title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: Scholars have noted that this story appears to be modelled on a standard betrothal 'type scene' from Hebrew scripture, particularly that of Jacob in Genesis 29. This convention, which would have been familiar to Jewish readers, following on from an earlier scene in which John the Baptist compares his relationship to Jesus with that of the friend of a bridegroom. Jo-Ann A. Brant, for example, concludes that there is "near consensus among literary critics that the scene at Jacob’s well follows conventions of the betrothal type-scene found in Hebrew narrative." Other scholars note significant differences between John 4 and betrothal type-scenes in the Hebrew Bible. For example, Dorothy A. Lee lists several discrepancies between Hebrew betrothal scenes and John 4: “the Samaritan woman is not a young Jewish virgin and no betrothal takes place; the well is not concerned with sexual fertility but is an image of salvation (see Isa. 12:3); Jesus is presented not as a bridegroom but as giver of living water.”


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: This Gospel episode is referred to as "a paradigm for our engagement with truth", in the Roman Curia book "A Christian reflection on the New Age", as the dialogue says: "You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know" and offers an example of "Jesus Christ the bearer of the water of life". The passages that comprise are sometimes referred to as the Water of Life Discourse, which forms a complement to the Bread of Life Discourse.


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: Consider the excellence of this living water, which is Divine grace, and which Christ promises to His faithful servants. " He that shall drink of the water that I will give him, shall not thirst forever." It quenches, therefore, forever, the thirst of the soul, and satisfies it. The soul then no longer thirsts after earthly waters, that is, the pleasures of this world. It becomes a fountain of all good to the soul, ever flowing and giving merit to our actions. " It springs up to everlasting life" (John iv. 14), elevating our thoughts to heaven and heavenly joys, of which it is a pledge. Say, therefore, with the Samaritan woman, " Give me this water, that I may not thirst."


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: In Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, she is venerated as a saint with the name Photine (), meaning "luminous [one]".


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: In Eastern Christian tradition, the woman's name at the time of her meeting Jesus is unknown, though she was later baptized "Photine". She is celebrated as a saint of renown. As further recounted in and , she was quick to spread the news of her meeting with Jesus, and through this many came to believe in him. Her continuing witness is said to have brought so many to the Christian faith that she is described as "equal to the apostles". Eventually, having drawn the attention of Emperor Nero, she was brought before him to answer for her faith, suffering many tortures and dying a martyr after being thrown down a dry well. She is remembered on the Sunday four weeks after Pascha, which is known as "the Sunday of the Samaritan Woman".


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: In Oaxaca, Oaxaca, Mexico, a celebration of the Samaritan woman takes place on the fourth Friday of Lent. The custom of the day involves churches, schools, and businesses giving away fruit drinks to passers-by.


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: Photini, The Samaritan Woman is honored with a Lesser Feast on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America on February 26.


title: Samaritan woman at the well

text: The Samaritan woman is played by Vanessa DeSilvio in the multi-season show on the life of Christ, The Chosen. Her meeting with Jesus concludes the first season. In the beginning of season 2, she is seen again, eagerly telling everyone around her about Jesus.


title: United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia

text: While all Air Force military personnel are referred to as "airmen", it can specifically refer to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level of non-commissioned officers (NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into "NCOs" (E-5 and E-6) and "senior NCOs" (E-7 through E-9); the term "junior NCO" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (E-5 and E-6).


text: The Air Force is the only one of the five branches of the United States military where NCO status is now only achieved at the grade of E-5. Formerly, the grade of sergeant was obtained after a time as a senior airman and successful completion of the Air Force NCO School. In all other branches, NCO status can be achieved at the grade of E-4 (a corporal in the Army and Marine Corps, petty officer third class in the Navy and Coast Guard). However, E-4s in the Army with the rank of specialist are not NCOs. The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 2 May 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (informally referred to as a "buck sergeant") which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completed Airman Leadership School can be a supervisor.


text: Although the United States Air Force came into being as an independent uniformed service with the National Security Act of 1947, it retained the United States Army Air Forces rank structure and corresponding insignia of years past. This rank structure provided for seven enlisted ranks: private, private first class, corporal/technician fifth grade, sergeant/technician fourth grade, staff sergeant/technician third grade, technical sergeant, and master sergeant/first sergeant. Additionally, Air Force personnel were still referred to as "soldiers". During World War II, many USAAF NCOs wore the Army Air Corps branch insignia of the winged propeller underneath their chevrons.


text: Changes to the rank structure were proposed almost immediately, but did not start occurring until the next year. In late 1947 and early 1948, new chevron designs were tested at Bolling Air Force Base. The style preferred was the one used today, the inverted chevron. Air Force Chief of Staff General Hoyt Vandenberg approved the new chevron on 9 March 1948. A new Air Force "Uxbridge blue" uniform, silver-gray-on-blue-backing stripes, and black leather boots replaced the U.S. Army Air Corps' olive drab uniform, olive drab-on-dark-blue-backing stripes, and russet leather boots in 1949. Old russet leather gear items like boots and holsters were re-dyed and polished black. Air Force personnel were allowed to wear their old World War II-pattern uniforms and rank insignia until July 1952. Recolored Army "hash marks" and overseas service bars were worn on the uniform until 1957.


text: Although the new chevrons were approved, the titles did not change. Two years passed before General Vandenberg, in February 1950, ordered all enlisted personnel in the Air Force be referred to as "airman" (singular) and "airmen" (plural) rather than "soldiers". A further two years would go by while the enlisted rank structure was studied and changes proposed. The end results finally became effective on 24 April 1952 with the release of a revised Air Force Regulation (AFR) 39–36. This revision changed the names of the enlisted ranks to basic airman, airman third class, airman second class, airman first class (with resultant loss of NCO status that was not restored until 1967), staff sergeant, technical sergeant and master sergeant.


text: With the new titles came a proposal for new rank insignia for airman third class through airman first class. The proposed insignia had horizontal stripes for airman third class through airman first class while NCOs kept their inverted chevrons. The purpose of the two different types of insignia was to more readily differentiate the airman and NCO tiers while increasing the prestige of the latter. These were not approved at the time of the release of the revised regulation. When they were finally approved by General Vandenberg in December 1952, procurement of these stripes was deferred until approximately June 1955. This change was eventually reversed, on 12 March 1956, by General Vandenberg's successor, General Twining. On 20 September 2021, the United States Space Force released several media graphics depicting the new rank insignia for enlisted personnel. The information sheets described the designs for the enlisted ranks took inspiration from Vandenberg's proposals from 1952, noted as "Vandenberg Stripes".


text: During his tenure, General Twining also approved the diamond insignia for first sergeants. This became available on 21 September 1955. With this approval, the foundations of the first seven ranks and insignia the Air Force uses today were in place.


text: The next major change came with the Military Pay Act of 1958. This established the pay grades of E-8 and E-9 but without corresponding rank titles. The titles of senior master sergeant and chief master sergeant were chosen between July and December 1958 after comments were solicited from the major Air Force commands of the day. After much discussion, the insignia for these two ranks were designed by simply adding one and two chevrons to the top of the master sergeant insignia (for E-8 and E-9 respectively), each stripe pointing up.


text: The rank of basic airman was renamed to airman basic on 5 February 1959, still with no insignia attached.


text: The next series of changes to Air Force enlisted ranks did not occur for almost eight years. In January 1967 the position of Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force was created. This position gained its own special insignia, the chief master sergeant chevrons with a wreath encircling the center star. On 1 August 1967 the lower enlisted rank names changed (revised AFR 39–36 on 19 October 1967) renamed to airman third class, airman second class and airman first class to airman, airman first class and sergeant (known unofficially as "buck sergeant" by the NCO ranks at the time) respectively. This returned sergeant to the rank structure as the first step in the NCO tier as a retention move but required achievement of a 5-skill Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) level. No changes to the respective insignias were made.


text: In a 30 December 1975, directive the grade of sergeant was split into two separate ranks while retaining the grade of E-4. Senior airman was the last junior enlisted tier rank while sergeant remained the first rank in the NCO tier. The impetus behind this was to laterally promote senior E-4 airmen who were ready for NCO responsibilities but not prepared to take on the role of a staff sergeant. This permitted airmen who had not yet reached the AFSC 5-skill level to achieve the pay grade of E-4. To differentiate the two ranks, the directive changed the silver star in the center of airman, airman first class and senior airman changed to blue while the star on sergeant chevrons remained silver. Having two ranks within one grade mirrored the Army's specialist/corporal division of E-4. This dual role lasted until March 1991, when then Chief of Staff General McPeak terminated the rank of sergeant effective 2 May 1991. This termination was due in part to the manning reductions that occurred in the post–Cold War drawdowns of the early 1990s. The last of the "buck sergeants" would have either been promoted or discharged under High Year Tenure by December 1998.


text: The year 1991 also saw the last major change to the enlisted rank insignia. In October 1991 General McPeak and Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force Pfingston announced that the senior NCO tier would have new chevron layouts and that all chevrons would have a white star in the center. The change in senior NCO chevrons was the first since chevrons came into being in 1948. Until that time, master sergeant had been composed of six inverted chevrons (six down) with none pointing up, senior master sergeant six down with one up and chief master sergeant six down with two up. The new layout changed the insignia to the current layout (see chart above). The second change, changing the star color to white, was actually two changes in one. It added a star to the airman through senior airman rank insignias where there had been none since 1 June 1976 (the blue star carried by these chevrons was the same color as the blue in the stripes giving the impression that the star was not there) and changing the silver star on the NCO and senior NCO chevrons to white.


text: In November 1998, the duty position of senior enlisted advisor was changed to command chief master sergeant. Along with the change, the addition of a star in the empty blue area between the chevrons was added to denote those holding this position.


text: In November 2004, the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force insignia was updated to include the Great Seal of the United States with a white star on either side. These additions were placed in the empty blue area between the chevrons.


text: In December 2019, the duty position of senior enlisted advisor to the chairman (SEAC) was given a unique rank insignia. Air Force Chief Master Sgt. Ramon Colon-Lopez, the fourth senior enlisted advisor to the chairman, is to be the first to wear the new Air Force version of the insignia.


text: Former military enlisted personnel from E-4 up may choose to retain their grade as senior members in the Civil Air Patrol, with grades E-5 (CAP staff sergeant) through E-9 (CAP chief master sergeant) available. Former CAP national commander, Major Gen Carr, unveiled plans to restructure the CAP NCO program to allow individuals to "enlist" as NCOs and progress through a specific professional development program. According to an air force article on the subject, "The current design of the NCO corps in the CAP only allows former active-duty NCOs to be a part of the corps, with no upgrade training for promotion within the ranks. The newly signed corps structure will mirror the Air Force NCO force structure with an established process to promote and develop NCOs." By 2018 a professional development and promotion pathway was in place for former military enlisted personnel who joined CAP at their previous rank.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "Happier Than Ever" is a song by American singer-songwriter Billie Eilish from her 2021 second studio album of the same name. It was released as the album's sixth single on July 30, 2021, through Darkroom and Interscope Records. An emo, pop-punk, and blue-eyed soul song with elements of jazz, it is about Eilish's anger towards a former partner due to a toxic relationship. It opens with soft vocals backed by classical and bass guitars, and transitions into a distorted pop-punk and rock production with electric guitars and snare drums midway. She wrote the song with its producer, Finneas O'Connell, after completing the American leg of her When We All Fall Asleep Tour (2019).


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Upon release, many music journalists lauded "Happier Than Ever" as an album highlight. Critics praised Eilish's vocal performance, which they perceived as cathartic and louder than her previous work, as well as its rock-infused production. Multiple publications such as "Billboard", "Pitchfork", and "Rolling Stone" listed it as one of her best songs to date. At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, it received four nominations, including Record of the Year and Song of the Year. It won the latter category at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards. "Happier Than Ever" peaked at number 11 and number 6 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and Global 200 charts, respectively.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: The music video for "Happier Than Ever" premiered the same day as the single's release. In it, Eilish performs the song through a telephone conversation, after which she climbs a rooftop and dances in the rain. She performed the song live at television shows, such as "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" in 2021, and at the 2022 Coachella and Glastonbury festivals. Eilish included performances of it in and a world tour in support of the album.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Billie Eilish won five awards at the 62nd annual ceremony of the Grammy Awards for her debut studio album "When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?" (2019) and its single "Bad Guy". An avant-pop album with a horror-like atmosphere and whispery vocals, it debuted atop record charts in various countries and brought Eilish to mainstream fame. Her soft singing style became recognized as her signature sound.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: In a January 2020 interview, Eilish stated she would begin working on her second studio album during the year. Her brother Finneas O'Connell confirmed this during a March 2020 interview, stating that it would be "pretty pure in its intention" and something that they would appreciate making and performing live. Eilish released the singles "My Future" and "Therefore I Am" in 2020. Eilish confirmed in February 2021 that she had worked on 16 tracks for the project, and she cited self-reflection and life during the COVID-19 pandemic as her biggest inspirations. During a cover story for "Rolling Stone", she prefaced that "almost none of the songs on this album are joyful".


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "Happier Than Ever" was the first song Eilish and Finneas wrote for her second studio album of the same name, initially titled "Away from Me". In the summer of 2019, after completing the American leg of her When We All Fall Asleep Tour, Eilish flew to Middelfart with Finneas. They wrote the melody for the song's first chorus on a cheap $80 guitar, and a lyric about a situation Eilish was going through: "When I'm away from you, I'm happier than ever." The two picked the song back up eight months later upon beginning work for the album, and completed it in May or June 2020. Finneas wanted the style to be dynamic and propel Eilish's emotionality instead of overshadowing it. He used plugins to add texture to the acoustic intro of "Happier Than Ever", and Eilish digitally edited her own vocal takes for its vocal programming.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: The song was first used in the 2021 documentary film "", where its lyrics "when I'm away from you, I'm happier than ever, wish I could explain it better. Wish it wasn't true" were revealed. During an interview with NPR, Eilish commented that it was one of the most important songs she had written. She explained that the recording process felt like finding the best way to tell a person something she wished to tell them for a while: "You don't really know what you want to say or how to say it — and then maybe you have a conversation with somebody else, or you think a little bit about it, and you figure out what it is..."


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "Happier Than Ever" is a sentimental power ballad. Music journalists classified it as emo, pop-punk, and blue-eyed soul. Others wrote that the song incorporates arena rock, alternative rock, and grunge elements. "Billboard" writer Glenn Rowley described its musical style as "genre-shifting".


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: With a duration of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, "Happier Than Ever" is the longest song in Eilish's discography. The song opens with sparse acoustic instrumentation, as Eilish sings softly over a classical guitar. The bass in its second verse evokes annoyance according to MTV News's Athena Serrano. Around its third verse, "Happier Than Ever" transitions into a distorted pop-punk and rock production. During the stylistic change, crashing snare drums and electric guitars can be heard in the background. In an act of catharsis, Eilish continues the song by yelling some of its lyrics to express her pain, with a multitracking technique applied to her voice.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Multiple critics noted that Eilish's screams and Finneas's rock-infused production marked a significant departure from both of their previous musical styles. Lindsay Zoladz of "The New York Times" wrote that "Happier Than Ever" showcases Eilish at her loudest yet. Eilish described the song: "[It was] probably the most therapeutic song I've ever written or recorded, like ever, ever, ever, 'cause I just screamed my lungs out and could barely talk afterwards, which was very satisfying to me somehow. I had wanted to get those screams out for a very long time and it was very nice to."


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: According to a comment Eilish made on "The World's a Little Blurry", "Happier Than Ever" is about "nothing even specific that they did, you’re just not happy being with them. You can't even explain it". Like other tracks in the album, the song's themes include growing up and healing as time passes. The lyrics to "Happier Than Ever" recount Eilish's experiences with an unhealthy, failed romantic relationship. The track is a "kiss-off" directed at her former partner, whom she condemns for committing several misdeeds—gaslighting her, showing up late to meetings with her, and driving home while drunk. The song begins with the gently-delivered lines "When I'm away from you / I'm happier than ever", and it culminates with Eilish shouting "just fucking leave me alone".


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Eilish teased an upcoming release in April 2021, posting "things are comingggg" on her Instagram account. One week later, on April 26, she released a 15-second long snippet of "Happier Than Ever" on her Instagram account, featuring visuals of her sitting in a chair with her back to the camera. "DIY" described the clip as "stripped-back", speculating that it is "welcoming Billie's brand new era". The song was released alongside the album on July 30, 2021, as its sixth single. An edit comprising only its second part was released for digital download and streaming on September 4, 2021, and a different radio edit was solicited to contemporary hit radio in Italy six days later.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Many music reviewers, lauded "Happier Than Ever" as the album's standout song. Critics who dubbed the song a highlight included "Consequence" Mary Siroky, "Pitchfork" Quinn Moreland, and "Complex" Jessica McKinney. Jason Lipshutz, a staff editor for "Billboard", thought that it "best captures the essence of the album" due to demonstrating Eilish's songwriting and vocal talents, which he believed was a defiance of traditional expectations from pop music. In an article for "NME", El Hunt argued that Eilish's performance in the song offered powerful emotional impact and proved that her voice had improved throughout the years. Evaluating the album for "Stereogum", Tom Breihan opined that "Happier Than Ever" provided it with the "only real moment of greatness, and he lamented that the rest of its tracks were not as vocally loud and cathartic. "Insider" Callie Ahlgrim, who dubbed "Happier Than Ever" as the best song in Eilish's discography to date, shared a similar opinion: "Eilish fully casts aside her cool-girl exterior and just f---ing goes for it. I only wish she'd done that more."


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "The Line of Best Fit"s Matthew Kent viewed the transition of "Happier Than Ever" as "the album's biggest surprise", and noted its second part as "not only a highlight of the album but a highlight of Eilish's entire discography thus far", which proved Eilish could achieve pop radio hits if she pleased. Tim Sentz of "Beats Per Minute" called the song an "'S-tier' level Eilish track", and opined that, while Eilish sounds like she needs an exorcism, it perfectly captures her appeal and personality. Zoladz thought the song is the album's "most exhilarating moment" and a "disarmingly earnest torrent of bottled-up grievances", a full display of Eilish's versatility. Writing for "The Guardian", Alexis Petridis deemed "Happier Than Ever" a "discomfiting and alienating" track, which gets nearest amongst the album tracks to replicating the "sonic firework display" of "Bury a Friend" (2019).


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: In 2022, "Rolling Stone" and "NME" ranked "Happier Than Ever" as Eilish's best song ever. The former magazine's Brittany Spanos stated that the song is "pure angst and a departure [from her] usually cool-headed" demeanor, and likened its beginning to a lamb and its outro to "a whole pack of lions". Thomas Smith of "NME" named it "the quintessential Billie Eilish song" and a "crowning glory of a song", which listeners would feel like singing "at the top of [their] lungs", but never quite be able to. For MTV Australia, Jackson Langford honed "Happier Than Ever" as her second-best song and a "volcanic outpour of anger and emotion", noting it replaced any previous release that may have contended as "the song that would define Billie Eilish's artistry and career". "Uproxx"s Rachel Brodsky placed the song 11th in Eilish's discography.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "Happier Than Ever" received several awards and nominations. The song was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Song of Summer in 2021, and Best Pop, Best Direction, Best Visual Effects, and Song of the Year at the 2022 ceremony, winning the latter. It additionally earned nominations for Best Music Video at the NME Awards 2022, and Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Music Video, and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: "Happier Than Ever" debuted at its peak position of number 11 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart issue for August 14, 2021, spending 26 weeks on the chart. It topped the US Hot Rock & Alternative Songs chart, becoming her second number-one there after "My Future". This made Eilish the second woman to have multiple number-one songs on the chart, with Taylor Swift as the first. The song charted at number six on the Canadian Hot 100, Eilish's seventh to reach the top 10. It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart in the United Kingdom, and earned a Platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry in March 2022. In Australia, "Happier Than Ever" reached number three on the ARIA Singles Chart, becoming Eilish's 13th song to make the top 10. The Australian Recording Industry Association certified it 3× Platinum in July 2022. The song charted at number four on the New Zealand Singles Chart, giving Eilish her 12th top-10 in New Zealand. "Happier Than Ever" received a 2× Platinum certification from Recorded Music NZ in September 2022.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Elsewhere, the song peaked within the top 10 of national record charts: number 2 in Malaysia; number 3 in Ireland; number 4 in Greece; number 5 in Norway, and Singapore; number 6 in Portugal; number 8 in both Lithuania and South Africa; and number 10 in both Hungary and Slovakia; It earned a 2× Platinum certification in Portugal, Platinum in Greece, and Gold in Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, and Spain. Worldwide, "Happier Than Ever" entered at number 6 and number 8 on the Global 200 and the Global Excl. US, respectively—its peak positions in those charts. During its opening week, it earned 36.6 million streams from outside the US.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Eilish directed the music video for "Happier Than Ever", which accompanied its release. She announced it on Instagram: "This is my favorite ... video ever." The video comprises two parts. In the former, Eilish walks back and forth in a glitzy room and performs the song over a vintage landline telephone, to a former partner. In the second part, she opens the door and water rushes in. It ends with Eilish dancing on the roof mid-downpour and being completely submerged into the water. "Vulture"s Justin Curto described it as "a flood of emotion to match that glorious guitar breakdown". Ellie Robinson of "NME" praised the video as a "poignant film clip", and "Billboard"s Hannah Dailey opined its transition encapsulates breaking in the "facade of serenity" and that "instead of cowering there, she embraces the wrath of the storm".


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: The first live performance of "Happier Than Ever" occurred at "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" on August 10, 2021. Eilish sang in front of clouds and flashing lights that gave the impression of a storm, joined by a drummer and Finneas on the guitar. She and Finneas reprised "Happier Than Ever" for "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" on top of The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel on October 14, and at "Saturday Night Live" on December 11, where they performed it alongside "Male Fantasy" (2021). Eilish was accompanied by the fictional character Count von Count during a numbers-themed rendition of the song for "Sesame Street", which premiered on November 9, 2021. The following month, she visited the "World Cafe" radio program to sing "Happier Than Ever" alongside three other tracks from the album: "Billie Bossa Nova", "Goldwing", and "Halley's Comet".


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Eilish included a performance of the song in her concert film "", released to Disney+ on September 3, 2021. She added it on the set list of a 2022–2023 world tour in support of the album, and sang the song as a closing number on April 16 for that year's Coachella festival, amid gusts of wind from a dust storm. The next week at Coachella, she paired up with Hayley Williams, the vocalist of the band Paramore. Finneas accompanied the two as they performed Paramore's "Misery Business" (2007), followed by "Happier Than Ever". On June 24, 2022, Eilish headlined the year's Glastonbury Festival in the UK, becoming the youngest artist to do so. She concluded her appearance with a live rendition of "Happier Than Ever", accompanied by pyrotechnics.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: At the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, Eilish performed the song live with Finneas. She began by singing inside an upside-down model of a house, donning a shirt which paid tribute to Taylor Hawkins, who had died earlier in the week. Eilish climbed atop the roof and banged her head while Finneas played the guitar; the performance concluded with thunder and lightning striking as rain poured down the stage. "USA Today"s Marco della Cava listed it among the night's most memorable moments, and the staff of "The New York Times" complimented Eilish's vocals and described the performance as "too raw to feel petty", noting that it "injected some much-needed feeling into the first half of the show". On July 30, 2022, in celebration of the album's one-year anniversary, Eilish and Finneas headed for the Amoeba Music record store in Hollywood to perform "Happier Than Ever", along with three other songs.


title: Happier Than Ever (song)

text: Kelly Clarkson performed a live cover of "Happier Than Ever" on "The Kelly Clarkson Show" on September 30, 2021. Its studio version, released on May 25, 2022, was later used as the lead single from her seventh extended play "Kellyoke" (2022). Canadian singer Shawn Mendes and Japanese-British singer-songwriter Rina Sawayama covered the song for BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge in 2021 and 2022, respectively. Mendes sang its first half with mellow vocals while playing an acoustic guitar, and the rest on an electric guitar with fervid vocal runs and high notes, while Sawayama performed an alt-rock version she described as "a little darker ... [and] moodier" than Eilish's original version. Black Country, New Road did a cover of "Happier Than Ever" at a concert on September 5, 2022.


title: Helen Mirren on screen and stage

text: Dame Helen Mirren is an English actor known for her prolific career in film, television, and on stage.


title: When We First Met

text: When We First Met is a 2018 American romantic comedy film directed by Ari Sandel, written by John Whittington, and starring Adam DeVine, Alexandra Daddario, Shelley Hennig, Andrew Bachelor and Robbie Amell. It was released worldwide on Netflix on February 9, 2018.


title: When We First Met

text: Noah Ashby is in love with beautiful Avery Martin after meeting her at a 2014 Halloween party, but she regards him as a friend. Avery meets her fiancé, Ethan, the day after she and Noah met. Three years later, Noah remains distraught at not having been able to win her over.


title: When We First Met

text: When he becomes intoxicated at Ethan and Avery's engagement party, Noah winds up in the photo booth he used with her on their first meeting and drunkenly operates it before falling asleep. Awakening in bed, Noah discovers the photo booth brought him back to the day they met and he resolves to change the events of the day to ensure he and Avery end up together.


title: When We First Met

text: Noah uses his pre-existing knowledge of Avery to his advantage in his first attempt to win her over, but Avery and her roommate Carrie Grey suspect him of being a stalker, and he returns to a new version of 2017 where he and Avery do not know each other. For his second attempt traveling back to 2014, Noah follows his friend Max's advice of being a rude alpha male and successfully beds Avery, but he develops a self-absorbed personality and when he returns to the present, his relationship with Avery is purely sexual.


title: When We First Met

text: Recognizing that Avery and Ethan are still attracted to each other, Noah has a conversation with Carrie and deduces that Avery is attracted to stable and dependable men. Noah gets a job at Max's company and presents himself in a more mature manner to Avery for his third attempt. When he returns to 2017, he and Avery live in a big house and are engaged.


title: When We First Met

text: However, his friendship with Max has soured because he took the senior vice president position that Max was working towards, his job commitments prevent him from spending time with Avery, and Ethan is now distraught over Avery marrying someone else. Following another conversation with Carrie, Noah recognizes that Avery does not love him and she is meant to be with Ethan. He also realizes that, having bonded with Carrie during his time travel adventures, he is meant to be with her.


title: When We First Met

text: Traveling back to 2014 for a fourth time, Noah arranges for Avery and Ethan to meet at the Halloween party while he pursues Carrie, whom he discovers he has more in common with than Avery. His actions restore Ethan and Avery's engagement and his friendship with Max, but Noah learns that he did not win Carrie's love and she resumed dating her ex-boyfriend, Phil. Noah finally realizes that he needed to first become friends with Avery in order to meet Carrie, and he travels back one last time to meet Avery the way he did originally. With the present fully restored, Noah initiates a conversation with Carrie at the engagement party and the two begin their own relationship.


title: When We First Met

text: In May 2016, Ari Sandel was set to direct the film from a script by John Whittington and Adam DeVine, while producers on the film are Adam Saunders of Footprint Features, Mason Novick of MXN Entertainment, with Mary Viola and McG of Wonderland Sound and Vision.


title: When We First Met

text: On the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The critical consensus reads: "Much like its protagonist, "When We First Met" struggles in the cinematic 'friend zone' -- and will face a slew of viewer breakups before finding much in the way of true love." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on six critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: When We First Met

text: "Decider" writer Lea Palmeri said, "DeVine's ability to be charming and endearing shouldn't be underestimated here and you'll be rooting for him before you know it." Ravi Teja of "Age of the Nerd" stated that he "carries the whole movie on his shoulders with perfection."


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: USS "Samuel B. Roberts" (DE-413) was a destroyer escort of the United States Navy that served in World War II , the first of three U.S. Navy ships to bear the name.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Samuel B. Roberts" was named after Coxswain Samuel Booker Roberts, Jr., a Navy Cross recipient, who had been commended for voluntarily steering a Higgins boat towards enemy forces at Guadalcanal, in order to divert fire from evacuation efforts being undertaken by other friendly vessels. She was nicknamed the "Sammy B" or "Sam Buca" (after the popular Italian spirit), .


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Samuel B. Roberts" was sunk in the Battle off Samar, in which a small force of U.S. warships prevented a superior Imperial Japanese Navy force from attacking the amphibious invasion fleet off the Philippine island of Leyte. The ship was part of a relatively light flotilla of destroyers, destroyer escorts, and escort carriers called "Taffy 3" which was inadvertently left to fend off a fleet of heavily armed Japanese battleships, cruisers, and destroyers off the island of Samar during the Battle off Samar, one of the engagements making up the larger Battle of Leyte Gulf of October 1944.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: Steaming through incoming shells, "Samuel B. Roberts" scored one torpedo hit and several shell hits on larger enemy warships before she was sunk. After the battle, "Samuel B. Roberts" received the appellation "the destroyer escort that fought like a battleship." As of June 2022, she is the deepest shipwreck discovered. Her last known survivor died on 20 March 2022.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Samuel B. Roberts" was laid down on 6 December 1943, by the Brown Shipbuilding Company of Houston, Texas. She was launched on 20 January 1944, sponsored by the namesake's mother, Mrs. Anna Roberts. She was commissioned on 28 April 1944, commanded by Lieutenant Commander Robert W. Copeland, USNR


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Samuel B. Roberts" had a shakedown cruise off Bermuda from 21 May to 19 June 1944. After spending time at the Boston Navy Yard, "Roberts" departed for Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 July. Later that day, the ship presumably struck a whale, which bent her starboard propeller. Repairs were completed by 11 July. "Roberts" departed Norfolk on 22 July, going through the Panama Canal on 27 July. She joined the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on 10 August.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: She conducted training exercises around the Hawaiian Islands then steamed out on 21 August with a convoy reaching Eniwetok Atoll on 30 August. On 2 September, "Roberts" returned to Pearl Harbor, with a convoy arriving on 10 September. Following further training, the destroyer escort got underway on 21 September, escorted a convoy to Eniwetok, and arrived on 30 September.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Roberts" next proceeded to Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands of the Southwest Pacific and then joined Task Unit 77.4.3, nicknamed "Taffy 3". From there she steamed to the Leyte Gulf area off the eastern Philippines. On arrival, she commenced operations with the Northern Air Support Group off the Island of Samar.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: Shortly after dawn on 25 October, "Samuel B. Roberts" was protecting Taffy 3's escort carriers whose aircraft were supporting the Army assault. The warships were steaming off the eastern coast of Samar when the Japanese Center Force, a 23-ship task force under the command of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, appeared on the horizon and opened fire. At 07:35, "Roberts" turned and headed toward the heavy cruiser .


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: The commanding officer, Copeland, announced "We're making a torpedo run. The outcome is doubtful, but we will do our duty." With smoke as cover, "Roberts" steamed to within of "Chōkai", coming under fire from the cruiser's forward guns.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Roberts" had moved so close that the enemy guns could not depress enough to hit her and when in torpedo range, "Roberts" launched three Mark 15 torpedoes, with one blowing off "Chōkai"s stern. "Roberts" fought with the Japanese ships for a further hour, firing more than six hundred shells, and while maneuvering at very close range, hitting "Chōkai"s superstructure with her 40 mm and 20 mm anti-aircraft guns.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: At 08:51, the Japanese landed two hits, the second of which damaged the aft gun. This damaged gun suffered a breech explosion shortly thereafter which killed and wounded several crew members. With her remaining gun, "Roberts" set the bridge of the heavy cruiser on fire and destroyed the Number Three gun turret. "Roberts" was then hit by three shells from the battleship , which tore a hole long and wide in the port side of her aft engine room.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: At 09:35, the order was given to abandon ship. She sank 30 minutes later, with 90 of the crew dying. The 120 survivors of the crew clung to three life rafts for 50 hours before being rescued.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: During the battle, "Samuel B. Roberts", which was designed for , managed by raising pressure to and diverting all available steam to the ship's turbines.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: The wreck was discovered around 22 June 2022, at a depth of , at that time the deepest wreck ever identified.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: "Samuel B. Roberts" was included in the Presidential Unit Citation given to Task Unit 77.4.3 "for extraordinary heroism in action." "Samuel B. Roberts" earned one battle star for her World War II service.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: Gunner's Mate Third Class Paul H. Carr was in charge of Gun Mount 52, the aft gun, which had fired nearly all of its 325 stored rounds in 35 minutes before a round exploded in the gun's breech. Carr was found dying at his station from a severe intestinal wound, begging for help to load the last round he was holding into the breech. For his actions, he was posthumously awarded a Silver Star. A guided-missile frigate, USS (FFG-52), was named for him.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: An exploration team led by Victor Vescovo and made up of personnel of Caladan Oceanic and EYOS Expeditions discovered the wreck of "Samuel B. Roberts" in June 2022. The team found, identified, and surveyed the wreck during a series of six dives conducted from 17 to 24 June 2022. The team determined that the wreck reached the seabed in one piece, although it hit the sea floor bow first and with enough force to cause some buckling, and observed that the ship's stern had separated from the rest of the hull by about . The team reported that it had found evidence of damage to the ship inflicted by a Japanese battleship shell, including "Samuel B. Roberts"s fallen mast.


title: USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413)

text: The wreck of "Samuel B. Roberts" lies at a depth of , making it the deepest wreck ever identified. It exceeds the previous record of , set in March 2021 when Vescovo's team found and identified the wreck of the destroyer , which was sunk in the same battle.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Fever Pitch (released as The Perfect Catch outside the United States and Canada) is a 2005 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by the Farrelly brothers. It stars Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon, and is a remake of the British 1997 film of the same title. Nick Hornby, who had written the original 1992 book and the 1997 screenplay adaptation, acted as an executive producer for the American remake.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: While both the book and the original 1997 film are about soccer, the 2005 adaptation, aimed specifically at the U.S. market, is about baseball. Both "Fever Pitch" films feature real-life dramatic sporting victories, the original focusing on Arsenal's last minute League title win in the final game of the 1988–1989 season, and the remake on the Boston Red Sox's long-awaited World Series Championship in 2004, unanticipated while the film was in production.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: The film was released on April 8, 2005. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $50 million.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: 7-year-old Ben Wrightman has just moved to Boston with his mother after his parents' divorce. His uncle Carl takes him to a Boston Red Sox game at Fenway Park to cheer him up. From that day on, he is a die-hard Red Sox fan for life.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: 23 years later, the adult Ben is still in Boston, working as a school teacher, and has inherited his uncle's season tickets. Almost all of his possessions bear the Red Sox logo (except for his toilet paper, which is of the New York Yankees). On a school trip, Ben meets Lindsey Meeks, a successful, dedicated corporate executive, and they begin dating.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Lindsey, who knows little about baseball or the Red Sox, learns about the Curse of the Bambino from Ben's stadium friends (including Al Waterman, a sponge salesman who also narrates the story). They continue attending the games together, but tension arises when Lindsey is up for a promotion and begins working on her laptop during the game. Lindsey is knocked out by a line drive foul and recovers but stops going to the games, suggesting Ben will have more fun if he goes with his friends.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Things get worse when Lindsey invites Ben to accompany her to Paris, and he declines because the Red Sox are in the heat of the pennant race. Before leaving, she tells Ben she might be pregnant. She expresses concern that he is more committed to the Red Sox than to her, and days later calls him and confirms she isn't pregnant. To prove he is not obsessed, he misses a game against the Yankees to escort Lindsey to her friend's birthday party. Ben and Lindsey enjoy the party, and after making love, he tells her it was one of the best nights of his life. Moments later, he gets an ecstatic call from his friend Troy, who tells him the Sox overcame a seven-run deficit in the bottom of the ninth to pull off one of the greatest comebacks in team history. Ben becomes irate that he missed such a historic Red Sox moment, blaming Lindsey for making him miss the game. She is heartbroken, and they separate.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Ben soon misses Lindsey and visits her in a futile attempt to reconcile. To prove she means more to him than the Red Sox, he plans to sell his season tickets. Lindsey finds out during the celebration for her much-anticipated promotion and rushes to stop him. She gets in during the 9th inning of the Red Sox–Yankees playoff game when the Red Sox are just three outs away from being swept, and Ben is in the stands about to finalize the ticket sale. Desperate to reach Ben, Lindsey runs across the field and running around players to avoid security. She tears up the contract and tells Ben that if he loves her enough to sell his seats, then she loves him enough not to let him to do it. They reunite and kiss in front of the entire crowd before Lindsey is arrested.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Al narrates the epilogue: the Red Sox won that game and then beat the Yankees three more times to win the American League pennant, later sweeping the National League champion St. Louis Cardinals for their first World Series title in 86 years. Lindsay and Ben travel to Busch Stadium in St. Louis for the decisive Game 4. Eventually they marry, and Lindsey conceives a 'player to be named later'. Al explains that the baby will be named Ted Williams Wrightman if it's a boy, "Carla Yastrzemski" Wrightman if it's a girl, adding, "Let's all hope for a boy." A post-credit scene shows a bunch of kids (presumably Ben & Lindsey's and their friends') chanting "LET'S GO, RED SOX!".


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Several Boston Red Sox personnel make appearances in the film, including: players Johnny Damon, Trot Nixon, Jason Varitek and Jim Rice, and announcers Joe Castiglione, Don Orsillo and Dennis Eckersley.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: The original plot had assumed the Red Sox would lose in the playoffs. However, the Red Sox stunned the baseball world when they won four straight games to win the 2004 ALCS against the rival Yankees (becoming the first MLB team to win a seven-game series after losing the first three games) and subsequent World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals to break the "Curse of the Bambino". Thus, the ending had to be rewritten. On the day of Game 4, with the Red Sox on the verge of a sweep, The Farrellys decided to bring Barrymore, Fallon, and a film crew to St. Louis hours before the first pitch – and Barrymore and Fallon attended the game at Busch Stadium in character. When the Red Sox made the final out to secure a 3–0 win over the Cardinals that broke the Curse, Fox cameras on the live broadcast caught Barrymore and Fallon, as Lindsey and Ben, running onto the field and kissing to celebrate. The film, with its updated ending, was also screened at Fenway Park the following August on a screen in center field.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: Originally, Shawn Levy, who was a huge fan of Nick Hornby's works for years, was attached to direct, with Gwyneth Paltrow playing Lindsey. However, Paltrow found the script mediocre and turned down the role. Brian Robbins replaced Levy, but he quit the project as well. After Drew Barrymore replaced Paltrow and Jimmy Fallon joined the cast, Jay Russell, P. J. Hogan, Luke Greenfield, and Mira Nair were all rumored candidates to direct until the studios hired the Farrelly brothers to take the helm for the film.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating 65% based on 196 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus read, "While not a home run, "Fever Pitch" has enough charm and on-screen chemistry between the two leads to make it a solid hit." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on reviews from 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: From a cinematographic and literary perspective, the film received some favorable criticism from experts Roger Ebert and James Berardinelli.


title: Fever Pitch (2005 film)

text: The film opened at #3 and grossed $12.4 million in its opening weekend. The final North American gross of the film was $42.1 million, and the worldwide gross was $50.5 million.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: Schindler's Ark is a historical novel published in 1982 by the Australian novelist Thomas Keneally. The United States edition of the book was titled Schindler's List; it was later reissued in Commonwealth countries under that name as well. The novel won the Booker Prize and was awarded the "Los Angeles Times" Book Prize for Fiction in 1983.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: The book tells the story of Oskar Schindler, a member of the Nazi Party who becomes an unlikely hero by saving the lives of 1,200 Jews during the Holocaust. It follows actual people and events, with fictional dialogue and scenes added by the author where exact details are unknown. Keneally wrote a number of well-received novels before and after "Schindler's Ark"; however, in the wake of its highly successful 1993 film adaptation directed by director Steven Spielberg, it has since gone on to become his most well-known and celebrated work.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: In 2022, the novel was included on the "Big Jubilee Read" list of 70 books by Commonwealth authors, selected to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: Poldek Pfefferberg, a Holocaust survivor and Schindlerjude, inspired Keneally to write "Schindler's Ark". After the war, Pfefferberg had tried on a number of occasions to interest the screenwriters and filmmakers he met through his business in making a film based on the story of Schindler and his efforts to save Polish Jews from the Nazis, as well as arranging several interviews with Schindler for American television.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: Keneally's meetings with Pfefferberg and his research and interviews of Schindler's acquaintances are detailed in his 2007 book "Searching for Schindler: A Memoir". In October 1980, Keneally went into Pfefferberg's shop in Beverly Hills to ask about the price of briefcases. Learning that Keneally was a novelist, Pfefferberg showed him his extensive files on Schindler, kept in two cabinets in his back room. After 50 minutes of entreaties, Pfefferberg was able to convince Keneally to write the book. Pfefferberg became an advisor, accompanying Keneally to Poland, where they visited Kraków and other sites associated with the Schindler story. Keneally dedicated "Schindler's Ark" to Pfefferberg: "who by zeal and persistence caused this book to be written."


title: Schindler's Ark

text: After the publication of "Schindler's Ark" in 1982, Pfefferberg worked to persuade Steven Spielberg to film Keneally's book, using his acquaintance with Spielberg's mother to gain access.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: A carbon copy of Schindler's original 13-page list, initially thought to be lost, was discovered in 2009 in a library in Sydney, Australia.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: This novel tells the story of Oskar Schindler, self-made entrepreneur and "bon viveur" who finds himself saving Polish Jews from the Nazi death machine. Based on numerous eyewitness accounts, Keneally's story takes place within Hitler's attempts to make Europe "judenfrei" (free of Jews). Schindler is presented as a flawed hero – a drinker, a womaniser and, at first, a profiteer. After the war, he was commemorated as Righteous Among the Nations by the Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum in Jerusalem, but was never seen as a conventionally virtuous character. The story is not only Schindler's, it is the story of Kraków's Ghetto and the forced labour camp outside town, Płaszów, and of Amon Göth, Płaszów's commandant.


title: Schindler's Ark

text: His wife Emilie Schindler later remarked in a German TV interview that Schindler did nothing remarkable before the war and nothing after it. "He was fortunate therefore that in the short fierce era between 1939 and 1945 he had met people who had summoned forth his deeper talents." After the war, his business ventures failed and he separated from his wife. He ended up living a sparse life in a small flat in Frankfurt. Eventually he arranged to live part of the year in Israel, supported by his Jewish friends, and part of the year in Frankfurt, where he was often hissed at in the streets as a traitor to his "race". After 29 unexceptional postwar years, he died in 1974. He was buried in Jerusalem, as he wished, with the help of his old friend Pfefferberg.


title: SOPMOD

text: The Special Operations Peculiar MODification (SOPMOD) kit is an accessory system for the M4A1 carbine, CQBR, FN SCAR Mk 16/17, HK416 and other weapons used by United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), though it is not specific to SOCOM. The kit allows US Special Operations Forces (US SOF) personnel to configure their weapons to individual preferences and mission requirements.


title: SOPMOD

text: The program dates back to September 1989, when the Special Operations Special Technology (SOST) "Modular Close Combat Carbine Project" was founded. This was the first program to standardize components from the 1970s/1980s era of "duct tape and hose clamps". The "Material Need Statement" (MNS) was signed in May 1992 and, by September 1993, the "Operational Requirements Document" (ORD) for the program was validated. Responsibility for the program was then assigned to the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division.


title: SOPMOD

text: The SOPMOD kit is composed mostly of non-developmental items and commercial off-the-shelf (NDI/COTS) accessories packaged together to support four M4A1 carbines. It allows for the attachment of any Picatinny compatible accessory that fits the length of the weapon.


title: SOPMOD

text: If more of the accessories are needed, it is typical for units to "cannibalize" the kits of inactive teams. The documentation for the kit does not require a rewrite if improved replacements for any of the current items can be found. As a result, this content list has changed over time. Several potential additions include the KAC Masterkey Shotgun, the M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System, and the M320 grenade launcher. Also, various EOTech holographic sights, prominently EOTech 551s and 552s are used on many SOPMOD configured M4s.


title: SOPMOD

text: The MDNS (Miniature Day-Night Sight) program included the Block I Phased Replacement components and the Block II components


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing involves a large group of dispersed participants contributing or producing goods or services—including ideas, votes, micro-tasks, and finances—for payment or as volunteers. Contemporary crowdsourcing often involves digital platforms to attract and divide work between participants to achieve a cumulative result. Crowdsourcing is not limited to online activity, however, and there are various historical examples of crowdsourcing. The word crowdsourcing is a portmanteau of "crowd" and "outsourcing". In contrast to outsourcing, crowdsourcing usually involves less specific and more public groups of participants.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Advantages of using crowdsourcing include lowered costs, improved speed, improved quality, increased flexibility, and/or increased scalability of the work, as well as promoting diversity. Crowdsourcing methods include competitions, virtual labor markets, open online collaboration and data donation. Some forms of crowdsourcing, such as in "idea competitions" or "innovation contests" provide ways for organizations to learn beyond the "base of minds" provided by their employees (e.g. LEGO Ideas). Commercial platforms, such as Amazon Mechanical Turk, match microtasks submitted by requesters to workers who perform them. Crowdsourcing is also used by nonprofit organizations to develop common goods, such as Wikipedia.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The term "crowdsourcing" was coined in 2006 by two editors at "Wired", Jeff Howe and Mark Robinson, to describe how businesses were using the Internet to "outsource work to the crowd," which quickly led to the portmanteau "crowdsourcing". Howe published a definition for the term in a blog post in June 2006:


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Simply defined, crowdsourcing represents the act of a company or institution taking a function once performed by employees and outsourcing it to an undefined (and generally large) network of people in the form of an open call. This can take the form of peer-production (when the job is performed collaboratively), but is also often undertaken by sole individuals. The crucial prerequisite is the use of the open call format and the large network of potential laborers.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Daren C. Brabham defined crowdsourcing as an "online, distributed problem-solving and production model." Kristen L. Guth and Brabham found that the performance of ideas offered in crowdsourcing platforms are affected not only by their quality, but also by the communication among users about the ideas, and presentation in the platform itself. After studying more than 40 definitions of crowdsourcing in the scientific and popular literature, Enrique Estellés-Arolas and Fernando González Ladrón-de-Guevara, researchers at the Technical University of Valencia, developed a new integrating definition:


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing can either take an explicit or an implicit route. Explicit crowdsourcing lets users work together to evaluate, share, and build different specific tasks, while implicit crowdsourcing means that users solve a problem as a side effect of something else they are doing. With explicit crowdsourcing, users can evaluate particular items like books or webpages, or share by posting products or items. Users can also build artifacts by providing information and editing other people's work. Implicit crowdsourcing can take two forms: standalone and piggyback. Standalone allows people to solve problems as a side effect of the task they are doing, whereas piggyback takes users' information from a third-party website to gather information.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Despite the multiplicity of definitions for crowdsourcing, one constant has been the broadcasting of problems to the public, and an open call for contributions to help solve the problem. Members of the public submit solutions that are then owned by the entity who originally broadcast the problem. In some cases, the contributor of the solution is compensated monetarily with prizes or public recognition. In other cases, the only rewards may be praise or intellectual satisfaction. Crowdsourcing may produce solutions from amateurs or volunteers working in their spare time, from experts, or from small businesses.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: While the term "crowdsourcing" was popularized online to describe Internet-based activities, some examples of projects, in retrospect, can be described as crowdsourcing.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing has often been used in the past as a competition to discover a solution. The French government proposed several of these competitions, often rewarded with Montyon Prizes. These included the Leblanc process, or the Alkali prize, where a reward was provided for separating the salt from the alkali, and the Fourneyron's turbine, when the first hydraulic commercial turbine was developed.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: In response to a challenge from the French government, Nicolas Appert won a prize for inventing a new way of food preservation that involved sealing food in air-tight jars. The British government provided a similar reward to find an easy way to determine a ship's longitude in the Longitude Prize. During the Great Depression, out-of-work clerks tabulated higher mathematical functions in the Mathematical Tables Project as an outreach project. One of the largest crowdsourcing campaigns was a public design contest in 2010 hosted by the Indian government's finance ministry to create a symbol for the Indian rupee. Thousands of people sent in entries before the government zeroed in on the final symbol based on the Devanagari script using the letter Ra.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: A number of motivations exist for businesses to use crowdsourcing to accomplish their tasks. These include the ability to offload peak demand, access cheap labor and information, generate better results, access a wider array of talent than what is present in one organization, and undertake problems that would have been too difficult to solve internally. Crowdsourcing allows businesses to submit problems on which contributors can work—on topics such as science, manufacturing, biotech, and medicine—optionally with monetary rewards for successful solutions. Although crowdsourcing complicated tasks can be difficult, simple work tasks can be crowdsourced cheaply and effectively.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing also has the potential to be a problem-solving mechanism for government and nonprofit use. Urban and transit planning are prime areas for crowdsourcing. For example, from 2008 to 2009, a crowdsourcing project for transit planning in Salt Lake City was created to test the public participation process. Another notable application of crowdsourcing for government problem-solving is Peer-to-Patent, which was an initiative to improve patent quality in the United States through gathering public input in a structured, productive manner.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Researchers have used crowdsourcing systems such as the Mechanical Turk to aid their research projects by crowdsourcing some aspects of the research process, such as data collection, parsing, and evaluation to the public. Notable examples include using the crowd to create speech and language databases and to conduct user studies. Crowdsourcing systems provided researchers with the ability to gather large amounts of data, and helped researchers to collect data from populations and demographics they may not have access to locally.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Artists have also used crowdsourcing systems. In a project called the Sheep Market, Aaron Koblin used Mechanical Turk to collect 10,000 drawings of sheep from contributors around the world. Artist Sam Brown leveraged the crowd by asking visitors of his website explodingdog to send him sentences to use as inspirations for his paintings. Art curator Andrea Grover argues that individuals tend to be more open in crowdsourced projects because they are not being physically judged or scrutinized. As with other types of uses, artists use crowdsourcing systems to generate and collect data. The crowd also can be used to provide inspiration and to collect financial support for an artist's work.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: In navigation systems, crowdsourcing from 100 million drivers were used by INRIX to collect users' driving times to provide better GPS routing and real-time traffic updates.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing in astronomy was used in the early 19th century by astronomer Denison Olmsted. After being awakened in a late November night due to a meteor shower taking place, Olmsted noticed a pattern in the shooting stars. Olmsted wrote a brief report of this meteor shower in the local newspaper. "As the cause of 'Falling Stars' is not understood by meteorologists, it is desirable to collect all the facts attending this phenomenon, stated with as much precision as possible," Olmsted wrote to readers, in a report subsequently picked up and pooled to newspapers nationwide. Responses came pouring in from many states, along with scientists' observations sent to the "American Journal of Science and Arts". These responses helped him to make a series of scientific breakthroughs including observing the fact that meteor showers are seen nationwide and fall from space under the influence of gravity. The responses also allowed him to approximate a velocity for the meteors.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: A more recent version of crowdsourcing in astronomy is NASA's photo organizing project, which asked internet users to browse photos taken from space and try to identify the location the picture is documenting.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Energy system models require large and diverse datasets, increasingly so given the trend towards greater temporal and spatial resolution. In response, there have been several initiatives to crowdsource this data. Launched in December 2009, OpenEI is a collaborative website run by the US government that provides open energy data. While much of its information is from US government sources, the platform also seeks crowdsourced input from around the world. The semantic wiki and database Enipedia also publishes energy systems data using the concept of crowdsourced open information. Enipedia went live in March 2011.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Genealogical research used crowdsourcing techniques long before personal computers were common. Beginning in 1942, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints encouraged members to submit information about their ancestors. The submitted information was gathered together into a single collection. In 1969, to encourage more participation, the church started the three-generation program. In this program, church members were asked to prepare documented family group record forms for the first three generations. The program was later expanded to encourage members to research at least four generations and became known as the four-generation program.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Institutes that have records of interest to genealogical research have used crowds of volunteers to create catalogs and indices to records.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Genetic genealogy is a combination of traditional genealogy with genetics. The rise of personal DNA testing, after the turn of the century, by companies such as Gene by Gene, FTDNA, GeneTree, 23andMe, and Ancestry.com, has led to public and semi public databases of DNA testing using crowdsourcing techniques. Citizen science projects have included support, organization, and dissemination of personal DNA (genetic) testing. Similar to amateur astronomy, citizen scientists encouraged by volunteer organizations like the International Society of Genetic Genealogy have provided valuable information and research to the professional scientific community. The Genographic Project, which began in 2005, is a research project carried out by the National Geographic Society's scientific team to reveal patterns of human migration using crowdsourced DNA testing and reporting of results.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Another early example of crowdsourcing occurred in the field of ornithology. On 25 December 1900, Frank Chapman, an early officer of the National Audubon Society, initiated a tradition dubbed the "Christmas Day Bird Census". The project called birders from across North America to count and record the number of birds in each species they witnessed on Christmas Day. The project was successful, and the records from 27 different contributors were compiled into one bird census, which tallied around 90 species of birds. This large-scale collection of data constituted an early form of citizen science, the premise upon which crowdsourcing is based. In the 2012 census, more than 70,000 individuals participated across 2,369 bird count circles. Christmas 2014 marked the National Audubon Society's 115th annual Christmas Bird Count.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) has developed a seismic detection system by monitoring the traffic peaks on its website and analyzing keywords used on Twitter.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing is increasingly used in professional journalism. Journalists are able to organize crowdsourced information by fact checking the information, and then using the information they have gathered in their articles as they see fit. A daily newspaper in Sweden has successfully used crowdsourcing in investigating the home loan interest rates in the country in 2013–2014, which resulted in over 50,000 submissions. A daily newspaper in Finland crowdsourced an investigation into stock short-selling in 2011–2012, and the crowdsourced information led to revelations of a tax evasion system by a Finnish bank. The bank executive was fired and policy changes followed. TalkingPointsMemo in the United States asked its readers to examine 3,000 emails concerning the firing of federal prosecutors in 2008. The British newspaper "The Guardian" crowdsourced the examination of hundreds of thousands of documents in 2009.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Data donation is a crowdsourcing approach to gather digital data. It is used by researchers and organizations to gain access to data from online platforms, websites, search engines and apps and devices. Data donation projects usually rely on participants volunteering their authentic digital profile information. Examples include:


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing public policy and the production of public services is also referred to as citizen sourcing. While some scholars argue crowdsourcing for this purpose as a policy tool or a definite means of co-production, others question that and argue that crowdsourcing should be considered just as a technological enabler that simply increases speed and ease of participation. Crowdsourcing can also play a role in democratization.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The first conference focusing on Crowdsourcing for Politics and Policy took place at Oxford University, under the auspices of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2014. Research has emerged since 2012 which focused on the use of crowdsourcing for policy purposes. These include experimentally investigating the use of Virtual Labor Markets for policy assessment, and assessing the potential for citizen involvement in process innovation for public administration.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Governments across the world are increasingly using crowdsourcing for knowledge discovery and civic engagement. Iceland crowdsourced their constitution reform process in 2011, and Finland has crowdsourced several law reform processes to address their off-road traffic laws. The Finnish government allowed citizens to go on an online forum to discuss problems and possible resolutions regarding some off-road traffic laws. The crowdsourced information and resolutions would then be passed on to legislators to refer to when making a decision, allowing citizens to contribute to public policy in a more direct manner. Palo Alto crowdsources feedback for its Comprehensive City Plan update in a process started in 2015. The House of Representatives in Brazil has used crowdsourcing in policy-reforms.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: NASA used crowdsourcing to analyze large sets of images. As part of the Open Government Initiative of the Obama Administration, the General Services Administration collected and amalgamated suggestions for improving federal websites.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: For part of the Obama and Trump Administrations, the We the People system collected signatures on petitions, which were entitled to an official response from the White House once a certain number had been reached. Several U.S. federal agencies ran inducement prize contests, including NASA and the Environmental Protection Agency.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: For dictionary work, crowdsourcing was applied over a hundred years ago by the "Oxford English Dictionary" editors using paper and postage. It has also been used for collecting examples of proverbs on a specific topic (e.g. religious pluralism) for a printed journal. Crowdsourcing language-related data online has proven very effective and many dictionary compilation projects used crowdsourcing. It is used particularly for specialist topics and languages that are not well documented, such as for the Oromo language. Software programs have been developed for crowdsourced dictionaries, such as "WeSay". A slightly different form of crowdsourcing for language data was the online creation of scientific and mathematical terminology for American Sign Language.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: In linguistics, crowdsourcing strategies have been applied to estimate word knowledge, vocabulary size, and word origin. Implicit crowdsourcing on social media has also approximating sociolinguistic data efficiently. Reddit conversations in various location-based subreddits were analyzed for the presence of grammatical forms unique to a regional dialect. These were then used to map the extent of the speaker population. The results could roughly approximate large-scale surveys on the subject without engaging in field interviews.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Mining publicly available social media conversations can be used as a form of implicit crowdsourcing to approximate the geographic extent of speaker dialects. Proverb collection is also being done via crowdsourcing on the Web, most notably for the Pashto language of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Crowdsourcing has been extensively used to collect high-quality gold standards for creating automatic systems in natural language processing (e.g. named entity recognition, entity linking).


title: Crowdsourcing

text: LEGO allows users to work on new product designs while conducting requirements testing. Any user can provide a design for a product, and other users can vote on the product. Once the submitted product has received 10,000 votes, it will be formally reviewed in stages and go into production with no impediments such as legal flaws identified. The creator receives royalties from the net income.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Homeowners can use Airbnb to list their accommodation or unused rooms. Owners set their own nightly, weekly and monthly rates and accommodations. The business, in turn, charges guests and hosts a fee. Guests usually end up spending between $9 and $15. They have to pay a booking fee every time they book a room. The landlord, in turn, pays a service fee for the amount due. The company has 1,500 properties in 34,000 cities in more than 190 countries.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Internet and digital technologies have massively expanded the opportunities for crowdsourcing. However, the effect of user communication and platform presentation can have a major bearing on the success of an online crowdsourcing project. The crowdsourced problem can range from huge tasks (such as finding alien life or mapping earthquake zones) or very small (identifying images). Some examples of successful crowdsourcing themes are problems that bug people, things that make people feel good about themselves, projects that tap into niche knowledge of proud experts, and subjects that people find sympathetic.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: In his 2013 book, "Crowdsourcing", Daren C. Brabham puts forth a problem-based typology of crowdsourcing approaches:


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Ivo Blohm identifies four types of Crowdsourcing Platforms: Microtasking, Information Pooling, Broadcast Search, and Open Collaboration. They differ in the diversity and aggregation of contributions that are created. The diversity of information collected can either be homogenous or heterogenous. The aggregation of information can either be selective or integrative. Some common categories of crowdsourcing have been used effectively in the commercial world include crowdvoting, crowdsolving, crowdfunding, microwork, creative crowdsourcing, crowdsource workforce management, and inducement prize contests.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdvoting occurs when a website gathers a large group's opinions and judgments on a certain topic. Some crowdsourcing tools and platforms allow participants to rank each other's contributions, e.g. in answer to the question "What is one thing we can do to make Acme a great company?" One common method for ranking is "like" counting, where the contribution with the most "like" votes ranks first. This method is simple and easy to understand, but it privileges early contributions, which have more time to accumulate votes. In recent years, several crowdsourcing companies have begun to use pairwise comparisons backed by ranking algorithms. Ranking algorithms do not penalize late contributions. They also produce results quicker. Ranking algorithms have proven to be at least 10 times faster than manual stack ranking. One drawback, however, is that ranking algorithms are more difficult to understand than vote counting.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The Iowa Electronic Market is a prediction market that gathers crowds' views on politics and tries to ensure accuracy by having participants pay money to buy and sell contracts based on political outcomes. Some of the most famous examples have made use of social media channels: Domino's Pizza, Coca-Cola, Heineken, and Sam Adams have crowdsourced a new pizza, bottle design, beer, and song respectively. A website called Threadless selected the T-shirts it sold by having users provide designs and vote on the ones they like, which are then printed and available for purchase.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The California Report Card (CRC), a program jointly launched in January 2014 by the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society and Lt. Governor Gavin Newsom, is an example of modern-day crowd voting. Participants access the CRC online and vote on six timely issues. Through principal component analysis, the users are then placed into an online "café" in which they can present their own political opinions and grade the suggestions of other participants. This system aims to effectively involve the greater public in relevant political discussions and highlight the specific topics with which people are most concerned.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdvoting's value in the movie industry was shown when in 2009 a crowd accurately predicted the success or failure of a movie based on its trailer, a feat that was replicated in 2013 by Google.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: On Reddit, users collectively rate web content, discussions and comments as well as questions posed to persons of interest in "AMA" and AskScience online interviews.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: In 2017, Project Fanchise purchased a team in the Indoor Football League and created the Salt Lake Screaming Eagles, a fan run team. Using a mobile app, the fans voted on the day-to-day operations of the team, the mascot name, signing of players and even offensive play calling during games.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdfunding is the process of funding projects by a multitude of people contributing a small amount to attain a certain monetary goal, typically via the Internet. Crowdfunding has been used for both commercial and charitable purposes. The crowdfuding model that has been around the longest is rewards-based crowdfunding. This model is where people can prepurchase products, buy experiences, or simply donate. While this funding may in some cases go towards helping a business, funders are not allowed to invest and become shareholders via rewards-based crowdfunding.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Individuals, businesses, and entrepreneurs can showcase their businesses and projects by creating a profile, which typically includes a short video introducing their project, a list of rewards per donation, and illustrations through images. Funders make monetary contribution for numerous reasons:


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The dilemma for equity crowdfunding in the US as of 2012 was during a refinement process for the regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission, which had until 1 January 2013 to tweak the fundraising methods. The regulators were overwhelmed trying to regulate Dodd-Frank and all the other rules and regulations involving public companies and the way they traded. Advocates of regulation claimed that crowdfunding would open up the flood gates for fraud, called it the "wild west" of fundraising, and compared it to the 1980s days of penny stock "cold-call cowboys". The process allowed for up to $1 million to be raised without some of the regulations being involved. Companies under the then-current proposal would have exemptions available and be able to raise capital from a larger pool of persons, which can include lower thresholds for investor criteria, whereas the old rules required that the person be an "accredited" investor. These people are often recruited from social networks, where the funds can be acquired from an equity purchase, loan, donation, or ordering. The amounts collected have become quite high, with requests that are over a million dollars for software such as Trampoline Systems, which used it to finance the commercialization of their new software.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Web-based idea competitions or inducement prize contests often consist of generic ideas, cash prizes, and an Internet-based platform to facilitate easy idea generation and discussion. An example of these competitions includes an event like IBM's 2006 "Innovation Jam", attended by over 140,000 international participants and yielded around 46,000 ideas. Another example is the Netflix Prize in 2009. People were asked to come up with a recommendation algorithm that is more accurate than Netflix's current algorithm. It had a grand prize of US$1,000,000, and it was given to a team which designed an algorithm that beat Netflix's own algorithm for predicting ratings by 10.06%.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Another example of competition-based crowdsourcing is the 2009 DARPA balloon experiment, where DARPA placed 10 balloon markers across the United States and challenged teams to compete to be the first to report the location of all the balloons. A collaboration of efforts was required to complete the challenge quickly and in addition to the competitive motivation of the contest as a whole, the winning team (MIT, in less than nine hours) established its own "collaborapetitive" environment to generate participation in their team. A similar challenge was the Tag Challenge, funded by the US State Department, which required locating and photographing individuals in five cities in the US and Europe within 12 hours based only on a single photograph. The winning team managed to locate three suspects by mobilizing volunteers worldwide using a similar incentive scheme to the one used in the balloon challenge.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Using open innovation platforms is an effective way to crowdsource people's thoughts and ideas for research and development. The company InnoCentive is a crowdsourcing platform for corporate research and development where difficult scientific problems are posted for crowds of solvers to discover the answer and win a cash prize that ranges from $10,000 to $100,000 per challenge. InnoCentive, of Waltham, Massachusetts, and London, England, provides access to millions of scientific and technical experts from around the world. The company claims a success rate of 50% in providing successful solutions to previously unsolved scientific and technical problems. The X Prize Foundation creates and runs incentive competitions offering between $1 million and $30 million for solving challenges. Local Motors is another example of crowdsourcing, and it is a community of 20,000 automotive engineers, designers, and enthusiasts that compete to build off-road rally trucks.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Implicit crowdsourcing is less obvious because users do not necessarily know they are contributing, yet can still be very effective in completing certain tasks. Rather than users actively participating in solving a problem or providing information, implicit crowdsourcing involves users doing another task entirely where a third party gains information for another topic based on the user's actions.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: A good example of implicit crowdsourcing is the ESP game, where users find words to describe Google images, which are then used as metadata for the images. Another popular use of implicit crowdsourcing is through reCAPTCHA, which asks people to solve CAPTCHAs to prove they are human, and then provides CAPTCHAs from old books that cannot be deciphered by computers, to digitize them for the web. Like many tasks solved using the Mechanical Turk, CAPTCHAs are simple for humans, but often very difficult for computers.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Piggyback crowdsourcing can be seen most frequently by websites such as Google that data-mine a user's search history and websites to discover keywords for ads, spelling corrections, and finding synonyms. In this way, users are unintentionally helping to modify existing systems, such as Google Ads.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The crowd is an umbrella term for the people who contribute to crowdsourcing efforts. Though it is sometimes difficult to gather data about the demographics of the crowd, a study by Ross "et al." surveyed the demographics of a sample of the more than 400,000 registered crowdworkers using Amazon Mechanical Turk to complete tasks for pay. A previous study in 2008 by Ipeirotis found that users at that time were primarily American, young, female, and well-educated, with 40% earning more than $40,000 per year. In November 2009, Ross found a very different Mechanical Turk population where 36% of which was Indian. Two-thirds of Indian workers were male, and 66% had at least a bachelor's degree. Two-thirds had annual incomes less than $10,000, with 27% sometimes or always depending on income from Mechanical Turk to make ends meet.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The average US user of Mechanical Turk earned $2.30 per hour for tasks in 2009, versus $1.58 for the average Indian worker. While the majority of users worked less than five hours per week, 18% worked 15 hours per week or more. This is less than minimum wage in the United States (but not in India), which Ross suggests raises ethical questions for researchers who use crowdsourcing.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The demographics of Microworkers.com differ from Mechanical Turk in that the US and India together accounting for only 25% of workers; 197 countries are represented among users, with Indonesia (18%) and Bangladesh (17%) contributing the largest share. However, 28% of employers are from the US.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Another study of the demographics of the crowd at iStockphoto found a crowd that was largely white, middle- to upper-class, higher educated, worked in a so-called "white-collar job" and had a high-speed Internet connection at home. In a crowd-sourcing diary study of 30 days in Europe, the participants were predominantly higher educated women.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Studies have also found that crowds are not simply collections of amateurs or hobbyists. Rather, crowds are often professionally trained in a discipline relevant to a given crowdsourcing task and sometimes hold advanced degrees and many years of experience in the profession. Claiming that crowds are amateurs, rather than professionals, is both factually untrue and may lead to marginalization of crowd labor rights.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Gregory Saxton et al. studied the role of community users, among other elements, during his content analysis of 103 crowdsourcing organizations. They developed a taxonomy of nine crowdsourcing models (intermediary model, citizen media production, collaborative software development, digital goods sales, product design, peer-to-peer social financing, consumer report model, knowledge base building model, and collaborative science project model) in which to categorize the roles of community users, such as researcher, engineer, programmer, journalist, graphic designer, etc., and the products and services developed.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Many researchers suggest that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations cause people to contribute to crowdsourced tasks and these factors influence different types of contributors. For example, people employed in a full-time position rate human capital advancement as less important than part-time workers do, while women rate social contact as more important than men do.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Intrinsic motivations are broken down into two categories: enjoyment-based and community-based motivations. Enjoyment-based motivations refer to motivations related to the fun and enjoyment contributors experience through their participation. These motivations include: skill variety, task identity, task autonomy, direct feedback from the job, and taking the job as a pastime. Community-based motivations refer to motivations related to community participation, and include community identification and social contact. In crowdsourced journalism, the motivation factors are intrinsic: the crowd is driven by a possibility to make social impact, contribute to social change, and help their peers.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Extrinsic motivations are broken down into three categories: immediate payoffs, delayed payoffs, and social motivations. Immediate payoffs, through monetary payment, are the immediately received compensations given to those who complete tasks. Delayed payoffs are benefits that can be used to generate future advantages, such as training skills and being noticed by potential employers. Social motivations are the rewards of behaving pro-socially, such as the altruistic motivations of online volunteers. Chandler and Kapelner found that US users of the Amazon Mechanical Turk were more likely to complete a task when told they were going to help researchers identify tumor cells, than when they were not told the purpose of their task. However, of those who completed the task, quality of output did not depend on the framing.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Motivation factors in crowdsourcing are often a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In a crowdsourced law-making project, the crowd was motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic motivations included fulfilling civic duty, affecting the law for sociotropic reasons, to deliberate with and learn from peers. Extrinsic motivations included changing the law for financial gain or other benefits. Participation in crowdsourced policy-making was an act of grassroots advocacy, whether to pursue one's own interest or more altruistic goals, such as protecting nature.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Another form of social motivation is prestige or status. The International Children's Digital Library recruited volunteers to translate and review books. Because all translators receive public acknowledgment for their contributions, Kaufman and Schulz cite this as a reputation-based strategy to motivate individuals who want to be associated with institutions that have prestige. The Mechanical Turk uses reputation as a motivator in a different sense, as a form of quality control. Crowdworkers who frequently complete tasks in ways judged to be inadequate can be denied access to future tasks, providing motivation to produce high-quality work.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Despite the potential global reach of IT applications online, recent research illustrates that differences in location affect participation outcomes in IT-mediated crowds.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing allows anyone to participate, allowing for many unqualified participants and resulting in large quantities of unusable contributions. Companies, or additional crowdworkers, then have to sort through the low-quality contributions. The task of sorting through crowdworkers' contributions, along with the necessary job of managing the crowd, requires companies to hire actual employees, thereby increasing management overhead. For example, susceptibility to faulty results can be caused by targeted, malicious work efforts. Since crowdworkers completing microtasks are paid per task, a financial incentive often causes workers to complete tasks quickly rather than well. Verifying responses is time-consuming, so employers often depend on having multiple workers complete the same task to correct errors. However, having each task completed multiple times increases time and monetary costs.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdsourcing quality is also impacted by task design. Lukyanenko "et al." argue that, the prevailing practice of modeling crowdsourcing data collection tasks in terms of fixed classes (options), unnecessarily restricts quality. Results demonstrate that information accuracy depends on the classes used to model domains, with participants providing more accurate information when classifying phenomena at a more general level (which is typically less useful to sponsor organizations, hence less common). Further, greater overall accuracy is expected when participants could provide free-form data compared to tasks in which they select from constrained choices.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Just as limiting, oftentimes there is not enough skills or expertise in the crowd to successfully accomplish the desired task. While this scenario does not affect "simple" tasks such as image labeling, it is particularly problematic for more complex tasks, such as engineering design or product validation. A comparison between the evaluation of business models from experts and an anonymous online crowd showed that an anonymous online crowd cannot evaluate business models to the same level as experts. In these cases, it may be difficult or even impossible to find qualified people in the crowd, as their responses represent only a small fraction of the workers compared to consistent, but incorrect crowd members. However, if the task is "intermediate" in its difficulty, estimating crowdworkers' skills and intentions and leveraging them for inferring true responses works well, albeit with an additional computation cost.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: Crowdworkers are a nonrandom sample of the population. Many researchers use crowdsourcing to quickly and cheaply conduct studies with larger sample sizes than would be otherwise achievable. However, due to limited access to the Internet, participation in low developed countries is relatively low. Participation in highly developed countries is similarly low, largely because the low amount of pay is not a strong motivation for most users in these countries. These factors lead to a bias in the population pool towards users in medium developed countries, as deemed by the human development index.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: The likelihood that a crowdsourced project will fail due to lack of monetary motivation or too few participants increases over the course of the project. Tasks that are not completed quickly may be forgotten, buried by filters and search procedures. This results in a long-tail power law distribution of completion times. Additionally, low-paying research studies online have higher rates of attrition, with participants not completing the study once started. Even when tasks are completed, crowdsourcing does not always produce quality results. When Facebook began its localization program in 2008, it encountered some criticism for the low quality of its crowdsourced translations.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: One of the problems of crowdsourcing products is the lack of interaction between the crowd and the client. Usually little information is known about the final product, and workers rarely interacts with the final client in the process. This can decrease the quality of product as client interaction is considered to be a vital part of the design process.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: An additional cause of the decrease in product quality that can result from crowdsourcing is the lack of collaboration tools. In a typical workplace, coworkers are organized in such a way that they can work together and build upon each other's knowledge and ideas. Furthermore, the company often provides employees with the necessary information, procedures, and tools to fulfill their responsibilities. However, in crowdsourcing, crowd-workers are left to depend on their own knowledge and means to complete tasks.


title: Crowdsourcing

text: A crowdsourced project is usually expected to be unbiased by incorporating a large population of participants with a diverse background. However, most of the crowdsourcing works are done by people who are paid or directly benefit from the outcome (e.g. most of open source projects working on Linux). In many other cases, the end product is the outcome of a single person's endeavor, who creates the majority of the product, while the crowd only participates in minor details.