title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: Since then, Ma Ying-jeou has emphasized the "1992 Consensus" as the existing basis for constructive dialogue and exchange between mainland China and Taiwan. On 12 April 2008, then Vice-President-elect Vincent Siew formally met with CCP General Secretary Hu Jintao at the Boao Forum in Hainan.


title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: On 2 September 2008, Ma declared that the relations between Taiwan and mainland China were a "special relationship not between two nations", but one that can be handled invoking the "1992 consensus" between the two sides. While the governing authorities on mainland China and Taiwan cannot recognise each other as a legitimate government due to legal and constitutional reasons, Ma seeks that they would refrain from denying the other side being the "de facto" governing authority of one area of the state. On 18 October 2008, Ma said he hoped that a cross-strait peace accord could be reached during his term in office.


title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: Ma has received criticism from the DPP, the opposition party, for allegedly praising the PRC on human rights, especially during the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square Protests. Departing from his usual critical view of the Communists' handling of the 1989 protests, Ma made a statement about the PRC's recent improvements in human rights. That same day, he also asked the PRC government to face its history directly and honestly.


title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: Within a week of his remarks on Tiananmen, Ma voiced support for the acceptance of simplified Chinese for written text and the continued use of traditional Chinese for printed text. Ma had to clarify his remarks regarding simplified characters at a 15-minute speech before the sixth International Conference on Internet Chinese Education on 19 June 2009. Ma reiterated his policy of urging the Chinese to learn the traditional system; his previous call was for the ability of Taiwan's population to recognize simplified characters and not for simplified characters to supplant the traditional system in Taiwan. In a 2004 speech hosted by Microsoft Taiwan, he had proposed for the traditional Chinese characters (; literally: complicated characters) to be instead called the 'formal characters' () (then the translation 'traditional Chinese characters' would be more appropriate as well).


title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: In 2009, Ma spoke at a leadership conference in Taipei and called for peace with Beijing and for Taiwan's greater participation in international affairs. He said: "The Chinese civil war of the 1940s must never happen again. Peace never comes easily, because over 1,000 missiles deployed by Beijing are still aimed at Taiwan." In 2014, Ma received the Eisenhower Medallion from People to People International for his efforts in the East China Sea Peace Initiative, set up to mediate territorial disputes.


title: Ma Ying-jeou

text: Between 18 March to 10 April 2014, the Sunflower Student Movement, initiated by a coalition of students and civic groups in the Legislative Yuan and later also the Executive Yuan, was a student-mainly mass movement to protest Ma's trade in services policy with mainland China. On 26 September 2014, a student protester hurled the book "Formosa Betrayed" at Ma and hit the president, who was not hurt by the incident. The Presidential Office condemned the act of violence.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Malcolm Denzil Marshall (18 April 1958 – 4 November 1999) was a Barbadian cricketer. Primarily a fast bowler, Marshall is widely regarded as one of the greatest and one of the most accomplished fast bowlers of the modern era in Test cricket. He is often acknowledged as the greatest West Indian fast bowler of all time, and certainly one of the most complete fast bowlers the cricketing world ever saw. His Test bowling average of 20.94 is the best of anyone who has taken 200 or more wickets. He achieved his bowling success despite being, by the standards of other fast bowlers of his time, a short man – he stood at , while most of the great quicks have been well above and many great West Indian fast bowlers, such as Joel Garner, Curtly Ambrose and Courtney Walsh, were or above. He generated fearsome pace from his bowling action, with a dangerous bouncer. He also statistically went on to become the most successful test match bowler of the 1980s with 235 scalps with an average of 18.47 within a time period of just five years.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall was also a very dangerous lower middle-order batsman with ten Test fifties and seven first-class centuries. He ended his career as the all-time highest wicket taker for West Indies in test cricket with 376 wickets, a record which he held up until November 1998 before Courtney Walsh surpassed his milestone.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In 2009, Marshall was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame. To mark 150 years of the Cricketers' Almanack, Wisden named him in an all-time Test World XI.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall was born in Bridgetown, Barbados. His father, Denzil DeCoster Edghill, also a cricketer who played for Kingspark cricket club in St. Philip and the son of Claudine Edghill and Guirdwood Ifill, was a policeman; he died in a traffic accident when Marshall was one year old. His mother was Eleanor Welch. Malcolm had three half-brothers and three half-sisters. He grew up in the parish of Saint Michael, Barbados and was educated at St Giles Boys' School from 1963 to 1969 and then at Parkinson Comprehensive from 1969 to 1973.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: He was partly taught cricket by his grandfather, who helped to bring him up after his father's death. He played cricket for the Banks Brewery team from 1976. His first representative match was a 40-over affair for West Indies Young Cricketers against their English equivalents at Pointe-à-Pierre, Trinidad and Tobago in August 1976. He made nought and his eight overs disappeared for 53 runs. He idolised legendary West Indies allrounder Sir Garfield Sobers at his young age and he started admiring Sobers after watching the magnificent test century by Sobers against New Zealand in 1972.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall's initial senior appearance was a Geddes Grant/Harrison Line Trophy (List A) match for Barbados on 13 February 1978; again he got out without scoring and did not take a wicket. Four days later, he made his first-class debut against Jamaica, and whilst he failed to score runs, he claimed 6–77 in the Jamaican first innings. On the back of this single first-class appearance he was selected to tour India in 1978/79, many first-choice West Indian stars being unavailable having committed themselves to playing World Series Cricket. Marshall heard of his selection on the radio while working in the storeroom at Banks Brewery and later claimed he did not know where India was.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall made his test début in the second test against India at Bangalore on 15 December 1978. He immediately developed a career-long antipathy to Dilip Vengsarkar due to his aggressive appealing. Despite doing little of note in the three Tests he played on that tour, he did take 37 wickets in all first-class games, and Hampshire saw enough in him to take him on as their overseas player as a successor to Andy Roberts for 1979, remaining with the county until 1993. He was in West Indies' World Cup squad, but did not play a match in the tournament. Hampshire were not doing well at the time, but nevertheless he took 47 first-class wickets, as well as picking up 5–13 against Glamorgan in the John Player League.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall came to prominence in 1980, when in the third Test at Old Trafford he accounted for Mike Gatting, Brian Rose and Peter Willey in short order to spark an England collapse, although the match was eventually drawn despite Marshall taking 3–36 (and 2-116 in the second innings). After 1980/81 he was out of the Test side for two years, but an excellent 1982 season with Hampshire when he took 134 wickets at under 16 apiece, including a career-best 8–71 against Worcestershire, saw him recalled and thereafter he remained a fixture until the end of his international career. As of 2022 Marshall's performance in 1982 remains the highest haul of first-class wickets by any bowler in an English season for over fifty years, since a reduction in the annual number of County Championship matches in 1969.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In seven successive Test series from 1982/83 to 1985/86 he took 21 or more wickets each time, in the last five of them averaging under 20. His most productive series in this period was the 1983/84 rubber against India, when he claimed 33 wickets as well as averaging 34 with the bat and making his highest Test score of 92 at Kanpur. A few months later he took five in an innings twice at home against Australia. In 1982, he signed a one-year contract with Melbourne Sub-District side Moorabbin and he eventually became the first active international cricketer to sign up for the Sub-District league. Marshall was reportedly approached by the Moorabbin officials during the first test match between Australia and West Indies at Melbourne in December 2021 after learning that Marshall was interested in playing domestic cricket in Australia. At the peak of his career, he turned down an offer of US$1 million to join a rebel West Indies team on a tour to South Africa, still suffering international sporting isolation due to apartheid.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall relinquished his county duties during the 1984 tour of England. In a Test series that came to be known as the "Blackwash", the West Indians completed a 5–0 triumph, to date the only visiting team in England to have achieved such a feat. Marshall played a key role, taking the second-most wickets in the series with 24, behind only Joel Garner who took 29, and establishing his reputation as one of the finest bowlers in the world. In the series, he took five or more wickets in an innings three times, had the best bowling average – conceding only 18.20 runs per wicket, and the best strike rate – averaging one wicket every 42 deliveries.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In the first test at Edgbaston, which the West Indies won by an innings and 180 runs, he ended the Test career of local Warwickshire opener Andy Lloyd after half an hour; he had already faced a few short deliveries from both Marshall and Garner but was then caught unawares by a delivery from Marshall that rose sharply and struck him flush on the temple behind his right eye. Lloyd soon had to retire hurt when he realized he was suffering blurred vision in his right eye and was hospitalized for several days. Lloyd would remain stranded on 10 runs without being dismissed and he never went onto play international cricket again leaving him with a unique record of being the only opening batsman in test cricket to have never been dismissed by any bowler.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In the third Test at Headingley, Marshall ran through England's batting order in the second innings to finish with 7/53, despite having broken his thumb in two different places when he attempted to field a stroke played by Chris Broad on the first morning in the first innings. He also came out to bat at number 11 in West Indies' first innings despite his injury, allowing his team to gain a further psychological advantage as Larry Gomes completed an unbeaten century (Marshall batted one-handed that day, with one arm in plaster). Marshall himself also contributed to the team with the bat scoring a boundary with an inside-out forehand down the line. Marshall was dismissed soon after Larry Gomes had completed the century. Even though the partnership lasted for just 16 minutes and with only 12 runs being produced, it turned out to be one of the most memorable test match partnerships for the tenth wicket. His heroics by batting and bowling with a broken thumb also impressed his captain Clive Lloyd who recalled the incident as one of the greatest and most courageous efforts that he ever witnessed during his playing career.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In 1984/85 Marshall had another successful series at home against New Zealand, although there were calls for his bouncers to be ruled as intimidatory beyond what was acceptable, and that Marshall should have been admonished by the umpires. A rising delivery broke the nose of England batsman Mike Gatting in a one-day match in February 1986; Marshall later found bone fragments embedded in the leather of the ball. As well as the bouncer, however, Marshall succeeded in swinging the ball in both directions. He also used an in-swinging yorker as well as developing an effective leg-cutter, and with the exception of the 1986/87 New Zealanders, against whom he could only manage nine wickets at 32.11, no side seemed to have an answer to him.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: 1988 saw his career-best Test performance of 7–22 at Old Trafford, and he ended the series with 35 wickets in five Tests, at 12.65. Marshall was coming towards the end of his international career, moreover, and though he took 11 wickets in the match against India at Port of Spain the following winter, he played his last Test at The Oval in 1991. His final Test wicket – his 376th – was that of Graham Gooch. These efforts led him to retain the number 1 ranking in ICC Test Bowling Rankings for the year 1990 (which he attained in 1989).


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Marshall's final appearances for West Indies came in One Day International cricket – the 1992 World Cup. However, in his five matches in the tournament, he took just two wickets, both in the penultimate game against South Africa at Christchurch. This was the only time Marshall played for West Indies against South Africa in his career, though he played provincial cricket for Natal in both 1992/93 and 1993/94. Whilst playing at Natal, his experience was invaluable, and his guidance was an influential spark in the early career of Shaun Pollock. Today, Shaun Pollock attributes much of his success to his mentor, Marshall.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Having missed out on Hampshire's earlier one-day triumphs in the Benson and Hedges Cup in 1988 and the Nat West Trophy in 1991 because of touring commitments with the West Indies, Marshall was in the Hampshire team that won the 1992 Benson and Hedges Cup. He played for Hampshire again in 1993, taking 28 wickets at a shade over 30 runs apiece, but that was to be the end of his time in county cricket. He bade farewell to Hampshire fans in a benefit match at the County Ground, Southampton in September 1993, representing a West Indies XI against the county. As he walked off the pitch after his dismissal, according to a report, "the crowd, as one man, rose to its feet and cheered Marshall every step of the way." This also proved to be one of the last matches at Southampton for David Gower (who Marshall dismissed on the day while bowling off-spin). In 1994 his only game in England was against the South Africans for the Scarborough President's XI during the Festival. He played five matches for Scotland in the 1995 Benson and Hedges Cup without much success, and his last senior games were for Natal in 1995/96. In his final senior appearance, against Western Province in a limited-overs game at Cape Town, the first of his two victims was his former international teammate Desmond Haynes. He took over 1,000 wickets for Hampshire, and received more than £60,000 (tax free) in his benefit year in 1987.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: In 1996, Marshall became coach both of Hampshire and the West Indies, although the latter's steadily declining standards during this period brought a considerable amount of criticism his way. In 1999, during the World Cup it was revealed that Marshall had colon cancer. He immediately left his coaching job to begin treatment, but this was ultimately unsuccessful. He married his long-term partner, Connie Roberta Earle, in Romsey on 25 September 1999, and returned to his home town, where he died on 4 November aged 41, weighing little more than 25 kg.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: "The worldwide outpouring of grief," wrote journalist-friend Pat Symes, "was testimony to the genuine love and admiration he engendered." At the funeral service at the Garfield Sobers Gymnasium in Wildey, Barbados, former West Indian fast bowler Rev. Wes Hall whispered the last rites in the belief that Marshall, having found God again in the last few weeks of his life, was off to Heaven. His coffin was carried at the service by five West Indian captains. He was buried at St Bartholomew's Church, Barbados.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: The Malcolm Marshall Memorial Trophy was inaugurated in his memory, to be awarded to the leading wicket-taker in each England v West Indies Test series. Another trophy with the same name was set up to be the prize in an annual game between Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: Malcolm Marshall Memorial cricket games are also played in Handsworth Park, Birmingham, England. On the Sunday of the UK's August bank holiday, invitation XIs play against an individual's "select eleven".


title: Malcolm Marshall

text: The entrance road to Hampshire's ground the Rose Bowl is called Marshall Drive in memory of Marshall and another West Indian Hampshire great Roy Marshall.


title: Cleo Sol

text: Cleopatra Zvezdana Nikolic (born 24 March 1991), better known by her stage name Cleo Sol, is a British singer-songwriter. Working closely with the producer Inflo, she has released two solo studio albums, "Rose in the Dark" (2020) and "Mother" (2021), and is a rumoured member of the R&B collective Sault.


title: Cleo Sol

text: Cleo Sol was born and raised in Ladbroke Grove, London. Her mother is Serbian-Spanish and her father is Jamaican. Both are musicians.


title: Cleo Sol

text: Cleo Sol made her debut in 2008 featuring on the single "Tears" by Tinie Tempah. In 2011, Cleo Sol signed to DaVinChe's record label Dirty Canvas and Island Records, releasing singles such as "High" and "Never the Right Time (Who Do You Love)".


title: Cleo Sol

text: She took a musical hiatus from 2012 to 2017. She returned with the EP "Winter Songs", released on 9 March 2018.


title: Cleo Sol

text: In 2019, Cleo Sol was featured on the single "Selfish" by British rapper Little Simz, reconnecting in 2021 with the rapper for the song "Woman".


title: Cleo Sol

text: She released her debut studio album, "Rose in the Dark", on 27 March 2020, included by "Complex" and "Clash" in their end-of-year lists. The following year, Nikolic released her second studio album, titled "Mother", on 20 August 2021.


title: Cleo Sol

text: She is rumoured to be a member of the pseudonymous collective SAULT who have released eleven studio albums.


title: Cleo Sol

text: Cleo Sol has cited influences from Stevie Wonder, Erykah Badu and Jill Scott while growing up on genres such as reggae, Motown and Latin music.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: In filmmaking, Foley is the reproduction of everyday sound effects that are added to films, videos, and other media in post-production to enhance audio quality. These reproduced sounds, named after sound-effects artist Jack Foley, can be anything from the swishing of clothing and footsteps to squeaky doors and breaking glass. Foley sounds are used to enhance the auditory experience of the movie. Foley can also be used to cover up unwanted sounds captured on the set of a movie during filming, such as overflying airplanes or passing traffic.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Places where the Foley process takes place are often referred to as a Foley stage or Foley studio. Foley artists recreate the realistic ambient sounds that the film portrays. The props and sets of a film often do not react the same way acoustically as their real life counterparts, requiring filmmakers to Foley the sounds. The best Foley art is so well integrated into a film that it goes unnoticed by the audience. It helps to create a sense of reality within a scene. Without these crucial background noises, movies feel unnaturally quiet and uncomfortable.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: What is now called Foley originated as adding sounds to live broadcasts of radio drama from radio studios around the world in the early 1920s. Phonograph recordings of the era were not of sufficient quality or flexibility to faithfully reproduce most sound effects on cue, so a sound effects person had to create all sounds for radio plays live. Jack Donovan Foley started working with Universal Studios in 1914 during the silent movie era. When Warner studios released "The Jazz Singer", its first film to include sound, Universal knew it needed to stay competitive and called for any employees who had radio experience to come forward. Foley became part of the sound crew that turned Universal's then-upcoming "silent" musical "Show Boat" into a musical. Because microphones of the time could not pick up more than dialogue, other sounds had to be added in after the film was shot. Foley and his small crew projected the film on a screen while recording a single track of audio that captured their live sound effects. Their timing had to be perfect, so that footsteps and closing doors synchronized with the actors' motions in the film. Jack Foley created sounds for films until his death in 1967. His basic methods are still used today.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: When Warner Brothers introduced the Vitaphone, allowing for sound to be synchronized to the moving picture, it included a musical score and sound effects in its 1926 film "Don Juan".


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Modern Foley art has progressed as recording technology has progressed. Today, sounds do not have to be recorded live on a single track of audio. They can be captured separately on individual tracks and carefully synchronized with their visual counterpart. Foley studios employ hundreds of props and digital effects to recreate the ambient sounds of their films.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Foley complements or replaces sound recorded on set at the time of the filming, known as field recording. The soundscape of most films uses a combination of both. A Foley artist is the person who creates this sound art. Foley artists use creativity to make viewers believe that the sound effects are actually real. The viewers should not be able to realize that the sound was not actually part of the filming process itself. Foley sounds are added to the film in post production after the film has been shot. The need for replacing or enhancing sounds in a film production arises from the fact that, very often, the original sounds captured during shooting are obstructed by noise or are not convincing enough to underscore the visual effect or action. For example, fist-fighting scenes in an action movie are usually staged by the stunt actors and therefore do not have the actual sounds of blows landing. Props, sets, and costumes are often constructed of relatively cheap and lightweight materials that visually resemble but do not actually sound like more expensive materials. Crashes and explosions are often added or enhanced at the post-production stage. The desired effect is to add back to the original soundtrack the sounds that were excluded during recording. By excluding these sounds during field recording, and then adding them back into the soundtrack during post-production, the editors have complete control over how each noise sounds, its quality, and the relative volume. Foley effects add depth and realism to the audio quality for multimedia sources.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Foley artists review the film as it runs to figure out what sounds they need to achieve the desired sound and results. Once they gather the material and prepare for use, they practice the sounds. When they accomplish the desired sound, they watch the film and add in the sound effects at the same time. This is similar to the way actors re-record dialogue, lip-syncing to the video or film image.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Scenes where dialogue is replaced using dubbing also feature Foley sounds. Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) is the process in which voice sounds are recorded in post production. This is done by a machine that runs the voice sounds with the film forward and backward to get the sound to run with the film. The objective of the ADR technique is to add sound effects into the film after filming, so the voice sounds are synchronized. Many sounds are not added at the time of filming, and microphones might not capture a sound the way the audience expects to hear it. The need for Foley rose dramatically when studios began to distribute films internationally, dubbed in other languages. As dialogue is replaced, all sound effects recorded at the time of the dialogue are lost as well.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Foley is created by the sound artist mimicking the actual sound source in a recording studio. Often there are many little sound effects that happen within any given scene of a movie. The process of recording them all can be time-consuming.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: The category entails the sound of footsteps. To make the sound of walking down a staircase, Foley artists stomp their feet on a marble slab while watching the footage. Foley studios carry many different types of shoes and several different types of floors to create footstep sounds. These floors, known as Foley Pits, vary from marble squares to gravel and rock pits. Creating just the right sound of footsteps can greatly enhance the feel of a scene. Foley Artists are often referred to as "Foley Walkers" or "Steppers" when working in the "feet" subset of Foley.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: The "moves" category makes up many of the more subtle sounds heard in films, for example, the swishing of clothing when two actors walk past each other. This sound is created by rubbing two pieces of the same material together near the microphone at the same rate that the actor’s legs cross. Cloth is not always used and tends to be recorded at the discretion of the dubbing mixer who ultimately controls the final outcome of the audio post-production process.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Foley can also include other sounds, such as doors closing and doorbells ringing; however, these tend to be done more efficiently using stock sound effects, arranged by sound editors.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: Foley effects help the viewer judge the size of a space. For example, a large hall has strong reverberation, while a small room may have only slight reverberation. Open outdoor spaces usually have no reverberation at all.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: In "Star Wars", Ben Burtt introduced a number of custom effects used for the franchise. The light saber buzz was a film projector motor mixed with television picture tube hum and further mixed. Blasters were based on the sound of taut radio tower guy-wires being struck, Darth Vader's breathing on a diving regulator. The TIE fighter swoosh is a mix of slowed-down elephant herd noises and cars driving through water, Chewbacca's voice includes the moaning of a walrus stranded in a dry pool along with other animal vocalization, and R2D2's booping talk includes Burtt's own voice mixed in with the synthesized sounds to humanize its robotic affect.


title: Foley (filmmaking)

text: The Firesign Theatre, a comedic radio play troupe, occasionally broke the fourth wall to poke fun at these conventions ("It had been snowing in Santa Barbara ever since the top of the page and I had to shake the cornstarch off my mukluks"), as did comedy players Monty Python in their film "Monty Python and the Holy Grail", which included a running joke of knights pretending to ride horses as squires followed behind, clapping coconut halves.


title: SM Town

text: SM Town (stylized as SMTOWN) is a musical collective for the recording artists under South Korean entertainment company SM Entertainment.


title: SM Town

text: SM Town artists have performed at the annual SM Town Live world tours since the SM Town Live '08 Asia tour in 2008. As of 2014, the SM Town Live concert series had cumulatively attracted over 1 million audience members.


title: SM Town

text: It is a mobile application launched by SM Entertainment for Android and iOS. It is the mobile version of SM Town's official website.


title: SM Town

text: In August 2014, SM Entertainment launched a rhythm game available for Android and iOS called "SuperStar SM Town", featuring SM Town artists' songs.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Caenorhabditis elegans () is a free-living transparent nematode about 1 mm in length that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. The name is a blend of the Greek "caeno-" (recent), "rhabditis" (rod-like) and Latin "elegans" (elegant). In 1900, Maupas initially named it "Rhabditides elegans." Osche placed it in the subgenus "Caenorhabditis" in 1952, and in 1955, Dougherty raised "Caenorhabditis" to the status of genus.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" is an unsegmented pseudocoelomate and lacks respiratory or circulatory systems. Most of these nematodes are hermaphrodites and a few are males. Males have specialised tails for mating that include spicules.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: In 1963, Sydney Brenner proposed research into "C. elegans," primarily in the area of neuronal development. In 1974, he began research into the molecular and developmental biology of "C. elegans", which has since been extensively used as a model organism. It was the first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced, and , is the only organism to have its connectome (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" is unsegmented, vermiform, and bilaterally symmetrical. It has a cuticle (a tough outer covering, as an exoskeleton), four main epidermal cords, and a fluid-filled pseudocoelom (body cavity). It also has some of the same organ systems as larger animals. About one in a thousand individuals is male and the rest are hermaphrodites. The basic anatomy of "C. elegans" includes a mouth, pharynx, intestine, gonad, and collagenous cuticle. Like all nematodes, they have neither a circulatory nor a respiratory system. The four bands of muscles that run the length of the body are connected to a neural system that allows the muscles to move the animal's body only as dorsal bending or ventral bending, but not left or right, except for the head, where the four muscle quadrants are wired independently from one another. When a wave of dorsal/ventral muscle contractions proceeds from the back to the front of the animal, the animal is propelled backwards. When a wave of contractions is initiated at the front and proceeds posteriorly along the body, the animal is propelled forwards. Because of this dorsal/ventral bias in body bends, any normal living, moving individual tends to lie on either its left side or its right side when observed crossing a horizontal surface. A set of ridges on the lateral sides of the body cuticle, the alae, is believed to give the animal added traction during these bending motions.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: In relation to lipid metabolism, "C. elegans" does not have any specialized adipose tissues, a pancreas, a liver, or even blood to deliver nutrients compared to mammals. Neutral lipids are instead stored in the intestine, epidermis, and embryos. The epidermis corresponds to the mammalian adipocytes by being the main triglyceride depot.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The pharynx is a muscular food pump in the head of "C. elegans", which is triangular in cross-section. This grinds food and transports it directly to the intestine. A set of "valve cells" connects the pharynx to the intestine, but how this valve operates is not understood. After digestion, the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum, as is the case with all other nematodes. No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the excretory canal, which functions in the release of liquid urine.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Males have a single-lobed gonad, a vas deferens, and a tail specialized for mating, which incorporates spicules. Hermaphrodites have two ovaries, oviducts, and spermatheca, and a single uterus.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" neurons contain dendrites which extend from the cell to receive neurotransmitters, and a process that extends to the nerve ring (the "brain") for a synaptic connection between neurons. The biggest difference is that "C. elegans" has motor excitatory and inhibitory neurons, known as cholinergic and gabaergic neurons, which simply act as further regulation for the tiny creature. They have no influence on the nervous system besides regulating neuron impulses.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Numerous gut granules are present in the intestine of "C. elegans", the functions of which are still not fully known, as are many other aspects of this nematode, despite the many years that it has been studied. These gut granules are found in all of the Rhabditida orders. They are very similar to lysosomes in that they feature an acidic interior and the capacity for endocytosis, but they are considerably larger, reinforcing the view of their being storage organelles.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: A remarkable feature of the granules is that when they are observed under ultraviolet light, they react by emitting an intense blue fluorescence. Another phenomenon seen is termed 'death fluorescence'. As the worms die, a dramatic burst of blue fluorescence is emitted. This death fluorescence typically takes place in an anterior to posterior wave that moves along the intestine, and is seen in both young and old worms, whether subjected to lethal injury or peacefully dying of old age.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Many theories have been posited on the functions of the gut granules, with earlier ones being eliminated by later findings. They are thought to store zinc as one of their functions. Recent chemical analysis has identified the blue fluorescent material they contain as a glycosylated form of anthranilic acid (AA). The need for the large amounts of AA the many gut granules contain is questioned. One possibility is that the AA is antibacterial and used in defense against invading pathogens. Another possibility is that the granules provide photoprotection; the bursts of AA fluorescence entail the conversion of damaging UV light to relatively harmless visible light. This is seen a possible link to the melanin–containing melanosomes.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The hermaphroditic worm is considered to be a specialized form of self-fertile female, as its soma is female. The hermaphroditic germline produces male gametes first, and lays eggs through its uterus after internal fertilization. Hermaphrodites produce all their sperm in the L4 stage (150 sperm cells per gonadal arm) and then produce only oocytes. The hermaphroditic gonad acts as an ovotestis with sperm cells being stored in the same area of the gonad as the oocytes until the first oocyte pushes the sperm into the spermatheca (a chamber wherein the oocytes become fertilized by the sperm).


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The male can inseminate the hermaphrodite, which will preferentially use male sperm (both types of sperm are stored in the spermatheca).


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" has five pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex in "C. elegans" is based on an X0 sex-determination system. Hermaphrodites of "C. elegans" have a matched pair of sex chromosomes (XX); the rare males have only one sex chromosome (X0).


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" are mostly hermaphroditic organisms, producing both sperms and oocytes. Males do occur in the population in a rate of approximately 1 in 200 hermaphrodites, but the two sexes are highly differentiated. Males differ from their hermaphroditic counterparts in that they are smaller and can be identified through the shape of their tail. "C.elegans" reproduce through a process called androdioecy. This means that they can reproduce in two ways: either through self-fertilization in hermaphrodites or through hermaphrodites breeding with males. Males are produced through non-disjunction of the X chromosomes during meiosis. The worms that reproduce through self-fertilization are at risk for high linkage disequilibrium, which leads to lower genetic diversity in populations and an increase in accumulation of deleterious alleles. In "C. elegans", somatic sex determination is attributed to the "tra-1" gene. The "tra-1" is a gene within the TRA-1 transcription factor sex determination pathway that is regulated post-transcriptionally and works by promoting female development. In hermaphrodites (XX), there are high levels of "tra-1" activity, which produces the female reproductive system and inhibits male development. At a certain time in their life cycle, one day before adulthood, hermaphrodites can be identified through the addition of a vulva near their tail. In males (XO), there are low levels of "tra-1" activity, resulting in a male reproductive system. Recent research has shown that there are three other genes, "fem-1, fem-2, and fem-3," that negatively regulate the TRA-1 pathway and act as the final determiner of sex in "C. elegans".


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The sex determination system in "C. elegans" is a topic that has been of interest to scientists for years. Since they are used as a model organism, any information discovered about the way their sex determination system might have evolved could further the same evolutionary biology research in other organisms. After almost 30 years of research, scientists have begun to put together the pieces in the evolution of such a system. What they have discovered is that there is a complex pathway involved that has several layers of regulation. The closely related organism "Caenorhabditis briggsae" has been studied extensively and its whole genome sequence has helped put together the missing pieces in the evolution of "C. elegans" sex determination. It has been discovered that two genes have assimilated, leading to the proteins XOL-1 and MIX-1 having an effect on sex determination in "C. elegans" as well. Mutations in the XOL-1 pathway leads to feminization in "C. elegans ." The "mix-1" gene is known to hypoactivate the X chromosome and regulates the morphology of the male tail in "C. elegans." Looking at the nematode as a whole, the male and hermaphrodite sex likely evolved from parallel evolution. Parallel evolution is defined as similar traits evolving from an ancestor in similar conditions; simply put, the two species evolve in similar ways over time. An example of this would be marsupial and placental mammals. Scientists have also hypothesized that hermaphrodite asexual reproduction, or "selfing", could have evolved convergently by studying species similar to "C. elegans" Other studies on the sex determination evolution suggest that genes involving sperm evolve at the faster rate than female genes. However, sperm genes on the X chromosome have reduced evolution rates. Sperm genes have short coding sequences, high codon bias, and disproportionate representation among orphan genes. These characteristics of sperm genes may be the reason for their high rates of evolution and may also suggest how sperm genes evolved out of hermaphrodite worms. Overall, scientists have a general idea of the sex determination pathway in "C. elegans", however, the evolution of how this pathway came to be is not yet well defined.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Sperm entry into the oocyte commences formation of an anterior-posterior axis. The sperm microtubule organizing center directs the movement of the sperm pronucleus to the future posterior pole of the embryo, while also inciting the movement of PAR proteins, a group of cytoplasmic determination factors, to their proper respective locations. As a result of the difference in PAR protein distribution, the first cell division is highly asymmetric. "C. elegans" embryogenesis is among the best understood examples of asymmetric cell division.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: All cells of the germline arise from a single primordial germ cell, called the "P4" cell, established early in embryogenesis. This primordial cell divides to generate two germline precursors that do not divide further until after hatching.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The resulting daughter cells of the first cell division are called the AB cell (containing PAR-6 and PAR-3) and the P1 cell (containing PAR-1 and PAR-2). A second cell division produces the ABp and ABa cells from the AB cell, and the EMS and P2 cells from the P1 cell. This division establishes the dorsal-ventral axis, with the ABp cell forming the dorsal side and the EMS cell marking the ventral side. Through Wnt signaling, the P2 cell instructs the EMS cell to divide along the anterior-posterior axis. Through Notch signaling, the P2 cell differentially specifies the ABp and ABa cells, which further defines the dorsal-ventral axis. The left-right axis also becomes apparent early in embryogenesis, although it is unclear exactly when specifically the axis is determined. However, most theories of the L-R axis development involve some kind of differences in cells derived from the AB cell.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Gastrulation occurs after the embryo reaches the 24-cell stage. C. elegans are a species of protostomes, so the blastopore eventually forms the mouth. Involution into the blastopore begins with movement of the endoderm cells and subsequent formation of the gut, followed by the P4 germline precursor, and finally the mesoderm cells, including the cells that eventually form the pharynx. Gastrulation ends when epiboly of the hypoblasts closes the blastopore.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Under environmental conditions favourable for reproduction, hatched larvae develop through four larval stages - L1, L2, L3, and L4 - in just 3 days at 20 °C. When conditions are stressed, as in food insufficiency, excessive population density or high temperature, "C. elegans" can enter an alternative third larval stage, L2d, called the dauer stage ("Dauer" is German for permanent). A specific dauer pheromone regulates entry into the dauer state. This pheromone is composed of similar derivatives of the 3,6-dideoxy sugar, ascarylose. Ascarosides, named after the ascarylose base, are involved in many sex-specific and social behaviors. In this way, they constitute a chemical language that "C. elegans" uses to modulate various phenotypes. Dauer larvae are stress-resistant; they are thin and their mouths are sealed with a characteristic dauer cuticle and cannot take in food. They can remain in this stage for a few months. The stage ends when conditions improve favour further growth of the larva, now moulting into the L4 stage, even though the gonad development is arrested at the L2 stage.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Each stage transition is punctuated by a molt of the worm's transparent cuticle. Transitions through these stages are controlled by genes of the heterochronic pathway, an evolutionarily conserved set of regulatory factors. Many heterochronic genes code for microRNAs, which repress the expression of heterochronic transcription factors and other heterochronic miRNAs. miRNAs were originally discovered in "C. elegans." Important developmental events controlled by heterochronic genes include the division and eventual syncitial fusion of the hypodermic seam cells, and their subsequent secretion of the alae in young adults. It is believed that the heterochronic pathway represents an evolutionarily conserved predecessor to circadian clocks.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Some nematodes have a fixed, genetically determined number of cells, a phenomenon known as eutely. The adult "C. elegans" hermaphrodite has 959 somatic cells and the male has 1033 cells, although it has been suggested that the number of their intestinal cells can increase by one to three in response to gut microbes experienced by mothers. Much of the literature describes the cell number in males as 1031, but the discovery of a pair of left and right MCM neurons increased the number by two in 2015. The number of cells does not change after cell division ceases at the end of the larval period, and subsequent growth is due solely to an increase in the size of individual cells.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The different "Caenorhabditis" species occupy various nutrient- and bacteria-rich environments. They feed on the bacteria that develop in decaying organic matter (microbivory). Soil lacks enough organic matter to support self-sustaining populations. "C. elegans" can survive on a diet of a variety of bacteria, but its wild ecology is largely unknown. Most laboratory strains were taken from artificial environments such as gardens and compost piles. More recently, "C. elegans" has been found to thrive in other kinds of organic matter, particularly rotting fruit.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: <br>"C. elegans" can also use different species of yeast, including "Cryptococcus laurentii" and "C. kuetzingii", as sole sources of food. Although a bacterivore, "C. elegans" can be killed by a number of pathogenic bacteria, including human pathogens such as "Staphylococcus aureus", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Salmonella enterica" or "Enterococcus faecalis". Pathogenic bacteria can also form biofilms, whose sticky exopolymer matrix could impede "C. elegans" motility and cloaks bacterial quorum sensing chemoattractants from predator detection.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Invertebrates such as millipedes, insects, isopods, and gastropods can transport dauer larvae to various suitable locations. The larvae have also been seen to feed on their hosts when they die.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: <br>Nematodes can survive desiccation, and in "C. elegans", the mechanism for this capability has been demonstrated to be late embryogenesis abundant proteins.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: <br>"C. elegans", as other nematodes, can be eaten by predator nematodes and other omnivores, including some insects.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The Orsay virus is a virus that affects "C. elegans", as well as the Caenorhabditis elegans Cer1 virus and the Caenorhabditis elegans Cer13 virus.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Wild isolates of "Caenorhabditis elegans" are regularly found with infections by Microsporidia fungi. One such species, "Nematocida parisii", replicates in the intestines of "C. elegans".


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "Arthrobotrys oligospora" is the model organism for interactions between fungi and nematodes. It is the most common and widespread nematode capturing fungus.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: In 1963, Sydney Brenner proposed using "C. elegans" as a model organism for the investigation primarily of neural development in animals. It is one of the simplest organisms with a nervous system. The neurons do not fire action potentials, and do not express any voltage-gated sodium channels. In the hermaphrodite, this system comprises 302 neurons the pattern of which has been comprehensively mapped, in what is known as a connectome, and shown to be a small-world network.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Research has explored the neural and molecular mechanisms that control several behaviors of "C. elegans", including chemotaxis, thermotaxis, mechanotransduction, learning, memory, and mating behaviour. In 2019 the connectome of the male was published using a technique distinct from that used for the hermaphrodite. The same paper used the new technique to redo the hermaphrodite connectome, finding 1,500 new synapses.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Brenner also chose it as it is easy to grow in bulk populations, and convenient for genetic analysis. It is a multicellular eukaryotic organism, yet simple enough to be studied in great detail. The transparency of "C. elegans" facilitates the study of cellular differentiation and other developmental processes in the intact organism. The spicules in the male clearly distinguish males from females. Strains are cheap to breed and can be frozen. When subsequently thawed, they remain viable, allowing long-term storage. Maintenance is easy when compared to other multicellular model organisms. A few hundred nematodes can be kept on a single agar plate and suitable growth medium. Brenner described the use of a mutant of "E. coli" – OP50. OP50 is a uracil-requiring organism and its deficiency in the plate prevents the overgrowth of bacteria which would obscure the worms. The use of OP50 does not demand any major laboratory safety measures, since it is non-pathogenic and easily grown in Luria-Bertani (LB) media overnight.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The developmental fate of every single somatic cell (959 in the adult hermaphrodite; 1031 in the adult male) has been mapped. These patterns of cell lineage are largely invariant between individuals, whereas in mammals, cell development is more dependent on cellular cues from the embryo.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: As mentioned previously, the first cell divisions of early embryogenesis in "C. elegans" are among the best understood examples of asymmetric cell divisions, and the worm is a very popular model system for studying developmental biology.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Programmed cell death (apoptosis) eliminates many additional cells (131 in the hermaphrodite, most of which would otherwise become neurons); this "apoptotic predictability" has contributed to the elucidation of some apoptotic genes. Cell death-promoting genes and a single cell-death inhibitor have been identified.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: RNA interference (RNAi) is a relatively straightforward method of disrupting the function of specific genes. Silencing the function of a gene can sometimes allow a researcher to infer its possible function. The nematode can be soaked in, injected with, or fed with genetically transformed bacteria that express the double-stranded RNA of interest, the sequence of which complements the sequence of the gene that the researcher wishes to disable.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: RNAi has emerged as a powerful tool in the study of functional genomics. "C. elegans" has been used to analyse gene functions and claim the promise of future findings in the systematic genetic interactions.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Environmental RNAi uptake is much worse in other species of worms in the genus "Caenorhabditis". Although injecting RNA into the body cavity of the animal induces gene silencing in most species, only "C. elegans" and a few other distantly related nematodes can take up RNA from the bacteria they eat for RNAi. This ability has been mapped down to a single gene, "sid-2", which, when inserted as a transgene in other species, allows them to take up RNA for RNAi as "C. elegans" does.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Research into meiosis has been considerably simplified since every germ cell nucleus is at the same given position as it moves down the gonad, so is at the same stage in meiosis. In an early phase of meiosis, the oocytes become extremely resistant to radiation and this resistance depends on expression of genes "rad51" and "atm" that have key roles in recombinational repair. Gene "mre-11" also plays a crucial role in recombinational repair of DNA damage during meiosis. A study of the frequency of outcrossing in natural populations showed that selfing is the predominant mode of reproduction in "C. elegans", but that infrequent outcrossing events occur at a rate around 1%. Meioses that result in selfing are unlikely to contribute significantly to beneficial genetic variability, but these meioses may provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages that arise, especially under stressful conditions.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Nicotine dependence can also be studied using "C. elegans" because it exhibits behavioral responses to nicotine that parallel those of mammals. These responses include acute response, tolerance, withdrawal, and sensitization.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: As for most model organisms, scientists that work in the field curate a dedicated online database and the WormBase is that for "C. elegans". The WormBase attempts to collate all published information on "C. elegans" and other related nematodes. Their website has advertised a reward of $4000 for the finder of a new species of closely related nematode. Such a discovery would broaden research opportunities with the worm.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" has been a model organism for research into ageing; for example, the inhibition of an insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway has been shown to increase adult lifespan threefold; while glucose feeding promotes oxidative stress and reduce adult lifespan by a half. Similarly, induced degradation of an insulin/IGF-1 receptor late in life extended life expectancy of worms dramatically.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Long-lived mutants of "C. elegans" were demonstrated to be resistant to oxidative stress and UV light. These long-lived mutants had a higher DNA repair capability than wild-type "C. elegans". Knockdown of the nucleotide excision repair gene Xpa-1 increased sensitivity to UV and reduced the life span of the long-lived mutants. These findings indicate that DNA repair capability underlies longevity.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" exposed to 5mM lithium chloride (LiCl) showed lengthened life spans. When exposed to 10μM LiCl, reduced mortality was observed, but not with 1μM.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" has been instrumental in the identification of the functions of genes implicated in Alzheimer's disease, such as presenilin. Moreover, extensive research on "C. elegans" has identified RNA-binding proteins as essential factors during germline and early embryonic development.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Telomeres, the length of which have been shown to correlate with increased lifespan and delayed onset of senescence in a multitude of organisms, from "C. elegans" to humans, show an interesting behaviour in "C. elegans." While "C. elegans" maintains its telomeres in a canonical way similar to other eukaryotes, in contrast "Drosophila melanogaster" is noteworthy in its use of retrotransposons to maintain its telomeres, during knock-out of the catalytic subunit of the telomerase ("trt-1") "C. elegans" can gain the ability of alternative telomere lengthening (ALT). "C. elegans" was the first eukaryote to gain ALT functionality after knock-out of the canonical telomerase pathway. ALT is also observed in about 10-15% of all clinical cancers. Thus "C. elegans" is a prime candidate for ALT research. Bayat et al. showed the paradoxical shortening of telomeres during "trt-1" over-expression which lead to near sterility while the worms even exhibited a slight increase in lifespan, despite shortened telomeres.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" is notable in animal sleep studies as the most primitive organism to display sleep-like states. In "C. elegans", a lethargus phase occurs shortly before each moult. "C. elegans" has also been demonstrated to sleep after exposure to physical stress, including heat shock, UV radiation, and bacterial toxins.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: While the worm has no eyes, it has been found to be sensitive to light due to a third type of light-sensitive animal photoreceptor protein, LITE-1, which is 10 to 100 times more efficient at absorbing light than the other two types of photopigments (opsins and cryptochromes) found in the animal kingdom.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" is remarkably adept at tolerating acceleration. It can withstand 400,000 g's, according to geneticists at the University of São Paulo in Brazil. In an experiment, 96% of them were still alive without adverse effects after an hour in an ultracentrifuge.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" made news when specimens were discovered to have survived the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster in February 2003. Later, in January 2009, live samples of "C. elegans" from the University of Nottingham were announced to be spending two weeks on the International Space Station that October, in a space research project to explore the effects of zero gravity on muscle development and physiology. The research was primarily about genetic basis of muscle atrophy, which relates to spaceflight or being bed-ridden, geriatric, or diabetic. Descendants of the worms aboard Columbia in 2003 were launched into space on "Endeavour" for the STS-134 mission. Additional experiments on muscle dystrophy during spaceflight will be carried on board of the ISS starting in December 2018.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: "C. elegans" was the first multicellular organism to have its whole genome sequenced. The sequence was published in 1998, although some small gaps were present; the last gap was finished by October 2002. In the run up to the whole genome the "C. elegans" Sequencing Consortium/"C. elegans" Genome Project released several partial scans including Wilson et al. 1994.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The "C. elegans" genome is about 100 million base pairs long and consists of six pairs of chromosomes in hermaphrodites or five pairs of autosomes with XO chromosome in male "C. elegans" and a mitochondrial genome. Its gene density is about one gene per five kilo-base pairs. Introns make up 26% and intergenic regions 47% of the genome. Many genes are arranged in clusters and how many of these are operons is unclear. "C. elegans" and other nematodes are among the few eukaryotes currently known to have operons; these include trypanosomes, flatworms (notably the trematode "Schistosoma mansoni"), and a primitive chordate tunicate "Oikopleura dioica". Many more organisms are likely to be shown to have these operons.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The genome contains an estimated 20,470 protein-coding genes. About 35% of "C. elegans" genes have human homologs. Remarkably, human genes have been shown repeatedly to replace their "C. elegans" homologs when introduced into "C. elegans". Conversely, many "C. elegans" genes can function similarly to mammalian genes.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The number of known RNA genes in the genome has increased greatly due to the 2006 discovery of a new class called "21U-RNA" genes, and the genome is now believed to contain more than 16,000 RNA genes, up from as few as 1,300 in 2005.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Scientific curators continue to appraise the set of known genes; new gene models continue to be added and incorrect ones modified or removed.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The reference "C. elegans" genome sequence continues to change as new evidence reveals errors in the original sequencing. Most changes are minor, adding or removing only a few base pairs of DNA. For example, the WS202 release of WormBase (April 2009) added two base pairs to the genome sequence. Sometimes, more extensive changes are made as noted in the WS197 release of December 2008, which added a region of over 4,300 bp to the sequence.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: The "C. elegans" Genome Project's Wilson et al. 1994 found CelVav and a von Willebrand factor A domain and with Wilson et al. 1998 provides the first credible evidence for an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) homolog outside of vertebrates. 2


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: In 2003, the genome sequence of the related nematode "C. briggsae" was also determined, allowing researchers to study the comparative genomics of these two organisms. The genome sequences of more nematodes from the same genus e.g., "C. remanei", "C. japonica" and "C. brenneri" (named after Brenner), have also been studied using the shotgun sequencing technique. These sequences have now been completed.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: As of 2014, "C. elegans" is the most basal species in the 'Elegans' group (10 species) of the 'Elegans' supergroup (17 species) in phylogenetic studies. It forms a branch of its own distinct to any other species of the group.


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: In 2002, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz, and John Sulston for their work on the genetics of organ development and programmed cell death in "C. elegans". The 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello for their discovery of RNA interference in "C. elegans". In 2008, Martin Chalfie shared a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on green fluorescent protein; some of the research involved the use of "C. elegans".


title: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: Many scientists who research "C. elegans "closely connect to Sydney Brenner, with whom almost all research in this field began in the 1970s; they have worked as either a postdoctoral or a postgraduate researcher in Brenner's lab or in the lab of someone who previously worked with Brenner. Most who worked in his lab later established their own worm research labs, thereby creating a fairly well-documented "lineage" of "C. elegans" scientists, which was recorded into the WormBase database in some detail at the 2003 International Worm Meeting.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: The sixth and final season of the American sitcom "Superstore" was ordered on February 11, 2020, and premiered the same year on NBC on October 29. Created by Justin Spitzer, the series continues to follow a group of employees working at Cloud 9, a fictional big-box store in St. Louis, Missouri. The ensemble and supporting cast features America Ferrera, Ben Feldman, Lauren Ash, Colton Dunn, Nico Santos, Nichole Sakura, Kaliko Kauahi, and Mark McKinney.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: Production for the season began in September 2020 in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. As a test for Universal Television, it was decided that "Superstore" would create episodes set during the pandemic. In December 2020, it was announced by NBC that the season would serve as the show's last. After filming concluded in February 2021, it was revealed that Ferrera, who had left after the first two episodes, would return for the series finale.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: For the first five episodes, the season aired on Thursdays at 8:00pm (Eastern), before airing at 8:30pm beginning with episode 6. The season featured the 100th episode of the series and concluded on March 25, 2021, with a one-hour series finale. "Essential", the season premiere, brought in 2.80 million viewers, while "All Sales Final", the series finale, was viewed by 2.41 million people. Overall, the season received positive reviews from critics, who praised the humor and conclusion of the series.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: "Superstore" was renewed for a sixth season on February 11, 2020, with the intention of airing during the 2020–21 United States network television schedule. On February 28, it was announced that series star America Ferrera would depart at the end of the fifth season citing new work opportunities. After production delays to the fifth season's final episode due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Ferrera's role was extended; she was included in the first two episodes of the sixth season to wrap up her character's storyline. In November, it was reported that Kelly Stables would return in the seventh episode to portray Jonah's ex-girlfriend Kelly. Prior to the episode's release, the plot for her return was kept under wraps. Production for the sixth season began in September 2020 with full safety protocols in place amid the pandemic.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: During production, multiple showrunners, writers, and lead actors questioned whether it was the right choice to make a season about the COVID-19 pandemic. In March 2020, it was decided that the topic had to be mentioned due to the show's characters being essential workers, with "Superstore" serving as a "guinea pig" for Universal Television, producers of the series, to test the idea. This resulted in the creation of a "time jump" in the premiere episode set around various events during the pandemic. Furthermore, writers on the show decided to feature face masks as a key element for the season. However, this resulted in problems with "every single department" during production, causing producer Ben Feldman and actress Lauren Ash to have a session "to test every kind of mask". At one point, face shields were considered but were rejected due to reflections that appeared on cameras. After watching a rough cut of episode 4, writer Owen Ellickson said that the presence of masks felt "brutal" to watch onscreen.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: After filming nine episodes by November 25, the show's crew was informed that the sixth season would be the last for "Superstore", with the official announcement being released on December 3, 2020. After being in production for several months, the table read for the final episode occurred over Zoom on February 19, 2021, and filming concluded later in the week on February 28; the final scene shot for the series involved the main characters watching their job interviews, and the crew put together a compilation video of highlights and outtakes in lieu of a traditional wrap party. Soon after, NBC revealed that "Superstore" would conclude on March 25, 2021, with a one-hour series finale, and that Ferrera would return in the final episode. On the decision to bring Ferrera back to the series, "Superstore" creator Justin Spitzer told "Deadline Hollywood" that "It was the first question we asked ourselves. As soon as we were told that the show was ending, we called her [...] and she was immediately on board. It just felt the series finale would not have felt like the end without her. We knew we wanted her to come back to the end of this."


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: Following its renewal, on September 24, 2020, NBC announced that the sixth season of "Superstore" would begin airing on October 29, 2020, a change from its original scheduled October 22 premiere. Furthermore, its first five episodes aired on Thursdays at 8:00pm (Eastern), before airing at 8:30pm from the sixth episode on January 14, 2021.


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the sixth season of "Superstore" holds an approval rating of 92% based on 12 reviews, with an average rating of 9.75/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "As funny and poignant as ever, "Superstore" closes up shop with a superb sixth season that solidifies its place as one of TVs greatest workplace comedies."


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: In "Entertainment Weekly", Darren Franich said that the season premiere was "instant history with big laughs", as it covered major events that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic in a humorous way, and called it "a high for the series." Writing for "The Verge", Joshua Rivera also complimented the episode, and the start of the season, for being able to tackle the pandemic in a humorous way. From "Slate", Rebecca Onion simply called the premiere a "time capsule of pandemic humor", while "The Sydney Morning Herald" Brad Newsome described the sixth season of "Superstore" as a "challenging comedy that's still clever enough to raise a chuckle".


title: Superstore (season 6)

text: Further reviews after the conclusion of the series with the airing of its one-hour finale were also positive. Ben Travers, from "IndieWire", wrote that the series as a whole was not "short on ideas", comparing it the overall premise of "The Office". Writing for "The A.V. Club", Saloni Gajjar stated that the series finale was able to provide "sweet closure" along with "some hopeful happy endings for all its central characters". Lauding the season and the show as a whole for its characters, Kelly Lawler from "USA Today" said "Superstore" was unsuccessful in gaining popularity among shows such as "Parks and Recreation" and "Community", writing that "We probably won't miss the store, but we'll miss its employees dearly." "Vulture" journalist Kovie Biakolo praised the series for its representation of the working class without reducing their characters to simply those traits, summarizing the season as being able to "exhibit a genuine picture of working-class life: wide-ranging, nuanced, and always meeting at a myriad of intersections."


title: Satisfactory

text: Satisfactory is a factory simulation game created by Swedish video game developer Coffee Stain Studios. It is a 3D first-person open world exploration and factory building game. The player, a pioneer, is dropped onto an alien planet with a handful of tools and must harvest the planet's natural resources to construct increasingly complex factories for automating all resource needs. The initial goal is to build a space elevator and begin supplying the company the player works for (FICSIT Inc.) with increasingly numerous and complex components for their unknown purposes. Those exports unlock new buildings that make the next export possible.


title: Satisfactory

text: "Satisfactory" was made available for early access on 19 March 2019 on the Epic Games Store, and 8 June 2020 on Steam, with cross-platform multiplayer. The factory building aspect of the game has been described as a first-person and 3D version of "Factorio". Unlike most other sandbox games like "Factorio", the "Satisfactory" world is pre-generated; every player's map is identical. The game is set on an alien planet named "Massage-2(A-B)b" and the playable area is limited to 30 km.


title: Satisfactory

text: The player takes the role of an engineer who has been sent to the planet with orders to "colonize" it by building a factory complex for FICSIT. The player has a choice of four starting locations: the Grasslands, the Rocky Desert, the Dune Desert, or the Northern Forest. This choice affects the resources the player has access to in the early game and the amount of flat land available for easy building. However, the player can move to any other part of the map at any time. After landing, the player must salvage the landing pod for parts with which to construct the Hub, the main location from which most other construction will extend.


title: Satisfactory

text: During a brief tutorial, the player learns how to mine and process basic ores such as iron and copper. With these materials, it is possible to construct a simple factory and to begin exploring the "Tier" system. As of May 2021, there are eight such tiers in the game, each of which grants access to increasingly complex and sophisticated materials and equipment. Tiers one and two are unlocked after completing the tutorial; subsequent tiers are unlocked by delivering certain parts to the Space Elevator.


title: Satisfactory

text: As the player unlocks new equipment, it becomes possible to automate more complicated tasks. The ultimate goals of the game are to build a fully automated factory that can manufacture any item without requiring the player's manual intervention and to deliver all required project parts to the Space Elevator. Higher-level machinery requires more power, so the player must research and build power systems including coal and fuel generators, and eventually nuclear power plants.


title: Satisfactory

text: Exploration and combat are secondary gameplay elements. The player must fight hostile alien life forms and conquer hazardous environments in order to find valuable resources in the wilderness. A limited number of weapons and vehicles are available to make exploration easier.


title: Satisfactory

text: Within three months of its early-access release, over 500,000 copies had been sold. By July 2020, more than 1.3 million copies had been sold. Based on data collected by Simon Carless in mid-2021, "Satisfactory" had made at least in revenue, surpassing the amount that Epic Games had assured as a minimum payout to Coffee Stain.


title: Causeway

text: A causeway is a track, road or railway on the upper point of an embankment across "a low, or wet place, or piece of water". It can be constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. One of the earliest known wooden causeways is the Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels, England, which dates from the Neolithic age. Timber causeways may also be described as both boardwalks and bridges.


title: Causeway

text: When first used, the word "causeway" appeared in a form such as "causey way" making clear its derivation from the earlier form "causey". This word seems to have come from the same source by two different routes. It derives ultimately, from the Latin for heel, "calx", and most likely comes from the trampling technique to consolidate earthworks.


title: Causeway

text: Originally, the construction of a causeway utilised earth that had been trodden upon to compact and harden it as much as possible, one layer at a time, often by enslaved bodies or flocks of sheep. Today, this work is done by machines. The same technique would have been used for road embankments, raised river banks, sea banks and fortification earthworks.


title: Causeway

text: The second derivation route is simply the hard, trodden surface of a path. The name by this route came to be applied to any firmly-surfaced road. It is now little-used except in dialect and in the names of roads which were originally notable for their solidly-made surface. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states "causey, a mound or dam, which is derived, through the Norman-French "caucie" (cf. modern "chaussée"), from the late Latin "via calciata", a road stamped firm with the feet ("calcare", to tread)."


title: Causeway

text: The word is comparable in both meanings with the French "", from a form of which it reached English by way of Norman French. The French adjective, "chaussée", carries the meaning of having been given a hardened surface, and is used to mean either paved or shod. As a noun "chaussée" is used on the one hand for a metalled carriageway, and on the other for an embankment with or without a road.


title: Causeway

text: Other languages have a noun with similar dual meaning. In Welsh, it is "sarn". The Welsh is relevant here, as it also has a verb, "sarnu", meaning to trample. The trampling and ramming technique for consolidating earthworks was used in fortifications and there is a comparable, outmoded form of wall construction technique, used in such work and known as pisé, a word derived not from trampling but from ramming or tamping. The Welsh word "cawsai" translates directly to the English word 'causeway'; it is possible that, with Welsh being a lineal linguistic descendant of the original native British tongues, the English word derives from the Welsh.


title: Causeway

text: A transport corridor that is carried instead on a series of arches, perhaps approaching a bridge, is a viaduct; a short stretch of viaduct is called an overpass. The distinction between the terms "causeway" and "viaduct" becomes blurred when flood-relief culverts are incorporated, though generally a causeway refers to a roadway supported mostly by earth or stone, while a bridge supports a roadway between piers (which may be embedded in embankments). Some low causeways across shore waters become inaccessible when covered at high tide.


title: Causeway

text: The Aztec city-state of Tenochtitlan had causeways supporting roads and aqueducts. One of the oldest engineered roads yet discovered is the Sweet Track in England. Built in 3807 or 3806 BC, the track was a walkway consisting mainly of planks of oak laid end-to-end, supported by crossed pegs of ash, oak, and lime, driven into the underlying peat.


title: Causeway

text: In East Africa, the Husuni Kubwa (the "Great Fort"), situated outside the town of Kilwa, was an early 14th-century sultan's palace and emporium that contained causeways and platforms at the entrance of the Harbour made from blocks of reef and coral nearly a meter high. These acted as breakwaters, allowing mangroves to grow which is one of the ways the breakwater can be spotted from a distance. Some parts of the causeway are made from the bedrock, but usually the bedrock was used as a base. Coral stone was also used to build up the causeways, with sand and lime being used to cement the cobbles together. However, some of the stones were left loose.


title: Causeway

text: In the 18th century, Dahomey lacked an effective navy hence it built causeways for naval purposes starting in 1774.


title: Causeway

text: The modern embankment may be constructed within a "cofferdam": two parallel steel sheet pile or concrete retaining walls, anchored to each other with steel cables or rods. This construction may also serve as a dyke that keeps two bodies of water apart, such as bodies with a different water level on each side, or with salt water on one side and fresh water on the other. This may also be the primary purpose of a structure, the road providing a hardened crest for the dike, slowing erosion in the event of an overflow. It also provides access for maintenance as well perhaps, as a public service.


title: Causeway

text: Notable causeways include those that connect Singapore and Malaysia (the Johor-Singapore Causeway), Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (25-km long King Fahd Causeway) and Venice to the mainland, all of which carry roadways and railways. In the Netherlands there are a number of prominent dikes which also double as causeways, including the Afsluitdijk, Brouwersdam, and Markerwaarddijk. In the Republic of Panama a causeway connects the islands of Perico, Flamenco, and Naos to Panama City on the mainland. It also serves as a breakwater for ships entering the Panama Canal.


title: Causeway

text: Causeways are also common in Florida, where low bridges may connect several man-made islands, often with a much higher bridge (or part of a single bridge) in the middle so that taller boats may pass underneath safely. Causeways are most often used to connect the barrier islands with the mainland. In the case of the Courtney Campbell Causeway, however, the mainland (Hillsborough County) is connected by a causeway to a peninsula (Pinellas County).


title: Causeway

text: The Churchill Barriers in Orkney are some of the most notable sets of causeways in Europe. Constructed in waters up to 18 metres deep, the four barriers link five islands on the eastern side of the natural harbour at Scapa Flow. They were built during World War II as military defences for the harbour, on the orders of Winston Churchill.


title: Causeway

text: The Estrada do Istmo connecting the islands of Taipa and Coloane in Macau was initially built as a causeway. The sea on both sides of the causeway then became shallower as a result of silting, and mangroves began to conquer the area. Later, land reclamation took place on both sides of the road and the area has subsequently been named Cotai and become home to several casino complexes.


title: Causeway

text: Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach erosion or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the Hindenburgdamm in northern Germany. Unlike tunnels or bridges, causeways do not permit shipping through the strait which can cause problems. In some cases, causeways were built with "gates" or other facilities to permit shipping to pass through. During hurricane seasons, the winds and rains of approaching tropical storms—as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize traffic jams on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself), emergency evacuation of island residents is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Noel Paul Stookey (born December 30, 1937) is an American singer-songwriter who was famous for being in the 1960s folk trio Peter, Paul and Mary; however, he has been known by his first name, Noel, throughout his life. Nowadays, he continues to work as a singer and an activist, performing as a solo artist, and occasionally with then-bandmate Peter Yarrow.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Stookey was born in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. His family moved to Birmingham, Michigan, when he was 12 years old, and he graduated from Birmingham High School (now Seaholm High School) in 1955.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Stookey is an alumnus of Michigan State University (MSU) in East Lansing, Michigan. While attending MSU, he joined Delta Upsilon fraternity. Though he credits a deep spiritual core for his work, Stookey "dispelled reports that he was born a Buddhist, saying his mother was a Roman Catholic and his dad was an ex-Mormon" and recalling the family's "eclectic attendance at church. I had no real spiritual sense until I was 30.'"


title: Paul Stookey

text: Stookey married Elizabeth "Betty" Bannard in 1963 and they have three daughters. After raising their family in Blue Hill, Maine, the couple lived for several years in Massachusetts while Betty served as the Northfield Mount Hermon School chaplain, and in 2005, they returned to Maine. Stookey originally recorded his solo albums in his private studio—a converted four-story henhouse—on his Maine property. This studio, known as "The Henhouse", was also the origin point of the first broadcasts of WERU upon that station's inception in 1988.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Performing as "Paul" in the Peter, Paul and Mary trio, he participated in one of the best-known ensembles of the 1960s phase of the American folk music revival, and included some of his solo songs and extended monologues in their performances and recordings.


title: Paul Stookey

text: One of Stookey's songs, "Norman Normal", which appeared on "The Peter, Paul and Mary Album" (1966), inspired a Warner Bros. animated cartoon also titled "Norman Normal" (1968). Stookey co-wrote the story for the cartoon and voiced several of the characters.


title: Paul Stookey

text: In addition to his recordings with the trio, he released a number of solo works, several albums with the ensemble Bodyworks, and some anthologies. He was an important artist in the young Jesus music movement, which would later bloom into the Christian music industry, although his generally liberal political views distinguish him from many such artists.


title: Paul Stookey

text: In 1986, Stookey teamed up with Jim Newton, Paul G. Hill, and Denny Bouchard at Celebration Shop in Texas. The company, now known as Hugworks, uses original musical compositions as music therapy to address the special needs of children. The company has produced three award-winning children's CDs used in hospitals, medical camps and homes across the country.


title: Paul Stookey

text: During 1971 and 1972 Warner released an eponymous debut solo album by each member of the group. Each of these had similarly styled cover art. Stookey's album, titled "Paul, and", was the highest charting of the three. It reached #42 on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States in September 1971.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Stookey's best-known composition "The Wedding Song (There Is Love)" was included on his debut solo album. The song was also released as a single which charted in the Billboard Hot 100 at #24. The song remains popular for performance during wedding services. He wrote the song as a wedding gift for Peter Yarrow, and refused to perform it for the public until Yarrow requested it at a concert where his wife was present. Stookey assigned the copyright of this song to the Public Domain Foundation, a nonprofit 501(c)3 that facilitates the creation and impact of music for social change (M4SC). Generating over $1.5 million for charity worldwide, PDF has facilitated the creation of M4SC through its Music to Life (M2L) contest and other educational, entertainment and outreach activities, bringing together the global community, communicating how activism through music is alive and possible.


title: Paul Stookey

text: Paul performed as a member of Peter, Paul and Mary until the death of Mary in September 2009. His work after Peter, Paul and Mary has emphasized his Christian faith, family life and social concerns. He remains active in the music industry, performing as a solo act, and also performing occasionally with Peter Yarrow.


title: Paul Stookey

text: In 2000 Noel and his daughter, Elizabeth Stookey Sunde, founded the nonprofit Music to Life, which builds on the strong historical legacy of social movements' intentional use of music to educate, recruit, and mobilize. M2L revitalizes music to meet the challenges of the modern world and revolutionize the role activist artists can play in accelerating social change. Music to Life understands the complexity of contemporary causes and the diversity of musical genres. They blend this knowledge with multimedia technologies and programming techniques to develop unique musical experiences that amplify an organization's message, spark engagement with a cause, and empower activist artists to stand on the front lines of social change.


title: Paul Stookey

text: In January 2011, centered on Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Stookey participated in several events at Dartmouth College that celebrated King's life, including "Music for Social Change with Noel Paul Stookey and Company."


title: Paul Stookey

text: He also has production credits on albums by several lesser-known singer-songwriters, including Dave Mallett and Gordon Bok. He was the founder of the Neworld Multimedia record label.


title: Fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalism is a tendency among certain groups and individuals that is characterized by the application of a strict literal interpretation to scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, along with a strong belief in the importance of distinguishing one's ingroup and outgroup,


title: Fundamentalism

text: which leads to an emphasis on some conception of "purity", and a desire to return to a previous ideal from which advocates believe members have strayed. The term is usually used in the context of religion to indicate an unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs (the "fundamentals").


title: Fundamentalism

text: The term "fundamentalism" is generally regarded by scholars of religion as referring to a largely modern religious phenomenon which, while itself a reinterpretation of religion as defined by the parameters of modernism, reifies religion in reaction against modernist, liberal and ecumenical tendencies developing in religion and society in general that it perceives to be foreign to a particular religious tradition. Depending upon the context, the label "fundamentalism" can be a pejorative rather than a neutral characterization, similar to the ways that calling political perspectives "right-wing" or "left-wing" can have negative connotations.


title: Fundamentalism

text: Buddhist fundamentalism has targeted other religious and ethnic groups, as in Myanmar. A Buddhist-dominated country, Myanmar has seen tensions between Muslim minorities and the Buddhist majority, especially during the 2013 Burma anti-Muslim riots (possibly instigated by hardline groups such as the 969 Movement). as well as during actions which are associated with the Rohingya genocide (2016 onwards).


title: Fundamentalism

text: Buddhist fundamentalism also features in Sri Lanka. Buddhist-dominated Sri Lanka has seen recent tensions between Muslim minorities and the Buddhist majority, especially during the 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka and in the course of the 2018 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka, allegedly instigated by hardline groups such as the Bodu Bala Sena.


title: Fundamentalism

text: Historic and contemporary examples of Buddhist fundamentalism occur in each of the three main branches of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. In addition to the above examples of fundamentalism in Theravada-dominated societies, the reification of a minor protector deity, Dorje Shugden, by 19th-century Tibetan lama Pabongkhapa could be seen as an example of fundamentalism in the Vajrayana tradition. Dorje Shugden was a key tool in Pabongkhapa's persecution of the flourishing Rimé movement, an ecumenical movement which fused the teachings of the Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma, in response to the dominance of the Gelug school. Non-Gelug, especially Nyingma, monasteries were forced to convert to the Gelug position. Pabongkhapa feared a decline of Gelug monasteries, and induced a revival movement, which promoted the Gelug as the only pure tradition. He regarded the practice of non-Gelug teachings by Gelug monks as a threat to the Gelug tradition, and opposed the influence of the other schools, especially the Nyingma. He coupled Dorje Shugden to Gelug exclusivism, using it against other traditions, and against Gelugpas with eclectic tendencies. The main function of the deity was presented as "the protection of the Ge-luk tradition through violent means, even including the killing of its enemies."


title: Fundamentalism

text: In Japan, a prominent example has been the practice among some members of the Mahayana Nichiren sect of shakubuku – a method of proselytizing which involves the strident condemnation of other sects as deficient or evil.


title: Fundamentalism

text: George Marsden has defined Christian fundamentalism as the demand for strict adherence to certain theological doctrines, in opposition to Modernist theology. Its supporters originally coined the term in order to describe what they claimed were five specific classic theological beliefs of Christianity, and the coinage of the term led to the development of a Christian fundamentalist movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Fundamentalism as a movement arose in the United States, starting among conservative Presbyterian theologians at Princeton Theological Seminary in the late 19th century. It soon spread to conservatives among the Baptists and other denominations around 1910 to 1920. The movement's purpose was to reaffirm key theological tenets and defend them against the challenges of liberal theology and higher criticism.


title: Fundamentalism

text: The concept of "fundamentalism" has roots in the Niagara Bible Conferences which were held annually between 1878 and 1897. During those conferences, the tenets widely considered to be "fundamental" Christian belief were identified.


title: Fundamentalism

text: "Fundamentalism" was prefigured by "The Fundamentals: A Testimony To The Truth", a collection of twelve pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 by brothers Milton and Lyman Stewart. It is widely considered to be the foundation of modern Christian fundamentalism.


title: Fundamentalism

text: In 1910, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church identified what became known as the "five fundamentals":


title: Fundamentalism

text: In 1920, the word "fundamentalist" was first used in print by Curtis Lee Laws, editor of "The Watchman Examiner", a Baptist newspaper. Laws proposed that those Christians who were fighting for the fundamentals of the faith should be called "fundamentalists".


title: Fundamentalism

text: Theological conservatives who rallied around the five fundamentals came to be known as "fundamentalists". They rejected the existence of commonalities with theologically related religious traditions, such as the grouping of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism into one Abrahamic family of religions. By contrast, while Evangelical groups (such as the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association) typically agree with the "fundamentals" as they are expressed in "The Fundamentals", they are often willing to participate in events with religious groups that do not hold to the "essential" doctrines.


title: Fundamentalism

text: The existence of fundamentalism in Hinduism is a complex and contradictory phenomenon. While some would argue that certain aspects of Gaudiya Vaishnavism manifest fundamentalist tendencies, these tendencies are more clearly displayed in Hindutva, the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India today, and an increasingly powerful and influential voice within the religion. Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. According to Doniger, "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even caste – are subjects of debate, not dogma."


title: Fundamentalism

text: Some would argue that, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, a lack of theological 'fundamentals' means that a dogmatic 'religious fundamentalism' per se is hard to find. Others point to the recent rise of Hindu nationalism in India as evidence to the contrary. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it." In India, the term “dharma” is preferred, which is broader than the Western term “religion.”


title: Fundamentalism

text: Hence, certain scholars argue that Hinduism lacks dogma and thus a specific notion of "fundamentalism," while other scholars identify several politically active Hindu movements as part of a "Hindu fundamentalist family."


title: Fundamentalism

text: Fundamentalism within Islam goes back to the early history of Islam in the 7th century, to the time of the Kharijites. From their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Shia and Sunni Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to "takfir", whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death.


title: Fundamentalism

text: The Shia and Sunni religious conflicts since the 7th century created an opening for radical ideologues, such as Ali Shariati (1933–77), to merge social revolution with Islamic fundamentalism, as exemplified by the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Islamic fundamentalism has appeared in many countries; the Salafi-Wahhabi version is promoted worldwide and financed by Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Pakistan.


title: Fundamentalism

text: The Iran hostage crisis of 1979–80 marked a major turning point in the use of the term "fundamentalism". The media, in an attempt to explain the ideology of Ayatollah Khomeini and the Iranian Revolution to a Western audience described it as a "fundamentalist version of Islam" by way of analogy to the Christian fundamentalist movement in the U.S. Thus was born the term "Islamic fundamentalist", which became a common use of the term in following years.


title: Fundamentalism

text: Jewish fundamentalism has been used to characterize militant religious Zionism, and both Ashkenazi and Sephardic versions of Haredi Judaism. Ian S Lustik has characterized Jewish fundamentalism as "an ultranationalist, eschatologically based, irredentist ideology."


title: Fundamentalism

text: Political usage of the term "fundamentalism" has been criticized. It has been used by political groups to berate opponents, using the term flexibly depending on their political interests. According to Judith Nagata, a professor of Asia Research Institute in the National University of Singapore, "The Afghan "mujahiddin", locked in combat with the Soviet enemy in the 1980s, could be praised as 'freedom fighters' by their American backers at the time, while the present Taliban, viewed, among other things, as protectors of American enemy Osama bin Laden, are unequivocally 'fundamentalist'."


title: Fundamentalism

text: "Fundamentalist" has been used pejoratively to refer to philosophies perceived as literal-minded or carrying a pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, regardless of whether it is usually called a religion. For instance, the Archbishop of Wales has criticized "atheistic fundamentalism" broadly and said "Any kind of fundamentalism, be it Biblical, atheistic or Islamic, is dangerous". He also said, "the new fundamentalism of our age ... leads to the language of expulsion and exclusivity, of extremism and polarisation, and the claim that, because God is on our side, he is not on yours." He claimed it led to situations such as councils calling Christmas "Winterval", schools refusing to put on nativity plays and crosses being removed from chapels. Others have countered that some of these attacks on Christmas are urban legends, not all schools do nativity plays because they choose to perform other traditional plays like "A Christmas Carol" or "The Snow Queen" and, because of rising tensions between various religions, opening up public spaces to alternate displays rather than the Nativity scene is an attempt to keep government religion-neutral.


title: Fundamentalism

text: In "The New Inquisition", Robert Anton Wilson lampoons the members of skeptical organizations such as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal as fundamentalist materialists, alleging that they dogmatically dismiss any evidence that conflicts with materialism as hallucination or fraud.


title: Fundamentalism

text: In France, during a protestation march against the imposition of restrictions on the wearing of headscarves in state-run schools, a banner labeled the ban as "secular fundamentalism". In the United States, private or cultural intolerance of women wearing the hijab (Islamic headcovering) and political activism by Muslims also has been labeled "secular fundamentalism".


title: Fundamentalism

text: The term "fundamentalism" is sometimes applied to signify a counter-cultural fidelity to a principle or set of principles, as in the pejorative term "market fundamentalism", used to imply exaggerated religious-like faith in the ability of unfettered "laissez-faire" or free-market capitalist economic views or policies to solve economic and social problems. According to economist John Quiggin, the standard features of "economic fundamentalist rhetoric" are "dogmatic" assertions and the claim that anyone who holds contrary views is not a real economist. Retired professor in religious studies Roderick Hindery lists positive qualities attributed to political, economic, or other forms of cultural fundamentalism, including "vitality, enthusiasm, willingness to back up words with actions, and the avoidance of facile compromise" as well as negative aspects such as psychological attitudes, occasionally elitist and pessimistic perspectives, and in some cases literalism.