title: Buick Skylark

text: In its place was a new , all-cast-iron-block V6 with a Rochester 1-barrel carburetor that generated at 4400 rpm. It was almost 30 cu. in. larger than a prior, unrelated V6 introduced for the 1962 model year. The 225 was basically a Buick 300 CID V8 engine, less two cylinders. The basic V8 option was a 300-cubic-inch, with cast-iron-block, aluminum-heads, and a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor that generated at 4600 rpm. A high performance version was offered with 11:1 compression and a 4-barrel carburetor, generating . A long-throw, 4-speed Hurst shifter was available. For the 1965 model, cast-iron blocks and heads were used for all engines.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the first time, a four-door sedan was offered in addition to the two-door convertible, two-door sedan, and hardtop coupe. Specials and Special Deluxes only came in pillared coupe versions. All Skylarks would have higher levels of exterior and interior trim than the Special and Special Deluxe from which they were derived. The sedan would come with cloth-and-vinyl seats standard, with an all-vinyl "Cordaveen" interior optional. All-vinyl bucket seats were standard on the convertible and optional on the hardtop coupe. The Skylark Coupe had a lower, more road-hugging profile than the other models. Buick's traditional VentiPorts were integrated into the front half rub strip that ran the entire length of the vehicle, with later versions appearing vertically stacked as on the Buick Wildcat.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Inspired in no small part by the sales success of the 1964 Pontiac Tempest, LeMans, and GTO, a Gran Sport option became available in mid 1965, offered as a coupe, hardtop or convertible. The Gran Sport featured Buick's 401-cubic-inch-V8 with a Carter 4-barrel carburetor that produced at 4400 rpm, listed as 400-cubic-inch in sales literature to elude a General Motors limit of 400 cubic in intermediate-sized cars. Unique Gran Sport badging, a heavy-duty radiator, and dual exhaust were also added.


title: Buick Skylark

text: In the 1966 model year, the pillared four-door sedan was replaced by a four-door hardtop. The 1966 two-door Skylark was available with the optional 340 ci "Wildcat 375", engine which produced and torque with a 4-barrel Carter carb.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The four-door sedan would rejoin the lineup for the 1967 model year, making a total of five Skylark body styles. The 225 cu. in. V6 was standard on the two-door sedan, the 300-cubic-inch V8 on all other models, but the four-door hardtop sedan, which came with a 340-cubic-inch-displacement V8 engine using a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor and producing at 4400 rpm.


title: Buick Skylark

text: In 1967 Skylarks included the Federally-mandated safety equipment as other U.S. market passenger cars, including a dual-circuit hydraulic brake system, energy-absorbing steering column and wheel, 4-way hazard flashers, shoulder belt mounting points for outboard front passengers, softer interior surfaces, and recessed controls on the instrument panel.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The Gran Sport became the Gran Sport 400 to reflect its engine. A Gran Sport 340 was added, using the 340-cubic-inch V8, available only as a two-door hardtop coupe.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The 1968 model year was one of significant change for the Buick Skylark. Although still using the same basic chassis, all of GM's mid-sized cars adopted a policy of using two different length wheelbases. Two-door models used a shorter wheelbase of , while four-door models used a longer wheelbase of 116 in (the Buick Sport Wagon and Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser used an even longer wheelbase of 121 in). All of GM's mid-sized cars received all-new sheet metal, incorporating a semi-fastback appearance, which was a revival of a streamlining on all GM products from 1942 until 1950 as demonstrated on the Buick Super Club Coupe (sedanette), that showed influences from the restyled Riviera. More Federally mandated safety features improved occupant protection and accident avoidance, including side marker lights, shoulder belts (on all models built after January 1, 1968), and parking lights that illuminated with headlights.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The Buick Gran Sport, previously an option package available on the Skylark, became a separate series, starting with the 340 hp/440 lbs torque 400 c.i.d. V8 1968 GS 400, using the 2 door Skylark body and chassis. In a reshuffling of models in the lineup, the Special Deluxe replaced the previous Special. The Skylark nameplate was shuffled down a notch to replace the previous Special Deluxe. The previous Skylark was replaced by a new Skylark Custom.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The basic Skylark was available as a two-door hardtop coupe or a four-door sedan. The Skylark Custom came as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, or four-door sedan.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The previous V6 was discontinued and the associated tooling was sold to Kaiser Industries, which used the V6 in its Jeep trucks and sport utility vehicles. The base engine in Buick Skylarks (and Buick Special sedans) became a 250-cubic-inch Chevrolet I6, that produced at 4200 rpm using a single-barrel Rochester carburetor.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Optional on the Skylark and standard on the Skylark Custom was a new 350-cubic-inch V8 derived from the 340, using a two-barrel Rochester carburetor that produced at 4400 rpm. The Buick Special name was dropped after the 1969 model year. A locking steering column with a new, rectangular ignition key became standard on all 1969 GM cars (except Corvair), one year ahead of the Federal requirement.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For 1970, the mid-sized Buicks once again received new sheet metal and the Buick Skylark name was moved down another notch, replacing the previous entry-level Buick Special. It was available in two- and four-door sedans with the 250-cubic-inch inline-six as standard and the optional 350-cubic-inch V8 (260 horsepower at 4600 rpm). Two-door models shared their roofline with the 1970 Chevelle, distinct from that of the shared Pontiac LeMans and Oldsmobile Cutlass. The two-door sedan was unique to Buick, sharing its roofline as the hardtop but having a thick "B" pillar, with Buick's traditional "Sweepspear" feature appearing as a crease running the length of the vehicle. Chevrolet did not offer a pillared coupe for the Chevelle from 1970 to 1972; all two-doors were hardtops.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Replacing the previous Buick Skylark was the Buick Skylark 350, available as a two-door hardtop coupe or four-door sedan with the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment. This 350-cubic-inch engine was a different design than the Chevy's 350 CID engine (4.000 in × 3.48 in) the Buick design had a longer stroke and smaller bore (3.80 X 3.85 in) allowing for lower-end torque, deep-skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, crank main journals, and connecting rods, the distributor was located in front of the engine (typical of Buick), the oil pump was external and mounted in the front of the engine, the rocker arm assembly had all rocker arms mounted on a single rod and were not adjustable. The Skylark Custom continued to be available, also using the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment and still available as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, and four-door sedan. Buick Gran Sport models continued to be available as a separate series. The Buick Sport Wagon name was now used on a conventional four-door station wagon that no longer featured a raised roof with glass panels over the cargo area, or a longer wheelbase, as in the past. It now used the same wheelbase as the Buick Skylark four-door sedan and the now-discontinued Buick Special four-door Station Wagon. It became, in effect, a Buick Skylark four-door station wagon in all respects but the name.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the 1971 model year, the base Skylark was available only with the inline-6, now only putting out due to emission control devices, but in a two-door hardtop coupe body-style (in addition to the previous two- and four-door sedans). The Skylark 350 had a V8 engine that put out only . It was now available as a two-door sedan in addition to the previous two-door hardtop coupe and four-door sedan.


title: Buick Skylark

text: 1972 was the last model year for the mid-sized Buick Skylark. During this model year many pollution controls were added to the engines, Compression was lowered, engines had to accept leaded and unleaded gas, and spark timing was retarded (no vacuum advance in lower gears) while driving in lower gears to reduce emissions. For 1972, the base Buick Skylark used the 350-cubic-inch V8 with the 2-barrel Rochester carburetor (now putting out 145 horsepower) as standard equipment. A new federally mandated system to calculate power was put into effect that year, and the actual engine performance was probably comparable but slightly lower because of pollution controls in the 1972 model year to the that was listed for the previous year. The Skylark 350 now used a version of the same V8 engine as the base Skylark, but with a 4-barrel Rochester carburetor that generated .


title: Buick Skylark

text: Skylark Customs were available with the same 350-cubic-inch V8 engines available in the basic Skylark and the Skylark 350. The Custom had an upgraded interior and dash with some extra chrome. Convertibles only came in the Skylark Customs and the Skylark 350s.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the 1973 model year, the Buick Gran Sports, Skylarks, and Sport Wagons would all be replaced by the new mid-sized Buick Century. Since Centurys were available with Gran Sport trim, the Gran Sport name was once again reduced to being an option package.


title: Buick Skylark

text: In the middle of the 1973 model year, Buick returned to the compact market with the Buick Apollo, using General Motors’ X-body platform, based on the Chevrolet Nova. When the car was extensively restyled for the 1975 model year, the two-door hatchback sedan (coupe) and two-door sedan (coupe) were rechristened “Skylark”, while the four-door sedan remained "Apollo". As this generation Skylark was "downsized", the next larger coupe and sedan to take the market position that the Skylark formerly occupied was the Buick Regal and Buick Century, which were introduced in 1973.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Two-door hatchback and two-door sedan models were available as the base Skylark or as the more upscale, European-inspired Skylark S/R ("Sports/Rallye"). Four-door sedans were available as the base Apollo or the more upscale Apollo S/R. In addition, there was a very plain, lower-priced Skylark "S" available only as a two-door sedan with minimal interior and exterior trim. "VentiPorts" reappeared integrated into the front half of the rub strip that ran the length of the vehicle, a design element which had disappeared from Skylarks in 1968.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The standard engine for the Buick Skylarks was Buick's own 231-cubic-inch (3.8 L) V6 engine with a 2-barrel carburetor creating at 4000 rpm. Buick purchased back the tooling for the engine from American Motors, which acquired them when the company purchased the Kaiser Jeep division from Kaiser Industries. The Apollo used Chevrolet's 250-cubic-inch (4.1 L) inline 6-cylinder engine.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Optional engines included the Oldsmobile 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 with a two-barrel carburetor producing at 4,000 rpm, and the Buick 350-cubic-inch (5.7 L) V8 with either a 2- or 4-barrel carburetor. In 1976, the 5.7 L V8 engines produced at 3,200 rpm with the 2-barrel carburetor, and at 3,400 rpm with the 4-barrel carburetor.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Beginning with the 1976 model year, the four-door sedans used the Skylark and Skylark S/R names instead of the previous Apollo badge, and came with the 3.8 L V6 engine as standard.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 was discontinued after the 1976 model year. For the 1977 model year, it was replaced by a pair of V8 engines. The grille was also modified lightly for 1977, without the horizontal division and with a somewhat heavier appearance.


title: Buick Skylark

text: To commemorate the Bicentennial of the United States, the standard colors available on all Buicks were Judicial Black, Liberty White, Pewter Gray, Potomac Blue, Continental Blue, Concord Green, Constitution Green, Mount Vernon Cream, Buckskin Tan, Musket Brown, Boston Red and Independence Red, with specially available colors on select models Congressional Cream, Revere Red, Colonial Yellow and Firecracker Orange.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Available as an option in 1977 was a 301-cubic-inch (4.9 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced at 4000 rpm (supplied by Pontiac). Also available was a 305-cubic-inch (5.0 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced at 3800 rpm (supplied by Chevrolet). The Buick-built 5.7 L V8 was still available, but only with the 4-barrel carburetor.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Beginning with the 1978 model year, Chevrolet's 5.7 L (350-cubic-inch) V8 with a four-barrel carburetor, which produced at 3,800 rpm, also was available. Also in that year, the Skylark Custom replaced the Skylark S/R as the most luxurious variant. The 1978s also received some very light cosmetic changes to the corner lights and grille.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The 1979 model year saw the discontinuance of the Skylark Custom two-door hatchback coupe (the base V6 produced more than 1978's version). The 1979 model year was short because, midway through it, the all-new 1980 models were introduced early.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Buick Skylarks were assembled in Iran (four-door sedans only) from 1977 to 1981 and again from 1986 to 1988 under the brand name of "Buick Iran". The first generations were known as B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, from 1977 until 1981, and the second and last generation was known as the B2 and B3 from 1986 until 1988. The later models were made after GM released the kits and parts to Iran following the GM's debt to Iran General Motors. These cars were equipped with a 5.7L engine (SB 350 Chevrolet, L engine, 4BBL), and were fully equipped (power door locks, power window, power steering, automatic transmission, a/c, vinyl top). The Cadillac Seville and Chevrolet Nova were manufactured in Iran during the same period. A total of 40,000 GM cars were produced between 1977 and 1987 in Iran. These models were basically the same as those built in the U.S. from 1975 to 1979 (Islamic Revolution).


title: Buick Skylark

text: GM Iran changed its name to Pars Khodro (meaning "Pars Automobile" in Iranian; 'Pars' being the ancient, original name of Persia) after 1979. The production continued from 1979 to 1987 on a part-time basis. Since the spare parts and the assembly-line equipment were not used between 1979 and 1986.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The 1980–1985 Skylark was Buick's badge engineered version of GM's new X-body architecture, shared with the Chevrolet Citation, Pontiac Phoenix, and Oldsmobile Omega and would bear some resemblance to the larger G-body mid-size cars. GM's X-body would also become the basis for GM's A-body mid-size cars that would be introduced as 1982 models. The new Skylark was introduced in the spring of 1979 as an early 1980 model featuring front-wheel drive, MacPherson strut front suspension and transversely mounted engine, items that had never appeared on Buick products. The new optional 60 degree 2.8 L V6 engine was developed specifically for the X-cars. This platform became the basis for nearly all following GM front-wheel drive vehicles, but like the other X-body cars was noted for numerous reports of a tendency to lock the rear wheels upon braking, causing it to lose control and crash. It was the first post-World War II Buick to offer a four-cylinder engine since the Buick Four was discontinued in 1918.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The Skylark was available in two- or four-door sedan bodystyles, and in base, Sport, or Limited trims. The standard 2.5 L Iron Duke 4 used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced at 4000 rpm. The optional 2.8 L V6 also used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced at 4800 rpm. A four-speed manual overdrive transaxle was standard with a three-speed automatic transaxle as an option.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the 1982 model year, the base 2.5 L engine received fuel injection. The optional 2.8 L V6 was joined by a more powerful high-output version that produced at 5400 rpm. Also for the 1982 model year, the Skylark received a mild facelift in the form of a new grille (the front parking lamps moved from outside the headlights to inside). In model year 1983, the base Skylark became the Skylark Custom. The Sport model was replaced by the T-Type, which was available only as a two-door coupe and came with the high-output version of the 2.8 L V6 engine as standard equipment.


title: Buick Skylark

text: In 1985, the last year of production, the X-body Skylark was available only as a four-door sedan in Custom or Limited trim, as the two-door coupe was replaced by Buick's new Somerset Regal coupe, built on GM's new N-body platform, shared with Pontiac's revived Grand Am and the new Oldsmobile Calais. For 1985 the grille was again redesigned, as was the rear. The taillights were wider and the license plate was moved down to the bumper, while a "Buick" plate appeared where the taillights had been.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the 1985 model year, the two-door Skylark coupe was replaced by the Somerset Regal, built on the Oldsmobile-developed N-body platform. The "Somerset" name had previously been used as a trim package on the Regal. This generation of compact Buicks featured a more upscale and aerodynamic design than its predecessor, incorporating the long-hood/short-deck look popular at the time. The Pontiac-produced Iron Duke engine continued from the Skylark, but an Isuzu-sourced five-speed manual transmission replaced the four-speed as standard equipment. A new multi-port fuel-injected Buick V6, generating at 4900 rpm, replaced the Chevrolet-designed 2.8 L V6 and was paired only with a three-speed automatic transmission. The Somerset featured an all-digital instrument cluster.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For 1986, the Skylark sedan was shifted to the N platform and redesigned to match its coupe stablemate, which dropped the "Regal" suffix from its same. It remained available in either Custom or Limited trim levels, and gained the powertrain options from the Somerset but retained conventional analog gauges.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Beginning with the 1987 model year, the four-door Skylark was available as a sporty T-Type model installed with the 3.0 L LN7 V6 engine. In mid-model year, 1987 Skylark models had door-mounted automatic seat belts.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For 1988 models, the Somerset name was dropped and Buick's two-door N-body compact would share the Skylark nameplate with its four-door counterparts. A new engine option for 1988 models was the fuel-injected, Oldsmobile-designed 2.3 L DOHC Quad-4 4-cylinder engine that produced at 5200 rpm. An S/E package for Custom models replaced the previous T-Type trim. On 1989 models, a fuel-injected 3.3 L V6 (160 hp at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.0 L V6, which was also Buick-built. A new LE package become available on four-door sedans that featured a vinyl roof that covered part of the rear side windows. The three-speed automatic transaxle became standard for 1989. For 1990, a new base Skylark was added, moving the Custom model up to replace the Limited. The S/E package was replaced by a new Gran Sport two-door sedan, reviving a name that had not been connected with the Skylark for many years. The LE ("Luxury Edition") sedan would become a full-fledged model.


title: Buick Skylark

text: The 1991 Skylark was a continuation of the 1990 lineup, with virtually no change made to the outward appearance of the car. There were minor mechanical changes made to the Skylark's optional 3.3 L V6 power plant, including a one piece rear main bearing seal to replace the rope type previously used, and a redesigned camshaft flange.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Radical new wedge-shaped styling appeared in 1992, with a sharply pointed grille reminiscent of 1930s Buick Special. The Skylark's new aerodynamic body had a low 0.319 coefficient of drag, compared to 0.374 for the previous version. The pointed grille appearance was revived during the mid-1960s on all Buick products.


title: Buick Skylark

text: It was initially offered in two- and four-door body styles and in base and Gran Sport versions. The base engine was the 2.3 L Quad OHC, which produced at 5200 rpm. The optional 3.3 L V6 (standard on the GS) produced at 5200 rpm. All Skylarks came with the three-speed automatic transaxle.


title: Buick Skylark

text: For the 1993 model year, the base model was replaced by Custom and Limited trims. For 1994, a new 3.1 L V6 ( at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.3 L V6 as standard on the GS and optional on the others. The Limited coupe was dropped for 1994, but returned for 1995.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Mechanical changes for the 1995 model year included the upgrading of the standard 2.3 L Quad 4 engine from a SOHC design to a DOHC design, increasing power to at 6000 rpm. The three-speed automatic transaxle continued to be standard with the base four-cylinder engine, but a new four-speed automatic (electronically controlled 4T60-E) was optional with the 4-cylinder engine and standard with the V6.


title: Buick Skylark

text: Skylark received a facelift for the 1996 model year in the form of a more conventional-looking grille. The previous 2.3 L I4 was replaced by a new 2.4 L DOHC I4 that produced at 6000 rpm. The previous three-speed automatic transaxle was discontinued and the four-speed automatic became standard on all Skylarks. An on-board diagnostic system (OBD II) was standard. Buick offered an "Olympic Gold" edition of the 1996 Skylark to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Olympic Games. It featured gold USA/5-ring badging on the fenders, gold "Skylark" badges, gold-accented wheel covers, and gold accent trim.


title: Buick Skylark

text: There were only minor changes to the lineup for the 1997 model year, which was the last year that it would be available to the public in showrooms. A single-model 1998 Skylark sedan was produced for fleet-only sales, mostly to auto rental companies. Most of these 1998 models, the last year that Buick used the Skylark name, were eventually resold to the general public as used cars. After the Skylark's discontinuation, Buick did not produce another compact car until 2012 Buick Verano.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: James Barry (born Margaret Anne Bulkley (or Bulkeley), – 25 July 1865) was a military surgeon in the British Army. Originally from the city of Cork in Ireland, Barry obtained a medical degree from the University of Edinburgh Medical School, then served first in Cape Town, South Africa, and subsequently in many parts of the British Empire. Before retirement, Barry had risen to the rank of Inspector General (equivalent to Brigadier) in charge of military hospitals, the second-highest medical office in the British Army. Barry not only improved conditions for wounded soldiers, but also the conditions of the native inhabitants, and performed the first recorded caesarean section by a European in Africa in which both the mother and child survived the operation.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Although Barry's entire adult life was lived as a man, Barry was named Margaret Anne at birth and was known as female in childhood. Barry lived as a man in both public and private life, at least in part in order to be accepted as a university student, and to pursue a career as a surgeon. Barry's biological sex became known to the public and to military colleagues only after a post-mortem examination.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Other than some personal correspondence, there are few sources of information about the non-military parts of Barry's life. The scant available evidence provides a skeleton onto which a great deal of myth and speculation has been added by various commentators. In his detailed research into Barry's early life, Michael du Preez states that Barry was born in Cork in 1789, a birth date based on Mrs Bulkley's description of her child being fifteen years old in a letter dated 14 January 1805. Various other sources give birth dates of 1792, 1795, and 1799, but these dates are almost certainly the result of Barry later lying on official documents to aid passing as a man.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Barry was the second child born to Jeremiah and Mary Anne Bulkley, and was given the name Margaret Anne. Mary Anne Bulkley was the sister of James Barry, a celebrated Irish artist and professor of painting at London's Royal Academy. Jeremiah Bulkley ran the weigh house in Merchant's Quay, Cork. However, anti-Catholic sentiment led to his dismissal from this post. This and subsequent financial mismanagement left Mary Anne and Barry without the support of either Jeremiah Bulkley (whose debts led to him spending time in the Marshalsea debtors' prison in Dublin) or later the Bulkleys' married son John.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: A third child appeared in the Bulkley family and was named Juliana. Although presented as being Barry's sister, it has been speculated that she was Barry's daughter as a result of childhood sexual assault, as after Barry's death the charwoman who discovered Barry's sex when laying out the body reported that pregnancy stretch marks were present. However, there is no tangible historical evidence to support this theory of childhood sexual assault, and a number of circumstances – such as Barry's father ejecting his wife and child from their home around the period in question, and a later letter informing his wife that he had "made up [his] mind to forgive" – make this appear unlikely. Given these circumstances, it has been suggested that, if anything, Juliana may have been the result of an affair on the part of Barry's mother.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Mother and child left Ireland for London in 1804, when Barry would have been about fifteen years old, to apply to Mary Anne Bulkley's brother, James Barry RA, for help. Professor Barry rejected them, having been estranged from his sister for more than thirty years. However, his death in 1806 and the resulting inheritance, as well as assistance from some of the artist's former friends, allowed Mrs Bulkley and her teenager a degree of comfort.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: The teenage Barry was educated with the prospect of becoming a tutor, but given a lack of evidence of any work history, the Bulkleys appear to have struggled to find Barry any suitable tutoring positions. A plan appears to have developed between Barry, Mary Anne Bulkley, and her late brother's influential, liberal-minded friends (General Francisco de Miranda, Dr Edward Fryer, who had become young Barry's personal tutor, and Daniel Reardon, the family's solicitor) to enable Barry to enter medical school. The University of Edinburgh was chosen and Mary Anne and Barry boarded a Leith smack on 30 November 1809.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: And so, Margaret Anne Bulkley became James Barry, nephew of the late James Barry RA, and remained known thus for the next 56 years. In a letter to Daniel Reardon, sent on 14 December, Barry asked for any letters addressed to Margaret Bulkley to be forwarded to Mary Anne Bulkley (whom Barry now refers to as "my aunt"), and mentions that "it was very usefull for Mrs Bulkley (my aunt) to have a Gentleman to take care of her on Board Ship and to have one in a strange country." Although the letter was signed "James Barry", the solicitor indiscreetly wrote on the back of the envelope "Miss Bulkley, 14 December"; this crucial piece of evidence was the one which enabled researchers to finally confirm that Margaret Bulkley and James Barry were one and the same.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Arriving in Edinburgh in November 1809, Barry began studies at the Medical School as a 'literary and medical student'. Barry's short stature, unbroken voice, delicate features and smooth skin led many to suspect that Barry was a young boy not past puberty, and the University Senate initially attempted to block Barry's application for the final examinations due to this apparent youth. However, the Earl of Buchan, a friend of Dr Fryer and Barry's late namesake, persuaded the Senate to relent and Barry qualified "Medicinae Doctor (MD)" in 1812. Barry then moved to London, signing up for the Autumn Course 1812/1813 as a pupil of the United Hospitals of Guy's and St Thomas', whose teachers included Henry Cline and celebrated surgeon Astley Cooper. On 2 July 1813, Barry successfully passed the examination of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Upon joining the army, Barry was commissioned as a Hospital Assistant in the British Army on 6 July 1813, taking up posts in Chelsea and then the Royal Military Hospital in Plymouth, achieving a promotion to Assistant Surgeon to the Forces, equivalent to lieutenant, on 7 December 1815.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Following this military training, Barry was posted to Cape Town, South Africa, in 1816. Through Lord Buchan, Barry had a letter of introduction to the Governor, Lieutenant General Lord Charles Somerset. Following the successful, even spectacular, treatment of Lord Charles's sick daughter, Barry was welcomed into the family, maintained a close friendship with the Governor, and became his personal physician. In 1822 Somerset appointed Barry as Colonial Medical Inspector, an extraordinary jump in expectations from Barry's low military rank, which brought with it great responsibility. Over ten years of work in the Cape, Barry effected significant changes, among them improvements to sanitation and water systems, improved conditions for enslaved people, prisoners and the mentally ill, and provision of a sanctuary for the leper population. Barry also performed one of the first known successful Caesarean sections in which both mother and child survived; the child was christened James Barry Munnik in Barry's honour, and the name was passed down through the family, leading to Barry's name being borne by a later Prime Minister of South Africa, J. B. M. Hertzog. Barry also gained enemies by criticising local officials and their handling of medical matters, but the advantage of a close relationship with the Governor meant that the repercussions of these outspoken views were usually smoothed over.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Barry was promoted to Surgeon to the Forces on 22 November 1827. Barry's subsequent posting was to Mauritius in 1828. In 1829, Barry risked a great deal of trouble by going absent without leave to return to England and treat Lord Charles Somerset, who had fallen ill, and remained there until Lord Charles' death in 1831. Barry's subsequent posting was to Jamaica, and then the island of Saint Helena in 1836. At St Helena, one clash with a fellow army surgeon resulted in Barry being arrested and court-martialled on a charge of "conduct unbecoming of the character of an Officer and a Gentleman". Barry was found not guilty, and honourably acquitted.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In 1840 Barry was posted to the Leeward Islands and Windward Islands of the West Indies, there focusing on medicine, management and improving the conditions of the troops, and receiving a promotion to Principal Medical Officer. In 1845, Barry contracted yellow fever and left for England for sick leave in October. After being cleared for duty, Barry was posted to Malta in 1846. Here Barry was severely reprimanded for inexplicably taking a seat in the local church that was reserved for the clergy, and had to deal with the threat – and eventual actuality – of a cholera epidemic, which broke out in 1850.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: The following posting was to Corfu in 1851, which brought with it a promotion to the rank of Deputy Inspector-General of Hospitals on 16 May, equivalent to lieutenant colonel. In 1857 Barry was posted to Canada, and granted the local rank of Inspector General of Hospitals (equivalent to Brigadier General) on 25 September. In that position, Barry fought for better food, sanitation and proper medical care for prisoners and lepers, as well as soldiers and their families. This local rank was confirmed as substantive on 7 December 1858.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Wherever Barry served across the British Empire, improvements were made to sanitary conditions and the conditions and diet of both the common soldier and other, under-represented groups. Barry was outraged by unnecessary suffering, and took a heavy-handed and sometimes tactless approach to demanding improvements for the poor and underprivileged which often incited anger from officials and military officers; on several occasions Barry was both arrested and demoted for the extremity of this behaviour. Barry held strict and unusually modern views about nutrition, being completely vegetarian and teetotal, and, while keeping most personal relationships distant, was very fond of pets, particularly a beloved poodle named Psyche. The name of the black servant Barry first employed in South Africa and who remained with Barry until the doctor's death is not precisely known, though Charles Dickens, in a fictionalized account of Barry's life, calls him "Black John". Playwright Jean Binnie's radio play "Doctor Barry" (BBC, 1982) identified him as John Joseph Danson.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Despite protesting against the decision, Barry was forcefully retired by the army on 19 July 1859 because of ill health and old age, and was succeeded as inspector general of hospitals by David Dumbreck. After a quiet retirement in London, Barry finally died from dysentery on 25 July 1865. The identity of the woman who discovered the truth of Barry's physical sex is disputed, but she was probably a charwoman who also laid out the dead. The charwoman, after failing to elicit payment for her services, sought redress in another way; she visited Barry's physician, Major D. R. McKinnon, who had issued the death certificate upon which Barry was identified as male. The woman claimed that Barry's body had been biologically female and had marks suggesting Barry had at one point borne a child. However, no professional examination was carried out which could have confirmed these points beyond doubt. When McKinnon refused to pay her, she took the story to the press, and the situation became public. It was discussed in an exchange of letters between George Graham of the General Register Office, and Dr McKinnon.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: It has been stated to me that Inspector General Dr James Barry, who died at 14 Margaret St on 25th July 1865, was after his death found to be a Female.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: As you furnished the Certificate as to the cause of his death, I take the liberty of asking you whether what I have heard is true, and whether you yourself ascertained that he was a woman and apparently had been a Mother?


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Perhaps you may decline answering these questions; but I ask them not for publication but for my own information.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 23rd August respecting the death of Inspector General Dr James Barry.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: I had been intimately acquainted with that gentleman for a good many years, both in the West Indies, & in England, and I never had any suspicion that Dr Barry was a female.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: I attended him during his last illness, and for some months previously for bronchitis; the affection causing his death was diarrhoea produced apparently by errors in diet.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: On one occasion after Dr Barry's death, I was sent for to the office of Sir Charles McGregor, & there the woman who performed the last offices for Dr Barry was waiting to speak to me.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: She wished to obtain some perquisites of her employment which the Lady who kept the lodging house in which Dr Barry died had refused to give her.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Amongst other things she said Dr Barry was a female & that I was a pretty doctor not to know this & that she would not like to be attended by me. I informed her that it was none of my business whether Dr Barry was a male or a female – that I thought it as likely he might be neither, viz. an imperfectly developed man.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: She then said that she had examined the body & that it was a perfect female & farther that there were marks of her having had a child when very young. I then enquired how have you formed this conclusion? The Woman pointing to the lower part of her stomach, said from marks here. I am a married woman, & the mother of nine children & I ought to know.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: The woman seemed to me to think that she had become acquainted with a great secret & wished to be paid for keeping it, I informed her that all Dr Barry's relatives were dead, & that it was no secret of mine, & that my own impression was that Dr Barry was a Hermaphrodite.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: But whether Dr Barry was male, female, or hermaphrodite I do not know, nor had I any purpose in making the discovery as I could positively swear to the identity of the body as being that of a person whom I had been acquainted with as Inspector General of Hospitals for a period of eight or nine years.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: After the matter was made public, some people claimed to have known of it all along, although many who had known Barry expressed surprise or even disbelief. The British Army, seeking to suppress the story, sealed Barry's service records for the next 100 years. The historian Isobel Rae gained access to the army records in the 1950s, and concluded that the painter James Barry was indeed Barry's uncle. Barry was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, with a Portland stone headstone inscribed "Dr James Barry Inspector General of Hospitals". It was claimed by several sources that "John", the manservant who always attended Barry, returned to Jamaica, but his actual fate is unknown.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In a letter chiding John Bulkley, Barry's older brother, for abandoning legal studies for the military, 19-year-old Barry wrote: "Was I not a girl I would be a Soldier!"


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Rachel Holmes notes in her biography of Barry that Mary Anne Bulkley, in all her complaints to her brother about her child's precarious future, never once raises the question of marriage – even though a good match was then quite vital for a woman's financial security. Holmes suggests this could mean Mrs Bulkley was aware of "some defect in her daughter that made marriage an impossibility".


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Barry's interest in medicine was probably encouraged by the liberal-minded friends of the late James Barry RA, and just before travelling to Edinburgh to enroll as a medical student in 1809, Barry assumed a male identity. Barry's short stature, slight build, unbroken voice, delicate features and smooth skin led others to suspect that Barry was not a man but a pre-pubescent boy. This identity was maintained through surgical training and recruitment into the British Army which, at officer rank level, did not then require a medical examination.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: During Barry's first posting abroad to Cape Town in South Africa, Barry became a close friend of the Governor, Lord Charles Somerset, and his family. It has been suggested that Lord Charles discovered Dr Barry's secret and that the relationship was more than friendship. Their closeness led to rumours and ultimately an accusation briefly appearing on a bridge post in Cape Town on 1 June 1824 saying that the writer had "detected Lord Charles buggering Dr Barry", which led to a court trial and investigation, as homosexuality was at that time strictly illegal. Despite these allegations, if Somerset was aware of Barry's sex, he did not reveal it.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Despite efforts to appear masculine, witness reports comment on Barry's effeminacy and on a somewhat contradictory reputation – Barry had a reputation for being tactless, impatient, argumentative and opinionated, but was also considered to have had a good bedside manner and famous professional skill. Barry's temper and bravado led to a famous pistol duel with Captain Josias Cloete of the 21st Light Dragoons. Barry's aim was better, the bullet striking Cloete's shako military cap and removing its peak, which dissipated its force.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: During the Crimean War (1854–1856), Barry got into an argument with Florence Nightingale. After Barry's death, Nightingale wrote that: I never had such a blackguard rating in all my life – I who have had more than any woman – from this Barry sitting on (her) horse, while I was crossing the Hospital Square, with only my cap on, in the sun. (He) kept me standing in the midst of quite a crowd of soldiers, commissariat servants, camp followers etc etc, every one of whom behaved like a gentleman, during the scolding I received, while (she) behaved like a brute. After (she) was dead, I was told (he) was a woman. ... I should say (she) was the most hardened creature I ever met.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Barry would never allow anyone into the room while undressing, and repeated a standing instruction that "in the event of his death, strict precautions should be adopted to prevent any examination of his person" and that the body should be "buried in [the] bed sheets without further inspection".


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Kubba and Young picked up on Major McKinnon's statement that he did not know whether Barry was "male, female, or hermaphrodite" and suggested that it might be more appropriate to say that Barry was "hermaphrodite" [or intersex] rather than "female", and "may have had ambiguous genitalia". These suppositions are based on the premise that "Concealment of one's sex for ... 40 years in the British Army, is simply unbelievable". However, du Preez and Dronfield show how Barry might have been able to conceal this secret from all but a few people, and those who did know did not reveal it while Barry was alive. N. Turner has commented on Kubba and Young's conclusion that the belief in an intersex condition was based on "vanishingly slim evidence".


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Holmes also raises the possibility of Barry being intersex, but acknowledges the impossibility of knowing, expressing surprise that this is a problem for so many people. The suggestion that Barry may have been intersex has been criticised for both biological and social reasons. In a review of Holmes' biography, Loudon firmly rejects the implication that Barry might have been intersex.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Some theorists have voiced the opinion that the intersex theory is an attempt to undermine that someone born female could have achieved as much as Barry did, with one biographer writing, "Dr. Barry couldn't have been a woman, for women and medicine were contradictory terms ...it was still too much to imagine that any female could perform as brilliantly as Dr. Barry had done."


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: The story of James Barry is briefly told in Zoya Voskresenskaya's novel "Devochka v Burnom More" (Girl in the Stormy Sea, 1969), whose action takes place during WWII.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: A 1982 BBC Radio 4 production appears to be the first dramatic representation of Barry. The 45-minute play, "Dr Barry" by Jean Binnie, was re-broadcast as recently as 2018.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In 1994, Anna Massey played Barry in an episode of the BBC drama-documentary "The Experiment". Barry was compared with Hannah Cullwick, who "was experimented on by Arhur Munby, who believed that women in servile labour could earn a nobility of the soul".


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: Barry's life is the subject of the historical novel "James Miranda Barry" (published in the United States as "The Doctor") by Patricia Duncker.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: A 2004 play, "Whistling Psyche" by Sebastian Barry, imagines a meeting between James Barry and Florence Nightingale.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In 2012, the UK folk duo Gilmore and Roberts included a song about Barry called Doctor James on their album "The Innocent Left".


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In April 2018, Rachel Weisz said that she is developing a biopic of Barry, and intends to produce and star in it.


title: James Barry (surgeon)

text: In February 2019, E. J. Levy's novel about Barry was acquired by Little, Brown and Company. The announcement was met with controversy because Levy refers to Barry as "she" and a "heroine," though Levy has stated that the novel also refers to Barry as "he" and "I". The novel was published in June 2021, and it tells the story of a fictional woman named Perry, who is based on Barry.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: "Mandala" is the eleventh episode of the second season of the American television drama series "Breaking Bad". It was written by George Mastras and directed by Adam Bernstein. This episode introduces Gus Fring and Victor, played by Giancarlo Esposito and Jeremiah Bitsui respectively.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: Combo Ortega is selling drugs on a corner when he notices two rival dealers staring him down; he is then killed by a young boy working for them. Skinny Pete, spooked by Combo’s death and Badger's recent brush with the law, decides to quit the drug trade. Walter White and Jesse Pinkman meet with Saul Goodman to discuss their next move; he tells them that they are incompetent distributors, and need a businessman who is more restrained than Tuco Salamanca and will buy their product in bulk. He offers to reach out to the only distributor of that kind he has heard of, but it will be difficult, as the man is extremely cautious. Jesse is distraught that he got Combo killed, and that night tells Jane Margolis to leave his apartment so that he does not harm her recovery when he smokes meth. Jane reluctantly decides to stay with him.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: The next day, Walt waits at a local chicken restaurant called Los Pollos Hermanos, where the distributor has arranged to meet them; Jesse comes in late, still high, and leaves quickly afterward. Nobody talks to Walt, but he realizes later that the distributor saw him and has refused to work with him. Meanwhile, Jane relapses into drug addiction and introduces Jesse to heroin. The next day, Walt goes back to the same restaurant and waits until closing. He eventually realizes that the man he assumes is the restaurant manager is the distributor. Although the distributor maintains he is unwilling to work with a drug addict, Walt assures him that Jesse can be relied on and that their product is the best. The distributor tells Walt that he will be in touch if he decides to work with the duo, and warns Walt never to trust a drug addict.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: Skyler White helps the company celebrate her boss Ted Beneke's birthday, where she sings him a sultry version of "Happy Birthday, Mr. President". She later finds, while investigating the accounts, that there are many inaccuracies in the payments to the company. Ted admits that he has evaded taxation on millions of dollars by under-reporting revenue to keep the company afloat and support its employees. Skyler says she will not turn him in, but cannot be a part of his illegal doings; however, she later comes back to work.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: Walt gets a message telling him to come to the restaurant, where he learns that the distributor is not the restaurant manager but the owner of the Los Pollos Hermanos chain of stores, Gus Fring. The actual manager, who appears oblivious to Gus' criminal activities, tells Walt that Gus is not currently at the store. Just as Walt is about to leave, an associate of Gus named Victor blocks him from exiting and tells him to deliver the meth to a truck stop within the next hour in exchange for $1.2 million cash. Walt rushes to Jesse's apartment and breaks in while Jesse and Jane are in a heroin-induced haze. At the same time, Skyler goes into labor and tries to contact Walt. Walt is tortured about his choice but decides to go make the transaction anyway.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: Mandala is a symbol of significance in Hinduism and Buddhism, and a Sanskrit word meaning "circle." In the context of this episode, it refers to the circle of birth and death, as the episode begins with Combo's death and ends with Skyler giving birth.


title: Mandala (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode received positive reviews, but was noted for its slower pace. Seth Amitin, of "IGN", gave the episode an 8.6/10, commenting the episode was: "about crossing the lines..." and that it "is the beginning of the set-up for the finale in two weeks". Donna Bowman of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode a B, writing that "it's inevitable that we'd have a merely good episode at some point" and, like Amitin, thought that the episode "seemed to be mostly concerned with moving the pieces into place for the finale".


title: Grand Cayman

text: Grand Cayman is the largest of the three Cayman Islands and the location of the territory's capital, George Town. In relation to the other two Cayman Islands, it is approximately 75 miles (121 km) southwest of Little Cayman and 90 miles (145 km) southwest of Cayman Brac.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Grand Cayman encompasses 76% of the territory's entire land mass. The island is approximately long with its widest point being wide. The elevation ranges from sea level at the beaches to above sea level on the North Side's Mastic Trail. Unlike many other Caribbean islands, Grand Cayman is for the most part, flat. This allows for more space to build as the island’s population grows.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Grand Cayman Island includes five of the six districts of the Cayman Islands: Bodden Town, East End, George Town, North Side and West Bay.


title: Grand Cayman

text: The remaining district is Sister Islands, which consists of the islands of Cayman Brac and Little Cayman.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Of the flora, a good representation of the variety of plant life on Grand Cayman can be found at the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park located in the North Side District. Wild banana orchids, ghost orchids, thatch palm trees, red birch trees, mahogany trees and various fruit trees such as avocado, mango, guinep, naseberry, breadfruit, and tamarind. Yellow mastics ("Sideroxylon foetidissimum") and black mastics ("Terminalia eriostachya") are also seen in the park, as well as on the -long Mastic Trail. Elsewhere outside the park, all of these species can be seen around Grand Cayman, including coconut palm, "Casuarina" pine, mangrove, and poinciana trees.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Fauna seen in various locations around the island include blue iguanas ("Cyclura lewisi"), Grand Cayman amazon parrots ("Amazona leucocephala caymanensis"), Central American agouti ("Dasyprocta punctata"), and "Gecarcinus ruricola", a species of land crab. The Cayman Islands Turtle Farm located in the West Bay district raises green sea turtles for their meat and to release into the wild.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Through breeding, the farm produces upwards of 1800 turtles a year. Between 1980 and 2006, the farm released approximately 30,600 turtles to the wild; because of a mark placed on each animal, the released turtles have been seen throughout the Caribbean.


title: Grand Cayman

text: There are four endemic snake species on Grand Cayman and two invasive species. They are all relatively harmless and the largest is the rarely seen invasive corn snake, which may grow to about 5 feet (1.5 m). The smallest averages 2–4 inches (5–10 cm) and is the invasive brahminy blind snake which is also rarely seen. The most common is the endemic Cayman racer snake. ("Cubophis cantherigerus") It can grow to approximately 5 feet (1.5 m), but 3-foot (91-cm) specimens are much more common. These snakes tend to race away if encountered and in rare cases will rear up in a threatening manner if cornered. The Cayman racer snake carries a mild venom which it uses to immobilise prey, but in large enough doses it can cause significant swelling and bruising if it latches on for an extended period. A simple bite and release does not usually cause any reaction in humans. The other three endemic snake species are the Cayman Islands dwarf boa, Cayman Brac blind snake and Cayman water snake.


title: Grand Cayman

text: There are just under 600 banks and trust companies in the Grand Cayman, including 43 of the 50 largest banks in the world. Because of this large financial presence on the island, banking, investments, and insurance drive the economy in Grand Cayman.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Grand Cayman Island has a number of natural attractions: the blow holes in the East End district, the Mastic Trail that runs north to south through the center of the island, Hell in the West Bay, and the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Watersports such as scuba diving and snorkeling are popular activities on Grand Cayman as the island is known for its coral reefs and underwater sea walls along with a number of shipwrecks.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Because of its clubs, resorts, and hotels, Seven Mile Beach has the largest concentration of visitors and tourists on the island.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Owen Roberts International Airport serves Grand Cayman with domestic and international flights. Cayman Airways has its headquarters on Grand Cayman.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Electrical service for Grand Cayman is provided by Caribbean Utilities Company Ltd., with its corporate headquarters located on North Sound Road. Electricity on Grand Cayman runs on a 120/240 volt electricity system with electrical outlets designed to accommodate a three-pin American plug.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Grand Cayman residents have a choice of telecommunications services from C3, Digicel, FLOW (previously LIME), and Logic.


title: Grand Cayman

text: Olive Hilda Miller was the first manager of The Pines, the first retirement home to be built in the Cayman Islands. She worked there from 1983 until 1991.


title: Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1978

text: This is a list of "Billboard" magazine's Top Hot 100 songs of 1978. The Top 100, as revealed in the year-end edition of "Billboard" dated December 23, 1978.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: The Arrival is a 1996 science fiction horror film written and directed by David Twohy and starring Charlie Sheen, and co-starring Lindsay Crouse, Ron Silver, Teri Polo, and Richard Schiff. Sheen stars as radio astronomer Zane Zaminsky who discovers evidence of intelligent alien life and quickly gets thrown into the middle of a conspiracy that turns his life upside down.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Zane Zaminsky, a radio astronomer working for SETI, discovers an extraterrestrial radio signal from Wolf 336, a star 14 light-years from Earth. Zane reports this to his supervisor, Phil Gordian, at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, but Gordian dismisses the findings. Zane soon finds that he has been fired because of supposed budget cuts and is blacklisted, preventing him from working at other telescopes. Taking a job as a television satellite dish installer, he creates his own telescope array using his customers' dishes in the neighborhood, operating it secretly from his attic with the help of his young next-door neighbor, Kiki.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Zane relocates the radio signal, but it is drowned out by a terrestrial signal from a Mexican radio station. Zane attempts to consult his former coworker, Calvin, but finds that he has just died, purportedly from carbon monoxide poisoning. Zane travels to Mexico and finds that the radio station was burnt to the ground. Searching the town, he comes across a recently constructed power plant, where he helps NCAR climatologist Ilana Green protect her atmospheric analysis equipment from the plant's overzealous security forces. While in custody at the plant, Ilana explains that the Earth's temperature has recently and abruptly risen a few degrees, melting the polar ice and shifting the ecosystem. She is investigating the power plant, one of several recently built across the developing world, that appears to be the cause of the increase. The two are released but without Ilana's equipment, and Zane notices that one of the guards looks identical to Gordian. As Zane and Ilana regroup, Gordian has agents posing as gardeners release a device in Zane's attic that consumes all of Zane's equipment. Zane leaves Ilana to further investigate the power plant, and scorpions planted in her room kill her.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Zane discovers that the plant is a front for an underground base for aliens, who are able to infiltrate human society with an external skin, and that the base expels large amounts of greenhouse gas. He is caught but escapes back into the nearby town and attempts to convince the local inspector of the situation. However, alien agents bring Ilana's body to the police station, making Zane a suspect in her death, and he sneaks back into the United States. He accosts Gordian on the JPL grounds, forcing him to admit that the aliens are trying to raise the Earth's temperature to kill off humans and make the planet hospitable for themselves. Zane secretly records the conversation, and once Gordian discovers the recording, he sends agents to stop Zane.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Zane returns home to find his attic devoid of equipment. With the help of his girlfriend Char and Kiki, he travels to a radio astronomy array, hoping to uplink and beam his tape to a news satellite, but Gordian and his agents soon disable the telescope/satellite controls from the main building. Zane leaves the tape with Kiki and instructs him to transmit it when he gives the order. He and Char sneak over to the telescope's base and barricade themselves in the control room. Zane makes the necessary adjustments and tells Kiki to activate the tape, but Kiki reveals himself to be an alien agent, and he opens the door to admit Gordian, who confiscates the tape.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Gordian and his agents break down the door to the satellite control room with a van, but Zane freezes them with liquid nitrogen. As he works to free the tape stuck in Gordian's frozen jacket, one of the agents drops a sphere which starts to engulf the room. Gordian begins to defrost and tries to grab Zane's arm, but Zane smashes off Gordian's arm with a fire axe. Zane and Char escape through the radio telescope station's access shaft, exiting safely onto the collapsed dish before the device implodes most of the base. Below them, they see Kiki, and Zane tells him to tell the aliens that he will soon broadcast this tape. In the film's epilogue, Zane's conversation with Gordian is broadcast across the globe.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: Prior to the film's release, the working title was "Shockwave". Filming took place primarily in Mexico, with additional scenes filmed at the Owens Valley Radio Observatory. The alien creatures were all digitally created for the movie by Pacific Data Images. Charlie Sheen had previously collaborated with David Twohy on "Terminal Velocity", and Twohy had written the main role intending for Sheen to star.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics; at review aggregation website, Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 66% based on reviews from 35 critics, with an average score of 6.2/10, and its consensus states that ""The Arrival" is stylish and inventive and offers a surprisingly smart spin on the alien invasion genre."


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: The film was a commercial failure. It only grossed US$14 million in the North American domestic market, against an estimated production budget of US$25 million. Part of this was due to high-visibility marketing campaign for the release of "Independence Day" just over a month later, which went on to become a box office phenomenon. However, "The Arrival" had a rather successful run internationally, partly because Charlie Sheen still maintained high popularity worldwide at the time.


title: The Arrival (1996 film)

text: A Blu-ray version of the film was released April 21, 2009. Unlike the laserdisc release, the Blu-ray version includes no special features. The laserdisc release included commentary, documentaries and alternative endings not included in the Blu-ray or DVD releases.


title: The Final Table

text: The Final Table is an American cooking competition and reality television series hosted by food writer and critic Andrew Knowlton, and filmed in Los Angeles, California for Netflix. The first season was released on November 20, 2018. It features twelve international teams of two professional chefs each competing to create elevated dishes based on the country chosen for each episode. The first round is judged by a three-person panel—a food critic, and two culturally significant citizens, all representing the episode's country—assessing each team's interpretation of their chosen nationally significant dish. Interspersed among the cooking activities are video packages featuring the culinary biographies of the contestants.


title: The Final Table

text: The second round of each episode is The Final Plate Challenge. A chef, who already has an honorary seat at The Final Table, picks an ingredient representing their country's cooking culture, and then judges each team's dish highlighting that ingredient, eliminating one or two teams. In the first seven episodes, the bottom three teams are up for elimination in the second round, in the eighth and ninth episodes, only one team is not up for elimination.


title: The Final Table

text: For the finale, the nine renowned chef judges from each episode return, and are featured at The Final Table along with signature dishes they had each created that changed the food world. The final two competing chef teams break up and compete as individuals. Each of the four contestants must prepare a signature dish that defines them as a chef, and will “cause ripples around the culinary world”.


title: The Final Table

text: Each chef was paired with a fellow chef that they knew from their personal or professional life before the event. The 12 teams were:


title: The Final Table

text: Upon release, the show received a mixed response from critics. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 50% approval rating based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 4.67 out of 10.


title: The Final Table

text: In a review for "The Guardian", critic Lucy Mangan described the show as "bombastic and barely watchable", giving the show two out of five stars. In a more positive review, David Sexton wrote in the "Evening Standard" that fans of MasterChef will "love this". David Levesley of "GQ" noted the high and low points of the show, writing that it contained "the perfect blend of trash and intellect".


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Jodorowsky's Dune is a 2013 American-French documentary film directed by Frank Pavich. The film explores cult film director Alejandro Jodorowsky's unsuccessful attempt to adapt and film Frank Herbert's 1965 science fiction novel "Dune" in the mid-1970s.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: In 1971, the production company Apjac International (APJ) headed by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs optioned the rights to film "Dune". However, Jacobs died in 1973 before a film could be developed.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: In December 1974, a French consortium led by Jean-Paul Gibon purchased the film rights from APJ, with director Alejandro Jodorowsky set to direct. Along with French producer Michel Seydoux, Jodorowsky proceeded to approach, among others, Virgin Records with the prog rock groups Tangerine Dream, Gong and Mike Oldfield before settling on Pink Floyd and Magma for some of the music; artists H. R. Giger, Chris Foss and Jean Giraud for set and character design; Dan O'Bannon for special effects; and Salvador Dalí, Orson Welles, Gloria Swanson, David Carradine, Mick Jagger, Udo Kier, Amanda Lear and others for the cast. Jodorowsky intended his son Brontis, 12 years old at the start of pre-production, to star as Paul Atreides.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Herbert traveled to Europe in 1976 to find that $2 million of the $9.5 million budget had already been spent in pre-production and that Jodorowsky's script would result in a 14-hour film ("It was the size of a phone book", Herbert later recalled). Jodorowsky took creative liberties with the source material, but Herbert said that he and Jodorowsky had an amicable relationship. After two and a half years in development, the project ultimately stalled for financial reasons since $5 million was still missing to round off the $15-million total budget.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: After the film rights lapsed in 1982, they were purchased by Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis, who eventually released the 1984 film "Dune", directed by David Lynch.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Acclaimed comic artist Jean "Moebius" Giraud worked with Jodorowsky to create a storyboard composed of 3000 drawings that depicted the entire film.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Salvador Dalí was set to play the Emperor and claimed he wanted to be the highest-paid actor in Hollywood history. He asked for $100,000 per hour to act in the movie. Jodorowsky accepted, but then reduced the Emperor’s scenes so that Dalí would be needed for no more than one hour with the rest of his lines spoken by a robotic lookalike. Dalí accepted on condition that the plastic lookalike was donated to his museum, and that his throne was to be a toilet made up of two intersected dolphins.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Jodorowsky's refusal to compromise on "Dune"'s running time was one main reason the film did not get made. Hollywood did not want the film's length to exceed two hours. Jodorowsky felt 10 to 14 hours would be more appropriate for the adaptation.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: The film notes that Jodorowsky's script, extensive storyboards, and concept art were sent to all major film studios, and argues that these influenced and inspired later film productions, including "Star Wars", the "Alien" series, "Flash Gordon", the "Terminator" series, and "The Fifth Element". In particular, the Jodorowsky-assembled team of O'Bannon, Foss, Giger, and Giraud went on to collaborate on the 1979 film "Alien".


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: "It was a great undertaking to do the script," Jodorowsky says in the film. Speaking of Herbert's novel, he says: "It's very, it's like Proust, I compare it to great literature."


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: The documentary concludes that Jodorowsky's efforts did not go to waste, and that he and Giraud recycled much of their concepts for "The Incal", a series of graphic novels that began publishing in 1980.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: The project was officially announced in May 2011. Director Pavich filmed an extensive series of interviews with the principal players involved in the failed 1970s adaptation, shooting in France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: "Jodorowsky's Dune" premiered at the Director's Fortnight at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival in May 2013. Sony Pictures Classics acquired the North American distribution rights to the film in July 2013, and later announced a theatrical release date of March 7, 2014. The film was released on DVD and on-demand on July 8, 2014.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: The film has received critical acclaim. "Variety" called it a "mind-blowing cult movie" and said that director Pavich "happens upon a compelling theory: that even in its still-born form, the film manifested the sort of collective [consciousness] that Jodorowsky was trying to peddle through its plot, trickling down to influence other sci-fi films that followed". "The Hollywood Reporter" declared the "entertaining documentary makes the case for this overblown epic as a legendary lost masterpiece". "Entertainment Weekly" named "Jodorowsky's Dune" as one of its 10 Best Movies of 2014.


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave "Jodorowsky's Dune" a 98% approval rating based on reviews from 122 critics, with an average rating of 8/10. The site's consensus states: "Part thoughtful tribute, part bittersweet reminder of a missed opportunity, "Jodorowsky's Dune" offers a fascinating look at a lost sci-fi legend." Metacritic gives the film a 79% rating based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Jodorowsky's Dune

text: In the second episode of the Netflix series "Russian Doll", "Jodorowsky's Dune" is used as a password.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The First Austrian Republic (), officially the Republic of Austria, was created after the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 10 September 1919—the settlement after the end of World War I which ended the Habsburg rump state of Republic of German-Austria—and ended with the establishment of the Austrofascist Federal State of Austria based upon a dictatorship of Engelbert Dollfuss and the Fatherland's Front in 1934. The Republic's constitution was enacted on 1 October 1920 and amended on 7 December 1929. The republican period was increasingly marked by violent strife between those with left-wing and right-wing views, leading to the July Revolt of 1927 and the Austrian Civil War of 1934.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: In September 1919, the rump state of German-Austria– now effectively reduced to the Alpine and Danubian crownlands of the Austrian Empire – was given reduced borders by the Treaty of Saint Germain, which ceded German-populated regions in Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia, German-populated South Tyrol to Italy and a portion of the Alpine provinces to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ("Kraljevina Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca", or SHS, also known as Yugoslavia). Despite Austrian protests this treaty also forbade "Anschluss", or union of Austria with Germany, without League of Nations consent. The Allies were not willing to allow a defeated Germany to expand its borders by absorbing what remained of Austria. With this route closed, German-Austria changed its official name to the Republic of Austria.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The new state managed to block two land claims by its neighbours. The first was the south-eastern part of Carinthia, which was inhabited partly by Slovenians. It was prevented from being taken over by the new SHS-state through a Carinthian plebiscite on October 10, 1920, in which the majority of the population chose to remain with Austria. The second prevented land-claim was Hungary's claim to Burgenland, which, under the name "Western Hungary", had been part of the Hungarian kingdom since 907. It was inhabited mostly by a German-speaking population, but had also Croat- and Hungarian-speaking minorities. Through the Treaty of St. Germain it became part of the Austrian Republic in 1921. However, after a plebiscite which was disputed by Austria, the provincial capital city of Sopron (German Ödenburg) remained in Hungary.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The Treaty of Saint Germain angered the German population in Austria who claimed that it violated the Fourteen Points laid out by United States President Woodrow Wilson during peace talks, specifically the right to "self-determination" of all nations. Many of them felt that with the loss of 60% of the territory of the prewar empire, Austria was no longer economically and politically viable as a separate state without union with Germany. Austria now found itself a small, landlocked country of about 6.5 million people. Vienna, with its population of almost 2 million, was left as an imperial capital without an empire to feed it. Only 17.8 percent of Austria's land was arable; the vast majority of arable land in the former Austrian half of the empire was now part of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The new constitution created a bi-cameral legislature with the upper house – Bundesrat – formed by representatives from federal Lands and the lower house – Nationalrat, where deputies were elected in universal elections. The Federal President was elected for a four-year term in a full session of both houses, while the Chancellor was elected by the Nationalrat. As no political party ever gained a parliamentary majority, Austria was governed by coalitions of the conservative Christian Social Party and the right-wing Greater German People's Party or Landbund which were more conservative than the first government of Social Democrat Karl Renner of 1919–20, which had established a number of progressive socioeconomic and labour legislations.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: After 1920, Austria's government was dominated by the anti-Anschluss Christian Social Party which retained close ties to the Roman Catholic Church. The party's first Chancellor Ignaz Seipel came to power in May 1922 and attempted to forge a political alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Roman Catholic Church.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: After the legislative elections of October 17, 1920, the Social Democrats lost the parliamentary majority and remained in the opposition until 1934, when they were banned by Dollfuss. The Christian Socials won 85, Social Democrats 69, Greater Germany Party 20 and Peasants Union 8 seats. Michael Hainisch was elected Federal President. After the October 1923 elections Ignaz Seipel stayed in power and resigned in November 1924 when he was succeeded by Rudolf Ramek.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: In December 1928 the Christian Social Wilhelm Miklas was elected to the post of Federal President and on 7 December 1929 the Constitution was amended, reducing the rights of the Parliament, making the Federal President electable by a popular vote and giving him the right to appoint the federal government and to issue emergency laws.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: After the 1930 legislative elections the Social Democrats emerged as the largest party with 72 seats, but Christian Social Chancellor Otto Ender created a coalition government without them.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: Despite the nation having a steady political party in power, the politics of the nation were fractious and violent, with both Social Democrat ("Republikanischer Schutzbund") and right-wing ("Heimwehr") political paramilitary forces clashing with each other. The country was divided between the conservative countryside population and Red Vienna controlled by the Social Democrats.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: In 1927, during a political clash in Schattendorf, an old man and a child were shot and killed by the Heimwehr. On 14 July 1927 the shooters were acquitted and left-wing supporters began a massive protest during which the Ministry of Justice building was burned. To restore order, the police and army shot and killed 89 people and injured 600. The huge protest is known as the July Revolt of 1927. Social Democrats called for a general strike which lasted four days.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: After the 1927 events, the conservative elements became stronger and the violence in Austria continued to escalate until the early 1930s when Engelbert Dollfuss became Chancellor.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: However the new state was difficult to control, as much of the former empire's important economic regions had been taken away with the foundation of new nation-states. The matter was further complicated by the fact that a number of these new nation-states were still dependent on Vienna's banks, but business was hampered by the newly erected borders and tariffs.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The landlocked Austria was barely able to support itself with food and lacked a developed industrial basis. In addition, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Italy had imposed a trade blockade and refused to sell food and coal to Austria, which eventually was saved by aid and support from the Western Allies. By 1922 one USA dollar was worth 19,000 kronen and half the population was unemployed.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: In December 1921 the Treaty of Lana between Austria and Czechoslovakia was signed in which Austria recognized the new state borders and relinquished claims to represent ethnic Germans living on the territory of the newly created Czechoslovakia. In return Czechoslovakia provided a loan of 500 million Kronen to Austria.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: In 1922, in an effort to deal with post-war inflation, Chancellor Ignaz Seipel asked for foreign loans and introduced austerity policies. In October 1922 Britain, France, Italy and Czechoslovakia provided a loan of 650 million gold kronen after Seipel promised not to attempt Anschluss with Germany for the next 20 years and allowed the League of Nations to control Austria's economy. During the next two years the state budget was stabilized and international supervision over finances ended in March 1926. Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank was re-established in 1923, a sales tax was introduced in 1923, and the Austrian Schilling replaced the Krone in December 1924.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The Great Depression hit Austria hard and in May 1931 the largest bank in Austria, Creditanstalt Bank collapsed. To improve its economy, Austria wanted to conclude a customs union with Germany, but in 1931 this was denied by France and the countries of the Little Entente.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss of the Christian Social Party took power in Austria on 20 May 1932, and moved the party and Austria towards dictatorship, centralization and fascism, in part because fascist Italy was its strongest international ally against Germany. In March 1933, Dollfuss suspended the parliament, which gave him the opportunity to establish an authoritarian government without a parliament. In May 1933 he created the Fatherland Front (). While outwardly fascist, it was mostly Catholic and influenced by the papal encyclical Quadragesimo anno of 1931 which refuted liberalism and socialism in favour of corporatism.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The government was in competition with the growing Austrian Nazi party, which wanted Austria to join Germany. Dollfuss's Austrofascism tied Austrian identity to the Roman Catholic Church as an argument against a union of Austria with predominantly Protestant Germany.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: Political violence escalated into the Austrian Civil War of February 1934, between Nazis, Social Democrats and government forces. On 1 May 1934, Dollfuss created a one-party state, to be led by the Fatherland Front, with the proclamation of the authoritarian "May Constitution". The name of the country was changed from the "Republic of Austria" to the "Federal State of Austria". The flag, coat of arms and anthem were changed, too.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: Federalism and the controlling powers of the Federal Council were curtailed, while elections for the National Council were abolished, its members nominated by four non-elective, corporatist-styled councils – the State Council ("Staatsrat"), Federal Culture Council ("Bundeskulturrat"), Federal Economic Council ("Bundeswirtschaftsrat") and the States' Council ("Länderrat"), supposedly providing their best opinions on respective areas. In practice all legislation and appointments were exercised from above by the Federal Chancellor's and President's decree.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The state took complete control of employer–employee relations, known as Ständestaat, and began to crack down on pro-Nazi and pro–German-unification sympathizers. The Nazis responded by assassinating Engelbert Dollfuss during the July Putsch of 25 July 1934 (see ).


title: First Austrian Republic

text: This assassination by the Austrian Nazis infuriated Austria's neighbour, Fascist Italy under dictator Benito Mussolini. Fascist Italy had good relations with Austria under Dollfuss and Mussolini suspected German involvement and promised the Austrofascist regime military support if Germany were to invade, as the Nazis had claims on Italian-administered Tyrol. Italy's support helped save Austria from potential annexation in 1934.


title: First Austrian Republic

text: The successor to Dollfuss, Kurt Schuschnigg, maintained the ban on Nazi activities, but also banned Austria's national paramilitary force, the "Heimwehr" in 1936.


title: Play (theatre)

text: A play is a work of drama, usually consisting mostly of dialogue between characters and intended for theatrical performance rather than just reading. The writer of a play is called a playwright.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Plays are performed at a variety of levels, from London's West End and Broadway in New York City – which are the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world – to regional theatre, to community theatre, as well as university or school productions. A stage play is a play performed and written to be performed on stage rather than broadcast or made into a movie. Stage plays are those performed on any stage before an audience. There are rare dramatists, notably George Bernard Shaw, who have had little preference as to whether their plays were performed or read. The term "play" can refer to both the written texts of playwrights and to their complete theatrical performance.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Comedies are plays which are designed to be humorous. Comedies are often filled with witty remarks, unusual characters, and strange circumstances. Certain comedies are geared toward different age groups. Comedies were one of the two original play types of Ancient Greece, along with tragedies. An example of a comedy would be William Shakespeare's play "A Midsummer Night's Dream", or for a more modern example the skits from "Saturday Night Live".


title: Play (theatre)

text: A generally nonsensical genre of play, farces are often acted and often involve humor. An example of a farce includes William Shakespeare's play "The Comedy of Errors", or Mark Twain's play "Is He Dead?".


title: Play (theatre)

text: A satire play takes a comic look at current events, while at the same time attempting to make a political or social statement, for example pointing out corruption. An example of a satire would be Nikolai Gogol's "The Government Inspector" and Aristophanes' "Lysistrata". Satire plays are generally one of the most popular forms of comedy, and often considered to be their own genre entirely.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Restoration comedy is a genre that explored relationships between men and women, and was considered risqué in its time. Characters featured in restoration comedy included stereotypes of all kinds, and these same stereotypes were found in most plays of this genre, so much so that most plays were very similar in message and content. However, since restoration comedy dealt with unspoken aspects of relationships, it created a type of connection between audience and performance that was more informal and private.


title: Play (theatre)

text: It is commonly agreed that restoration comedy has origins in Molière’s theories of comedy, but differs in intention and tone. The inconsistency between restoration comedy’s morals and the morals of the era is something that often arises during the study of this genre. This may give clues as to why, despite its original success, restoration comedy did not last long in the seventeenth century. However, in recent years, it has become a topic of interest for theatre theorists, who have been looking into theatre styles that have their own conventions of performance.


title: Play (theatre)

text: These plays contain darker themes such as death and disaster. Often the protagonist of the play has a tragic flaw, a trait which leads to their downfall. Tragic plays convey all emotions and have very dramatic conflicts. Tragedy was one of the two original play types of Ancient Greece. Some examples of tragedies include William Shakespeare's "Hamlet", and also John Webster's play "The Duchess of Malfi".


title: Play (theatre)

text: These plays focus on actual historical events. They can be tragedies or comedies, but are often neither of these. History as a separate genre was popularised by William Shakespeare. Examples of historical plays include Friedrich Schiller's "Demetrius" and Shakespeare's "King John".


title: Play (theatre)

text: Ballad opera, a popular theatre style at the time, was the first style of musical to be performed in the American colonies. The first musical of American origin was premiered in Philadelphia in 1767, and was called “The Disappointment”, however, this play never made it to production.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Modern Western musical theatre emerged in the Victorian era, with many structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and those of Harrigan and Hart in America. Around the 1920s, theatre styles were beginning to be defined more clearly. For musical theatre, this meant that composers gained the right to create every song in the play, and these new plays were held to more specific conventions, such as thirty-two-bar songs. When the Great Depression came, many people left Broadway for Hollywood, and the atmosphere of Broadway musicals changed significantly. A similar situation occurred during the 1960s, when composers were scarce and musicals lacked vibrancy and entertainment value.


title: Play (theatre)

text: By the 1990s, there were very few original Broadway musicals, as many were recreations of movies or novels.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Musical productions have songs to help explain the story and move the ideas of the play along. They are usually accompanied by dancing. Musicals can be very elaborate in settings and actor performances. Examples of musical productions include "Wicked" and "Fiddler on the Roof".


title: Play (theatre)

text: This theatre style originated in the 1940s when Antonin Artaud hypothesised about the effects of expressing through the body as opposed to “by socially conditioned thought.” In 1946, he wrote a preface to his works in which he explained how he came to write what and the way he did.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Above all, Artaud did not trust language as a means of communication. Plays within the genre of theatre of cruelty are abstract in convention and content. Artaud wanted his plays to have an effect and accomplish something. His intention was to symbolise the subconscious through bodily performances, as he did not believe language could be effective. Artaud considered his plays to be an enactment rather than a re-enactment, which meant he believed his actors were in reality, rather than re-enacting reality.


title: Play (theatre)

text: His plays dealt with heavy issues such as patients in psych wards, and Nazi Germany. Through these performances, he wanted to “make the causes of suffering audible”, however, audiences originally reacted poorly, as they were so taken aback by what they saw. Much of his work was banned in France at the time.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Artaud did not believe that conventional theatre of the time would allow the audience to have a cathartic experience and help heal the wounds of World War II. For this reason, he moved towards radio-based theatre, in which the audience could use their imagination to connect the words they were hearing to their body. This made his work much more personal and individualised, which he believed would increase the effectiveness of portraying suffering.


title: Play (theatre)

text: This genre generally includes metaphysical representations of existential qualms and questions. Theatre of the absurd denies rationality, and embraces the inevitability of falling into the abyss of the human condition. Instead of discussing these issues, however, theatre of the absurd is a demonstration of them. This leaves the audience to discuss and question the content of the play for themselves.


title: Play (theatre)

text: One of the main aspects of theatre of the absurd is the physical contradiction to language. Oftentimes, the dialogue between characters will directly oppose their actions.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Famous playwrights within this genre include Samuel Beckett, Jean-Paul Sartre, Eugène Ionesco, Arthur Adamov, and Jean Genet.


title: Play (theatre)

text: The term "play" can be either a general term, or more specifically refer to a non-musical play. Sometimes the term "straight play" is used in contrast to "musical", which refers to a play based on music, dance, and songs sung by the play's characters. For a short play, the term "playlet" is sometimes used.


title: Play (theatre)

text: The term "script" refers to the written text of the play. After the front matter, such as title and author, it conventionally begins with a "dramatis personae": a list presenting each of the main characters of the play by name, followed by a brief characterisation (e.g., ", a drunken Butler".)


title: Play (theatre)

text: For a musical play (opera, light opera, or musical) the term "libretto" is commonly used, instead of "script".


title: Play (theatre)

text: A play is usually divided into acts, similar to what chapters are in a novel. A short play may consist of only a single act, and then is called a "one-acter". Acts are subdivided into scenes. Acts are numbered, and so are scenes; the scene numbering starts again at 1 for each next act, so may be followed by . Each scene is set at one specified location, indicated in the script at the start of the scene (e.g., ". Before the cell of ."). Changing locations usually requires changing the scenery, which takes time – even if merely a painted backdrop – and can only be done between scenes.


title: Play (theatre)

text: Next to the text to be spoken by the actors, a script contains "stage directions" (not to be confused with the use of that term in blocking, the staging of actors with specified movements across the stage). The most common type is for the entering and exiting of actors, e.g. "["Exeunt" , and .]" ("Exeunt" is the Latin plural of "exit", meaning "[they] leave".) Other stage directions may indicate the manner of delivery of the text, like "[Aside]" or "[Sings]", or indicate sounds to be produced off-stage, like "[Thunder]".


title: Tiktaalik

text: Tiktaalik (; ) is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish) from the Late Devonian Period, about 375 Mya (million years ago), having many features akin to those of tetrapods (four-legged animals). It may have grown up to in length.


title: Tiktaalik

text: Unearthed in Arctic Canada, "Tiktaalik" is a non-tetrapod member of Osteichthyes (bony fish), complete with scales and gills – but it has a triangular, flattened head and unusual, cleaver-shaped fins. Its fins have thin ray bones for paddling like most fish, but they also have sturdy interior bones that would have allowed Tiktaalik to prop itself up in shallow water and use its limbs for support as most four-legged animals do. Those fins and other mixed characteristics mark "Tiktaalik" as a crucial transition fossil, a link in evolution from swimming fish to four-legged vertebrates. This and similar animals might be the common ancestors of all vertebrate terrestrial fauna: amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.


title: Tiktaalik

text: The first well-preserved "Tiktaalik" fossils were found in 2004 on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut, Canada. The discovery, made by Edward B. Daeschler of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Neil H. Shubin from the University of Chicago, and Harvard University Professor Farish A. Jenkins Jr, was published in the April 6, 2006, issue of "Nature" and quickly recognized as a transitional form.


title: Tiktaalik

text: The skull of "Tiktaalik" was low and flattened, more similar in shape to that of a crocodile than most fish. The rear of the skull was excavated by a pair of indentations known as otic notches. These notches likely housed spiracles on the top of the head, which suggest the creature had primitive lungs as well as gills. "Tiktaalik" also lacked a characteristic that most fishes have—bony plates in the gill area that restrict lateral head movement. This makes "Tiktaalik" the earliest known fish to have a neck, with the pectoral girdle separate from the skull. This would give the creature more freedom in hunting prey on land or in the shallows.


title: Tiktaalik

text: Unlike many previous, more fishlike transitional fossils, the "fins" of "Tiktaalik" have basic wrist bones and simple rays reminiscent of fingers. The homology of distal elements is uncertain: exactly how did the bones of the lower limbs evolve into the feet and toes of vertebrates? There have been suggestions that the fin rays of "Tiktaalik" are homologous to digits, although this is incompatible with the digital arch developmental model, a hypothesis describing how the two parallel bones of lower limbs evolved to produce feet. According to this model, digits are supposed to be postaxial structures, but only three of the (reconstructed) eight rays of "Tiktaalik" are postaxial.


title: Tiktaalik

text: However, the proximal series (bones of the upper limb) can be directly compared to the ulnare and intermedium of tetrapods. The fin was clearly weight bearing, being attached to a massive shoulder with expanded scapular and coracoid elements and attached to the body armor, large muscular scars on the ventral surface of the humerus, and highly mobile distal joints. The bones of the forefins show large muscle facets, suggesting that the fin was both muscular and had the ability to flex like a wrist joint. These wrist-like features would have helped anchor the creature to the bottom in a fast current.


title: Tiktaalik

text: Strong lungs (as supported by the plausible presence of a spiracle) may have led to the evolution of a more robust ribcage, a key evolutionary trait of land-living creatures. The more robust ribcage of "Tiktaalik" would have helped support the animal's body any time it ventured outside a fully aquatic habitat.


title: Tiktaalik

text: "Tiktaalik" is sometimes compared to gars (esp. "Atractosteus spatula", the alligator gar) of the family Lepisosteidae, with whom it shares a number of characteristics:


title: Tiktaalik

text: "Tiktaalik" generally had the characteristics of a lobe-finned fish, but with front fins featuring arm-like skeletal structures more akin to those of a crocodile, including a shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The fossil discovered in 2004 did not include the rear fins and tail, which were found in other specimens. It had rows of sharp teeth indicative of a predator fish, and its neck could move independently of its body, which is not common in other fish ("Tarrasius", "Mandageria", placoderms, and extant seahorses being some exceptions; see also "Lepidogalaxias" and "Channallabes apus"). The animal had a flat skull resembling a crocodile's; eyes on top of its head; a neck and ribs similar to those of tetrapods, with the ribs being used to support its body and aid in breathing via lungs; well developed jaws suitable for catching prey; and a small gill slit called a spiracle that, in more derived animals, became an ear. Spiracles would have been useful in shallow water, where higher water temperature would lower oxygen content.


title: Tiktaalik

text: The discoverers said that in all likelihood, "Tiktaalik" flexed its proto-limbs primarily on the floor of streams and may have pulled itself onto the shore for brief periods. In 2014, the discovery of the animal's pelvic girdle was announced; it was strongly built, indicating the animal could have used them for moving in shallow water and across mudflats. Neil Shubin and Daeschler, the leaders of the team, have been searching Ellesmere Island for fossils since 2000:


title: Tiktaalik

text: The fossils of "Tiktaalik" were found in the Fram Formation, deposits of meandering stream systems near the Devonian equator, suggesting a benthic animal that lived on the bottom of shallow waters and perhaps even out of the water for short periods, with a skeleton indicating that it could support its body under the force of gravity whether in very shallow water or on land. At that period, for the first time, deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in.


title: Tiktaalik

text: "Tiktaalik roseae" is the only species classified under the genus. "Tiktaalik" lived approximately 375 million years ago. It is representative of the transition between non-tetrapod vertebrates (fish) such as "Panderichthys", known from fossils 380 million years old, and early tetrapods such as "Acanthostega" and "Ichthyostega", known from fossils about 365 million years old. Its mixture of primitive fish and derived tetrapod characteristics led one of its discoverers, Neil Shubin, to characterize "Tiktaalik" as a "fishapod".


title: Tiktaalik

text: "Tiktaalik" is a transitional fossil; it is to tetrapods what "Archaeopteryx" is to birds, troodonts and dromaeosaurids. While it may be that neither is ancestor to any living animal, they serve as evidence that intermediates between very different types of vertebrates did once exist. The mixture of both fish and tetrapod characteristics found in "Tiktaalik" include these traits: