title: Environmental impact assessment

text: After an EIA, the precautionary and polluter pays principles may be applied to decide whether to reject, modify or require strict liability or insurance coverage to a project, based on predicted harms.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol is a sector-specific method for checking the quality of Environmental and Social assessments and management plans.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the U.S. National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth (Federal), with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the pioneering states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines in 1974. At a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level, this was followed by passing of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) in 1974. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act) superseded the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cth) and is the current central piece for EIA in Australia on a Commonwealth (i.e. Federal) level. An important point to note is that this federal legislation does not override the validity of the States or Territories environmental and development assessments and approvals; rather the EPBC Act runs as a parallel to the State/Territory Systems. Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed via bilateral agreements or one-off accreditation of state processes, as provided for in the EPBC Act.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EPBC Act provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places. It defines this as matters of "national environmental significance". The following are the nine matters of such significance:


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. These activities could be by the Commonwealth, or its agents, anywhere in the world or activities on Commonwealth land; and activities that are listed as having a ‘significant impact’ on matters of ‘national environment significance'.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EPBC Act comes into play when a person (a proponent) wants an action (often called "a proposal" or "a project") assessed for environmental impacts under the EPBC Act, he or she must refer the project to the Department of the Environment and Energy (Commonwealth). This referral is then released to the public and the relevant state, territory and Commonwealth ministers, for comment on whether the project is likely to have a significant impact on matters of national environmental significance. The Department of the Environment and Energy assess the process and makes recommendation to the minister or the delegate for the feasibility. The final discretion on the decision remains of the minister, which is not solely based on matters of national environmental significance but also on the consideration of social and economic impact of the project.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Energy cannot intervene in a proposal if it has no significant impact on one of the eight matters of national environmental significance, regardless of any other undesirable environmental impacts. This is primarily due to the division of powers between the states and the Federal government, and the Australian Government environment minister not being able to overturn a state decision.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of EPBC Act. Depending on the kind of breach, civil penalty (maximum) may go up to $550,000 for an individual and $5.5 million for a body corporate, or for criminal penalty (maximum) of seven years imprisonment and/or penalty of $46,200.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIA provisions within Ministerial Authorities in the ACT are found in the Chapters 7 and 8 of the "Planning and Development Act 2007" (ACT). EIA in ACT was previously administered with the help of Part 4 of the Land (Planning and Environment) Act 1991 (Land Act) and Territory Plan (plan for land-use).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Note that some EIA may occur in the ACT on Commonwealth land under the EPBC Act (Cth). Further provisions of the "Australian Capital Territory (Planning and Land Management) Act 1988" (Cth) may also be applicable particularly to national land and "designated areas".


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In New South Wales, the "Environment Planning and Assessment Act 1979" (EP&A Act) establishes two pathways for EIA. The first is under Division 5.2 of the EP&A Act, which provides for EIA of 'State Significant Infrastructure' projects (from June 2011, this Part replaced the previous Part 3A, which previously covered EIA of major projects). The second is under Part 4 of the EP&A Act dealing with development assessments for local, regional, and State Significant Developments (other than State Significant Infrastructure).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EIA process in Northern Territory is chiefly administered under the Environmental Assessment Act (EAA). Although EAA is the primary tool for EIA in Northern Territory, there are further provisions for proposals in the Inquiries Act 1985 (NT).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: There are four main EIA processes in Queensland. Firstly, under the Integrated Planning Act 1997 (IPA) for development projects other than mining. Secondly, under the Chapter 3 of the "Environmental Protection Act 1994" (Qld) (EP Act) for some mining and petroleum activities. Thirdly, under the "State Development and Public Works Organisation Act 1971" (Qld) (State Development Act) for ‘significant projects’. Finally, under the "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" (Cth) for ‘controlled actions’.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The local governing tool for EIA in South Australia is the "Development Act 1993" (SA). There are three levels of assessment possible under the Act in the form of an environment impact statement (EIS), a public environmental report (PER) or a Development Report (DR).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In Tasmania, an integrated system of legislation is used to govern development and approval process, this system is a mixture of the "Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act 1994" (Tas) (EMPC Act), "Land Use Planning and Approvals Act 1993" (Tas) (LUPA Act), "State Policies and Projects Act 1993" (Tas) (SPPA), and "Resource Management and Planning Appeals Tribunal Act 1993" (Tas).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EIA process in Victoria is intertwined with the "Environment Effects Act 1978" (Vic) and the Ministerial Guidelines for Assessment of Environmental Effects (made under the s 10 of the EE Act).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Part 4 of the "Environmental Protection Act 1986" (WA) provides the legislative framework for the EIA process in Western Australia. The EPA Act oversees the planning and development proposals and assesses their likely impacts on the environment.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In "Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transportation)", La Forest J of the Supreme Court of Canada described environmental impact assessment in terms of the proper scope of federal jurisdiction with respect to environments matters,


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Supreme Court Justice La Forest cited , "The basic concepts behind environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) early identification and evaluation of all potential environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) decision making that both guarantees the adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponent’s development desires with environmental protection and preservation."


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: La Forest referred to and who described "...environmental assessments as a planning tool with both an information-gathering and a decision-making component" that provide "...an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development."


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Justice La Forest addressed his concerns about the implications of Bill C-45 regarding public navigation rights on lakes and rivers that would contradict previous cases.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The "Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 2012" (CEAA 2012) "and its regulations establish the legislative basis for the federal practice of environmental assessment in most regions of Canada." CEAA 2012 came into force July 6, 2012 and replaces the former "Canadian Environmental Assessment Act" (1995). EA is defined as a planning tool to identify, understand, assess and mitigate, where possible, the environmental effects of a project.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental Lawyer Dianne Saxe argued that the CEAA 2012 "allows the federal government to create mandatory timelines for assessments of even the largest and most important projects, regardless of public opposition."


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Saxe compares these timelines with environmental assessments for the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline. Thomas R. Berger, Royal Commissioner of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (9 May 1977), worked extremely hard to ensure that industrial development on Aboriginal people's land resulted in benefits to those indigenous people.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: On 22 April 2013, NDP MP Megan Leslie issued a statement claiming that the Harper government's recent changes to "fish habitat protection, the "Navigable Waters Protection Act" and the "Canadian Environmental Assessment Act"", along with gutting existing laws and making cuts to science and research, "will be disastrous, not only for the environment but also for Canadians’ health and economic prosperity." On 26 September 2012, Leslie argued that with the changes to the "Canadian Environmental Assessment Act" that came into effect 6 July 2012, "seismic testing, dams, wind farms and power plants" no longer required any federal environmental assessment. She also claimed that because the CEAA 2012—which she claimed was rushed through Parliament—dismantled the CEAA 1995, the Oshawa ethanol plant project would no longer have a full federal environmental assessment. Mr. Peter Kent (Minister of the Environment) explained that the CEAA 2012 "provides for the Government of Canada and the Environmental Assessment Agency to focus on the large and most significant projects that are being proposed across the country." The 2,000 to 3,000-plus smaller screenings that were in effect under CEAA 1995 became the "responsibility of lower levels of government but are still subject to the same strict federal environmental laws." Anne Minh-Thu Quach, MP for Beauharnois—Salaberry, QC, argued that the mammoth budget bill dismantled 50 years of environmental protection without consulting Canadians about the "colossal changes they are making to environmental assessments." She claimed that the federal government is entering into "limited consultations, by invitation only, months after the damage was done."


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Environmental Impact Assessment Law (EIA Law) requires that an environmental impact assessment be completed prior to project construction. However, if a developer completely ignores this requirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impact statement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB) may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If the developer does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time, only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possible fine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall cost of most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms has resulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legally required environmental impact assessments prior to construction.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: China's State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) used the legislation to halt 30 projects in 2004, including three hydro-power plants under the Three Gorges Project Company. Although one month later (Note as a point of reference, that the typical EIA for a major project in the USA takes one to two years.), most of the 30 halted projects resumed their construction, reportedly having passed the environmental assessment, the fact that these key projects' construction was ever suspended was notable.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: A joint investigation by SEPA and the Ministry of Land and Resources in 2004 showed that 30–40% of the mining construction projects went through the procedure of environment impact assessment as required, while in some areas only 6–7% did so. This partly explains why China has witnessed so many mining accidents in recent years.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: SEPA alone cannot guarantee the full enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, observed Professor Wang Canfa, director of the centre to help environmental victims at China University of Political Science and Law. In fact, according to Wang, the rate of China's environmental laws and regulations that are actually enforced is estimated at barely 10%.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIA is implemented in Egypt under the umbrella of the Ministry of state for environmental affairs. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for the EIA services.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In June 1997, the responsibility of Egypt's first full-time Minister of State for Environmental Affairs was assigned as stated in the Presidential Decree no.275/1997. From thereon, the new ministry has focused, in close collaboration with the national and international development partners, on defining environmental policies, setting priorities and implementing initiatives within a context of sustainable development.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: According to the Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was restructured with the new mandate to substitute the institution initially established in 1982. At the central level, EEAA represents the executive arm of the Ministry.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The purpose of EIA is to ensure the protection and conservation of the environment and natural resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development. The long-term objective is to ensure a sustainable economic development that meets present needs without compromising future generations ability to meet their own needs. EIA is an important tool in the integrated environmental management approach.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIA must be performed for new establishments or projects and for expansions or renovations of existing establishments according to the Law for the Environment.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: A wide range of instruments exist in the Environmental policy of the European Union. Among them the European Union has established a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures to assess environmental impacts. Directive (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments (known as the "EIA Directive") was first introduced in 1985, amended in 1997, amended again in 2003 following EU signature of the 1998 Aarhus Convention, and once more in 2009.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The initial Directive of 1985 and its three amendments have been codified in Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In 2001, the issue was enlarged to include the assessment of plans and programmes by the so-called "Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive" (2001/42/EC), which was amended by Directive 2014/52/EU of 16 April 2014. Under the EU directive, a compliant EIA must provide certain information in seven key areas:


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In 2021, ESG reporting requirements changed in the EU and UK. The EU started enforcing the Sustainable Finance Disclosures Regulation (SFDR), which was created with the purpose of unifying climate risk disclosures across the private sector by 2023. It also requires businesses to report on "principal adverse impacts" for society and the environment.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: All projects are either classified as Annex 1 or Annex 2 projects. Those lying in Annex 1 are large scale developments such as motorways, chemical works, bridges, power stations, etc. These always require an EIA under the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (85,337,EEC as amended). Annex 2 projects are smaller in scale than those referred to in Annex 1. Member States must determine whether these project shall be made subject to an assessment subject to a set of criteria set out in Annex 3 of codified Directive 2011/92/EU.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIA was implemented in Dutch legislation on September 1, 1987. The categories of projects which require an EIA are summarised in Dutch legislation, the Wet milieubeheer. The use of thresholds for activities makes sure that EIA is obligatory for those activities that may have considerable impacts on the environment.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: For projects and plans which fit these criteria, an EIA report is required. The EIA report defines a.o. the proposed initiative, it makes clear the impact of that initiative on the environment and compares this with the impact of possible alternatives with less a negative impact.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EU Directives concerning environmental impact assessment are implemented in England through the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017, which also apply to projects serving national defence purposes in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIA in Hong Kong is regulated by the "Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance 1997", which became effective in 1998.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The original proposal to construct the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line overground across the Long Valley failed to get through EIA, and the Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation had to change its plan and build the railway underground. In April 2011, the EIA of the Hong Kong section of the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge was found to have breached the ordinance, and was declared unlawful. The appeal by the government was allowed in September 2011. However, it was estimated that this EIA court case had increased the construction cost of the Hong Kong section of the bridge by HK$6.5 billion in money-of-the-day prices.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Ministry of Environment of the federal government of Iraq is in charge of issuing Environmental compliance certificates based on an EIA report prepared by professional consultant and thoroughly reviewed by MOE. Any project or activity prior to its establishment or even already existing project has to be approved and obtain such certificate from the MOE. Projects are classified into 3 categories; “A”, “B” and “C”. EIA report is usually obligatory for those projects and activities falling under categories “A” (large-scale) and “B” (small-scale) that may have considerable impacts on environment. An example of “A” category activities such as: dams and reservoirs, forestry production projects, industrial plants, irrigation, drainage and flood control, land clearance and leveling, port and harbor development, river basin development, thermal power and hydro-power development, manufacture, transportation and use of pesticides or other hazardous materials, hazardous waste management and disposal...etc. An example of “B” category activities such as: agro-industries, electrical transmission, renewable energy, rural electrification, tourism, rehabilitation or maintenance of highway or rural roads, rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facilities...etc. preparation of EIA report is usually exempt for projects falling under category “C” that may have low to no impact on environment, and example of “C” category activities: small fish breeding pond, institutional development, most human resources projects...etc.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The main environmental legislations in Iraq are: Law No.64 for cities and land use (1965), Law No.21 for noise prevention (1966), Law No.25 for system of rivers and other water resources protection (1967), Law No.99 for ionized radiation (1980), Law No.89 for public health (drinking water provision, sanitation and environmental monitoring (1981), Law No.79 for protection and improvement of environment (1986), Environmental criteria for agricultural, industrial and public service projects (1990), Law No.3 for protection and improvement of environment (1997), Law No.2 for water systems protection (2001), Law No.44 for creation of Ministry of Environment instead of the council of protection and improvement of environment (2003), Law No.27 for environmental protection and improvement (2009), Law No.4 for protection of ambient air system (2012).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Meanwhile, Environmental Protection and Improvement Board in the regional government of Kurdistan in the northern Iraq (Erbil, Duhok, Sulaimany and Garmyan) is responsible of issuing Environmental compliance certificate, the board was established according to law No.3 Environmental protection and improvement board in Iraqi Kurdistan Region (2010). The board is responsible of issuing such certificate for all projects and activities except of petroleum operation which EIA process is organized and implemented by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Kurdistan Regional government. The same Iraqi Environmental Legislations mentioned are adopted but the procedure of EIA in Iraqi-Kurdistan region government may differ from the one in the Federal government of Iraq.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) of India has been in a great effort in Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act(1974), the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), Biological Diversity Act(2002). The responsible body for this is the Central Pollution Control Board.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies need a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental data. Primary data are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of the environmental trends, based on a few months of primary data, has limitations. Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for complete understanding of the existing environmental status of the area. In many EIA studies, the secondary data needs could be as high as 80% of the total data requirement. EIC is the repository of one-stop secondary data source for environmental impact assessment in India.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) experience in India indicates that the lack of timely availability of reliable and authentic environmental data has been a major bottleneck in achieving the full benefits of EIA. The environment being a multi-disciplinary subject, a multitude of agencies are involved in collection of environmental data. However, no single organization in India tracks available data from these agencies and makes it available in one place in a form required by environmental impact assessment practitioners. Further, environmental data is not available in enhanced forms that improve the quality of the EIA. This makes it harder and more time-consuming to generate environmental impact assessments and receive timely environmental clearances from regulators. With this background, the Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearinghouse of environmental information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating of organized environmental data for various developmental initiatives all over the country.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIC stores data in GIS format and makes it available to all environmental impact assessment studies and to EIA stakeholders.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In 2020, the Government of India proposed a new EIA 2020 Draft, which was widely criticized for heavily diluting the EIA. Many Environmental groups started a campaign demanding the withdrawal of the Draft, in face of these campaigns, the Government of India resorted to banning/blocking the websites of these groups.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In Malaysia, Section 34A, Environmental Quality Act, 1974 requires developments that have significant impact to the environment are required to conduct the Environmental impact assessment.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (1980–85), for the first time, recognized the need for EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated environment conservation-related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 1985–1990). To enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed, thereby incorporating the elements of environmental factors right from the project formulation stage of the development plans


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: and projects and to avoid or minimize adverse effects on the ecological system. In addition, it has also emphasized that EIAs of industry, tourism, water resources, transportation, urbanization, agriculture, forest and other developmental projects be conducted.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In Nepal, the government's Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline of 1993 inspired the enactment of the Environment Protection Act (EPA) of 1997 and the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) of 1997 (EPA and EPR have been enforced since 24 and 26 June 1997 respectively in Nepal) to internalizing the environmental assessment system. The process institutionalized the EIA process in development proposals and enactment, which makes the integration of IEE and EIA legally binding to the prescribed projects. The projects, requiring EIA or IEE, are included in Schedules 1 and 2 of the EPR, 1997 (GoN/MoLJPA 1997).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as "Assessment of Environmental Effects" (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the Resource Management Act<nowiki> was passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consent application. Section 88 of the Act specifies that the AEE must include "such detail as corresponds with the scale and significance of the effects that the activity may have on the environment". While there is no duty to consult any person when making a resource consent application (Sections 36A and Schedule 4), proof of consultation is almost certain required by local councils when they decide whether or not to publicly notify the consent application under Section 93.</nowiki><nowiki></nowiki>


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency is an executive agency of the Government of Pakistan managed by the Ministry of Climate Change. The agency is charged with protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Parliament. The Directorate of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is tasked with implementing the Pakistan Environment Protection Act (PEPA) - 1997, specifically Section 12 and Review of IEE/EIA Regulations 2000. This Directorate comprises two sections namely EIA or Monitoring And Environment Engineering And Technology Transfer. All public and private sector developmental projects that fall under any of the Schedules of Regulations have to obtain environmental approval in respect of their projects. The EIA/Monitoring Section also conducts post-environmental approval monitoring to ascertain the compliance status of the Environment Management Plan (EMP).


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: , the state authority responsible for conducting the State EIA in Russia has been split between two Federal bodies: 1) Federal service for monitoring the use of natural resources – a part of the Russian Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment and 2) Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control. The two main pieces of environmental legislation in Russia are the Federal Law 'On Ecological Expertise', 1995 and the 'Regulations on Assessment of Impact from Intended Business and Other Activity on Environment in the Russian Federation', 2000.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In 2006, the parliament committee on ecology in conjunction with the Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment, created a working group to prepare a number of amendments to existing legislation to cover such topics as stringent project documentation for building of potentially environmentally damaging objects as well as building of projects on the territory of protected areas. There has been some success in this area, as evidenced from abandonment of plans to construct a gas pipe-line through the only remaining habitat of the critically endangered Amur leopard in the Russian Far East.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The government's decision to hand over control over several important procedures, including state EIA in the field of all types of energy projects, to the Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control has caused major controversy and elicited criticism from environmental groups, which have blamed the government for giving nuclear power industry control over the state EIA.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The main problem concerning State EIA in Russia is the clear differentiation of jurisdiction between the two above-mentioned Federal bodies.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The National Environmental Act, 1998 requires environmental impact assessment for large scale projects in sensitive areas. It is enforced by the Central Environmental Authority.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The new law of Ukraine on evaluation of impact on surroundings prescribes the requirements of environmental safety, rational use of national resources, minimizing of harmful impact on surroundings in the process of making managerial decisions about planned activity. The designing of the conclusion of evaluation of impact is a result of its conducting. The key moment of the law on evaluation of impact on surroundings is a substitution of conclusion of state environmental expertise on the conclusion of evaluation of impact on surroundings. Business entity is forbidden to conduct or to start its planned activity without the conclusion of impact on surroundings.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), enacted in 1970, established a policy of environmental impact assessment for federal agency actions, federally funded activities or federally permitted/licensed activities that in the U. S. is termed "environmental review" or simply "the NEPA process." The law also created the Council on Environmental Quality, which promulgated regulations to codify the law's requirements. Under United States environmental law an Environmental Assessment (EA) is compiled to determine the need for an "Environmental Impact Statement" (EIS). Federal or federalized actions expected to subject or be subject to significant environmental impacts will publish a Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS as soon as significance is known. Certain actions of federal agencies must be preceded by the NEPA process. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it specify any penalty if an environmental impact assessment turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or otherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure that the decision maker is fully informed of the environmental aspects and consequences prior to making the final decision.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: An environmental assessment (EA) is an environmental analysis prepared pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act to determine whether a federal action would significantly affect the environment and thus require a more detailed "Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)". The certified release of an Environmental Assessment results in either a "Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)" or an EIS.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), which oversees the administration of NEPA, issued regulations for implementing the NEPA in 1979. Eccleston reports that the NEPA regulations barely mention preparation of EAs. This is because the EA was originally intended to be a simple document used in relatively rare instances where an agency was not sure if the potential significance of an action would be sufficient to trigger preparation of an EIS. But today, because EISs are so much longer and complicated to prepare, federal agencies are going to great effort to avoid preparing EISs by using EAs, even in cases where the use of EAs may be inappropriate. The ratio of EAs that are being issued compared to EISs is about 100 to 1.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: In July 2020, President Donald Trump moved to significantly weaken NEPA. CEQ published a final rule which limits the duration of EAs to 1 year and EISs to 2 years. The rule also exempts a number of projects from review entirely and prevents the consideration of cumulative environmental impacts, including those caused by climate change. The rule went into effect on September 14, 2020 and is the first update to the CEQ regulations since their promulgation in 1978.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Environmental Assessment is a concise public document prepared by the federal action agency that serves to:


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The Environmental Assessment includes a brief discussion of the purpose and need of the proposal and of its alternatives as required by NEPA 102(2)(E), and of the human environmental impacts resulting from and occurring to the proposed actions and alternatives considered practicable, plus a listing of studies conducted and agencies and stakeholders consulted to reach these conclusions. The action agency must approve an EA before it is made available to the public. The EA is made public through notices of availability by local, state, or regional clearing houses, often triggered by the purchase of a public notice advertisement in a newspaper of general circulation in the proposed activity area.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The EA becomes a draft public document when notice of it is published, usually in a newspaper of general circulation in the area affected by the proposal. There is a 15-day review period required for an Environmental Assessment (30 days if exceptional circumstances) while the document is made available for public commentary, and a similar time for any objection to improper process. Commenting on the Draft EA is typically done in writing or email, submitted to the lead action agency as published in the notice of availability. An EA does not require a public hearing for verbal comments. Following the mandated public comment period, the lead action agency responds to any comments, and certifies either a FONSI or a Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare an EIS in its public environmental review record. The preparation of an EIS then generates a similar but more lengthy, involved and expensive process.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The adequacy of an environmental impact statement (EIS) can be challenged in federal court. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the Westway landfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River in New York City. Another prominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department of Transportation over its denial of the club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutants in the case of widening U.S. Route 95 through Las Vegas. The case reached the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which led to construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to the court's final decision.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Several state governments that have adopted "little NEPAs," state laws imposing EIS requirements for particular state actions. Some of those state laws such as the California Environmental Quality Act refer to the required environmental impact study as an environmental impact report.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: This variety of state requirements produces voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but also in insufficiently researched scientific domains. For example, in a seemingly routine "Environmental Impact Report" for the city of Monterey, California, information came to light that led to the official federal endangered species listing of Hickman's potentilla, a rare coastal wildflower.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental threats do not respect national borders. International pollution can have detrimental effects on the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, aquifers, farmland, the weather and biodiversity. Global climate change is transnational. Specific pollution threats include acid rain, radioactive contamination, debris in outer space, stratospheric ozone depletion and toxic oil spills. The Chernobyl disaster, precipitated by a nuclear accident on April 26, 1986, is a stark reminder of the devastating effects of transboundary nuclear pollution.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental protection is inherently a cross-border issue and has led to the creation of transnational regulation via multilateral and bilateral treaties. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE or Stockholm Conference) held in Stockholm in 1972 and the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED or Rio Summit, Rio Conference, or Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 were key in the creation of about 1,000 international instruments that include at least some provisions related to the environment and its protection.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention) was negotiated to provide an international legal framework for transboundary EIA.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: However, as there is no universal legislature or administration with a comprehensive mandate, most international treaties exist parallel to one another and are further developed without the benefit of consideration being given to potential conflicts with other agreements. There is also the issue of international enforcement. This has led to duplications and failures, in part due to an inability to enforce agreements. An example is the failure of many international fisheries regimes to restrict harvesting practises.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: According to Jay "et al.", EIA is used as a decision-aiding tool rather than decision-making tool. There is growing dissent about them as their influence on decisions is limited. Improved training for practitioners, guidance on bestpractice and continuing research have all been proposed.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: EIAs have been criticized for excessively limiting their scope in space and time. No accepted procedure exists for determining such boundaries. The boundary refers to ‘the spatial and temporal boundary of the proposal’s effects’. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor, but in practice, almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate on-site effects.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Development causes both direct and indirect effects. Consumption of goods and services, production, use and disposal of building materials and machinery, additional land use for activities of manufacturing and services, mining and refining, etc., all have environmental impacts. The indirect effects of development can be much higher than the direct effects examined by an EIA. Proposals such as airports or shipyards cause wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered in EIAs.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Broadening the scope of EIA can benefit the conservation of threatened species. Instead of concentrating on the project site, some EIAs employed a habitat-based approach that focused on much broader relationships among humans and the environment. As a result, alternatives that reduce the negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local subpopulations, can be assessed.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Thissen and Agusdinata have argued that little attention is given to the systematic identification and assessment of uncertainties in environmental studies which is critical in situations where uncertainty cannot be easily reduced by doing more research. In line with this, Maier et al. have concluded on the need to consider uncertainty at all stages of the decision-making process. In such a way decisions can be made with confidence or known uncertainty. These proposals are justified on data that shows that environmental assessments fail to predict accurately the impacts observed. Tenney et al. and Wood et al. have reported evidence of the intrinsic uncertainty attached to EIAs predictions from a number of case studies worldwide. The gathered evidence consisted of comparisons between predictions in EIAs and the impacts measured during, or following project implementation. In explaining this trend, Tenney et al. have highlighted major causes such as project changes, modelling errors, errors in data and assumptions taken and bias introduced by people in the projects analyzed. Some approaches to deal with uncertainty in EIA have been reviewed in.


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: There has also been criticism on the EIAs in the United States not addressing environmental justice concerns sufficiently. Yakuba writes "However, environmental history provides evidence that political process and special interests govern the attainment of the EJ goal by way of inadequate adherence to the NEPA provisions. Public participation (PP) is a principal requirement for achieving environmental justice and constitutes a pivotal determinant of EIA outcome."


title: Environmental impact assessment

text: Most recent analyses indicated that the persistent problem may have its roots in socio-cultural settings, and environment-nurturing cultural value should be regarded as one among major progressive cultures, and its implementation will need to engage the corporate sector.


title: Tinikling

text: Tinikling is a traditional Philippine folk dance which originated during the Spanish colonial era. The dance involves at least two people beating, tapping, and sliding bamboo poles on the ground and against each other in coordination with one or more dancers who step over and in between the poles in a dance. It is traditionally danced to rondalla music, a sort of serenade played by an ensemble of stringed instruments which originated in Spain during the Middle Ages. The locomotor movements used in tinikling are hopping, jumping, and turning.


title: Tinikling

text: The name "tinikling" is a reference to birds locally known as "tikling", which can be any of a number of rail species, but more specifically refers to the slaty-breasted rail ("Gallirallus striatus"), the buff-banded rail ("Gallirallus philippensis"), and the barred rail ("Gallirallus torquatus"). The term "tinikling" literally means "to perform it "tikling"-like."


title: Tinikling

text: The dance originated in Leyte, Island in Visayas. It imitates the movement of the "tikling" birds as they walk between grass stems, run over tree branches, or dodge bamboo traps set by rice farmers." Dancers imitate the tikling bird's legendary grace and speed by skillfully maneuvering between large bamboo poles.


title: Tinikling

text: However, other known stories also explain where this national dance originated from. A more popular one is that, legend says the tinikling dance originated from Filipino field workers during the time of Spanish colonization. It was a form of punishment for workers who worked too slow in the large haciendas the Spanish had. More specifically, two spine-tipped bamboo poles were used to hit the feet of the field workers. Legend claims that after awhile, the workers trained themselves to dodge the strikes of the bamboo poles. What was once a way to avoid punishment now became a form of art and dance.


title: Tinikling

text: Today tinikling is taught throughout the United States. In grades K-12 the dance is used as an aerobic exercise for physical education classes, to help expand physical movements such as hand coordination, foot speed, and also rhythm. Tinikling is commonly performed at schools and on special occasions, such as the Filipino Independence Day, as a celebration of Filipino culture and Filipino pride.


title: Tinikling

text: Two or four parallel pairs of bamboo poles, each around long, are held by two or more sitting or kneeling people ("clappers" or "clickers"). The poles are used as percussive instruments accompanying rondalla music played with string instruments (usually bandurrias, guitars, laúdes, octavinas, or ukuleles). They produce clapping sounds as they are struck against the ground (or two raised pieces of wood) and each other in a triple metre pattern. Traditionally, the poles are tapped twice on the ground on the first two beats, then brought together on the third beat.


title: Tinikling

text: Two or more dancers then weave through the rapidly moving bamboo poles with bare feet and ankles. The dancers have to carefully follow the rhythm so as not to get their ankles caught between the poles as they snap closed. They start the dance with their hands at their hips or clasped behind their backs. The tempo of the bamboo poles becomes faster as the dance progresses, forcing the dancers closer together as their movements become more frantic. The dancers hold hands at the last part of the dance, when the tempo is the fastest. They end the dance by letting go of each other's hands and stepping out entirely of the moving bamboo poles.


title: Tinikling

text: For the dance, females traditionally wear a dress called "balintawak" or "patadyong", and males wear an untucked embroidered shirt called the "barong Tagalog". The "balintawak" are colorful dresses with wide arched sleeves and the "patadyong" is a pineapple fiber blouse paired with checkered skirts. The "barong Tagalog" is usually light long sleeved shirts and worn with red trousers. Dancers wear no footwear while performing.


title: Tinikling

text: Modern variants of the dance can include innovations like increasing the number or arrangement of the poles (including switching poles mid-dance), changing the number of dancers, or using different music and choreography. Tinikling has also been noted to have the music changed in modern times to modern songs with strong percussions and bass to connect the traditions of the Philippine folk dance with their modern-day lifestyle. In the Philippines, the dance is often performed on certain Sundays.


title: Tinikling

text: When performed by dance troupes or in cultural shows, Tinikling is typically performed in the "Rural Suite," which includes dances originating from Filipino Christians that have a more "folksy" character. These dances originate mostly from the islands of Visayas and Luzon and imitate the simplicity and joy of the lifestyle of the Filipino villagers living in those regions during the Spanish period. Other Filipino folk dances of this category include "Sayaw sa Bangko", "Maglalatik", and "Pandanggo sa Ilaw".


title: Tinikling

text: In the United States, this dance has been altered into a four-beat rhythm to adjust to popular music. In some cases, it has been used in conjunction with traditional Filipino martial arts to demonstrate fleetness of foot and flow of movement. As mentioned earlier, tinikling is used as aerobic exercise for physical education classes in the United States for grades K-12. Instead of using traditional bamboo poles, most schools create their poles using plastic PVC pipe or wooden dowels. Another alternative is to tie elastic bands to the ankles of two students. The two students switch between jumping with their feet apart and their feet together to simulate the movement of the wooden poles. This way, more students are engaged in the aerobic exercise, rather than just the dancer.


title: Tinikling

text: Similar dances are found throughout Asia signifying close genetic and cultural relationships of people within the region. In Taiwan there are the Ami and Puyuma bamboo dances. In Southeast Asia similar dances such as the Rangku Alu of the Manggarai and the Gaba-gaba of the Ambonese in Indonesia, Múa Sạp from Vietnam, Lao Kra Top Mai from Thailand, Robam Kom Araek from Cambodia, Karen or Chin Bamboo Dance from Myanmar, Alai Sekap in Brunei, and Magunatip of the Murut people of Borneo. In Northeast India, various bamboo dances like the Cheraw dance from Mizoram people and various other Naga groups like the bamboo dances of the Kuki people are still conducted today. Multiple bamboo dances southern China: the Zhuang, the Li (called Da Chai), Yao etc.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure—popularly known as Fanny Hill—is an erotic novel by English novelist John Cleland first published in London in 1748. Written while the author was in debtors' prison in London, it is considered "the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel". It is one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The book exemplifies the use of euphemism. The text has no "dirty words" or explicit scientific terms for body parts, but uses many literary devices to describe genitalia. For example, the vagina is sometimes referred to as "the nethermouth", which is also an example of psychological displacement.


title: Fanny Hill

text: A critical edition by Peter Sabor includes a bibliography and explanatory notes. The collection "Launching "Fanny Hill"" contains several essays on the historical, social and economic themes underlying the novel.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The novel was published in two installments, on 21 November 1748 and in February 1749, by Fenton Griffiths and his brother Ralph under the name "G. Fenton". There has been speculation that the novel was at least partly written by 1740, when Cleland was stationed in Bombay as an employee of the East India Company.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Initially, there was no governmental reaction to the novel. However, in November 1749, a year after the first installment was published, Cleland and Ralph Griffiths were arrested and charged with "corrupting the King's subjects". In court, Cleland renounced the novel and it was officially withdrawn.


title: Fanny Hill

text: As the book became popular, pirate editions appeared. It was once believed that the scene near the end, in which Fanny reacts with disgust at the sight of two young men engaging in anal intercourse, was an interpolation made for these pirated editions, but the scene is present in the first edition (p. xxiii). In the 19th century, copies of the book sold underground in the UK, the US and elsewhere. In 1887, a French edition appeared with illustrations by Édouard-Henri Avril.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The book eventually made its way to the United States. In 1821, a Massachusetts court outlawed "Fanny Hill". The publisher, Peter Holmes, was convicted for printing a "lewd and obscene" novel. Holmes appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Court. He claimed that the judge, relying only on the prosecution's description, had not even seen the book. The state Supreme Court wasn't swayed. The Chief Justice wrote that Holmes was "a scandalous and evil disposed person" who had contrived to "debauch and corrupt" the citizens of Massachusetts and "to raise and create in their minds inordinate and lustful desires".


title: Fanny Hill

text: In 1963, after the 1960 court decision in "R v Penguin Books Ltd" that allowed the continuing publication of "Lady Chatterley's Lover", Gareth Powell's Mayflower Books published an uncensored paperback version of "Fanny Hill". The police became aware of the 1963 edition a few days before publication, having spotted a sign in the window of the Magic Shop in Tottenham Court Road in London, run by Ralph Gold. An officer went to the shop, bought a copy, and delivered it to Bow Street magistrate Sir Robert Blundell, who issued a search warrant. At the same time, two officers from the vice squad visited Mayflower Books in Vauxhall Bridge Road to determine whether copies of the book were kept on the premises. They interviewed Powell, the publisher, and took away the five copies there. The police returned to the Magic Shop and seized 171 copies of the book, and in December, Gold was summonsed under section 3 of the Obscene Publications Act 1959. By then, Mayflower had distributed 82,000 copies of the book, but it was Gold who was being tried, although Mayflower covered the legal costs. The trial took place in February 1964. The defence argued that "Fanny Hill" was a historical source book and that it was a joyful celebration of normal non-perverted sex—bawdy rather than pornographic. The prosecution countered by stressing one atypical scene involving flagellation, and won. Mayflower elected not to appeal.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Luxor Press published a 9/6 edition in January 1964, using text "exactly the same as that employed for the de-luxe edition" in 1963. The back cover features praise from "The Daily Telegraph" and from the author and critic Marghanita Laski. It went through many reprints in the first couple of years.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The Mayflower case highlighted the growing disconnect between the obscenity laws and the permissive society that was developing in late 1960s Britain, and was instrumental in shifting views to the point where in 1970 an uncensored version of "Fanny Hill" was again published in Britain.


title: Fanny Hill

text: In 1963, Putnam published the book in the United States under the title "John Cleland's Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure". This edition led to the arrest of New York City bookstore owner Irwin Weisfeld and clerk John Downs as part of an anti-obscenity campaign orchestrated by several major political figures. Weisfeld's conviction was eventually overturned in state court and the New York ban of "Fanny Hill" lifted. The new edition was also banned for obscenity in Massachusetts, after a mother complained to the state's Obscene Literature Control Commission. Massachusetts high court did rule Fanny Hill obscene and the publisher's challenge to the ban now went up to the Supreme Court. In a landmark decision in 1966, the United States Supreme Court ruled in "Memoirs v. Massachusetts" that "Fanny Hill" did not meet the Roth standard for obscenity.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann recommended the work in a letter for "its delicate sensitivities and noble ideas" expressed in "an elevated Pindaric style".


title: Fanny Hill

text: The original work was not illustrated, but many editions of this book have contained illustrations, often depicting the novel's sexual content. Distributors of the novel such as John Crosby were imprisoned for "exhibiting [not selling] to sundry persons a certain lewd and indecent book, containing very lewd and obscene pictures or engravings". Sellers of the novel such as Peter Holmes were imprisoned and charged that they "did utter, publish and deliver to one [name]; a certain lewd, wicked, scandalous, infamous and obscene print, on paper, was contained in a certain printed book then and there uttered, [2] published and delivered by him said Peter Holmes intitled "Memoirs of a Woman Of Pleasure" to manifest corruption and subversion of youth, and other good citizens ... "


title: Fanny Hill

text: None of the story's scenes have been exempt from illustration. Illustrations of this novel vary from the first homosexual experience to the flagellation scene.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Although editions of the book have frequently featured illustrations, many have been of poor quality. An exception to this is the set of mezzotints, probably designed by the artist George Morland and engraved by his friend John Raphael Smith that accompanied one edition.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The novel consists of two long letters (which appear as volumes I and II of the original edition) written by Frances 'Fanny' Hill, a rich Englishwoman in her middle age, who leads a life of contentment with her loving husband Charles and their children, to an unnamed acquaintance identified only as 'Madam.' Fanny has been prevailed upon by 'Madam' to recount the 'scandalous stages' of her earlier life, which she proceeds to do with 'stark naked truth' as her governing principle.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The first letter begins with a short account of Fanny's impoverished childhood in a Lancashire village. At age 14, she loses her parents to smallpox, arrives in London to look for domestic work, and gets lured into a brothel. She sees a sexual encounter between an ugly older couple and another between a young attractive couple, and participates in a lesbian encounter with Phoebe, a bisexual prostitute. A customer, Charles, induces Fanny to escape. She loses her virginity to Charles and becomes his lover. Charles is sent away by deception to the South Seas, and Fanny is driven by desperation and poverty to become the kept woman of a rich merchant named Mr H—. After enjoying a brief period of stability, she sees Mr H— have a sexual encounter with her own maid, and goes on to seduce Will (the young footman of Mr H—) as an act of revenge. She is discovered by Mr H— as she is having a sexual encounter with Will. After being abandoned by Mr H—, Fanny becomes a prostitute for wealthy clients in a pleasure-house run by Mrs Cole. This marks the end of the first letter.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The second letter begins with a rumination on the tedium of writing about sex and the difficulty of driving a middle course between vulgar language and "mincing metaphors and affected circumlocutions". Fanny then describes her adventures in the house of Mrs Cole, which include a public orgy, an elaborately orchestrated bogus sale of her "virginity" to a rich dupe called Mr Norbert, and a sado-masochistic session with a man involving mutual flagellation with birch-rods. These are interspersed with narratives which do not involve Fanny directly; for instance, three other girls in the house (Emily, Louisa and Harriett) describe their own losses of virginity, and the nymphomaniac Louisa seduces the immensely endowed but imbecilic "good-natured Dick". Fanny also describes anal intercourse between two older boys (removed from several later editions). Eventually Fanny retires from prostitution and becomes the lover of a rich and worldly-wise man of 60 (described by Fanny as a "rational pleasurist"). This phase of Fanny's life brings about her intellectual development, and leaves her wealthy when her lover dies of a sudden cold. Soon after, she has a chance encounter with Charles, who has returned as a poor man to England after being shipwrecked. Fanny offers her fortune to Charles unconditionally, but he insists on marrying her.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The novel's developed characters include Charles, Mrs Jones (Fanny's landlady), Mrs Cole, Will, Mr H— and Mr Norbert. The prose includes long sentences with many subordinate clauses. Its morality is conventional for the time, in that it denounces sodomy, frowns upon vice and approves of only heterosexual unions based upon mutual love.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The plot was described as 'operatic' by John Hollander, who said that "the book's language and its protagonist's character are its greatest virtues".


title: Fanny Hill

text: Literary critic Felicity A. Nussbaum describes the girls in Mrs Cole's brothel as a little troop of love' who provide compliments, caresses, and congratulation to their fellow whores' erotic achievements".


title: Fanny Hill

text: According to literary critic Thomas Holmes, Fanny and Mrs Cole see the homosexual act thusly: "the act subverts not only the hierarchy of the male over the female, but also what they consider nature's law regarding the role of intercourse and procreation".


title: Fanny Hill

text: There are numerous scholars who claim that "Fanny" in her name refers to a woman's vulva, or that "Hill" refers to the "mons pubis", mound of Venus. However, this interpretation lacks corroborating evidence: the term "fanny" is first known to have been used to mean female genitalia in the 1830s, and no 18th-century dictionary defines "fanny" in this way.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Later in the text when Fanny is with Louisa, they come across a boy nicknamed "Good-natured Dick" who is described as having some mental disability/handicap. Louisa brings the boy in anyway, as Dick's functioning physical state supersedes his poor mental one. This scene also leads into an issue within the text of rape (for both Dick and Louisa) and how the possible label of rape is removed by resistance transitioning into pleasure.


title: Fanny Hill

text: One scholar, David McCracken, writes about "Fanny Hill" as a "bildungsroman". Her sexual development contains three life stages: innocence, experimentation, and experience. McCracken specifically addresses how Fanny's word selections on describing the phallus change throughout the stages. Fanny sees the phallus as both an object of terror and of delight. McCracken relates her changing view of the phallus to Burke's theory of the sublime and beautiful.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Patricia Spacks discusses how Fanny has been previously deprived by her rural environment of what she can understand as real experience, and how she welcomes the whores' efforts to educate her. Since Fanny is so quickly catapulted into her new life, she has had little time to reflect on the shame and regret that she feels for leading a life of adultery, and replaces this shame with the pleasure of sexual encounters with men and women. Even though these feelings may have been replaced or forgotten, she still reflects on her past: "...and since I was now bent over the bar, I thought by plunging over head and ears into the stream I was hurried away by, to drown all sense of shame or reflection". Having little time to think about how she feels about her transition, she masks her thoughts with sexual pleasure, yet this is not a total fix to forget her emotions.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Andrea Haslanger argues in her dissertation how the use of first-person narrative in the 18th century "undermines, rather than secures, the individual" in classic epistolary novels like by Daniel Defoe, "Evelina" by Fanny Burney, "Frankenstein" by Mary Shelley and specifically "Fanny Hill". Haslanger claims that "the paradox of pornographic narration is that it mobilizes certain aspects of the first person (the description of intimate details) while eradicating others (the expression of disagreement or resistance)" (19). With this in mind, she raises the question of "whether 'I' denotes consciousness or body or both" (34).


title: Fanny Hill

text: With sexual acts being viewed heavily as taboo within 18th-century England, "Fanny Hill" strayed far away from the norm in comparison to other works of its time. A large portion of books that focused on the idea of sex were written in the form of conduct novels: books that would focus on teaching women the proper ways to behave and live their lives in as virtuous of a manner as possible. These novels encouraged women to stay away from sexual deviance, for if they were to remain virtuous then they would ultimately be rewarded. One example of this is Samuel Richardson's conduct novel "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded", in which the character of Pamela is able to resist sexual temptation, thus maintaining her virtue and being rewarded in the end with a prosperous life.


title: Fanny Hill

text: However, "Fanny Hill" was widely considered to be the first work of its time to focus on the idea of sexual deviance being an act of pleasure, rather than something that was simply shameful. This can be seen through Fanny's character partaking in acts that would normally be viewed as deplorable by society's standards, but then is never punished for them. In fact, Fanny is ultimately able to achieve her own happy ending when she is able to find Charles again, marrying him and living in a life of wealth. This can be viewed in sharp contrast to a work like "Pamela", where sexual acts are heavily avoided for the sake of maintaining virtue. Meanwhile, within "Fanny Hill", normally deplorable acts can be conducted with little to no consequence.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Because of the book's notoriety (and public domain status), numerous adaptations have been produced. Some of them are:


title: Robert Towne

text: Robert Towne (born Robert Bertram Schwartz; November 23, 1934) is an American screenwriter, producer, director and actor. He started with writing films for Roger Corman including "The Tomb of Ligeia" (1964). Later, he became a well-known figure of the New Hollywood wave of filmmaking. He is best known for his Academy Award-winning original screenplay for Roman Polanski's "Chinatown" (1974), which is widely considered one of the greatest screenplays. Towne also wrote the sequel, "The Two Jakes" (1990); the Hal Ashby comedy-dramas "The Last Detail" (1973) and "Shampoo" (1975). He is also known for his collaborations with Tom Cruise on the films "Days of Thunder" (1990), "The Firm" (1993) and the first two installments of "" franchise (1996, 2000).


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne directed the sports dramas "Personal Best" (1982) and "Without Limits" (1998), the crime thriller "Tequila Sunrise" (1988), and the romantic crime drama "Ask the Dust" (2006).


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne was born in Los Angeles, where he grew up in San Pedro, the son of Helen and Lou Schwartz. He is of Romanian descent through his father, and Russian descent through his mother; the family was Jewish. He has a younger brother, Roger, who co-wrote the 1984 film "The Natural" starring Robert Redford.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne originally sought work as a writer and actor. He took an acting class with Roger Corman taught by Jeff Corey where his classmates also included Jack Nicholson (with whom he shared an apartment), Irvin Kershner, and Sally Kellerman.


title: Robert Towne

text: Corman was renowned for giving work to untested people of talent. Towne wrote the screenplay for the Corman-financed "Last Woman on Earth" (1960), in which Towne also played one of the lead roles.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne started writing for television on such programs as "The Lloyd Bridges Show", "Breaking Point", "The Outer Limits", and "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.".


title: Robert Towne

text: He also wrote a screenplay for the Corman-directed "The Tomb of Ligeia" (1965). In 1981 Towne said "I worked harder on... [that] screenplay for him than on anything I think I have ever done."


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne went back to working in television when Corman hired him to write a script for a Western, which became "A Time for Killing" (1967). Corman left the project during filming and Towne took his name off the credits. Towne said later he "hated" the film.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne's script for "A Time for Killing" had been read and admired by Warren Beatty who asked Towne to help out on the script for "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967). Towne later claimed his main contributions were removing the ménage à trois relationship between Bonnie, Clyde, and WD, making some structural changes. Towne was on set during filming and continued to work during post production. The film was a huge success and although Towne's contribution was only "special consultant", he began to earn a reputation in Hollywood as a top "script doctor".


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne was credited on "Villa Rides" (1968), which he later said he did as a favor for Robert Evans head of Paramount. He hated the experience.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne did uncredited work on the scripts for "Drive, He Said" (1971), directed by Jack Nicholson; "Cisco Pike" (1972), which Towne said turned into "a pretty good movie" but where he got "so angry with the director" he took his name off; and "The New Centurions" (1972), where he was to share credit with Stirling Silliphant but asked for his name to be taken off after he saw the film.


title: Robert Towne

text: He did uncredited work for Francis Ford Coppola during the making of "The Godfather" (1972), mostly the final scene between Michael and Vito, shortly before Vito dies. Coppola thanked Towne in his Academy Award speech for Best Screenplay.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne received great acclaim for his film scripts "The Last Detail" (1973), "Chinatown" (1974), and "Shampoo" (1975). He was nominated for an Oscar for all three scripts, winning for "Chinatown". He later said it was inspired by a chapter in Carey McWilliams's "Southern California Country: An Island on the Land" (1946) and a "West" magazine article on Raymond Chandler's Los Angeles.


title: Robert Towne

text: According to Sam Wasson's "The Big Goodbye: Chinatown and the Last Years of Hollywood", Towne "secretly employed an old college friend named Edward Taylor as his uncredited writing partner for more than 40 years."


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne was credited for his work on "The Yakuza" (1975) and did script doctoring on "The Missouri Breaks" (1976), "Orca" (1977) and "Heaven Can Wait" (1978).


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne turned to directing with "Personal Best" (1982). He also wrote the script for "", hoping to direct, but "Personal Best" was a financial failure, meaning he had to sell the "Greystoke" script. He grew dissatisfied with the production and credited his dog, P. H. Vazak, with the script. Vazak became the first dog nominated for an Oscar for screenwriting.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne did uncredited work on "Deal of the Century" (1983), "8 Million Ways to Die" (1986) (), "Tough Guys Don't Dance" (1987) and "Frantic" (1988).


title: Robert Towne

text: His second feature film as director was "Tequila Sunrise" (1988), which he wrote back in the early 1980s. Towne told "The New York Times" that "Tequila Sunrise" is "a movie about the use and abuse of friendship."


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne has expressed his disappointment in "The Two Jakes" in many interviews. He told writer Alex Simon, "In the interest of maintaining my friendships with Jack Nicholson and Robert Evans, I’d rather not go into it, but let’s just say "The Two Jakes" wasn’t a pleasant experience for any of us. But, we’re all still friends, and that’s what matters most."


title: Robert Towne

text: In a November 5, 2007, interview with MTV, Jack Nicholson claimed that Towne had written the part of Gittes specifically for him. In the same interview, Nicholson also said that Towne had conceived "Chinatown" as a trilogy, with the third film set in 1968 and dealing in some way with Howard Hughes. However, Towne says he "does not know how that got started" and denies there was any trilogy planned.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne wrote the script for "Days of Thunder" (1990) and formed a close friendship with its star Tom Cruise.


title: Robert Towne

text: He was one of the writers on Cruise's "The Firm" (1993), then Beatty's "Love Affair" (1994). Cruise brought him on to "" (1996) and co-produced Towne's third film as director, "Without Limits" (1998). He also co-wrote "Mission Impossible II" (2000) for Cruise.


title: Robert Towne

text: A project Towne had long sought to bring to the screen came to fruition in 2006 with "Ask the Dust", a romantic period piece set in Los Angeles based on the acclaimed novel by John Fante and starring Colin Farrell and Salma Hayek. Towne had found the novel decades earlier during his research for "Chinatown", as he was looking for authentic descriptions of 1930s Los Angeles. He enjoyed the book, considering it "the best book about Los Angeles ever written", and arranged a meeting with Fante, himself a screenwriter. As a result of that meeting, Towne was granted the screen rights to the novel. The rights eventually lapsed, and the new owner was Mel Brooks. In 1993, Towne wrote the script for free in exchange for the chance to direct the film. "Ask the Dust" received mixed reviews and failed at the box office. The film was entered into the 28th Moscow International Film Festival.


title: Robert Towne

text: Towne has framed several of his signature films as elaborate melodramas. He told "The New York Times" "I think melodrama is always a splendid occasion to entertain an audience and say things you want to say without rubbing their noses in it. With melodrama, as in dreams, you're always flirting with the disparity between appearance and reality, which is a great deal of fun. And that's also not unrelated to my perception of my life working in Hollywood, where you're always wondering, 'What does that guy really mean?'"


title: Robert Towne

text: In 2006, Towne was the subject of artist Sarah Morris's film, "Robert Towne". Morris describes him as an “elliptical figure” whose career exemplifies a certain characteristic mode of working in the film industry, marked by collaboration, shared or changing roles. Morris's painting installation in the lobby of the Lever House in Manhattan, commissioned by the Public Art Fund, was also titled "Robert Towne".


title: Robert Towne

text: In the 2010s, Towne returned to television, working as a consulting producer on "Mad Men" and writing two episodes of "Welcome to the Basement".


title: Robert Towne

text: In 1968, Towne met actress Julie Payne; they were married from 1977 to 1982. According to Sam Wasson's "The Big Goodbye: Chinatown and the Last Years of Hollywood", Towne was addicted to cocaine during this period and was occasionally violent, which led to a bitter divorce and custody battle over their daughter Katharine (born 1978).


title: Robert Towne

text: He is the former son-in-law of late actor John Payne and actress Anne Shirley. Through his daughter Katharine, his former son-in-law is actor Charlie Hunnam.


title: Robert Towne

text: In 2011, Towne was announced as writer-director of "The 39 Steps", a proposed remake of the 1935 film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. The British producer Graham King revealed that he had hired Towne to write a remake of "The Battle of Britain" in a December 2011 interview.


title: Robert Towne

text: In November 2019, it was reported that David Fincher and Towne would write a "Chinatown" prequel series for Netflix about Jake Gittes starting his agency.


title: Robert Towne

text: In the book "Fifty Filmmakers", journalist Andrew J. Rausch argues, "There is a strong case to be made that Robert Towne is the most gifted scribe ever to write for film. There can be little doubt that he is one of the finest ever."


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: Michelle Morgan (born July 16, 1981) is a Canadian actress, producer, director and writer best known for her role as Lou Fleming on the CBC series Heartland.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: Michelle Morgan was born in Calgary and grew up in Toronto and Vancouver. After studying Theatre and Classical Literature at the University of Toronto, Michelle went on to pursue a career in theatre and film.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: Morgan is an advocate for women's rights and has volunteered at women's shelters across Canada for the past 15 years. She served as the "I Am Courage" campaign ambassador for the Brenda Strafford Centre for the Prevention of Domestic Violence and the "My Homefront" campaign ambassador for Homefront, a Calgary-based nonprofit that serves victims of domestic abuse.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: On June 30, 2012 she married Derek Tisdelle. They have three children, Mara Carmen, Noah Santiago, and Celeste.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: In 2007, Michelle began her role as Lou on the CBC series "Heartland". The same year, she appeared in the zombie film "Diary of the Dead".


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: In 2008 she appeared on "Stargate Atlantis" as FRAN (Friendly Replicator Android) in the episodes "Be All My Sins Remember'd" and "Ghost in the Machine".


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: Her first short film, "Mi Madre, My Father" (2017), with Stephen Amell, was selected by Telefilm Canada for the "Not Short On Talent Corner" at Cannes Film Festival in May 2018. Michelle's debut film has screened at festivals such as Hollyshorts, the Brooklyn Women's Film Festival and the Vancouver Short Film Festival.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: In 2019, Michelle directed three episodes of the new CBC digital series "Hudson", a spin off of the long running series "Heartland".


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: Michelle' s second short film, "Save Yourself" (2019), is a romantic comedy set on the beaches of Tofino, British Columbia.


title: Michelle Morgan (actress)

text: In 2020, Michelle was selected to join the Women in the "Director's Chair, Story & Leadership Program" where she will develop her feature film project, a post apocalyptic western titled "The Plains".


title: Spatha

text: The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.5 and 1 m (19.7 and 39.4 in), with a handle length of between 18 and 20 cm (7.1 and 7.9 in), in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during the 1st to 6th centuries AD. Later swords, from the 7th to 10th centuries, like the Viking swords, are recognizable derivatives and sometimes subsumed under the term "spatha".


title: Spatha

text: The Roman "spatha" was used in war and in gladiatorial fights. The "spatha" of literature appears in the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD as a weapon used by presumably Celtic auxiliaries and gradually became a standard heavy infantry weapon, relegating the "gladius" to use as a light infantry weapon. The "spatha" apparently replaced the "gladius" in the front ranks, giving the infantry more reach when thrusting. While the infantry version had a long point, versions carried by the cavalry had a rounded tip that prevented accidental stabbing of the cavalryman's own foot or horse.


title: Spatha

text: Archaeologically many instances of the "spatha" have been found in Britain and Germany. It was used extensively by Germanic warriors. It is unclear whether it came from the Pompeii "gladius" or the longer Celtic swords, or whether it served as a model for the various arming swords and Viking swords of Europe. The "spatha" remained popular throughout the Migration Period. It evolved into the knightly sword of the High Middle Ages by the 12th century.


title: Spatha

text: The word comes from the Latin "spatha", which derives from the Greek word "" ("spáthē"), meaning "any broad blade, of wood or metal" but also "broad blade of a sword".


title: Spatha

text: The Greek word was used in the middle archaic period for various types of Iron Age swords. The word does not appear in Homeric Greek, but it is mentioned in the works of Alcaeus of Mytilene (sixth century BC) and Theophrastus (fourth century BC).


title: Spatha

text: It is likely that "spatha" is the romanization of the Doric Greek word σπάθα ("spáthā"). The word survives in Modern Greek as and . The Latin word became the French "épée", Catalan and Occitan "espasa", Portuguese and Spanish "espada", Italian "spada", Romanian "spadă" and Albanian "shpata", all meaning "sword". The English word "spatula" comes from Latin "spat"("h")"ula", the diminutive of "spatha". English spade, from Old English "spadu" or "spædu", is the Germanic cognate, derived from a Common Germanic "*spadō", ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European stem "*sph-dh-".


title: Spatha

text: During the Second Punic War, Celtic mercenaries introduced the "spatha" to the Roman army. The "spatha" was a weapon used by the cavalrymen, while the auxiliaries and legionaries used the "gladius" instead. Eventually, the Roman infantry would adopt the "spatha" in the 2nd century. It was a very versatile sword, undergoing many changes from its origins in Gaul to its usage in the Roman military. The blade was 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 inches) long.


title: Spatha

text: The pattern welding was used to strengthen the core of the blade. The appearance of the metal was enhanced due to inlay and contrasting metals. The sword also incorporated one or two forged fullers, thus making the "spatha" a strong and lightweight blade.


title: Spatha

text: The "Spatha" was first introduced to the Romans by Celtic mercenaries during the Second Punic War. The Celts would have used weaponry and armor from their homeland, and one of the Celtic weapons would have been the "spatha." Although many believe that the "spatha" was adopted by the Romans due to contact with Germania, this is not true.


title: Spatha

text: The earlier "gladius" sword was gradually replaced by the "spatha" from the late 2nd to the 3rd century AD. From the early 3rd century, legionaries and cavalrymen began to wear their swords on the left side, perhaps because the "scutum" had been abandoned and the "spatha" had replaced the "gladius".


title: Spatha

text: In the imperial period, the Romans adopted the original Greek term, "spáthē" (σπάθη), as "spatha", which still carried the general meaning of any object considered long and flat. "Spatha" appears, first in Pliny and then in Seneca, with different meanings: a spatula, a metal-working implement, a palm-leaf and so on. There is no hint of any native Roman sword called a "spatha".


title: Spatha

text: Referring to an actual sword, the term first appears in the pages of Tacitus with reference to an incident of the early empire. The British king, Caractacus, having rebelled, found himself trapped on a rocky hill, so that if he turned one way he encountered the "gladii" of the legionaries, and if the other, the "spathae" of the auxiliaries. There is no indication in Tacitus that they were cavalry.


title: Spatha

text: The next mention of "spathae" is in the 5th century, by Vegetius, now as a weapon carried by infantry.


title: Spatha

text: The "spatha" remained in use in the Byzantine Empire and its army. In the Byzantine court, "spatharios" (σπαθάριος), or "bearer of the "spatha"", was a mid-level court title. Other variants deriving from it were "protospatharios", "spatharokandidatos" and "spatharokoubikoularios", the latter reserved for eunuchs. One of the more famous "spatharokandidatoi" was Harald Hardrada.


title: Spatha

text: The term "Roman Iron Age" refers approximately to the time of the Roman Empire in northern Europe, which was outside the jurisdiction of the empire, but, judging from the imported Roman artifacts, was influenced by Roman civilization. One source of artifacts from this period are the bogs of Schleswig, Holstein and Denmark. Objects were deliberately broken and thrown into the bogs in the belief that they could go with a deceased chief on his voyage to a better place.


title: Spatha

text: A cache of 90 swords was found at Nydam Mose in Denmark in 1858. They were in the form of the "spatha" and therefore have been classified as "Roman swords". They are dated to the 3rd to 4th centuries. Many connect the Nydam cache with the sword of Beowulf, who was supposed to be a contemporary.


title: Spatha

text: When Germanic tribes began to invade the Roman Empire during the 3rd and 4th centuries they would come into contact with the "spatha". Surviving examples of these Germanic Iron Age swords have blades measuring between in length and in width. These single-handed weapons of war sport a tang long and have very little taper in their blades. They usually end in a rounded tip.


title: Spatha

text: Perhaps the most recognisable descendants of the "spathae" were the Viking Age blades. These swords took on a much more acute distal taper and point. They had deep fullers running their length, yet still had single-handed hilts which sported a uniquely shaped pommel, flat at the grip side and roughly triangular early on, with the flat curving to fit the hand later. While the pattern of hilt and blade design of this type might readily be called a "Viking sword", to do so would be to neglect the widespread popularity it enjoyed. All over continental Europe between the 8th and 10th centuries, this design and its variations could be found. Many of the best blades were of Frankish origin, given hilts in local centres. These blades had significantly better balance.


title: Spatha

text: During Norman times, the blade's length increased by around , and the hilt changed significantly. Instead of the Brazil-nut pommel, a thick disc-shaped pommel was attached "on-edge" to the bottom of the iron hilt. In addition the upper guard grew substantially from the near-absent design predating it. Also, the blades tended to taper slightly less than those found in the time of the Vikings.


title: Spatha

text: Jan Petersen, in "De Norske Vikingsverd" ("The Norwegian Viking Swords", 1919), introduced the most widely used classification of swords of the Viking Age, describing 26 types labelled A–Z. In 1927, R. E. M. Wheeler condensed Petersen's typology into a simplified typology of nine groups, numbered I–IX.


title: Spatha

text: The transition from the Viking Age "spatha"-inspired sword to the High Medieval knightly sword took place between the 10th and 11th centuries. The main development was the growth of the front handguard into a full cross-guard, and the reduction of the typical Viking Age lobated pommel into simpler brazil nut or disc shapes. The sword of Otto III, (total length 95.5 cm), preserved as a relic in Essen, is an example of the emerging arming sword, although it has been encrusted with decorations during the ensuing centuries.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Bruce David Grobbelaar (born 6 October 1957) is a Zimbabwean former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper, most prominently for English team Liverpool between 1981 and 1994, and for the Zimbabwean national team. He is remembered for his gymnastic-like athletic ability, unflappable confidence and eccentric and flamboyant style of play, as well as his rushing ability, which has led pundits to compare him retrospectively to the sweeper-keepers of the modern era. He was appointed as goalkeeper coach for Ottawa Fury FC of the North American Soccer League in 2014. In March 2018 he was announced as goalkeeper coach for the Matabeleland football team.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Born in South Africa, Grobbelaar grew up in neighbouring Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe), and served in the Rhodesian Army before he joined the Vancouver Whitecaps of the North American Soccer League in 1979. He gained Liverpool's attention during a loan spell at Crewe Alexandra during the 1979–80 season, and signed for the Merseyside club in 1981. Making 628 appearances for Liverpool over the next 13 years, including 440 in the League, he won the League championship with the club six times, as well as three FA Cups, three League Cups and the 1983–84 European Cup.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar left Liverpool for Southampton in 1994, transferred to Plymouth Argyle two years later, and thereafter played for an assortment of English lower-league teams, never for more than a few games.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: In his teenage years, Grobbelaar was a talented cricketer and was offered a baseball scholarship in the United States, but a career in football was his main ambition. He attended David Livingstone Primary School in Harare before moving onto Hamilton High School (Bulawayo). His footballing career started with a Bulawayo-based team, Highlanders FC, in Rhodesia's second biggest city. In his late teens he was signed up by Durban City Football Club in South Africa, but left claiming to have been sidelined owing to his colour in a predominantly black team — the team had played in an all-white league until the previous year. Immediately after leaving Highlands Park, he was conscripted into National Service, spending eleven months on active service in the Rhodesia Regiment during the Rhodesian Bush War.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: In 1979 Grobbelaar was signed by the Vancouver Whitecaps of the NASL after he had attended their scouting camp in South Africa. At the Vancouver Whitecaps, Grobbelaar played under the management of former England and Blackpool goalkeeper, Tony Waiters, making his debut on 4 August 1979 against the Los Angeles Aztecs away. The Whitecaps lost 0–2, Johan Cruyff scoring one of the Aztecs' goals. Grobbelaar spent the rest of the season as second choice to former Wolverhampton Wanderers keeper Phil Parkes.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: During 1979, he visited England to see family friends, and a chance phone call from Ron Atkinson, brought him an impromptu trial with West Bromwich Albion. Atkinson was keen to sign Grobbelaar but owing to difficulties over gaining a work permit, the deal fell through. In stepped Crewe Alexandra, signing Grobbelaar on loan on 18 December 1979. In an early League appearance for the Railwaymen in Division 4, the unknown Grobbelaar was named on the Team Sheet in the York City Match Day Programme as "Bill Grobbelaar". During his time at Crewe, Grobbelaar played 24 League games and scored his only professional goal, a penalty, in his last game. By good fortune, on the evening when he gave his greatest performance for Crewe, he was spotted by Liverpool's head scout Tom Saunders.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: By the time Liverpool had completed their research on Grobbelaar, he had returned to Vancouver with his loan spell now over. Liverpool approached Tony Waiters with the idea of taking Grobbelaar to Anfield, and Waiters, who had a working relationship with Liverpool in the 1970s, paved the way for the move. Grobbelaar signed for Liverpool for £250,000 on 17 March 1981 as their reserve goalkeeper, but in mid-1981, regular goalkeeper Ray Clemence's departure to Tottenham Hotspur gave Grobbelaar his opportunity.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar made his debut on 28 August 1981 but failed to prevent Wolverhampton Wanderers winning the league fixture 1–0 at Molineux. Also making their debuts were defender Mark Lawrenson and midfielder Craig Johnston. His first clean sheet came a fortnight later at Anfield on 5 September, Arsenal were the visitors who were beaten by a 2–0 scoreline.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar's early days as No.1 were strewn with errors and the Reds struggled to obtain any sort of consistency, Grobbelaar taking a lot of the blame. By the end of the calendar year Liverpool were mid table in the league and looked to be out of the running for title honours, especially as they had just lost to Manchester City 3–1 at Anfield in the Boxing Day fixture – a defeat which put John Bond's team top of the league. The New Year brought a new momentum as Bob Paisley began to get the best out of his players; they began the year in South Wales visiting the Vetch Field to play Swansea City in the FA Cup, Liverpool were in fine form and thumped their hosts 4–0. This set them on their way in the league and dropped just seven of the 50 available points overhauling the points gap that Ipswich Town had opened on them.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar added the championship medal to the League Cup winners medal he had gained at Wembley on 13 March; the Reds beat Spurs 3–1, who had Ray Clemence in goal.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: During the period 1981–1994, Grobbelaar played 627 first team games for Liverpool, becoming known for his eccentric and flamboyant style. In 1984, the European Cup final between Liverpool and Roma finished 1–1 after extra time, and went to a penalty shootout. As Roma's Bruno Conti prepared to take his kick, Grobbelaar walked towards the goal smiling confidently at the cameras lined-up behind, then proceeded to bite the back of the net, in imitation of eating spaghetti. Conti sent his spot kick over the bar. Grobbelaar then produced a similar performance before Francesco Graziani took his kick, wobbling his legs in mock terror. Graziani missed and Liverpool went on to win the shootout 4–2.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar was retained by three of Liverpool's greatest managers; Paisley, Fagan and Dalglish, over a period of 13 years. His strengths were his gymnastic-like agility, and an unflappable confidence. He was never afraid to be seen to berate his defenders if he thought they had given easy opportunities to the opposition, such as in his verbal assault on Jim Beglin in the first all Merseyside FA Cup final against Everton in 1986. Over the course of his Liverpool career he won more medals than any of his contemporaries.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: In 1984–85, Grobbelaar brought down a spectator who had invaded the pitch during a game, allowing the police to handcuff the offending spectator.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Although there were occasional challenges to his position as Liverpool's number 1, Grobbelaar was a virtual ever-present from Clemence's departure to the start of the 1990s which coincided with the end of the club's dominance. He was an ever-present in his first five league campaigns at Anfield, when Liverpool were champions four times and runners-up on the other occasion. However, in 1988–89, injuries and illness restricted his first team opportunities and he played 21 times in the league, with Mike Hooper taking his place on the other 17 occasions. However, he was fit to face Everton in the 3–2 FA Cup win on 20 May 1989, though six days later he conceded a last minute goal to Arsenal midfielder Michael Thomas on the final day of the league season as the league title was wrenched from Liverpool's grasp and headed to Highbury instead. A month earlier, he played in the FA Cup semi-final win over Nottingham Forest which was played at Old Trafford after the original match at Hillsborough was cancelled due to the tragedy that led to 96 fans dying on terracing just behind Grobbelaar's goal. Grobbelaar attended many of the victims' funerals.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: It was the signing of David James from Watford in mid-1992 that spelt the beginning of the end for Grobbelaar. Although James struggled to impress at first, Grobbelaar's insistence on playing for Zimbabwe gave James chances; Grobbelaar only played six times for Liverpool during 1992–93 and spent a short period on loan at Second Division side Stoke City where he made four appearances. James's uncertainty allowed Grobbelaar to regain his place in the first team at the start of the 1993–94 season, in which his performance, like the team's, started well but fell away badly. In a notorious incident in a Merseyside derby that year, Grobbelaar even physically assaulted young teammate Steve McManaman. He was ever-present until he was injured in the final minute of a 2–0 defeat at Leeds United on 19 February 1994. It turned out to be his final appearance for the club.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: In 14 years at the club, he had won six league title medals, three FA Cup winner's medal, three Football League Cup winner's medals and a European Cup winner's medal.


title: Bruce Grobbelaar

text: Grobbelaar left Liverpool in mid-1994, transferring on a free to Southampton. He made his debut on 20 August 1994 in the 1–1 league draw with Blackburn Rovers at The Dell. He spent two seasons with the Saints competing with another goalkeeper with a reputation for eccentricity, Dave Beasant. Despite the fuss caused by the match-fixing allegations (see below), manager Alan Ball maintained faith in him, and he kept his place in the team for most of the 1994–95 season.