28th had been added. The reported reason was because Ocean was sick. The performances featured no opening act, and the only performer on stage at any given time was Ocean.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Rolling Stone" reviewed the debut show, calling Ocean awkward at times, though they stated that "fortunately his dispassionately told stories of love and loss in a world that assumes impermanence could handle the load of the audience." MTV commented that it took Ocean "some time to warm up to the crowd" at his debut New Orleans performance, though they noted the performance started the tour to a "promising start". MTV later reviewed the New York performance on the 27th and called Ocean "an audience charmer". "The New York Times" critic Jon Caramanica gave a positive review to the same New York performance, calling Ocean a "versatile singer" and writing that "in his elegant, savvy, slightly crooked postsoul, he shifts sneakily between the two topics, singing about love as a byproduct of music and using the subject of music to dig deep about love."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The set lists to the various shows varied, though singles "Swim Good" and "Novacane" were performed at all shows. Others tracks like "LoveCrimes", "Dust" and "American Wedding" were performed at a majority of the shows, and "Strawberry Swing" "We All Try" were performed four times each. Portions of "No Church in the Wild" and "Made in America", along with "I Miss You" and "Thinkin Bout You" were also performed. The performances of "American Wedding" were accompanied by comedic moments where Ocean played the sample from "Hotel California" on "Guitar Hero: World Tour". Ocean performed at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Nostalgia, Ultra" received widespread acclaim from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the mixtape received an average score of 83, based on nine reviews. Anupa Mistry from "Exclaim!" called it "sophisticated", "pulsing and expansive", and wrote that Ocean's "alt sensibilities" prove "musically intuitive" AllMusic's Andy Kellman felt that Ocean's uniqueness lies in his "wistful, often self-effacing perspective and numbed, restrained delivery" rather than his production choices, which he found "neither exceptional nor particularly left of center". Steven Hyden of "The A.V. Club" called the mixtape "dark, playful, a little tasteless, and absolutely riveting". Connor O'Neill of The Miscellany News wrote that, "by funneling [the primary means of R&B decadence] through his diverse and diverging palette, Ocean literalizes both his nostalgic impulses and the odd future of which he is a part." "The Village Voice"s Sean Fennessey called him "an intuitive r&b stylist, with a firm sense of song structure." Rudy K. of Sputnikmusic felt that the mixtape sounds "so fresh, so real" for a member from Odd Future and stated, "With Ocean, it never sounds contrived."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: In his review for "MSN Music", Robert Christgau described Ocean's "romantic laments" as "models of texture, respect, and profound loss, their beats subtle, seductive, weird, and seized like time whether he's deploying 'songs for women' that are soon trumped by Drake's, not feeling a porn-moonlighting dental student and her 'novacaine,' or annulling a courthouse wedding solemnized just before his bride turned in her term paper on hijab." "Pitchfork"s Ryan Dombal commented that "There are distinct elements of Drake's melancholic paranoia and The-Dream's high melodrama, too. But there's also a heady surreality surrounding "Nostalgia, Ultra" that makes it unique." Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" called it "slick and intuitive ... full of astral soul that owes debts to Terence Trent D'Arby, Pharrell Williams, even Drake", adding that "[Ocean] sings casually but precisely, stretching out syllables as if he's forgetting to let them go." NPR's Andrew Noz commented that "It's his songwriting, smart and subtle, that sets Ocean far apart from that pack", adding that "The finest moments of "Nostalgia, Ultra" orbit the same soul-baring and minutiae-obsessed space as Marvin Gaye's breakup opus "Here, My Dear" or any number of Prince's more idiosyncratic ballads". No Ripcord's Charlie Jebb wrote that ""Nostalgia, Ultra" has more than enough good stuff to establish Ocean as an artist to watch," calling it "[an] R&B record with crossover potential without sacrificing soul that creates a complete picture of its author, warts and all."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Nostalgia, Ultra" appeared on a number of professional lists ranking the best albums from 2011. The record was nominated for Best International Album at the 2012 Swedish Grammis Awards. Pitchfork Media put it number 35 on its list of the year's top albums, writing that "Chris Breaux, who goes by Frank Ocean, is a male R&B singer with male R&B contradictions: As much as he wants to listen to his heart, he can't completely ignore his dick." "The Guardian" writer Tim Jonze named it the year's third best album, musing "unafraid to tackle suicide, abortion and absent fathers, this free mixtape introduced one of our most refreshing new R&B stars." "The A.V. Club" ranked the album number 15 on its year-end list, commenting that ""Nostalgia, Ultra" became a runaway Internet hit that showed off Ocean's coaxing croon as well as his outré songwriting skills. Sweetly romantic, yet pensive and moody, Nostalgia is an R&B record for manics, from the hazy lament of 'Novacane' to the inward-looking contradiction of 'Songs For Women' to the clever pop remakes of the Eagles' 'Hotel California' and Coldplay's 'Strawberry Swing'."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Rolling Stone" named it the 24th best album of the year, writing "the debut mixtape from the 24-year-old singer (and Odd Future member) is an avant-R&B killer." "Complex" named it the fourth best album of the year and the second best mixtape. "Time" named it the fifth best album of the year, and wrote that "Ocean also weaves audio of a tape recorder in rewind, video games and Nicole Kidman's adulterous monologue from Eyes Wide Shut into his songs to give the album a personal feel — as if Ocean were gifting us with a collection of sounds that he finds emotionally meaningful." "Spin" named it the 41st best album of the year while "Mojo" placed the album at number 49. In "The Village Voice"s annual Pazz & Jop poll of American critics nationwide, "Nostalgia, Ultra" finished 16th among albums that were voted for that year. Former "Voice" critic Robert Christgau named it the fourth best album of the year in his dean's list traditionally published to accompany the poll.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Nostalgia, Ultra" has also appeared on several professional listings of the best albums from its era, including decade-end lists by "Rolling Stone" (76), "Spin" (15), and Christgau (15th). In 2019, the album was ranked 41st on "The Guardian"s 100 Best Albums of the 21st Century list. Based on such listings, the aggregate website Acclaimed Music ranks "Nostalgia, Ultra" as the 27th most acclaimed album from 2011.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: The track "Novacane" also received widespread critical acclaim. It was listed as one of the best songs of the year by "The New York Times", Ology, Spin, Zimbio, and Pitchfork Media named both the video and the song as amongst the best of the year.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Before the release of "Nostalgia, Ultra", Ocean was a relatively unknown artist who made a majority of his money from ghostwriting. Within six months, it was noted that Ocean had become the "go-to vocal hook man." The release of the mixtape interested rap recording artist and producer Kanye West, who was reported to be a big fan. West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off "Watch the Throne", a collaborative record with rapper Jay-Z. Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks "No Church in the Wild" and "Made in America". Singer Beyoncé heard of the mixtape through her husband Jay-Z and was a fan of it. She subsequently invited Ocean to co-write "I Miss You" for her album "4". Discussing how she first heard of Ocean and "Nostalgia, Ultra", she commented; "Jay-Z had a CD playing in the car one Sunday when we were driving to Brooklyn. I noticed his tone, his arrangements, and his storytelling. I immediately reached out to him—literally the next morning. I asked him to fly to New York and work on my record.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: West also offered to appear on Ocean's debut album, but Ocean refused, saying "as much as I want to work with you… I kind of want to do this without you. I kind of want to do it on my own." Rapper Nas was also a fan of the mixtape, writing that "He's new, he's fresh. He doesn't sound fly-by-night. The moment you hear it — I hear what he's sayin', and I relate." Nas also stated on Twitter that he and Ocean were collaborating on a song from Nas's tenth studio album "Life Is Good", though the material never made the album. Chicago born rapper Lupe Fiasco expressed a positive opinion of the release too.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Ocean quickly became Odd Future's main singing highlight, providing vocal hooks on Odd Future albums like "BlackenedWhite", "Goblin", and "The Odd Future Tape Vol. 2". Ocean toured with the group on several occasions and made appearances during their shows. On January 5, 2012, the BBC announced that Ocean had finished in second place of the BBC's Sound of 2012 poll. In addition, MTV described the mixtape as a "cult classic". On August 2, 2012, the music video for "Swim Good" was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards: Best Direction and Best Male Video, with Ocean being nominated for Best New Artist for his work with the video.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: In March 2012, controversy arose over the track "American Wedding", which samples The Eagles' song "Hotel California". Don Henley of the Eagles "had threatened legal action over Ocean's track", claiming that Ocean's version of the song was illegal. The track was widely removed from the internet following this controversy, being removed from music sharing sites such as YouTube. A spokesman for the band announced that a lawsuit would be filed against Ocean if he performed the song live.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "Frank Ocean did not merely 'sample' a portion of the Eagles' Hotel California; he took the whole master track, plus the song's existing melody, and replaced the lyrics with his own. This is not creative, let alone 'intimidating.' It's illegal. For the record, Don Henley has not threatened or instituted any legal action against Frank Ocean, although the Eagles are now considering whether they should."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Several publications noted that the song was released for free on a non-profitable mixtape, and that "live covers of famous songs are common in live performances", and that sampling is a common practice on mixtapes. Ocean responded to the controversy via his Tumblr account:


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: "He (They) threatened to sue if I perform it again. I think that's fuckin awesome. I guess if I play it at Coachella it'll cost me a couple hundred racks. If I don't show up to court, it'll be a judgement against me & will probably show up on my credit report. Oh well. I try to buy my shit cash anyway. They asked that I release a statement expressing my admiration for Mr. Henley, along with my assistance pulling it off the web as much as possible. Shit's weird. Ain't this guy rich as fuck? Why sue the new guy? I didn't make a dime off that song. I released it for free. If anything I'm paying homage."


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Ocean performed the song live occasionally with an altered arrangement not utilizing the original "Hotel California" sample.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: Henley eventually spoke out on the controversy in late 2015, defending his stance on the 2012 litigation threat and referring to Ocean as a "talentless little prick". These comments sparked outcry, with Stereogum claiming that Henley was "yelling at clouds again", while pointing to the hypocrisy in Henley's condemnation of Ocean for creating a homage to his song while he and the Eagles were "incapable of acknowledging the deep influence" that the African-American-pioneered genre of R&B had on them.


title: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: On May 19, 2011, Ocean's record label Def Jam announced its plans to release an EP containing tracks from "nostalgia, ULTRA". Ocean announced that the re-release would have been titled "Nostalgia, Lite" and that it was expected to feature seven tracks. The EP was originally scheduled to be released on July 26, 2011, however, Ocean noted on his official Tumblr page on July 24, 2011, that "Nostalgia, Lite" would no longer be released on July 26 and that the project was cancelled. Both "Swim Good" and "Novacane" were set to be featured on the release. Talking about which other songs would make it onto the reissue, Ocean commented that "The Eagles sample 'American Wedding' has no chance in hell of being cleared". He continued, "Coldplay sample 'Strawberry Swing', possibly. I hear 'possibly' from people who say they know. MGMT, those guys seem chill. I heard they heard the record 'Nature Feels' and they liked it a lot, so hopefully that can go someway." Other tracks on the reissue were set to be "Acura Integurl", which appeared on the unofficial release "The Lonny Breaux Collection", and "Whip Appeal" which was released in 2012. In 2012, Ocean commented again on his blog that ""Nostalgia Lite" is "never coming out."


title: Designated Survivor (season 3)

text: The third and final season of the American political drama series "Designated Survivor" was ordered on September 5, 2018. Netflix reached a deal with Entertainment One to pick up the series after its cancellation from ABC. The third season, consisting of 10 episodes, premiered exclusively on Netflix on June 7, 2019.


title: Designated Survivor (season 3)

text: United States President Kirkman faces the political reality of campaigning as well as the tribulations of political advertising tactics used by the opposition. The season follows the President's fight to secure the interest of the public opinion and ultimately, the chances of his administration being elected for another term.


title: Designated Survivor (season 3)

text: On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the series after two seasons due to a high turnover of showrunners and declining ratings. Shortly after, eOne announced they were in "active discussions" with other networks to revive the show, including Netflix, which streams the series internationally. On September 5, 2018, it was confirmed that Netflix had picked up the series for a third season of 10 episodes, to be released in 2019. Neal Baer served as the series showrunner, the fifth person to do so. On April 24, 2019, it was announced that the third season would premiere on Netflix on June 7, 2019.


title: Designated Survivor (season 3)

text: The first two seasons were produced by ABC Studios, The Mark Gordon Company, and eOne, with filming in Toronto, Ontario. For the third season, it was announced that ABC Studios would not be involved, with eOne (which had fully acquired the Mark Gordon Company) being the sole production company for the series.


title: Designated Survivor (season 3)

text: After the third season renewal announcement, the producers confirmed that Kiefer Sutherland, Adan Canto, Italia Ricci, Kal Penn and Maggie Q would return as series regulars. On October 18, 2018, casting of Anthony Edwards, Julie White and Elena Tovar in the recurring roles of Mars Harper, Lorraine Zimmer and Isabel Pardo respectively were announced. On November 15, 2018, Lauren Holly and Benjamin Watson were cast in recurring roles as Lynn Harper and Dontae Evans, respectively.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa (1791–1837) was Commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Fauj, the army of the Sikh Empire. He is known for his role in the conquests of Kasur, Sialkot, Attock, Multan, Kashmir, Peshawar and Jamrud. Hari Singh Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh Empire to beyond the Indus River right up to the mouth of the Khyber Pass. At the time of his death, the western boundary of the empire was Jamrud.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: He served as governor of Kashmir, Peshawar and Hazara. He established a mint on behalf of the Sikh Empire to facilitate revenue collection in Kashmir and Peshawar.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa was born in Gujranwala, in the Majha region of Punjab to Dharam Kaur and Gurdial Singh Uppal. According to historian Autar Singh Sandhu, Hari Singh Nalwa's family are of Uppal Khatri origin. As per Vanit Nalwa who claims to be Hari's descadant says that their family were Uppal Khatris who originally belonged to Majitha town near Amritsar. After his father died in 1798, he was raised by his mother. In 1801, at the age of ten, he took Amrit Sanchar and was initiated as a Khalsa. At the age of twelve, he began to manage his father's estate and took up horse riding.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In 1804, at the age of fourteen, his mother sent him to the court of Ranjit Singh to resolve a property dispute. Ranjit Singh decided the arbitration in his favor because of his background and aptitude. Hari Singh had explained that his father and grandfather had served under Maha Singh and Charat Singh, the Maharaja's ancestors, and demonstrated his skills as a horseman and musketeer. Ranjit Singh gave him a position at the court as a personal attendant.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh had two wives, as customary at the time, Raj Kaur from Rawalpindi and Desan Kaur. He had four sons and two daughters.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: During a hunt in 1804, a tiger attacked him and also killed his horse. His fellow hunters attempted to protect him but he refused their offers and allegedly killed the tiger by himself bare handedly by tearing the tiger apart from its mouth, thus earning the cognomen "Baghmar" ("Tiger-killer"). Whether he was by that time already serving in the military is unknown but he was commissioned as Sardar, commanding 800 horses and footmen, in that year.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh's first significant participation in a Sikh conquest on assuming charge of an independent contingent was in 1807, at the capture of Kasur. This place had long been a thorn in the side of Ranjit Singh's power because of its proximity to his capital city of Lahore. It was captured in the fourth attempt. This attack was led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Jodh Singh Ramgarhia. During the campaign the Sardar showed remarkable bravery and dexterity. The Sardar was granted a "Jagir" in recognition of his services.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Ranjit Singh nominated Hari Singh Nalwa to take Sialkot from its ruler Jiwan Singh. This was his first battle under an independent command. The two armies were engaged for a couple of days, eventually seventeen year old Hari Singh carried the day. Nalwa lead the army to victory and planted the Sikh Flag on top of the fort.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The fort of Attock was a major replenishment point for all armies crossing the Indus. In the early 19th century, Afghan appointees of the Kingdom of Kabul held this fort, as they did most of the territory along this frontier. This battle was fought and won by the Sikhs on the banks of the Indus under the leadership of Dewan Mokham Chand, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's general, against Wazir Fatteh Khan and his brother Dost Mohammad Khan, on behalf of Shah Mahmud of Kabul. Besides Hari Singh Nalwa, Hukam Singh Attariwala, Shyamu Singh, Khalsa Fateh Singh Ahluwalia and Behmam Singh Malliawala actively participated in this battle. With the conquest of Attock, the adjoining regions of Hazara-i-Karlugh and Gandhgarh became tributary to the Sikhs. In 1815, Sherbaz Khan of Gandhgarh challenged Hari Singh Nalwa's authority and was defeated.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Sikhs made an attempt to take Kashmir soon after the Battle of Attock. The army was under the general command of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who camped at Rajauri. The troops were led towards Srinagar by Ram Dayal, grandson of Dewan Mokham Chand, while Jamadar Khushal Singh commanded the van, Hari Singh Nalwa and Nihal Singh Attariwala brought up the rear. Lack of provisions, delay in the arrival of reinforcements, bad weather and treachery of the allies lead to the Sikhs to retreat. The next few years were spent in subduing Muslim chiefs within the Kashmir territory, en route Srinagar Valley. In 1815–16, Hari Singh Nalwa attacked and destroyed the stronghold of the traitorous Rajauri chief.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In preparation of the conquest of the strongly fortified Mankera, Maharaja Ranjit Singh decided to approach it from its southern extremity. After the Baisakhi of 1816, Misr Diwan Chand, Illahi Bakhsh, Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, Nihal Singh Attariwala and Hari Singh Nalwa accompanied by seven paltans and the topkhana went towards Mahmudkot. When news of its conquest arrived, it left the Maharaja so elated at the success of Sikh arms that he celebrated this victory with the firing of cannons. Two years later, on their way to Multan, the Sikhs captured the forts of Khangarh and Muzzaffargarh.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The winter of 1810 saw a jubilant Sikh army stationed near Multan in the Bari Doab. They were riding high on the success of having conquered the Chuj Doab. The possession of the city of Multan was taken with little resistance; however, the fort could not be captured. The fort was bombarded and mined without effect. Sardar Nihal Singh Attariwala and the young Hari Singh Nalwa were seriously wounded. A fire pot thrown from the walls of the fort fell on Hari Singh and he was so badly burnt that it was some months before he was fit for service. Ranjit Singh was disconcerted beyond measure at the length of the siege and perforce had to abandon the attempt. Multan was finally conquered under the nominal command of Kharak Singh and the actual command of Misr Diwan Chand. It was a fiercely contested battle in which Muzzaffar Khan and his sons defended the place with exemplary courage, but they could not withstand the onslaught of the Sikhs. Hari Singh Nalwa was "chiefly instrumental" in the capture of the citadel.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: When Shah Mahmud's son, Shah Kamran, killed their Barakzai Vazir Fateh Khan in August 1818 the Sikhs took advantage of the resulting confusion and their army formally forded the Indus and entered Peshawar, the summer capital of the Kingdom of Kabul (modern-day Afghanistan), for the first time. Thereafter, Hari Singh Nalwa was deputed towards Peshawar in order to keep the Sikh "dabdaba kayam" — maintain the pressure.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In the beginning of 1819, Hari Singh accompanied Misr Diwan Chand to collect tribute from the Nawab of Mankera. On completion of the mission, Diwan Chand crossed the river Chenab along with his topkhana and set up his camp in Pindi Bhattian near Chiniot. He was asked to leave Hari Singh stationed in the suburbs of Nurpur and Mitha Tiwana. Hari Singh must have achieved significant success for soon thereafter the Maharaja bestowed all the possessions of the Tiwana chiefs in "jagir" on the Sardar.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In April 1819, the Sikh army marched towards Kashmir. On this occasion, Prince Kharak Singh held nominal command. Misr Diwan Chand led the vanguard, while Hari Singh Nalwa brought up the rear for the support of the leading troops. The third division, under the personal command of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, expedited supplies and conveyed these to the advance troops. On the morning of 5 July 1819, the Sikh columns advanced to the sound of bugles. A severe engagement took place between the two armies and the Sikhs captured Kashmir. Great rejoicing followed in the Sikh camp and the cities of Lahore and Amritsar were illuminated for three successive nights. Thus came to an end the five centuries of Muslim rule in Kashmir. Two years later, as Governor of Kashmir, Hari Singh Nalwa put down the rebellion of the most troublesome Khakha chief, Gulam Ali.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Under the Afghans, Hazara-i-Karlugh, Gandhgarh and Gakhar territory were governed from Attock. Kashmir collected the revenue from the upper regions of Pakhli, Damtaur and Darband. Numerous attempts by the Sikhs to collect revenue from Hazara-i-Karlugh not only met with failure, but also the loss of prominent Sikh administrators and commanders. Following the Sikh conquest of Kashmir, tribute was due from Pakhli, Damtaur, and Darband. On his return to the Punjab plains from the Kashmir Valley, Hari Singh and his companions followed the traditional "kafila" (caravan) route through Pakhli hoping to collect tribute from the region. The Sikh request for Nazrana resulted in the usual "fighting and mulcting"; the party however, was successful in their mission.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh's most spectacular success in the region of Hazara came two years later. On the successful conclusion of his governorship of Kashmir, he departed from the Valley and crossed the river Kishenganga at Muzaffarabad with 7000 foot soldiers. Hari Singh Nalwa traversed the hazardous mountainous terrain successfully, however when his entourage reached Mangal he found his passage opposed. Mangal, the ancient capital of Urasa was now the stronghold of the chief of the Jaduns who controlled the entire region of Damtaur. Hari Singh requested the tribesmen for a passage through their territory, but they demanded a tax on all the Kashmir goods and treasure he was taking with him. All trade "kafilas" routinely paid this toll. Hari Singh's claim that the goods he carried were not for trade purposes was not accepted. When parleying produced no result, a battle was to occur. Hari Singh then left to join forces with the Sikh army poised for an attack on Mankera, but after he had collected a fine from every house and built a fort in this vicinity.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Sindh Sagar Doab was chiefly controlled from Mankera and Mitha Tiwana. Nawab Hafiz Ahmed Khan, a relative of the Durranis, exerted considerable influence in this region. Besides Mankera, he commanded a vast area protected by 12 forts. With the weakening of Afghan rule in Kabul, the governors of Attock, Mankera, Mitha Tiwana and Khushab had declared their independence. Ranjit Singh celebrated the Dussehra of 1821 across the river Ravi, at Shahdera. Hari Singh, Governor of Kashmir, was most familiar with the territory that the Maharaja had now set his eyes on. Nalwa was summoned post-haste to join the Lahore Army already on its way towards the river Indus. The Maharaja and his army had crossed the Jehlum when Hari Singh Nalwa, accompanied by his Kashmir platoons, joined them at Mitha Tiwana. The Sikhs commenced offensive operations in early November.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Nawab Hafiz Ahmed's predecessor, Nawab Mohammed Khan, had formed a cordon around Mankera with 12 forts—Haidrabad, Maujgarh, Fatehpur, Pipal, Darya Khan, Khanpur, Jhandawala, Kalor, Dulewala, Bhakkar, Dingana and Chaubara. The Sikh army occupied these forts and soon the only place that remained to be conquered was Mankera itself. A few years earlier, the Nawab of Mankera had actively participated in the reduction of Mitha Tiwana. The Tiwanas, now feudatories of Hari Singh Nalwa, were eager participants in returning that favour to the Nawab. The force was divided into three parts—one column being under Hari Singh—and each column entered the Mankera territory by a different route; capturing various places en route all three columns rejoined near Mankera town. Mankera was besieged, with Nalwa's force being on the west of the fort.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Nawab was allowed to proceed towards Dera Ismail Khan, which was granted to him as "jagir". His descendants held the area until 1836.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Sikhs forayed into Peshawar for the first time in 1818, but did not occupy the territory. They were content with collecting tribute from Yar Mohammed, its Barakzai governor. Azim Khan, Yar Mohammed's half-brother in Kabul, totally disapproved of the latter's deference to the Sikhs and decided to march down at the head of a large force to vindicate the honour of the Afghans. Azim Khan wanted to avenge both, the supplication of his Peshawar brethren and the loss of Kashmir. Hari Singh Nalwa was the first to cross the Indus at Attock to the Sikh post of Khairabad; he was accompanied by Diwan Kirpa Ram and Khalsa Sher Singh, the Maharaja's teenaged son, beside 8,000 men.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Afghan army was expected near Nowshera, on the banks of the river Kabul (Landai). Hari Singh's immediate plan was to capture the Yusafzai stronghold to the north of the Landai at Jehangira, and the Khattak territory to its south at Akora Khattak. Jehangira was a masonry fort with very strong towers and the Afghan Yusafzais offered tough resistance. Hari Singh entered the fort and established his "thana" there. The remaining troops re-crossed the Landai River and returned to their base camp at Akora. Mohammed Azim Khan had encamped roughly ten miles north-west of Hari Singh's position, on the right bank of the Landai, facing the town of Nowshera, awaiting Ranjit Singh's approach. The Sikhs had scheduled two battles – one along either bank of the Landai.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: After Hari Singh had successfully reduced the Afghan tribal strongholds on either side of the river, Ranjit Singh departed from the fort of Attock. He crossed the Landai River at a ford below Akora, and set up his camp near the fort of Jehangira. The famous army commander Akali Phula Singh and Gurkha commander Bal Bahadur, with their respective troops, accompanied the Maharaja. The Afghan Barakzais witnessed the battle from across the river. They were not able to cross the Landai river. Eventually, the inheritors of Ahmed Shah Abdali's legacy withdrew from the area, toward the direction of Jalalabad.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Sirikot lay less than ten miles to the north-west of Haripur. This Mashwani village was strategically placed in a basin at the top of the north-east end of the Gandhgarh Range, which made its secure location a haven for the rebellious chiefs in the entire region. Hari Singh Nalwa went towards Sirikot before the rains of 1824. It was another six months before the attempt produced conclusive results. The Sardar almost lost his life in the course of this expedition. Ranjit Singh's military campaign for the winter of 1824 was scheduled towards Peshawar and Kabul. While stationed at Wazirabad, he received an arzi (written petition) from Sardar Hari Singh informing him that he and his men were overwhelmingly outnumbered – one Sikh to ten Afghans. Ranjit Singh marched to [Rohtas], from there to [Rawalpindi] and via [Sarai Kala] reached Sirikot. With news of the approach of the Sikh army, the Afghans withdrew.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The redeemer of the Yusafzais came in the form of one Sayyid Ahmad , who despite being a 'Hindki' was accepted as a leader by them. Budh Singh Sandhanwalia, accompanied by 4,000 horsemen, was deputed towards Attock to assist in suppressing the Yusafzai rebellion. The Maharaja's brief required him to thereafter to proceed towards Peshawar and collect tribute from Yar Mohammed Khan Barakzai. Budh Singh first heard of the Sayyid after he had crossed the Indus and encamped near the fort of Khairabad. Ranjit Singh was still on the sickbed when the news of the Sayyid's arrival, at the head of a large force of the Yusafzai peasantry, reached him. The gallantry of the Yusafzai defence in the Battle of Nowshera was still vivid in his mind. On receiving this news, he immediately put into motion all the forces that he could muster and immediately dispatched them towards the frontier.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Barakzais in Peshawar, though outwardly professing allegiance to the Sikhs, were in reality in league with the other Afghans. The Sayyid marched from Peshawar in the direction of Nowshera. Sardar Budh Singh wrote to the Sayyid seeking for a clarification of his intention. The Sayyid replied that he wished to first take the fort of Attock and then engage Budh Singh in battle.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa stood guard at the fort of Attock with the intention of keeping the Sayyid and his men from crossing the river until reinforcements arrived from Lahore. News had reached the Sikhs that the jihadis accompanying the Sayyid numbered several thousand. The battle between the Sayyid and the Sikhs was fought on 14 Phagun (23 February) 1827. The action commenced at about ten in the morning. The Muslim war cry of "Allah hu Akbar", or "God is the greatest", was answered by the Sikhs with "Bole so nihal, Sat Sri Akal", or "they who affirm the name of God, the only immortal truth, will find fulfilment". Ironically, the opposing forces first professed the glory of the very same God Almighty, albeit in different languages, before they commenced slaughtering each other. The cannonade lasted about two hours. The Sikhs charged at their opponents, routed them, and continued a victorious pursuit for six miles, taking all their guns, swivels and camp equipment. .


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The occupation of the great city of Peshawar and its ruinous fort, the Bala Hisar showered that it was a reflection of Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa's formidable reputation in the region. Masson arrived in Peshawar just in time to see the Sikhs take control of the city. His eyewitness' account reports that the Afghans withdrew from the region and Hari Singh Nalwa occupied Peshawar without conflict.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa was the governor of Peshawar when Dost Mohammed personally came at the head of a large force to challenge the Sikhs. Following his victory against Shah Shuja at Kandahar, in the first quarter of 1835, Dost Mohammed declared himself "padshah" (king), gave a call for jihad and set off from Kabul to wrest Peshawar from the Sikhs. Ranjit Singh directed his generals to amuse the Afghans with negotiations and to win over Sultan Mohammed Khan. He directed them that on no account, even if attacked, were they to enter into a general engagement until his arrival.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa and the other Sikh chieftains requested Ranjit Singh to permit them to engage with the Afghans. On 30 Baisakh (10 May 1835), Sardar Hari Singh, Raja Gulab Singh, Misr Sukh Raj, Sardar Attar Singh Sandhanwalia, Jamadar Khushal Singh, the Raja Kalan (Dhian Singh), Monsieur Court, Signor Avitabile, Sardar Tej Singh, Dhaunkal Singh, Illahi Bakhsh of the topkhana, Sardar Jawala Singh and Sardar Lehna Singh Majithia were ordered to move. The troops fanned out over five kos, forming a semicircle in front of the Amir's encampment. Sardar Hari Singh proposed that the water of the stream Bara, which flowed in the direction of Dost Mohammed Khan's camp, be dammed. When the Ghazis appeared, Sardar Hari Singh commenced firing his guns. The Maharaja, however, prohibited him from indulging in battle and dispatched his Vakils to negotiate with the Amir.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Dost Mohammed Khan was assured that the Sikhs would affect a truce until their Vakils were in his camp. He accused Fakir Aziz-ud-din of making "use of much language, having plenty of leaves but little fruit". On finding both his step brothers, Jabbar and Sultan, irredeemably lost to him, Dost Mohammed decided to retire from the field with the whole of his army, armament and equipage. He left at night, making sure that the Fakir did not return to the Sikh camp until after he had gone through the Khyber Pass.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In October 1836 following the Dussehra celebrations in Amritsar, Hari Singh made a sudden attack on the village of Jamrud, at the mouth of the Khyber Pass. The Misha Khel Khyberis, the owners of this village, were renowned for their excellent marksmanship and total lack of respect for any authority. Hari Singh Nalwa's first encounter with this tribe had taken place following the Battle of Nowshera when he had pursued the fleeing Azim Khan; and once again, when he chased Dost Mohammed Khan in 1835.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The occupation of Jamrud was rather strongly contested but it appeared that the place was taken by surprise. On its capture, Hari Singh Nalwa gave instructions to fortify the position without delay. A small existing fort was immediately put into repair. News of this event was immediately transmitted to Kabul. Masson informed Wade of the passage of events along this frontier in a letter dated 31 October 1836. With the conquest of Jamrud, at the very mouth of the Khyber, the frontier of the Sikh Empire now bordered the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The defeat of the Khyberis sent shock waves through the Afghans. Hari Singh Nalwa accompanied by Kanwar Sher Singh, now proceeded towards the Yusafzai strongholds, north-east of Peshawar, which had withheld tribute for three years. The Sikhs defeated the Yusafzais, with their chief, Fateh Khan of Panjtar, losing his territory. It was reported that 15,000 mulkia fled before the Sikhs, many being killed and the remaining taking refuge in the hills. After burning and levelling Panjtar to the ground, Hari Singh returned to Peshawar realising all the arrears of revenue. Fateh Khan was obliged to sign an agreement to pay tribute on which condition Panjtar was released. When news of the conquest of Panjtar reached the Court of Lahore, a display of fireworks was proposed.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Maharaja's grandson, Nau Nihal Singh was getting married in March 1837. Troops had been withdrawn from all over the Punjab to put up a show of strength for the British Commander-in-chief who was invited to the wedding. Dost Mohammed Khan had been invited to the great celebration. Hari Singh Nalwa too was supposed to be at Amritsar, but in reality was in Peshawar (some accounts say he was ill) Dost Mohammed had ordered his army to march towards Jamrud together with five sons and his chief advisors with orders not to engage with the Sikhs, but more as a show of strength and try and wrest the forts of Shabqadar, Jamrud and Peshawar. Hari Singh had also been instructed not to engage with the Afghans till reinforcements arrived from Lahore. Hari Singh's lieutenant, Mahan Singh, was in the fortress of Jamrud with 600 men and limited supplies. Hari Singh was in the strong fort of Peshawar. He was forced to go to the rescue of his men who were surrounded from every side by the Afghan forces, without water in the small fortress. Though the Sikhs were totally outnumbered, presence of Hari Singh Nalwa put the Afghan army into panic. In the melee, Hari Singh Nalwa was grievously wounded. Before he died, he told his lieutenant not to let the news of his death out till the arrival of reinforcements, which is what he did. While the Afghans knew that Hari Singh had been wounded, they waited for over a week doing nothing, till the news of his death was confirmed. The Afghans withdrew after witnessing Nalwa's body hung outside the fort. Hari Singh Nalwa had not only defended Jamrud and Peshawar, but had prevented the Afghans from ravaging the entire north-west frontier, in turn was not able to invade Afghanistan himself. The loss of Hari Singh Nalwa was irreparable and this Sikh defeat was costly for that precise reason.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The victories in battles that were achieved over the Afghans, were a favourite topic of conversation for Ranjit Singh. He was to immortalise these by ordering a shawl from Kashmir at the record price of Rs 5000, in which were depicted the scenes of the battles fought with them. Following the death of Hari Singh Nalwa, no further conquests were made in this direction. The Khyber Pass continued as the Sikh frontier till the annexation of the Punjab by the British.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh's administrative rule covered one-third of the Sikh Empire. He served as the Governor of Kashmir (1820–21), Greater Hazara (1822–1837) and was twice appointed the Governor of Peshawar (1834-5 & 1836-his death). He worked closely with 2nd in command of the Khalsa Army, the Hindu 'Raja Mahan Singh Mirpuri' on many affairs related to administration.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In his private capacity, Hari Singh Nalwa was required to administer his vast "jagir" spread all over the kingdom. He was sent to the most troublesome spots of the Sikh empire in order to "create a tradition of vigorous and efficient administration". The territories under his jurisdiction later formed part of the British Districts of Peshawar, Hazara (Pakhli, Damtaur, Haripur, Darband, Gandhgarh, Dhund, Karral and Khanpur), Attock (Chhachch, Hassan Abdal), Jehlum (Pindi Gheb, Katas), Mianwali (Kachhi), Shahpur (Warcha, Mitha Tiwana and Nurpur), Dera Ismail Khan (Bannu, Tank, and Kundi), Rawalpindi (Rawalpindi, Kallar) and Gujranwala. In 1832, at the specific request of William Bentinck, the Maharajah proposed a fixed table of duties for the whole of his territories. Sardar Hari Singh Nalwa was one of the three men deputed to fix the duties from Attock (on the Indus) to Filor (on the Satluj).


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In Kashmir, however, Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the "azaan", the public Muslim call to prayer. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: The Sikh rule in lands dominated for centuries by Muslims was an exception in the political history of the latter. To be ruled by 'kafirs' was the worst kind of ignominy to befall a Muslim. Before the Sikhs came to Kashmir (1819 CE), the Afghans had ruled it for 67 years. For the Muslims, Sikh rule was the darkest period of the history of the place, while for the Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) nothing was worse than the Afghan rule. The Sikh conquest of Kashmir was prompted by an appeal from its Hindu population. The oppressed Hindus had been subjected to forced conversions, their women raped, their temples desecrated, and cows slaughtered. Efforts by the Sikhs to keep peace in far-flung regions pressed them to close mosques and ban the call to prayer because the Muslim clergy charged the population to frenzy with a call for 'jihad' at every pretext. Cow-slaughter (Holy Cow) offended the religious sentiments of the Hindu population and therefore it met with capital punishment in the Sikh empire. In Peshawar, keeping in view "the turbulence of the lawless tribes ... and the geographical and political exigencies of the situation" Hari Singh's methods were most suitable.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In 1831, Hari Singh Nalwa was deputed to head a diplomatic mission to Lord William Bentinck, Governor-General of British India. The Ropar Meeting between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the head of British India followed soon thereafter. The Maharaja saw this as a good occasion to get his son, Kharak Singh, acknowledged as his heir-apparent. Hari Singh Nalwa expressed strong reservations against any such move. The British desired to persuade Ranjit Singh to open the Indus for trade.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Nalwa was also a builder. At least 56 buildings were attributed to him, which included forts, ramparts, towers, gurdwaras, tanks, "samadhis", temples, mosques, towns, "havelis", "sarais" and gardens. He built the fortified town of Haripur in 1822. This was the first planned town in the region, with a superb water distribution system. His very strong fort of Harkishengarh, situated in the valley at the foothill of mountains, had four gates. It was surrounded by a wall, four yards thick and 16 yards high. Nalwa's presence brought such a feeling of security to the region that when Hügel visited Haripur in 1835–6, he found the town humming with activity. A large number of Khatris migrated there and established a flourishing trade. Haripur, tehsil and district, in Hazara, North-West Frontier Province, are named after him.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Nalwa contributed to the prosperity of Gujranwala, which he was given as a "jagir" sometime after 1799, which he held till his death in 1837.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: He built all the main Sikh forts in the trans-Indus region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa — Jehangira and Nowshera on the left and right bank respectively of the river Kabul, Sumergarh (or Bala Hisar Fort in the city of Peshawar), for the Sikh Kingdom. In addition, he laid the foundation for the fort of Fatehgarh, at Jamrud (Jamrud Fort). He reinforced Akbar's Attock fort situated on the left bank of the river Indus by building very high bastions at each of the gates. He also built the fort of Uri in Kashmir.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: A religious man, Nalwa built Gurdwara Panja Sahib in the town of Hassan Abdal, south-west of Haripur and north-west of Rawalpindi, to commemorate Guru Nanak's journey through that region. He had donated the gold required to cover the dome of the Akal Takht within the Harmandir Sahib complex in Amritsar.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Following Hari Singh Nalwa's death, his sons Jawahir Singh Nalwa and Arjan Singh Nalwa fought against the British to protect the sovereignty of the Kingdom of the Sikhs, with the former being noted for his defence in the Battle of Chillianwala.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa Sahib was severely wounded while fighting the forces of Dost Mohammed Khan of Afghanistan. He died of his injuries and was cremated in the Jamrud Fort built at the mouth of the Khyber Pass in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Babu Gajju Mall Kapur, a Hindu resident of Peshawar, commemorated his memory by building a memorial in the fort in 1892.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa's life became a popular theme for martial ballads. His earliest biographers were poets, including Qadir Bakhsh urf Kadaryar, Misr Hari Chand urf Qadaryaar and Ram Dayal, all in the 19th century.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: In the 20th century, the song "Mere Desh Ki Dharti" from the 1967 Bollywood film "Upkaar" eulogises him. Amar Chitra Katha first published the biography of Hari Singh Nalwa in 1978 (see List of Amar Chitra Katha comics).


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: On 30 April 2013 the Indian Minister of Communications Kapil Sibal released a commemorative postage stamp honouring Hari Singh.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: "Hari Singh Nalwa Champion of the Khalsaji 1791–1837", a biography by Vanit Nalwa – a direct descendant of the general – was published in 2013. It is being adapted into an Indian feature film by Prabhleen Kaur of Almighty Motion Picture.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: A commemorative postage stamp was issued by the Government of India in 2013, marking the 176th anniversary of Nalwa's death.


title: Hari Singh Nalwa

text: Hari Singh Nalwa is the subject of Punjabi singer Sidhu Moose Wala's song, Vaar. The song was released on November 8, 2022, to align with the 553rd birth anniversary of Guru Nanak. The song marked Sidhu's second posthumous release, and garnered 1.5 million Youtube views within the first 30 minutes of its release.


title: Armistice Day

text: Armistice Day, later known as Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth and Veterans Day in the United States, is commemorated every year on 11 November to mark the armistice signed between the Allies of World War I and Germany at Compiègne, France, at 5:45 am for the cessation of hostilities on the Western Front of World War I, which took effect at eleven in the morning—the "eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month" of 1918. But, according to Thomas R. Gowenlock, an intelligence officer with the U.S. First Division, shelling from both sides continued for the rest of the day, ending only at nightfall. The armistice initially expired after a period of 36 days and had to be extended several times. A formal peace agreement was reached only when the Treaty of Versailles was signed the following year.


title: Armistice Day

text: The date is a national holiday in France, and was declared a national holiday in many Allied nations. However, many Western countries and associated nations have since changed the name of the holiday from Armistice Day, with member states of the Commonwealth of Nations adopting Remembrance Day, and the United States government opting for Veterans Day. In some countries Armistice Day coincides with other public holidays.