title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Instead of being an original screenplay converted into a "Hellraiser" film, Tunnicliffe's idea for "Judgment" was intended as part of the series from its conception. He removed its "Hellraiser" elements after trying to meet with Dimension, who were uninterested in making another "Hellraiser" film immediately after "Revelations". Tunnicliffe showed "Judgment" to Mike Jay Regan, who enjoyed its premise and suggested the removal of Pinhead for a standalone project. He then attempted to make it as an independent film, but failed to find financial backers, leading to an unsuccessful Kickstarter campaign in 2013. Five years after being unable to direct "Revelations", Dimension (facing another rights-retention deadline) offered Tunnicliffe the job of writing and directing another "Hellraiser" film. Tunnicliffe pitched "Hellraiser: Judgment" to Dimension three times (being rejected each time), and wrote a script treatment for a more traditional "Hellraiser" film, "Enter Darkness", to demonstrate that he could come up with other ideas. The treatment's plot involved psychiatric hospital interns studying patients with shared experiences of the Lament Configuration, while the head doctor collates them to meet the Cenobites himself. The studio approved it, but Tunnicliffe insisted on making "Judgment". Dimension told him to write the script for "Judgment" with the proviso that if they disliked it, he would direct "Enter Darkness" without being paid. After reading it, they allowed Tunnicliffe to direct "Judgment" as part of the series after negotiating rewrites, notes, and suggested changes. Saying that "Judgment" "will have moments unlike any other [film] you have ever seen", he was inspired by the works of Hieronymus Bosch, Francis Bacon, David Cronenberg, David Lynch, David Fincher, and "Hellraiser" creator Clive Barker.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Tunnicliffe's original treatment began with a Christian missionary approaching a rundown house to spread the Gospel and being captured by the Auditor at the door. The film's next fifteen to twenty minutes would focus on the missionary's audit as he is processed (judged) by the Auditor, the Assessor, the Jury, the Surgeon, the Butcher, the Seamstress, and the Bone Collectors. Two days later, a police officer is captured by the Auditor when he searches for the missing missionary. Tunnicliffe wanted the scenes in hell to be more nightmarish than they were in the finished film. The Assessor chokes on the pages of the policeman's sins during the audit, leading the distraught Auditor to seek assistance from Pinhead. Pinhead gathers the Chatterer and the Female Cenobite to find out what went wrong. Flashbacks show several police investigations, misleading the audience into thinking the police officer is innocent. An angel confronts Pinhead, demanding the police officer's release. The officer leaves the house, returning to raid it with armed colleagues, but find it to be empty. Pinhead and the Auditor review the officer's sins, discover that he is not innocent, and confront the angel. The next day, the officer awakens to the Cenobites invading his home. The audience learns about his sins, and the next fifteen minutes of the film would involve the Cenobites capturing and tormenting him.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: "Judgment" was cast by a team led by casting director Chris Freihofer. Gary Tunnicliffe wanted Doug Bradley to reprise his role as Pinhead, the lead Cenobite; Bradley refused, criticizing Dimension Films for the quality of the "Hellraiser" sequels. Tunnicliffe pleaded with him, but Bradley again declined when he learned that he would have to sign a non-disclosure agreement to obtain the screenplay. In an interview with "Bloody-Disgusting", Bradley said he had not read the script and declined to comment on the film's quality, but he expressed chagrin that it was another rights-retention project. Paul T. Taylor was cast as Pinhead, and Tunnicliffe played the Auditor. Mike Jay Regan reprised his role as the Chatterer, and Heather Langenkamp would play a character in the film.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Taylor became involved when he received an email inviting him to screen test as the Auditor; after the test, he was asked to audition as Pinhead. The latter audition took place in Los Angeles, where Taylor thought he "nailed" his performance. Tunnicliffe allowed him to interpret the character, and he was given months to prepare before filming began. The preparation included smoking (unusual for Taylor), to give his voice a gravelly quality. He took late-night walks in high-crime neighborhoods near his home, which he described as "facing the fear". He said of his performance: "I have a vulnerability in my acting no matter what I do. It's just there... It's about the stillness. [Pinhead]'s already so terrifying that when he makes a move, it means something. He's very economical and when he speaks, he's so eloquent". Believing "Pinhead has to be British", the American actor used a British accent when in-character. For research, he visited a comic-book store to read "Hellraiser" comic books in which Pinhead appeared. Tunnicliffe detailed his reasons for selecting Taylor, saying he was prepared and open to listening, but also wanting to give his own interpretation: "I wanted a slightly different Pinhead for this new tale, there's a stillness, a dry resolve to this new version, coldness, sarcasm. I wanted a Pinhead with a regal sense of arrogance and boredom and Paul delivered".


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Filming took place over a three-week period in Oklahoma, on a relatively small budget of $350,000. Tunnicliffe and cinematographer Samuel Calvin prepared substantially beforehand to maximize shooting time, using a daily average of 30 to 35 complex camera and lighting set-ups. According to Tunnicliffe, all departments were enthusiastic about their work and a work day never exceeded thirteen hours. Filming locations included a derelict building, a bar, a luxury apartment building and penthouse suite, a church interior, a children's playground, alleys, and stages and sets built by the film's art department. Some actors had to be persuaded to arrive at certain shoots, partially because of the film's budget. Tunnicliffe said about filming: "I'm a great believer in really using the time on set. You only get up to twelve to thirteen hours a day, maximum, and I don't like going over time and over budget. I like to have a strong plan going in and the way I do that is that I act out the entire script with my D.P. [director of photography], we act out everybody's roles in every scene. We pick our angles based on that". Local residents contributed to the shoot by suggesting specific locations, and a car dealership loaned a van for the film. Taylor shot his scenes in an Oklahoma City studio, where a set for the "offices of hell" was built. The film was shot at the same time and place as "Children of the Corn: Runaway", also produced by Mike Leahy; "Judgment" actor John Gulager directed "Runaway". According to Leahy, "blood has been flowing here in Oklahoma City. These are two horror films that are going to be seen by a core audience". Another three weeks were devoted to editing, and the film's limited budget restricted the number of lengthy edits. This was followed by the implementation of color timing, sound, and music. The score was composed by Deron Johnson, who was influenced by Trent Reznor and the score of "Seven". Although Tunnicliffe's original cut had cues from Christopher Young's orchestral soundtrack from "Hellraiser" and "Hellbound", a more modern approach was adopted for budgetary reasons. The domains of hell inhabited by the Cenobites and the Stygian Inquisition were distinguished by color, with a blue palette used for the Cenobites' domain and a "piss" yellow applied to the Inquisition's.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Some of the film's sexual content and violence was deemed too extreme by the studio, and was removed. Tunnicliffe said: "I don't think people could stomach my original version. The studio certainly couldn't. I could have easily made the film ten to fifteen minutes longer with a more intense cut, but it would probably be TOO much. In the end, wiser heads prevailed". Among "Judgment" deleted content were a longer scene of Karl Watkins being skinned to death by the Inquisition's surgeon, and scenes involving the Cleaners. The original version of the sex scene between Sean and Alison Carter was more intense, with the camera cutting back and forth between Sean's view of his wife and visions of the Cenobites. Several false endings were conceived for the scene, including Sean's hallucination of Alison fellating him when he looks up after his orgasm to see David Carter smiling back at him. The nightmare scene in which Sean enters an alley and sees flashes of hell was originally longer and more graphic; at one point, he stumbles across Alison as part of a threesome behind a dumpster with two strange men in pig masks. Tunnicliffe wanted to use surreal imagery to convey that "Sean's world was being torn apart, undone by his experiences at the house within the hellish dimension". In "Judgment" original concept pitch, the Jury eats the Assessor's regurgitated pages (not sifting through them) before handing down its verdict on the Stygian Inquisition's captives.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: The makeup-effects team was led by Mike Regan and Mike Measimer. Taylor's portrayal of Pinhead was intended to be leaner and more serious than previous incarnations, lacking the earlier films' glib one-liners. This was incorporated into the makeup and costume design, with longer silver pins, deeper blade-slice cuts, solid black eyes and a more-visceral, sleeker wardrobe. The character's original attire was replaced with a ragged robe and butcher's skirt made of chain mail. His many tools and weapons were replaced by a streamlined skinning utensil. Some grid-like cuts were rearranged from his previous design, with one square removed from each side of his jaw and one added to the back of his head. The flesh exposed on his chest was made a rhombus in honor of Leviathan, the god worshiped by the Cenobites; a homage to the Eye of Agamotto symbolism from "Doctor Strange" lore was integrated into the costume. The Lament Configuration was also altered, built with bleached wood and copper etching. The self-inflicted lacerations on the Auditor's face were intended to be less patterned and more chaotic than that of the more-ordered Cenobites. The facial cuts' positions were borrowed from an unsolicited redesign for Pinhead created by Tunnicliffe for Pascal Laugier's cancelled "Hellraiser" remake. A blood-stained shirt and threadbare two-piece suit cover the cuts on the Auditor's body. Religious symbols, implicitly torn from the necks of the guilty, are on the bracelet of his right wrist. His black spectacles convey the impression of soulless eyes.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Tunnicliffe had to balance directing the film and overseeing the effects work. About the quality of the blood effects, he said: "I don't think it's so much the quantity of blood but more the nature of the effects, the content and the context. I think some of our blood gags are actually quite beautiful; when you see blood raining down on a naked girl with a skinned face at 300 frames per second you can't help but be mesmerized by the fluid dynamics". Taylor compared the simulated gore to that of the "Saw" series: "I think people are going to be fascinated with it and the things that are, what I would say, on the border of horror porn, there's some elements of that in it and that will please many "Hellraiser" fans and fans of just what contemporary horror can be these days where it's just a gross-out". He later clarified: "I think [the gore in the film] is done because of the style and aesthetics in a beautiful way. This is not masturbation, and let's just throw blood at the screen".


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Tunnicliffe sent pictures to the wardrobe department of what he wanted the characters to wear, and the department measured the actors. Costumes designed and built for the Cenobites were handled by Tunnicliffe's department. He chose to have certain characters nude because he thought it would look visually more interesting than designing cheap costumes. The costume department used a cast of Taylor's head to design a pin mask for him to wear as Pinhead, which covered his entire head except for his ears. Although he found the costume and makeup extremely uncomfortable, he integrated the discomfort into his performance as the sadomasochist. When he saw his reflection in the mirror in the Pinhead makeup, he said he instantly fell into the character's mindset. Taylor thought the makeup menacing enough that he had a minimalist approach to his performance, feeling that attempting to be conventionally frightening would be overacting.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: "Hellraiser: Judgment" was initially scheduled for a 2017 release. In his interview with "Dread Central", Tunnicliffe stated that marketing would be kept to a minimum, aside from the promotional images and casting news that had been released: "It seems to me that any images or fodder given out in good faith are kinda twisted aroundusually to the negativeso the best response really is the film itself". Harvey Weinstein is said to be too embarrassed in promoting "Judgment", thus credited to delaying the film's release.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Taylor gave a possible explanation in October for the delay, saying the film may not have finished post-production: "I have a reliable source who just informed me that "Hellraiser: Judgment" has been on a shelf for a while, unfinished. But now that Harvey Weinstein is out of the picture, "Hellraiser: Judgment" has been taken off that shelf and is back in post-production". Taylor expanded on his reasoning in a later interview, stating the film might not have been released if not for the sexual abuse allegations against Weinstein, which financially compromised the studio.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: The film's trailer and release date were released on January 9, 2018. After nearly two years of silence from Dimension Films, Lionsgate Films picked up the distribution rights for "Hellraiser: Judgment" and "Children of the Corn: Runaway"; the former was released on digital and home media platforms on February 13. In the United States and Canada, the film made a total of US$426,290 in home media sales: US$83,599 on DVD and US$343,029 on Blu-ray.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: The film was compared favorably to the franchise's earlier sequels, with Brad Miska of "Bloody Disgusting" calling it "the most authentic "Hellraiser" since "Bloodline"". "Collider"'s Haleigh Foutch praised its attempt to expand its universe instead of copying what was previously done, but found its execution sloppy due to a low budget and "pedestrian" human drama. "Forbes" critic Luke Y. Thompson wrote that it integrated the earth and hell scenes more effectively than previous sequels and praised the additional mythology as "the best attempt since the early, more [Clive] Barker-infused theatrical films to deliver a coherent cosmology". He criticized the suggested retail price of the release, recommending it for "Hellraiser" fans. Although Miska found "Judgment" "sluggish", the presence of a purpose is a relief: "Everything comes full circle in the final moments, adding an entirely new dimension to the [...] franchise". He observed that the film is "solely for "Hellraiser" apologists".


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: There were critics who called it the worst of the franchise, with "The Irish Times"' Tara Brady becoming pessimistic over its future, and Scott Weinberg of "Thrillist" giving up on following the franchise, also noting that its reputation has decayed anyway, leaving "Judgment" little people to be purchased by. Those critical mainly slammed the acting (found to be bland in terms of speaking) and story, with "Birth.Movies.Death" writer Scott Wampler also disappointed by the lack of screentime for Pinhead, though anticipates a future Tunnicliffe film "with a decent budget, or less meddling from the rights holders". Andrew Gaudion of "FilmHounds" additionally called it a boring copy of the 1995 thriller "Seven" and "half baked when it comes to constructing its central gimmick". He, as well as "We Got This Covered's" Matt Donato, found the police procedural elements generic and cliche, with the latter opining that the gore and hell elements are inadequate; he called the film "one of the least realized, most throwaway" of the series.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: The film's special effects and surreal imagery received mixed reviews, with Foutch and Gaudion enjoying them, and "The Guardian"'s Felperin calling the former fake looking, though praised the production design; the latter was slammed by Weinberg. Although "IGN"'s William Bibbiani called the pacing "brisk", he noted the story is a faded carbon copy of other, better serial killer thrillers, and the new additions to the "Hellraiser" mythology rob the Cenobites of their deviant allure and otherworldly menace. "Birth.Movies.Death" writer Scott Wampler slammed the acting, story, and lack of screentime for Pinhead, calling the film a "mixed bag with the stuff I enjoyed ultimately outweighed by the stuff I did not"; however, "I can't help but be curious to see what Tunnicliffe might do with a decent budget, or less meddling from the rights holders". Steve Barton of "Dread Central" disagreed, stating that the acting and story is surprisingly good: "Pinhead is omnipresent, and Taylor delivers a worthy performance and is every bit as majestic as you'd hope he'd be".


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: "Judgment" expands on lore introduced in the earliest films, with Taylor calling it a jumping-off point for a sequel that tells a "true" "Hellraiser" script with an ambiguous ending. He said the characters in the film could be used in future installments and expressed an interest in returning as Pinhead, but stated he would also be content with a bigger-budgeted reboot starring Doug Bradley. Tunnicliffe had no particular idea for a sequel, spin-off, or follow-up of any kind when developing the film, but has since suggested a scenario where the Auditor helps Pinhead reclaim his status to overthrow an incompetent successor; a "battle of the Hell priests".


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: In May 2019, Spyglass Media Group began to develop a reboot of the series, with David S. Goyer serving as the writer and producer alongside Gary Barber, who described the project as an "evolved" reimagining of the original film. Spyglass vice president Chris Stone was involved to oversee the film's production. In April 2020, HBO finalized a deal with David Gordon Green to direct a "Hellraiser" television series, penned by Mark Verheiden and Michael Dougherty. The rights to the Stygian Inquisition remain with Tunnicliffe, who has expressed an interest in doing a novel or short story involving the Auditor or the Order of the Effluvium.


title: Hellraiser: Judgment

text: Bradley is open to returning to the Pinhead role, but only with the "right place, right time, right motives, right script... Since I turned down both movies, I knew other actors would get to play the part. I don't know about 'taking over': enjoying temporary ownership, maybe". He was interested in starring in a film version of the "Hellraiser" novel "The Scarlet Gospels", but is unaware of any plans for such a film.


title: Ai Kayano

text: Kayano wanted to work in a job that would involve "healing people", leading to initially take up a course at a vocational school. She worked in the beauty industry and became interested in acting, after watching "Aria". While attending school, Kayano continued working in the industry and paid for her tuition.


title: Ai Kayano

text: Kayano began working at Pro-Fit in 2010, starring in the original video animation "Princess Resurrection". She also voiced a number of background roles in the anime series "A Certain Magical Index II", playing Itsuwa. She voiced Meiko "Menma" Honma in "". Kayano, Haruka Tomatsu and Saori Hayami performed the series' ending theme "Secret Base – Kimi ga Kureta Mono (10 years after Ver.)", a cover of a song originally sung by the band Zone. For her role as Menma, she received the Best Newcomer Award at the 6th Seiyu Awards in 2012. Kayano played the role of Inori Yuzuriha in "Guilty Crown".


title: Ai Kayano

text: In 2012, she played Mayaka Ibara in "Hyouka"; Kayano and co-star Satomi Satō performed the series' ending themes and . She also played the roles of Mashiro Shiina in "The Pet Girl of Sakurasou", and Saori Takebe in "Girls und Panzer". She played several roles in 2013, including the roles of Ai Fuyuumi in "Oreshura", and Chisaki Hiradaira in "".


title: Ai Kayano

text: In 2014, Kayano played Shiro in "No Game No Life". She performed the series' ending theme "Oración". Later that year, she left Pro-Fit and became a freelancer. Kayano joined Office Osawa in 2015. Later that year, she played Megumi Sakura in "School-Live!", and Utaha Kasumigaoka in "". In 2016, she played the roles of Darkness in "KonoSuba", Chizuru Hishiro in "ReLIFE", and Rin Tōyama in "New Game!". In 2017, she played Kirie Sakurame in "UQ Holder". She also played Shuvi in "No Game No Life: Zero".


title: Ai Kayano

text: In 2016, Kayano hosted a show titled at Animate Times' YouTube channel. The show focuses on her looking through into various types of sake. The title of show is also a combination of her surname Kayano and the Japanese word for "drink", which is .


title: Ai Kayano

text: In 2021, controversy arose on Chinese social media as a result of Kayano's post regarding her February 11 trip to the Yasukuni Shrine, a Shinto shrine often a subject of controversy which enshrines Japanese men, women, children, and soldiers who died in numerous wars involving Japan spanning between the Meiji and Showa eras, including 1,068 convicted war criminals that were sentenced to death by the International Military Tribunal; of which 14 of them, including former Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, are labeled as A-Class criminals. In response, her voice was removed from six characters in the Chinese version of "Azur Lane". Similar action was also taken in other games such as the removal of Kayano's voice lines from "" and the Chinese version of "Arknights", which are respectively replaced her voice with that of Miku Itō and Mizuki Kitajima for all servers in 2021.


title: 4A Games

text: 4A Games Limited is a Ukrainian-Maltese video game developer based in Sliema, Malta. The company was founded in Kyiv, Ukraine, in 2006 by three developers who departed from GSC Game World. In 2014, 4A Games moved its headquarters to Sliema, wherein the Kyiv office was retained as a sub-studio. The company is best known for developing the "Metro" video game series.


title: 4A Games

text: 4A Games was founded by former developers from GSC Game World: Andrew Prokhorov, Oles Shyshkovtsov, and Alexander Maximchuk; they, together with Sergei Karmalsky, formed the core team of "", which was in development at GSC in the early and mid-2000s. Prokhorov had disliked that Sergiy Grygorovych, the chief executive officer (CEO) of GSC, prioritized money over his employees, withholding royalties for games the company had produced. The situation came to a high point when the two fell out over wages in 2006, leading Prokhorov and two of the company's lead programmers—Shyshkovtsov and Maximchuk—to leave the company and found a new studio, 4A Games, with the intention to treat its employees better than Grygorovych did.


title: 4A Games

text: The company's first game was "Metro 2033", an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Russian author Dmitry Glukhovsky that was announced in 2009. The game was released in March 2010 on the Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows to generally favorable reviews.


title: 4A Games

text: Following their initial success, 4A Games began work on the sequel, "", which was announced during the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo convention. The game faced several issues during its production, whose release date was delayed from 2012 to 2013. The most significant setback for the company occurred in January 2013, when the game's publisher, THQ, closed down after declaring bankruptcy and auctioning off its intellectual properties. The publishing rights to the "Metro 2033" franchise, including the sequel, were sold to Koch Media for $5.8 million on 22 January, allowing the company to finish making the game. "Metro: Last Light" was finally released on 14 May 2013, and was published by Koch Media's video game label, Deep Silver.


title: 4A Games

text: On 30 March 2014, a remastered re-release of both "Metro" titles, under the name "Metro Redux", was leaked, and confirmed the day after. The compilation was released in August 2014 for eighth-generation platforms. In 2017, the company released a virtual reality game, "Arktika.1".


title: 4A Games

text: During the 2017 E3 convention, at the Microsoft press conference on 11 June 2017, a new game, "Metro Exodus", was announced for a 2018 release. Gameplay was shown to both announce the game and act as a graphical showcase for Microsoft's native 4K-focused update to the Xbox One hardware, Xbox One X. The game was released in 2019.


title: 4A Games

text: On 12 May 2014, amidst the Ukrainian crisis and following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, 4A Games announced that they were to expand by opening a new studio in and moving their headquarters to Sliema, Malta to allow for easier operations inside the European Union, with the Kyiv studio continuing to operate for Eastern European operations.


title: 4A Games

text: The company was acquired by Saber Interactive under the Embracer Group for approximately in August 2020. The publisher of the "Metro" series, Deep Silver, was already a part of the Embracer Group via Koch Media, making the acquisition a sensible one for both groups.


title: 4A Games

text: In the wake of Russian forces threatening to attack Ukraine in February 2022, Saber Interactive stated that all employees at 4A's Kyiv studio can relocate to other Saber-owned companies abroad if they choose to. Like other Ukrainian video game studios, it became involved in the campaign to organize funds and support for Ukraine.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) is a hypothesis in financial economics that states that asset prices reflect all available information. A direct implication is that it is impossible to "beat the market" consistently on a risk-adjusted basis since market prices should only react to new information.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Because the EMH is formulated in terms of risk adjustment, it only makes testable predictions when coupled with a particular model of risk. As a result, research in financial economics since at least the 1990s has focused on market anomalies, that is, deviations from specific models of risk.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The idea that financial market returns are difficult to predict goes back to Bachelier, Mandelbrot, and Samuelson, but is closely associated with Eugene Fama, in part due to his influential 1970 review of the theoretical and empirical research. The EMH provides the basic logic for modern risk-based theories of asset prices, and frameworks such as consumption-based asset pricing and intermediary asset pricing can be thought of as the combination of a model of risk with the EMH.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Many decades of empirical research on return predictability has found mixed evidence. Research in the 1950s and 1960s often found a lack of predictability (e.g. Ball and Brown 1968; Fama, Fisher, Jensen, and Roll 1969), yet the 1980s-2000s saw an explosion of discovered return predictors (e.g. Rosenberg, Reid, and Lanstein 1985; Campbell and Shiller 1988; Jegadeesh and Titman 1993). Since the 2010s, studies have often found that return predictability has become more elusive, as predictability fails to work out-of-sample (Goyal and Welch 2008), or has been weakened by advances in trading technology and investor learning (Chordia, Subrahmanyam, and Tong 2014; McLean and Pontiff 2016; Martineau 2021).


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Suppose that a piece of information about the value of a stock (say, about a future merger) is widely available to investors. If the price of the stock does not already reflect that information, then investors can trade on it, thereby moving the price until the information is no longer useful for trading.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Note that this thought experiment does not necessarily imply that stock prices are unpredictable. For example, suppose that the piece of information in question says that a financial crisis is likely to come soon. Investors typically do not like to hold stocks during a financial crisis, and thus investors may sell stocks until the price drops enough so that the expected return compensates for this risk.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: How efficient markets are (and are not) linked to the random walk theory can be described through the fundamental theorem of asset pricing. This theorem provides mathematical predictions regarding the price of a stock, assuming that there is no arbitrage, that is, assuming that there is no risk-free way to trade profitably. Formally, if arbitrage is impossible, then the theorem predicts that the price of a stock is the discounted value of its future price and dividend:


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: where formula_2 is the expected value given information at time formula_3, formula_4 is the stochastic discount factor, and formula_5is the dividend the stock pays next period.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Note that this equation does not generally imply a random walk. However, if we assume the stochastic discount factor is constant and the time interval is short enough so that no dividend is being paid, we have


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Research by Alfred Cowles in the 1930s and 1940s suggested that professional investors were in general unable to outperform the market. During the 1930s-1950s empirical studies focused on time-series properties, and found that US stock prices and related financial series followed a random walk model in the short-term. While there is some predictability over the long-term, the extent to which this is due to rational time-varying risk premia as opposed to behavioral reasons is a subject of debate. In their seminal paper, Fama, Fisher, Jensen, and Roll (1969) propose the event study methodology and show that stock prices on average react before a stock split, but have no movement afterwards.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: In Fama's influential 1970 review paper, he categorized empirical tests of efficiency into "weak-form", "semi-strong-form", and "strong-form" tests.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: These categories of tests refer to the information set used in the statement "prices reflect all available information." Weak-form tests study the information contained in historical prices. Semi-strong form tests study information (beyond historical prices) which is publicly available. Strong-form tests regard private information.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Benoit Mandelbrot claimed the efficient markets theory was first proposed by the French mathematician Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The Theory of Speculation" describing how prices of commodities and stocks varied in markets. It has been speculated that Bachelier drew ideas from the random walk model of Jules Regnault, but Bachelier did not cite him, and Bachelier's thesis is now considered pioneering in the field of financial mathematics. It is commonly thought that Bachelier's work gained little attention and was forgotten for decades until it was rediscovered in the 1950s by Leonard Savage, and then become more popular after Bachelier's thesis was translated into English in 1964. But the work was never forgotten in the mathematical community, as Bachelier published a book in 1912 detailing his ideas, which was cited by mathematicians including Joseph L. Doob, William Feller and Andrey Kolmogorov. The book continued to be cited, but then starting in the 1960s the original thesis by Bachelier began to be cited more than his book when economists started citing Bachelier's work.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The concept of market efficiency had been anticipated at the beginning of the century in the dissertation submitted by Bachelier (1900) to the Sorbonne for his PhD in mathematics. In his opening paragraph, Bachelier recognizes that "past, present and even discounted future events are reflected in market price, but often show no apparent relation to price changes".


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The efficient markets theory was not popular until the 1960s when the advent of computers made it possible to compare calculations and prices of hundreds of stocks more quickly and effortlessly. In 1945, F.A. Hayek argued that markets were the most effective way of aggregating the pieces of information dispersed among individuals within a society. Given the ability to profit from private information, self-interested traders are motivated to acquire and act on their private information. In doing so, traders contribute to more and more efficient market prices. In the competitive limit, market prices reflect all available information and prices can only move in response to news. Thus there is a very close link between EMH and the random walk hypothesis.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The efficient-market hypothesis emerged as a prominent theory in the mid-1960s. Paul Samuelson had begun to circulate Bachelier's work among economists. In 1964 Bachelier's dissertation along with the empirical studies mentioned above were published in an anthology edited by Paul Cootner. In 1965, Eugene Fama published his dissertation arguing for the random walk hypothesis. Also, Samuelson published a proof showing that if the market is efficient, prices will exhibit random-walk behavior. This is often cited in support of the efficient-market theory, by the method of affirming the consequent, however in that same paper, Samuelson warns against such backward reasoning, saying "From a nonempirical base of axioms you never get empirical results." In 1970, Fama published a review of both the theory and the evidence for the hypothesis. The paper extended and refined the theory, included the definitions for three forms of financial market efficiency: weak, semi-strong and strong (see above).


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Investors, including the likes of Warren Buffett, George Soros, and researchers have disputed the efficient-market hypothesis both empirically and theoretically. Behavioral economists attribute the imperfections in financial markets to a combination of cognitive biases such as overconfidence, overreaction, representative bias, information bias, and various other predictable human errors in reasoning and information processing. These have been researched by psychologists such as Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky and Paul Slovic and economist Richard Thaler.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Empirical evidence has been mixed, but has generally not supported strong forms of the efficient-market hypothesis. According to Dreman and Berry, in a 1995 paper, low P/E (price-to-earnings) stocks have greater returns. In an earlier paper, Dreman also refuted the assertion by Ray Ball that these higher returns could be attributed to higher beta,; Dreman's research had been accepted by efficient market theorists as explaining the anomaly in neat accordance with modern portfolio theory.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Behavioral psychology approaches to stock market trading are among some of the more promising alternatives to EMH (investment strategies such as momentum trading seek to exploit exactly such inefficiencies). But Nobel Laureate co-founder of the programme Daniel Kahneman —announced his skepticism of investors beating the market: "They're just not going to do it. It's just not going to happen." Indeed, defenders of EMH maintain that Behavioral Finance strengthens the case for EMH in that it highlights biases in individuals and committees and not competitive markets. For example, one prominent finding in Behavioral Finance is that individuals employ hyperbolic discounting. It is demonstrably true that bonds, mortgages, annuities and other similar obligations subject to competitive market forces do not. Any manifestation of hyperbolic discounting in the pricing of these obligations would invite arbitrage thereby quickly eliminating any vestige of individual biases. Similarly, diversification, derivative securities and other hedging strategies assuage if not eliminate potential mispricings from the severe risk-intolerance (loss aversion) of individuals underscored by behavioral finance. On the other hand, economists, behavioral psychologists and mutual fund managers are drawn from the human population and are therefore subject to the biases that behavioralists showcase. By contrast, the price signals in markets are far less subject to individual biases highlighted by the Behavioral Finance programme. Richard Thaler has started a fund based on his research on cognitive biases. In a 2008 report he identified complexity and herd behavior as central to the global financial crisis of 2008.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Further empirical work has highlighted the impact transaction costs have on the concept of market efficiency, with much evidence suggesting that any anomalies pertaining to market inefficiencies are the result of a cost benefit analysis made by those willing to incur the cost of acquiring the valuable information in order to trade on it. Additionally, the concept of liquidity is a critical component to capturing "inefficiencies" in tests for abnormal returns. Any test of this proposition faces the joint hypothesis problem, where it is impossible to ever test for market efficiency, since to do so requires the use of a measuring stick against which abnormal returns are compared —one cannot know if the market is efficient if one does not know if a model correctly stipulates the required rate of return. Consequently, a situation arises where either the asset pricing model is incorrect or the market is inefficient, but one has no way of knowing which is the case.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The performance of stock markets is correlated with the amount of sunshine in the city where the main exchange is located.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: While event studies of stock splits are consistent with the EMH (Fama, Fisher, Jensen, and Roll, 1969), other empirical analyses have found problems with the efficient-market hypothesis. Early examples include the observation that small neglected stocks and stocks with high book-to-market (low price-to-book) ratios (value stocks) tended to achieve abnormally high returns relative to what could be explained by the CAPM. Further tests of portfolio efficiency by Gibbons, Ross and Shanken (1989) (GJR) led to rejections of the CAPM, although tests of efficiency inevitably run into the joint hypothesis problem (see Roll's critique).


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Following GJR's results and mounting empirical evidence of EMH anomalies, academics began to move away from the CAPM towards risk factor models such as the Fama-French 3 factor model. These risk factor models are not properly founded on economic theory (whereas CAPM is founded on Modern Portfolio Theory), but rather, constructed with long-short portfolios in response to the observed empirical EMH anomalies. For instance, the "small-minus-big" (SMB) factor in the FF3 factor model is simply a portfolio that holds long positions on small stocks and short positions on large stocks to mimic the risks small stocks face. These risk factors are said to represent some aspect or dimension of undiversifiable systematic risk which should be compensated with higher expected returns. Additional popular risk factors include the "HML" value factor (Fama and French, 1993); "MOM" momentum factor (Carhart, 1997); "ILLIQ" liquidity factors (Amihud et al. 2002). See also Robert Haugen.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Economists Matthew Bishop and Michael Green claim that full acceptance of the hypothesis goes against the thinking of Adam Smith and John Maynard Keynes, who both believed irrational behavior had a real impact on the markets.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Economist John Quiggin has claimed that "Bitcoin is perhaps the finest example of a pure bubble", and that it provides a conclusive refutation of EMH. While other assets that have been used as currency (such as gold, tobacco) have value or utility independent of people's willingness to accept them as payment, Quiggin argues that "in the case of Bitcoin there is no source of value whatsoever" and thus Bitcoin should be priced at zero or worthless.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Tshilidzi Marwala surmised that artificial intelligence (AI) influences the applicability of the efficient market hypothesis in that the greater amount of AI-based market participants, the more efficient the markets become.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Warren Buffett has also argued against EMH, most notably in his 1984 presentation "The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville". He says preponderance of value investors among the world's money managers with the highest rates of performance rebuts the claim of EMH proponents that luck is the reason some investors appear more successful than others. Nonetheless, Buffett has recommended index funds that aim to track average market returns for most investors. Buffett's business partner Charlie Munger has stated the EMH is "obviously roughly correct", in that a hypothetical average investor will tend towards average results "and it's quite hard for anybody to [consistently] beat the market by significant margins". However, Munger also believes "extreme" commitment to the EMH is "bonkers", as the theory's originators were seduced by an "intellectually consistent theory that allowed them to do pretty mathematics [yet] the fundamentals did not properly tie to reality."


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Burton Malkiel in his "A Random Walk Down Wall Street" (1973) argues that "the preponderance of statistical evidence" supports EMH, but admits there are enough "gremlins lurking about" in the data to prevent EMH from being conclusively proved.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: In his book "The Reformation in Economics", economist and financial analyst Philip Pilkington has argued that the EMH is actually a tautology masquerading as a theory. He argues that, taken at face value, the theory makes the banal claim that the average investor will not beat the market average—which is a tautology. When pressed on this point, Pinkington argues that EMH proponents will usually say that any "actual investor" will converge with the "average investor" given enough time and so no investor will beat the market average. But Pilkington points out that when proponents of the theory are presented with evidence that a small minority of investors do, in fact, beat the market over the long-run, these proponents then say that these investors were simply 'lucky'. Pilkington argues that introducing the idea that anyone who diverges from the theory is simply 'lucky' insulates the theory from falsification and so, drawing on the philosopher of science and critic of neoclassical economics Hans Albert, Pilkington argues that the theory falls back into being a tautology or a pseudoscientific construct.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul Samuelson argued that the stock market is "micro efficient" but not "macro efficient": the EMH is much better suited for individual stocks than it is for the aggregate stock market as a whole. Research based on regression and scatter diagrams, published in 2005, has strongly supported Samuelson's dictum.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Peter Lynch, a mutual fund manager at Fidelity Investments who consistently more than doubled market averages while managing the Magellan Fund, has argued that the EMH is contradictory to the random walk hypothesis—though both concepts are widely taught in business schools without seeming awareness of a contradiction. If asset prices are rational and based on all available data as the efficient market hypothesis proposes, then fluctuations in asset price are "not" random. But if the random walk hypothesis is valid, then asset prices are not rational.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: Joel Tillinghast, also a fund manager at Fidelity with a long history of outperforming a benchmark, has written that the core arguments of the EMH are "more true than not" and he accepts a "sloppy" version of the theory allowing for a margin of error. But he also contends the EMH is not completely accurate or accurate in all cases, given the recurrent existence of economic bubbles (when some assets are dramatically overpriced) and the fact that value investors (who focus on underpriced assets) have tended to outperform the broader market over long periods. Tillinghast also asserts that even staunch EMH proponents will admit weaknesses to the theory when assets are significantly over- or under-priced, such as double or half their value according to fundamental analysis.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: In a 2012 book, investor Jack Schwager argues the EMH is "right for the wrong reasons". He agrees it is "very difficult" to consistently beat average market returns, but contends it's not due to how information is distributed more or less instantly to all market participants. Information may be distributed more or less instantly, but Schwager proposes information may not be interpreted or applied in the same way by different people and skill may play a factor in how information is used. Schwager argues markets are difficult to beat because of the unpredictable and sometimes irrational behavior of humans who buy and sell assets in the stock market. Schwager also cites several instances of mispricing that he contends are impossible according to a strict or strong interpretation of the EMH.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The financial crisis of 2007–08 led to renewed scrutiny and criticism of the hypothesis. Market strategist Jeremy Grantham said the EMH was responsible for the current financial crisis, claiming that belief in the hypothesis caused financial leaders to have a "chronic underestimation of the dangers of asset bubbles breaking". Financial journalist Roger Lowenstein said "The upside of the current Great Recession is that it could drive a stake through the heart of the academic nostrum known as the efficient-market hypothesis." Former Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker said "It should be clear that among the causes of the recent financial crisis was an unjustified faith in rational expectations, market efficiencies, and the techniques of modern finance." One financial analyst said "By 2007–2009, you had to be a fanatic to believe in the literal truth of the EMH."


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: At the International Organization of Securities Commissions annual conference, held in June 2009, the hypothesis took center stage. Martin Wolf, the chief economics commentator for the "Financial Times", dismissed the hypothesis as being a useless way to examine how markets function in reality. Economist Paul McCulley said the hypothesis had not failed, but was "seriously flawed" in its neglect of human nature.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The financial crisis led economics scholar Richard Posner to back away from the hypothesis. Posner accused some of his Chicago School colleagues of being "asleep at the switch", saying that "the movement to deregulate the financial industry went too far by exaggerating the resilience—the self healing powers—of laissez-faire capitalism." Others, such as economist and Nobel laurete Eugene Fama, said that the hypothesis held up well during the crisis: "Stock prices typically decline prior to a recession and in a state of recession. This was a particularly severe recession. Prices started to decline in advance of when people recognized that it was a recession and then continued to decline. That was exactly what you would expect if markets are efficient." Despite this, Fama said that "poorly informed investors could theoretically lead the market astray" and that stock prices could become "somewhat irrational" as a result.


title: Efficient-market hypothesis

text: The theory of efficient markets has been practically applied in the field of Securities Class Action Litigation. Efficient market theory, in conjunction with "fraud-on-the-market theory", has been used in Securities Class Action Litigation to both justify and as mechanism for the calculation of damages. In the Supreme Court Case, Halliburton v. Erica P. John Fund, U.S. Supreme Court, No. 13-317, the use of efficient market theory in supporting securities class action litigation was affirmed. Supreme Court Justice Roberts wrote that "the court's ruling was consistent with the ruling in 'Basic' because it allows 'direct evidence when such evidence is available' instead of relying exclusively on the efficient markets theory."


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Peter Robbins (born Louis G. Nanasi; August 10, 1956 – January 18, 2022) was an American actor. He gained national fame in the 1960s as being the first actor to voice Charlie Brown in the "Peanuts" animated specials. He was one of the most famous child actors of the 60s.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Peter Robbins was born Louis G. Nanasi in Los Angeles, California, on August 10, 1956. Robbins was of Hungarian descent. He graduated from the University of California, San Diego in 1979. His sister was the actress Ahna Capri (Anna Marie Nanasi).


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Robbins first began acting in various films and television shows at the age of seven. As a child, he made a guest appearance as Elmer in the popular series "The Munsters". Most distinctly, at the age of nine, Robbins provided the voice of Charlie Brown, whom he considered to be his childhood hero, in one television documentary, six "Peanuts" television specials and one movie from 1963 to 1969, including the film "A Boy Named Charlie Brown" and the television specials "A Charlie Brown Christmas" and "It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown". At the age of fourteen, Robbins was replaced by younger child actors in the "Peanuts" specials produced after the 1960s, but his trademark scream of "AAUGH!", first used in "A Boy Named Charlie Brown" (1969), continued to be used in later specials for Charlie Brown and other "Peanuts" characters.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Robbins appeared in an episode of "F Troop" in 1966 entitled "The Sergeant and the Kid" and appeared in an episode of "Get Smart" as the mysterious Dr. T. He also appeared in the Sonny & Cher film, "Good Times". Robbins retired from the entertainment industry in 1972, and later pursued his career in real estate, with brief stints in radio. In 1996, he hosted a talk radio show in Palm Springs, California at KPSL 1010 Talk Radio. By 2006, according to a broadcast by National Public Radio, he was managing real estate in Van Nuys. By 2020, after finally receiving the correct medication for his lifetime bipolar disorder, Robbins was back, signing autographs of the Charlie Brown Christmas book in public appearances at Comic-Con conventions across the United States. Robbins explained the path which led to his recovery in an October 2019 television interview with Fox 5 San Diego reporter Phil Bauer. At the time of his death, Robbins was working on his autobiography, "Confessions of a Blockhead", detailing his life, his jail experiences, and his future.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Robbins had a lifelong battle with mental illness. Despite his personal struggles, he remained attached to Charlie Brown and even had a tattoo of Charlie Brown and Snoopy on his arm.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: On January 20, 2013, Robbins was arrested by San Diego County Sheriff's Department deputies at Homeland Security's Port of Entry in San Ysidro, California, while re-entering the United States, and charged with "four felony counts of making a threat to cause death or great bodily injury and one felony count of stalking." The four counts involved four victims, including a San Diego Police sergeant, whom Robbins reportedly threatened with bodily harm on January 13, 2013. He was held on $550,000 bond. On May 8, 2013, he was sentenced to a year in jail for threatening his former girlfriend and stalking her plastic surgeon, but he was allowed to log time in treatment instead. After release, he was sent to a residential drug treatment center.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: In 2015, Robbins was arrested for multiple probation violations, including drinking alcohol and failing to complete mandatory domestic violence classes. On June 5, 2015, he was ordered to undergo a mental health exam after an outburst during a court proceeding in San Diego.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: On December 7, 2015, Robbins was sentenced to four years and eight months in prison as part of a plea agreement for sending threatening letters to the manager (and the manager's wife) of the mobile home park in which he lived in Oceanside. Robbins had stated at previous hearings that he had bipolar disorder and paranoid schizophrenia. Robbins was incarcerated at the California Institution for Men in Chino and was transferred to a psychiatric hospital because of his mental state. He was released on parole in October 2019 after serving 80 percent of his sentence, on the conditions that he did not drink alcohol or take any illegal drugs.


title: Peter Robbins (actor)

text: Robbins died by suicide on January 18, 2022 at the age of 65. His death was announced the following week on January 25.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Kacy Esther Catanzaro (born January 14, 1990) is an American professional wrestler, gymnast and athletics-based television personality. She is currently signed with WWE on the NXT brand under the ring name Katana Chance. She is a current NXT Women's Tag Team Champion with Kayden Carter. She competed at the television sports show "American Ninja Warrior" and became the first woman to complete a City Qualifiers course and the first woman to complete a City Finals course. Since signing with WWE, she has competed in the 2018 Mae Young Classic and participated in the 2019 Royal Rumble match.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, Catanzaro grew up in nearby Belleville, where she attended Belleville High School. She is of Italian descent. She stands about 5 ft (1.524 m) tall and weighs . She began doing gymnastics at age 5. She attended Towson University in Towson, Maryland, from 2009 until 2012, studying early childhood education on an athletic scholarship.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Catanzaro was a Junior Olympic gymnast, having started training at age 6. She reached level 10 in 2007 and competed at the 2007 New Jersey Level 10 State Championships where she placed fifth in the Senior-A division. The following year Catanzaro competed at the 2008 New Jersey Level 10 State Championships where she placed third and advanced to the 2008 Junior Olympic National Championships. She finished 23rd overall but finished 6th on the balance beam.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Catanzaro competed in gymnastics for Towson in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. She made her debut in the 2009 season. Catanzaro helped the Towson Tigers gymnastics team win the Eastern College Athletic Conference Championships in 2009 and 2010. In her senior year she was named the Southeast Regional Gymnast of the Year in 2012. She was also named the 2012 Eastern College Athletic Conference Gymnast of the Year and was the top-ranked competitor in that conference for that year.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Catanzaro spent two years training for "American Ninja Warrior" alongside her then-boyfriend and co-competitor Brent Steffensen. She did not complete the qualifying course in Venice, California, but was an invited wildcard at the 2013 finals, where she fell early on the Giant cycle/ring.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In 2014, Catanzaro became the first woman to complete the qualifying course of "American Ninja Warrior" (season 6), making it up the warped wall on her second try at 5:26.18 at the Dallas qualifiers, ranking her 21 out of 30; this also makes her the first woman to make it up the warped wall in competition. Later in 2014, Catanzaro competed in the Dallas finals of "American Ninja Warrior". She was the first woman ever to complete a city finals course (and the second woman to attempt it after Jessie Graff in season 5), qualifying for the national finals in Las Vegas with a time of 8 minutes, 59 seconds. (Not until five years later, during the 2019 season, was her accomplishment of a woman completing a City Finals course matched.)


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Of the 2014 city finals run, host commentator Akbar Gbaja-Biamila remarked "I've seen greatness during my NFL career...And I've been in awe of people, but I am really in awe of Kacy". The run had been especially notable because due to her short stature, many of the obstacles looked difficult to manage and in one case, she had to leap between boards whereas other competitors could traverse them. Her achievement made her a social media phenomenon, with her run being viewed over 100 million times; supporters on Twitter coined the hashtag #MightyKacy.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Catanzaro failed to complete the first stage of the National Finals in Las Vegas. She made it past the first three obstacles, including the Giant Ring and the Silk Slider, before she fell attempting the Jumping Spider, where her full extension was simply too short to hold the position.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In the 2015 Houston Qualifying round (season 7), Catanzaro failed to complete the course after falling on the cargo crossing. She was given a wild card spot in Vegas and she failed due to a mistimed trampoline jump at the Propeller Bar at Stage 1 of the national finals. By this time the pressure she felt to live up to her broadcast reputation as "Ninja"'s greatest female competitor was reportedly showing and she was tearful in her post-run interview with Kristine Leahy.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In 2016, Catanzaro was invited to compete in the 32nd competition of the original Japanese version of ANW, "Sasuke". Catanzaro performed well, completing 8 of the stage 1 obstacles before timing out on the final obstacle, the Lumberjack Climb. Since the course's renewal and increased difficulty, Catanzaro set the record for the furthest a female athlete has gone and the closest a female athlete has gotten to completing stage 1 since the 2nd competition (until 2017 when Jessie Graff completed stage 1 and became the first woman ever to complete stage 2.)


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In the 2016 Oklahoma City Qualifying round (season 8), Catanzaro failed to complete the course after falling on an early obstacle, the Log Runner; however, she was again given a Wild Card spot in Las Vegas. In the Las Vegas National Finals, Stage 1, she fell on the second obstacle.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In December 2016 Catanzaro co-hosted as a broadcaster the "Team Ninja Warrior College Madness" series of shows.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In 2017, Catanzaro competed in "American Ninja Warrior" season 9 in the San Antonio city qualifier and finals. In the former she failed on the fourth obstacle, but did well enough to qualify for city finals under the show's new rules. In that latter run she had her best performance since 2014, making it past the Sky Hooks and the fifth obstacle to get the now-higher Warped Wall, which she failed to surmount. Nonetheless she qualified for the national finals. At the national finals, she failed on Stage 1 at the Double Dipper.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In 2017, Catanzaro announced her retirement from "American Ninja Warrior", with season 9 being her last.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: On January 4, 2017, Catanzaro received a tryout with WWE at their WWE Performance Center. It was announced on August 27 during the Mae Young Classic that Catanzaro had been signed to a contract with WWE. On January 18, 2018, WWE officially announced Catanzaro had reported to the WWE Performance Center. She made her in-ring debut at a NXT live event on April 19, in Sanford, Florida, in a losing effort to Reina González.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Catanzaro continued to make appearances during 2018, both in house shows and on NXT television; she wrestled as a face and took inspiration from WWE's Alexa Bliss's slogan "Five Feet of Fury", making reference to Catanzaro's own diminutive size. The 2nd episode of the Mae Young Classic aired on September 12, Catanzaro made her televised debut in a winning effort against Reina Gonzalez in the first round match. On Episode 5, she lost in the second round to Rhea Ripley. On January 27, 2019, Catanzaro made her main roster debut, entering the Royal Rumble at number 19 and lasting 10:45, before being eliminated by Ripley. She would make her NXT debut afterwards, on March 13.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: In September 2019, it was reported that Catanzaro had resigned from WWE and retired from professional wrestling due to an ongoing back injury she suffered. She returned on the January 15, 2020 episode of "NXT" as a surprise entrant in a women's battle royal. Catanzaro revealed in an interview that she took some time off because she had doubts about continuing in the Professional Wrestling business.


title: Kacy Catanzaro

text: Since September, she began to work with Kayden Carter as a tag team. They participated in the 2021 Women's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament, defeating Mercedes Martinez and Toni Storm in the quarterfinals, but were beaten by Dakota Kai and Raquel González in the semifinals. They would then feud with Xia Li after constantly being attacked by her throughout the following weeks. Catanzaro lost to Li on the February 24 episode of "NXT" and got her leg injured afterwards. The next year they participated in the 2022 Women's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic where they defeated Diamond Mine's Ivy Nile and Tatum Paxley in the first round but lost to Kay Lee Ray and Io Shirai in the semi-finals. In April 2022, Catanzaro's ring name was changed to Katana Chance. Chance and Carter won the vacant tag team titles in a fatal four-way tag team elimination match, lastly eliminated Toxic Attraction, on the August 2 episode of "NXT", marking Kacy's first professional wrestling championship.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: The Invitation is a 2022 American horror thriller film directed by Jessica M. Thompson and written by Blair Butler. The film stars Nathalie Emmanuel and Thomas Doherty. Inspired by the novel "Dracula" by Bram Stoker, the film follows a young woman who, following her mother's death, meets long-lost family members for the first time, only to discover the dark secrets they carry with them.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Originally titled "The Bride", the film was produced by Sam Raimi and Robert Tapert's Ghost House Pictures, with Butler writing the script. However, Raimi and Tapert exited due to scheduling conflicts. By 2020, the film's director, producer and new title were announced. Casting occurred from May to October 2021, with filming beginning that September in Budapest.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: "The Invitation" was released theatrically in the United States on August 26, 2022, by Sony Pictures Releasing. It received generally negative reviews from critics, praising Emmanuel’s acting but criticizing the story, screenplay, and scares. The film was a box office success grossing $33 million worldwide on a $10 million budget.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: In New York City, struggling artist Evelyn "Evie" Jackson makes a living freelancing for a catering business with her best friend Grace. Evie takes a DNA test, discovering she has a distant cousin in England named Oliver Alexander. She meets Oliver, who tells her the scandal of her great-grandmother, Emmaline, who had a secret child with a Black footman. He invites her to an upcoming family wedding in England. Evie arrives in Whitby at the New Carfax Abbey, where she meets the lord of the manor, Walter De Ville, and Mrs. Swift, a longtime maid of the estate. She also meets the rest of the Alexander family and the maids of honor, friendly Lucy and condescending Viktoria.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Evie gradually begins to notice unsettling occurrences during her stay. She sees an apparition of Emmaline, who was shown in a flashback, hanging herself from the staircase. Maids start disappearing as they are attacked by a shadowy figure. Evie finds herself romanced by Walter before discovering he had been researching her before her arrival. She confronts him and threatens to leave, but the two reconcile and have sex.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: The family hosts a rehearsal dinner, where Evie expects to finally meet the bride and groom. Instead, Walter announces that he and Evie are to be wed. The butler, Mr. Field, slits a maid's throat and pours her blood into a bowl. Walter, Lucy, and Viktoria are all revealed to be vampires who then drink the maid's blood. Evie's ancestors, the Alexanders, are one of the three families who, for centuries, have each offered one of their women to become Walter's wife in exchange for protection and wealth. Emmaline was originally intended to be Walter's third bride, but she killed herself due to her guilt of killing humans, and due to the loss of her love, Evie's great-grandfather, and infant son. The Alexander family had trouble finding a female member until they found Evie. Viktoria locks a frantic Evie inside a coffin, but she is freed by Mrs. Swift, who is killed by Mr. Field. Evie makes it into town and asks an elderly couple for help but is knocked unconscious, as they work for Walter.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Evie wakes up to find herself with one of the maids, Diya, and Walter. Walter reveals himself to be Dracula as he mentions he was once known as the "Son of the Dragon". Evie then watches Walter bite into Diya's leg and falls unconscious. Upon waking up, Evie is now in a wedding dress, walking down the aisle to wed Walter. As they finish exchanging vows, she bites Walter's arm, consuming his blood, and instantly transforms into a vampire. She sets the wedding chapel on fire, stabs Walter in the heart, and flees with Diya. An enraged Viktoria ambushes Evie, but Lucy intervenes. The two brides fight before Lucy impales both Viktoria and herself onto a spear, turning them both into ashes.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Evie is attacked by Mr. Field, who insults her biracial heritage before she kills him. She is then grabbed by an aged Walter. She breaks free by severing his wrist with a cutting wire and kicks him into the flames. As he dies, she loses her powers due to his death, and reverts back to human form. Evie escapes as the manor is engulfed in flames.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Two weeks later, Evie and Grace track down Oliver in London, intending to attack him for selling Evie out for money.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: In April 2019, Screen Gems acquired an untitled pitch from Blair Butler, who was also attached to write the screenplay. Sam Raimi and Robert Tapert were on board to produce the film for their production company Ghost House Pictures; however, they eventually exited the project. In June 2020, it was revealed that the film would be titled "The Bride" and that Jessica M. Thompson was set to direct, with Emile Gladstone producing without Raimi and Tapert. The original script was written by Butler, who drew inspiration from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel "Dracula", with revisions by Thompson. In June 2022, the film's new title was announced as "The Invitation".


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Nathalie Emmanuel and Garrett Hedlund were cast in lead roles in May 2021. That August, Alana Boden and Stephanie Corneliussen were added to the main cast. In October, Thomas Doherty, Hugh Skinner, Sean Pertwee, and Courtney Taylor joined the cast, with Doherty replacing Hedlund.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: "The Invitation" was released theatrically in the United States on August 26, 2022, by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film was released digitally on September 16, 2022, and on Blu-ray and DVD on October 25, 2022. As part of Netflix's first window deal with Sony, the film is set to be released in the United States on December 24, 2022.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: , "The Invitation" has grossed $25.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $8.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $33.7 million.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "The Invitation" was released alongside "Three Thousand Years of Longing" and "Breaking". The film made $2.6 million on its first day (including $775,000 from Thursday night previews) and grossed $6.8 million from 3,114 theaters during its opening weekend. It was the lowest-grossing film to top the box office since "Spiral" ($4.5 million) in May 2021. In its sophomore weekend the film made $4.7 million (and a total of $5.7 million over the four-day Labor Day frame), dropping 30.7% and finishing fifth.


title: The Invitation (2022 film)

text: Natalia Winkelman of "The New York Times" wrote: "For a fright-fest as broad as this one, there's an awful lot of banal dialogue, and the scare patterns are repetitive enough that even the easiest startlers (I count myself among them) grow immune early on." Joe Leydon of "Variety" wrote in his review: "Despite some ambitious efforts to revitalize hoary horror movie tropes with allegorical commentary on race, class and male privilege, [the film] is too wearyingly hackneyed for too much of its running time."


title: Bantu expansion

text: The Bantu expansion is a hypothesis about the history of the major series of migrations of the original Proto-Bantu-speaking group, which spread from an original nucleus around Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa. In the process, the Proto-Bantu-speaking settlers displaced or absorbed pre-existing hunter-gatherer and pastoralist groups that they encountered.


title: Bantu expansion

text: The primary evidence for this expansion is linguistic – a great many of the languages which are spoken across Sub-Equatorial Africa are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the Atlantic-Congo language family, was located in the southern regions of Cameroon. However, attempts to trace the exact route of the expansion, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive; thus although the expansion is widely accepted as having taken place, many aspects of it remain in doubt or are highly contested.


title: Bantu expansion

text: The expansion is believed to have taken place in at least two waves, between about 3,000 and 2,000 years ago (approximately 1,000 BC to AD 1). Linguistic analysis suggests that the expansion proceeded in two directions: the first went across or along the Northern border of the Congo forest region (towards East Africa), and the second – and possibly others – went south along the African coast into Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola, or inland along the many south-to-north flowing rivers of the Congo River system. The expansion reached South Africa, probably as early as AD 300.


title: Bantu expansion

text: The origin or “homeland” of this process is generally believed to be near the border of Nigeria and Cameroon. The 60,000-km Mambilla region straddling the borderlands here has been identified as containing remnants of "the Bantu who stayed home" as the bulk of Bantu-speakers moved away from the region. Archaeological evidence from the separate works of Jean Hurault (1979, 1986 & 1988) and Rigobert Tueché (2000) in the region reveals that this region has been inhabited by the same culture for 5 millennia, from 3000 B.C to date. The majority of the groups of the Bamenda highlands (occupied for 2 millennia to date), somewhat south and contiguous with the Mambilla region, have an ancient history of descent from the north in the direction of the Mambilla region.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Initially, archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the region's ancient cultures that the Bantu-speakers were held to have traversed. Linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships, believed they could reconstruct material culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966, Roland Oliver published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.


title: Bantu expansion

text: The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter-forager proto-Khoisan, who had formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In Eastern and Southern Africa, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated Cushitic-and Nilotic-speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did. Archaeological, linguistic, genetic, and environmental evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Based on dental evidence, Irish (2016) concluded that the common ancestors of Central African and Proto-Bantu peoples may have originated in the western Southern region of the Sahara, amid the Kiffian period at Gobero, and may have migrated southward, from the Sahara into various parts of central Africa (e.g. Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic), as a result of desertification of the Green Sahara in 7000 BC. From Cameroon, agricultural Proto-Bantu peoples began to migrate, and amid migration, diverged into East Bantu peoples (e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo) and West Bantu peoples (e.g. Congo, Gabon) between 2500 BC and 1200 BC.


title: Bantu expansion

text: The Atlantic-Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Western, Central and Southern Africa. The Benue–Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa.


title: Bantu expansion

text: A characteristic feature of most Atlantic–Congo languages, including the Bantu languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case inflection, but grammatical gender is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (noun classes). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the infinitival is the auxiliary designating the future.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Before the expansion of Bantu-speaking farmers, Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa was populated by Pygmy foragers, Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherers, Nilo-Saharan-speaking herders, and Cushitic-speaking pastoralists.


title: Bantu expansion

text: It is thought that Central African Pygmies and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago. Many Batwa groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western Batwa (Mbenga or "Baaka") language.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan-speaking peoples inhabited Southern Africa. Their descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and adopted other languages. A few still live by foraging often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers in the arid regions around the Kalahari desert, while a larger number of Nama continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Prior to the arrival of Bantus in Southeast Africa, Cushitic-speaking peoples had migrated into the region from the Ethiopian Highlands and other more northerly areas. The first waves consisted of Southern Cushitic speakers, who settled around Lake Turkana and parts of Tanzania beginning around 5,000 years ago. Many centuries later, around AD 1000, some Eastern Cushitic speakers also settled in northern and coastal Kenya.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Nilo-Saharan-speaking herder populations comprised a third group of the area's pre-Bantu expansion inhabitants.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, "independent waves of migration of western African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred." In some places, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was largely a result of substantial population replacement. In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are African Pygmies or are in Mozambique, while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language-speaking Lemba of Southern Africa. Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages).


title: Bantu expansion

text: It seems likely that the expansion of the Bantu-speaking people from their core region in West Africa began around 4000–3500BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron-using and agricultural, definitive archaeological evidence that they used iron does not appear until as late as 400BC, though they were agricultural. The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to Christopher Ehret, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500BC.


title: Bantu expansion

text: It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and pygmies are their closest living relatives. However, mtDNA genetic research from Cabinda suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Further east, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the savannas to the south, in what are now the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Another stream of migration, having moved east by 3,000 years ago (1000BC), was creating a major new population center near the Great Lakes of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. The Urewe culture dominated the Great Lakes region between 650BC and 550BC. It was one of Africa's oldest iron-smelting centres. By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce carbon steel.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively difficult farming conditions in areas farther from water. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BC to 300 AD, Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in Tanzania and Kwale in Kenya. These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present at the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing Indian Ocean trade route, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders, leading to the development of the Swahili culture. Other pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by AD 300 along the coast, and the modern Limpopo Province (formerly Northern Transvaal) by AD 500.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Between the 11th and 16th centuries, powerful Bantu-speaking states on a scale larger than local chiefdoms began to emerge. Notable early kingdoms include the Kingdom of the Kongo in present day Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom in the Great Lakes region, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c.1075–c.1220) in present day South Africa, and the Zambezi River, where the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex. The Swahili city-states were also established early in this period. These include sultanates based at Lamu, Mombasa, Kilwa, Pate and Malindi. The Swahili traded with the inland kingdoms, including Great Zimbabwe. Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They likely resulted from denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making outmigration more effortful. Other factors promoting state-formation were increased trade among African communities and with European and Arab traders on the coasts, technological innovations in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Other inland centres established during this phase of expansion include Bigo bya Mugenyi in Uganda, Thimlich Ohinga in Kenya and the Kweneng' Ruins in South Africa.


title: Bantu expansion

text: Manfred K. H. Eggert stated that "the current archaeological record in the Central African rainforest is extremely spotty and consequently far from convincing so as to be taken as a reflection of a steady influx of Bantu speakers into the forest, let alone movement on a larger scale."


title: Nike Air Max

text: Nike Air Max is a line of shoes produced by Nike, Inc., with the first model released in 1987. Air Max shoes are identified by their midsoles incorporating flexible urethane pouches filled with pressurized gas, visible from the exterior of the shoe and intended to provide cushioning to the underfoot. Air Max was conceptualized by Tinker Hatfield, who initially worked for Nike designing stores.


title: Nike Air Max

text: M. Frank Rudy, an aeronautical engineer, first brought the idea of an air-cushioned sole to Nike in 1977. In 1979, he patented a design using polyurethane sacs filled with pressurized inert gas, and Nike has been using some version of this design ever since. As the name indicates, all Air Max shoes feature one or more translucent pouches of pressurized gas embedded in the midsole and visible from the outside of the shoe. Referred to as "Air units" or "airbags," their stated purpose is to provide superior cushioning to traditional foam while also reducing weight. The effectiveness of the technology for this purpose is disputed; nevertheless, the shoes enjoy consistent popularity, especially among sneaker enthusiasts and collectors.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The size, design, and number of air units varies within the product line; the "retro" Air Max 1 simply includes one small unit under the heel, while in the contemporary Air VaporMax, effectively the entire midsole is composed of air units with no conventional foam present.


title: Nike Air Max

text: In the mid-1990s the line, especially the Air Max 95 model, experienced such a surge of popularity in Japan that it led to a phenomenon known as "Air Max hunting". The extremely inflated prices of the shoes led to a rash of muggings in the normally-peaceful country wherein Air Max wearers were attacked and their shoes were stolen. Even used shoes were in demand, and fakes also became a problem.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Released in 1987 as simply the Air Max, the Air Max 1 was the first shoe ever to employ Max Air technology. It was marketed for running, which would continue to be the case for new Air Max designs until 2018's Air Max 270. Its upper was composed of nylon and synthetic felt, with a leather version being released in 1988. The Air Max 1 continues to enjoy significant popularity with sneaker enthusiasts, with Nike releasing "retro" models employing both original and pre-existing exterior designs ("colorways") on a regular basis. The Air Max 1 between 2018 and 2022 has been released as a golf shoe type called the Air Max 1G.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Released in 1989 as the Air Max II, the Air Max Light weighed less than the original, achieved by replacing the forefoot polyurethane midsole with one made of EVA foam. Re-released in 2007, Nike has continued to release additional colorways.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Known as the Air Max III until 2000, when it was reissued taking its name from the year of its launch. The original colourway of white/black/cool grey with infrared was chosen to exaggerate the thickness of the sole air cushion. The upper featured Duromesh, synthetic felt and synthetic leather. Nike specially designed a pair of Nike Air Max 90s for President George H. W. Bush. Images of the customized sneakers have been seen around the Department of Nike Archives, and feature AIR PRES branding along with what appears to be a unique colorway.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Released in 1991, the Air Max 180 featured a larger air unit visible through the outsole. The technology was later used in the Air Force 180 sneaker.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Released in 1993 as the Air Max 270, the Air Max 93 introduced a 270-degree air unit and colored air units to the range. Nike employed a new manufacturing processes to provide the larger and more exposed air unit greater protection. The upper featured a more sock-like fit derived from 1991's Air Huarache sneaker.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The Nike Air Max CB 94 was released in 1994 for the first time at the retail price of $160. Designed by "Tracy Teague" having cool & classy look, premium quality manufacturing and (Squared Air Technology) made "Air Max 94" popular among sneaker enthusiasts.


title: Nike Air Max

text: For really it was called "Air Max 2 CB 94" because it had Air Max (air max squared) technology. In 1994, the box had written Air max 2 CB 94, while Eastbay referred a superscript 2. But the number got dropped & added many times. At end its considered with original name as Air Max 2 CB 94.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The visual design of the Air Max 95 was created by Sergio Lozano, who based the design of the Air Max 95 on the human anatomy, with the spine of the shoe resembling the human spine and the materials intended to represent skin, ribs, and tendons. The Air Max 95 was the first pair in the line to utilize two air cushions in the forefoot and used air pressure technology to fit the curvature of the wearer's forefoot. The first colorway was black, neon yellow and white. Neon yellow was used to emphasize the multiple air units. The shoe also introduced a smaller Nike swoosh minimized in the rear side panel. Original releases featured a "25 PSI" air pressure reading on the rear air unit. Uppers also featured 3M Scotchlite material.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The product was referenced in the hip hop song "Hate It or Love It" by The Game, which was a worldwide top 10 hit in 2005. Also referenced by rappers Gucci Mane in the hit single "Bricks" and Waka Flocka Flame on the track "Head First" in his 2009 mixtape, "Lebron Flocka James". The rapper Eminem designed a limited-edition range of Air Maxes sold for charity.


title: Nike Air Max

text: 1997's Air Max 97 was inspired by high-speed Japanese bullet trains. It was introduced with a sleeker, metallic silver colorway that contained a nearly full-length visible air unit. Uppers feature three reflective lines made of 3M Scotchlite material.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The Nike Air Max 97 is a Nike running shoe designed by Christian Tresser. It was inspired by Japan's high-speed Bullet Trains and features a mix of leather, foam, and full-length visible Air. The original "Silver Bullet" colorway released again in the US on April 13th, 2017 for $160. Over 13 new colorways are hitting retailers starting August 1st, 2017.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Some of the colorways are Khaki, White/Red, Tea Berry, Metallic Silver, B-sides Pack, Guava Ice, True Brown, Pittsburgh Steelers, Phantom, Red/White/Blue, Just Do It, Elemental Pink, Desert and Sky, Luxurious Tan, Ocean Bliss, Midnight Navy, Tartan, Mustard, and Metallic Gold.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Released in 1998, the Air Max Plus introduced Nike's Tuned Air system., and as such became retrospectively known as the Air Max TN, Air Max Tuned, or Air Max Tuned 1 (TN1). Designed by Sean McDowell, the Air Max Plus featured transverse waves inspired by palm trees, and a prominent arch shank inspired by a whale tail. The initial release featured a "Hyper Blue" colorway, characterized by a fading blue airbrush effect. The Nike swoosh had a slightly irregular appearance as a border was added along the inner edge, as opposed to the outer surface. Although the shoe only had modest success in North America, in Europe they were massively popular - particularly in France, where the Plus grew to enjoy iconic status among youth culture in Paris and Marseille, where the shoe has the nickname "Le Requin" ("The Shark") - often anglicised into "Rekin". Part of the shoe's appeal is both its exclusivity (for many years it was only available from Foot Locker stores) and its high price. In some areas of LGBT sub-culture in France and many other European nations (most notably Germany and the United Kingdom) the Plus/TN is one of the most coveted Air Max models among foot, sneaker and sportswear fetishists.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Australia was another major market for the Air Max Plus - infamously the shoe became popular with gang culture and criminals, to the point where wearers of the shoe were banned from some pubs and clubs.


title: Nike Air Max

text: On January 21, 2006 Nike launched the Air Max 360, a new shoe design that utilized Max Air throughout the shoe's midsole. In September 2006 Nike introduced a special 'one time only pack' which fused the 360 model with three classics. The three shoes used were the Air Max 90, Air Max 95, and Air Max 97. For this special release, the design of the 360 sole was used in place of the normal sole of the three classics. The shoes were released in the three original colors: red for the Air Max 90, green/yellow for the Air Max 95, and grey/silver for the Air Max 97. Like other Air Max releases, deluxe editions were also produced. These deluxe editions lasted for about before their shock-absorbing properties deteriorated. The use of '360' of air cushioning is meant to ensure the shoe's longevity.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The Air VaporMax released in March 2017, and was the first Air Max shoe to use no foam or rubber whatsoever in the midsole or outsole. It discarded a traditional midsole/outsole design and in place used several entirely hollow air pouches, not connected to one another and positioned in different areas in accordance with where the wearer's foot would naturally strike. The VaporMax sole itself has not been significantly innovated upon since its initial release, but original shoes using the sole design continue to be released, including several "hybrids" which fuse a VaporMax sole with the upper design of an older Air Max shoe such as the Air Max 95, 97, and 360.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The shoe was originally released on February 1, 2018. It was named "270" for the 270 degrees of visibility in the Air unit around the shoe, and was inspired by the Air Max 93 and 180 shoes. It was the first Air Max shoe to be designed for lifestyle and golf purposes rather than running. It also was the tallest Air unit to ever be released at the time, measuring 32 mm tall.


title: Nike Air Max

text: One year after the Air Max 270, Nike debuted their second Air unit to be designed for lifestyle purposes with the Air Max 720. As opposed to the heel-only 270 Air unit, the 720 Air unit extends under the forefoot, and is also taller than the 270 by 6mm. New colorways of the Air Max 720 and additional designs based on its Air unit, including the basketball-inspired Air Max 720 SATRN and a hybrid based on the retro Air More up-tempo, continue to be released.


title: Nike Air Max

text: The shoes were initially advertised in 1987 with a TV campaign that used the Beatles' song "Revolution", the first time a Beatles song had been used in a TV commercial. The following year, Nike used the Just Do It slogan. They were also endorsed by Bo Jackson in exchange for a $100,000 fee, with advertising agency Wieden and Kennedy coming up with the slogan "Bo knows...".


title: Nike Air Max

text: In March 2018, Nike sponsored a Japanese Splatfest in Splatoon 2 to promote the newest, at the time, of the Air Max line, the Air Max 270s. The two models were added in-game shortly after the announcement, disguised as shoes from an in-universe brand.


title: Nike Air Max

text: Tom Holland wears Nike Air Max 1 ‘Wolf Grey’ while portraying Peter Parker / Spider-Man in the 2019 film "".


title: Nike Air Max

text: The 1993 model was the first to have the fully visible heel Air unit that was visible in the back as well as on the sides, and the 1995 model was the first to feature visible forefoot Air. The 1997 model was the first to include a full-length Air bag.


title: Olly olly oxen free

text: "Olly olly oxen free" is a catchphrase or truce term used in children's games such as hide and seek, capture the flag, and kick the can to indicate that players who are hiding can come out into the open without losing the game; that the position of the sides in a game has changed (as in which side is on the field or which side is at bat or "up" in baseball or kickball); or, alternatively, that the game is entirely over.


title: Olly olly oxen free

text: The origin of the phrase is unknown. The "Dictionary of American Regional English" says the phrase may be derived from "all ye, all ye outs in free", "all the outs in free", or possibly "”calling all the outs in free"”; in other words, all who are out may come in without penalty. Others speculate the phrase may be a corruption of a hypothetical and ungrammatical German phrase "alle, alle, auch sind frei" (all, all, also are free).


title: Olly olly oxen free

text: A number of variations exist. "Ollyoxalls" is one such variant, said to be used in Portsmouth, England. Another variant is "Ollie Ollie in come free."


title: Check Your Head

text: Check Your Head is the third studio album by American rap rock group Beastie Boys, released by Grand Royal and Capitol Records on April 21, 1992. Three years elapsed between the releases of the band's second studio album "Paul's Boutique" and "Check Your Head", which was recorded at the G-Son Studios in Atwater Village in 1991 under the guidance of producer Mario Caldato Jr., the group's third producer in as many albums. Less sample-heavy than their previous records, the album features instrumental contributions from all three members: Adam Horovitz on guitar, Adam Yauch on bass guitar, and Mike Diamond on drums.


title: Check Your Head

text: The album was re-released in a number of formats in 2009, with 16 b-sides and rarities, as well as a commentary track, included as bonus material. It is one of the albums profiled in the 2007 book "Check the Technique", which includes a track-by-track breakdown by Diamond, Yauch, Horovitz, Caldato, and frequent Beasties collaborator Money Mark.


title: Check Your Head

text: "Check Your Head" was the first Beastie Boys album to be fully co-produced by Mario Caldato Jr., who had been an engineer on "Paul's Boutique" and was credited as producer on that album's track "Ask for Janice". It also marked the first appearance on one of their albums of keyboardist Money Mark, who became a regular collaborator of the band.


title: Check Your Head

text: The album was somewhat of a return by the Beastie Boys to their punk roots. It featured the trio playing their own instruments on the majority of the album, for the first time on record since their early EPs, due to the commercial failure of "Paul's Boutique". This inspired photographer Glen E. Friedman to shoot photos of the Beasties with their instrument cases, one of which was used as the cover of the album. Supposedly, a trading card for Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. from a set of Desert Storm trading cards was the inspiration for the album's title.


title: Check Your Head

text: The Beastie Boys toured with the Rollins Band and Cypress Hill in early 1992 to support "Check Your Head".