title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The composition has been deemed both "particularly suited to the organ" and "strikingly unorganistic". It has been seen as united by a single ground-thought, but also as containing "passages which have no connection whatever with the chief idea". It has been called "entirely a thing of virtuosity" yet also described as being "not so difficult as it sounds". It has been described as some sort of program music depicting a storm, but also as abstract music, quite the opposite of program music depicting a storm. It has been presented as an emanation of the galant style, yet too dramatic to be anything near that style. Its period of origin has been assumed to have been as early as around 1704, and as late as the 1750s. Its defining characteristics have been associated with extant compositions by Bach (BWV 531, 549a, 578, 911, 914, 922 and several of the solo violin sonatas and partitas), and by others (including Nicolaus Bruhns and Johann Heinrich Buttstett), as well as with untraceable earlier versions for other instruments and/or by other composers. It has been deemed too simplistic for it to have been written down by Bach, and too much a stroke of genius to have been composed by anyone else but Bach.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: What remains is "the most famous organ work in existence", that in its rise to fame was helped by various arrangements, including bombastic piano settings, versions for full symphonic orchestra, and alternative settings for more modest solo instruments.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1833, BWV 565 was published for the first time, in the third of three bundles of "little known" organ compositions by Bach. The edition was conceived and partly prepared by Felix Mendelssohn, who already had BWV 565 in his repertoire by 1830. In 1846, C. F. Peters published the "Toccata con Fuga" as No. 4 in their fourth volume of organ compositions by Bach. In 1867, the Bach Gesellschaft included it in Band 15 of its complete edition of Bach's works. Novello published the work in 1886 as No. 1 in their sixth volume of Bach's organ works.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In the early 1910s, Albert Schweitzer collaborated with Charles-Marie Widor to compile a complete edition of Bach's organ compositions, published by Schirmer. In 1912, BWV 565 was published in the second volume, containing works of Bach's "first master period". Around the start of the First World War, Augener republished William Thomas Best's late 19th-century edition of the work in volume 2 of their complete edition of Bach's organ works.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: After 1950, when the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis was published, it was no longer needed to indicate the Toccata and Fugue in D minor as "Peters Vol. IV, No. 4", as "BGA Volume XV p. 267", as "Novello VI, 1", or without "Dorian", to distinguish it from the Toccata and Fugue with the same key signature. From then on the work has been simply BWV 565, and the other, the so-called "Dorian", has been BWV 538. In 1964, the New Bach Edition included BWV 565 in Series IV, Volume 6, with its critical commentary published in Volume 5 in 1979. Dietrich Kilian, the editor of these volumes, explains in the introduction to Vol. 6 that the New Bach Edition prefers to stay close to authoritative early sources for their score presentations. For BWV 565 that means staying close to the Ringk manuscript. Consequently, the name of the piece was again given in Italian as "Toccata con Fuga", and the piece was again written down in D Dorian (i.e. without at the key). However, more modern conventions were maintained with regard to using the treble clef in the upper stave and using a separate stave for the pedal.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: A facsimile of Ringk's manuscript was published in 2000. In the 21st century, the facsimile became available on-line, as well as various downloadable files of previously-printed editions. In 2010, Breitkopf & Härtel initiated a new edition of Bach's organ works, with BWV 565 appearing in its fourth volume.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The first major public performance was by Mendelssohn, on 6 August 1840, in Leipzig. The concert was very well received by the critics, among them Robert Schumann, who admired the work's famous opening as an example of Bach's sense of humor. Franz Liszt adopted the piece into his organ repertoire. He used the glockenspiel stop for the "Prestissimo" triplets in the opening section, and the quintadena stop for the repeated notes in bars 12–15.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The work was first recorded (in abridged form as "Toccata and Finale") by John J. McClellan on the Salt Lake Tabernacle organ in Salt Lake City in late August or early September 1910 by the Columbia Graphophone Company, who released it in the US in 1911 on Columbia 10-inch disc A945 and in the UK on Columbia-Rena disc 1704, which is one of the first commercial pipe organ recordings. In 1926, the organ version of BWV 565 was recorded on 78 rpm discs. In a 1928 concert program, Schweitzer indicated BWV 565 as one of Bach's "best known" compositions, considering it to be a youth work. Schweitzer's first recording of the piece was issued in 1935. In 1951, he recorded the work again.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In the 1950s, a recording of Helmut Walcha playing BWV 565 on organ was released. In that, and subsequent releases of Walcha's recordings of BWV 565 on Deutsche Grammophon (DG), there is an obvious evolution of the work from "one among many" organ compositions by Bach to a definite signature piece by the composer. In early Archiv Produktion releases, the list on the sleeve contained the organ compositions in the order they appeared on the recording without distinction, in the 1960s BWV 565 became listed first; but by the 1980s, the font size of BWV 565 was larger than that of the other compositions, and in the 1990s Walcha's 1963 recording of the piece became the only piece by Bach included in DG's "Classic Mania" CD set with popular tunes by various classical composers. Similarly, the album sleeves of Marie-Claire Alain's recordings of BWV 565 in the 1960s, listed the piece in the same font as the other recorded works, but by the 1980s, it was in a larger font. US record companies seemed faster in putting BWV 565 forward as Bach's best known organ piece. In 1955, E. Power Biggs recorded the Toccata 14 times, played on different European organs, and Columbia issued those recordings on a single album.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Hans-Joachim Schulze describes the force of the piece on a record sleeve:Here is elemental and unbounded power, in impatiently ascending and descending runs and rolling masses of chords, that only with difficulty abates sufficiently to give place to the logic and balance of the fugue. With the reprise of the initial Toccata, the dramatic idea reaches its culmination amidst flying scales and with an ending of great sonority.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Organists recording BWV 565 more than once include Jean Guillou, Lionel Rogg and Wolfgang Rübsam. Some musicians, such as Karl Richter, who did not record organ performances very often, included BWV 565 in their anthologies. By the end of the century, hundreds of organists had recorded BWV 565. In the 21st century, several recordings of BWV 565 became available online, such as a recording included in James Kibbie's Bach Organ Works project and John Scott Whiteley's broadcast for BBC TV made in 2001.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Bach's Toccata and Fugue was not performed on the organ exclusively. The title page of the first publication of the piece already indicated that performance on the piano by one or two players was possible. From 1868 to 1881, Carl Tausig's piano transcription of the Toccata and Fugue in D minor was performed four times in the Gewandhaus in Leipzig. Many more piano transcriptions of BWV 565 were published, for instance by Louis Brassin, Ferruccio Busoni's, Alfred Cortot's, and by Max Reger, in transcriptions for both piano two hands and four hands.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Tausig's version of the work was recorded on piano rolls several times in the first decades of the 20th century. In the mid-1920s, Marie Novello recorded the Tausig piano version of BWV 565 on 78 rpm discs. Percy Grainger's 1931 recording on the piano, based on the Tausig and Busoni transcriptions, was written out as a score by Leslie Howard, and then recorded by other artists. Ignaz Friedman recorded the piano version he had published in 1944. From the 1950s to the first decades of the 21st century, there were half a dozen recordings of Tausig's piano version, and several dozen of Busoni's.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In Johann Nikolaus Forkel's early 19th century , the work is left unmentioned. Forkel probably did not even know of the composition. In C. L. Hilgenfeldt's biography it is merely listed among the published works. Hilgenfeldt considers the Toccata and Fugue in F major the most accomplished of Bach's toccatas for organ. In Karl Hermann Bitter's 1865 Bach-biography, BWV 565 is only listed in an appendix.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1873, Philipp Spitta devoted somewhat less than a page to the work in the first volume of his Bach biography. He assumed the work was written in the first year of Bach's second Weimar period (1708–1717). He saw more north German characteristics (Buxtehude's restless style) in the form of the Toccata, rather than south German (Pachelbel's simple and quiet approach). Spitta considered the fugue "particularly suited to the organ, and more especially effective in the pedal part." His description of the piece refers to long sections that are surfeit: "rocking passages which have no connection whatever with the chief idea" and organ recitatives alternating with "ponderous, roaring masses of chords". Spitta likened some phrases of the Toccata and Fugue to another early work, the Fugue in G minor, BWV 578.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Spitta also detects a rhythmic figure that appears briefly in the concluding part of the work (bar 137) which, extensively elaborated, reappears in the keyboard Prelude in A minor, BWV 922, a work he supposes to have been composed around 1710. In Reginald Lane Poole's 1882 biography, the work is again merely listed. In the 1905 first version of his Bach biography, Albert Schweitzer leaves BWV 565 unmentioned in the chapter on the organ works. In André Pirro's 1906 biography, Bach's organ toccatas are only mentioned as a group. He considers none of them written before Bach's later Weimar years (so closer to 1717 than to 1708).


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Up to this point, none of the biographers seem to have given any special attention to BWV 565. If mentioned, it is listed or described along with other organ compositions, but is far from being considered the best or the most famous of Bach's organ compositions, or even of his toccatas. However, that was about to change. In 1908, Schweitzer reworked his biography for its first German edition. In that edition he indicates the work as "well-known". After listing several organ works in which Bach showed himself a pupil of Buxtehude, Frescobaldi, and various contemporary Italian composers, Schweitzer describes the Toccata and Fugue in D minor as a work in which the composer rises to independent mastery:


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In Hubert Parry's 1909 Bach biography, the work is qualified as "well known" and "one of the most effective of [Bach's] works in every way". He calls the Toccata "brilliantly rhapsodical", more or less follows Spitta in the description of the fugue, and is most impressed by the coda: "It would be hard to find a concluding passage more imposing or more absolutely adapted to the requirements of the instrument than this coda." Apart from seeing Buxtehude's influence, he likens the theme of the fugue to the theme of the fugue of Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544, which he considers a late work.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In the 1979 first volume of his Bach biography, Alberto Basso calls BWV 565 "famosissimo" (most famous) and "celebratissima" (most celebrated), maintaining that the popularity of these works hinges entirely on this composition. He sees it as a youth work, composed before 1708, that with its underdeveloped fugue is stylistically eclectic but unified without breaking continuity. He links it to the northern school, and mentions Tausig, Busoni and Stokowki as influencing its trajectory. Basso warns against seeing too much in the composition. He feels it may be within reach of everyone but is neither an incantation, nor ridden with symbolism and even less a sum of whatever.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In his 1999 Bach biography, Klaus Eidam devotes a few pages to the Toccata and Fugue. He considers it an early work, probably composed for testing the technical qualities of a new organ. He feels that the crescendo that develops through arpeggios, gradually building up to the use of hundreds of pipes at the same time, can show exactly at what point the wind system of the organ might become inadequate. In his view, some of the more unusual characteristics of the piece can be explained as resulting from Bach's capacity as an organ tester.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Christoph Wolff, in his 2000 Bach biography, sees BWV 565 as an early work. In his view, it is "as refreshingly imaginative, varied, and ebullient as it is structurally undisciplined and unmastered".


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Before his 1906 Bach biography, André Pirro had already written a book on Bach's organ works. In that book he devoted less than a page to BWV 565, and considers it some kind of program music depicting a tempest, including flashes of lightning and rumbling thunder. Pirro supposes Bach had success with this music in the smaller German courts he visited. All in all, he judges the music as superficial, not more than a stepping stone in Bach's development.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In the early 1920s, Harvey Grace published a series of articles on Bach's organ works. He considers that the notes of the piece are not too difficult to play, but that an organist performing the work is primarily challenged by interpretation. He gives tips on how to perform the work so that it does not sound like a "meaningless scramble". He describes the fugue as slender and simple, but only a "very sketchy example of the form". In his description of the piece, Grace refers to Pirro, elaborating Pirro's "storm" analogy, and like Pirro, he seems convinced Bach went touring with the piece. His suggestions for the organ registration make comparisons with how the piece would be played by an orchestra.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1948, Hermann Keller wrote that the Toccata and Fugue was uncharacteristic for Bach, but nonetheless bore some of his distinguishing marks. His description of the piece echoes earlier storm analogies. Keller sees the opening bars' unison passages as "descending like a lightning flash, the long roll of thunder of the broken chords of the full organ, and the stormy undulation of the triplets".


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1980, Peter Williams wrote about BWV 565 in the first volume of his "The Organ Music of J.S.Bach". The author warns against numerological over-interpretation like that of Volker Gwinner. Many parts of the composition are described as typical of Bach. Williams sees stylistic matches with Pachelbel, with the north German organ school, and with the Italian violin school, but sees various unusual features of the composition as well. Williams questions the authenticity of the piece, based on its various unusual features, and elaborates the idea that the piece may have a violin version ancestor. The reworked edition of this book, in one volume, appeared in 2003, and devotes more pages to discussing the authenticity and possible prior versions of BWV 565. In the meantime, Williams had written a 1981 article on the authenticity of BWV 565; this was followed by numerous publications by other scholars on the same topic.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: "J. S. Bach as Organist", a 1986 collection of essays edited by George Stauffer and Ernest May, discussed the registration Bach would have used for BWV 565.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Around the same time as Grace made comparisons with an orchestral version in his performance suggestions, Edward Elgar was producing orchestrations of two organ pieces by Bach, which did not include BWV 565. Elgar did not particularly like the work, nor Schweitzer's glowing comments about it.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1927, Leopold Stokowski recorded his orchestration of BWV 565 with the Philadelphia Orchestra. Soon the idea was emulated by other musicians. An orchestration was performed in Carnegie Hall in 1928, Henry Wood (pseudonymously, as "Paul Klenovsky") arranged his orchestration before the end of the decade. By the mid 1930s, Leonidas Leonardi had published his orchestration, and Alois Melichar's orchestration was recorded in 1939.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1947, Eugene Ormandy recorded his orchestration of the piece with the Philadelphia Orchestra. The score of Stokowski's arrangement was published in 1952. Other orchestrations of the piece were provided by Fabien Sevitzky, René Leibowitz (1958), Lucien Cailliet (1967) and Stanisław Skrowaczewski (1968).


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: BWV 565 was used as film music well before the sound film era, becoming a cliché to illustrate horror and villainy. Its first uses in sound film included the 1931 film "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" and the 1934 film "The Black Cat".


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: After 1936, another approach to using BWV 565 in film was under consideration. Oskar Fischinger had previously used Bach's Third Brandenburg Concerto to accompany abstract animations and suggested to Stokowski that his orchestral version of BWV 565 could be used in the same way. Later in 1937, while in California, Stokowski and Disney discussed the idea of making a short animated film of "The Sorcerer's Apprentice" by Dukas for Disney Studios, the intention being to introduce classical music to a younger and broader audience. Similar in spirit to the popular series of "Silly Symphonies," the short film proved costly to produce. However, starting with the Toccata and Fugue and the Sorcerer's Apprentice, Stokowski, Disney and the music critic Deems Taylor chose other compositions to incorporate into their film project, known as "The Concert Piece." By the time Disney's "Fantasia" was released in 1940, the animations accompanying BWV 565 had been made semi-abstract, although Fischinger's original idea that the performance of the music start with showing Stokowski directing his orchestra was preserved. Taylor begins his narrative with, "What you’re going to see is the designs and pictures and stories of what music inspired in the minds and imaginations of a group of artists." The opening number, the "Toccata and Fugue," will be absolute music—music that exists for its own sake—and will try to depict what might go on in the mind of the person listening to it. "At first you are more or less conscious of the orchestra," Taylor explains, "so our picture opens with a series of impressions of the conductor and the players. Then the music begins to suggest other things to your imagination—oh, just masses of color, or cloud forms, or vague shadows, or geometrical objects floating in space." In the 1942 cinema release of the film by RKO, the Toccata and Fugue was cut entirely, only to return in a 1946 re-release. "Fantasia" contributed significantly to the popularity of the Toccata and Fugue.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The 1950 film "Sunset Boulevard" used BWV 565 as a joking reference to the horror genre. The piece has appeared in many more films, including "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1954), in which it is played by Captain Nemo on the organ of the "Nautilus", before the submarine's pitiless and apparently unmotivated attack on a ship. BWV 565 also appeared in Fellini's 1960 "La Dolce Vita". The 1962 film adaptation of "The Phantom of the Opera" used BWV 565 in the suspense and horror sense. It is used "without irony and in an apocalyptic spirit updated from its earlier Gothic implications" at the beginning and end of the 1975 dystopian science fiction film "Rollerball". Shortened to two minutes in length, BWV 565 was used as the introductory theme for the French animation "Once Upon a Time... Man", in 26 episodes between 1978 and 1981.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Ennio Morricone took inspiration from the score BWV 565/1 for the 1965 film "For a Few Dollars More" of Sergio Leone. Morricone used the trumpet musical theme ""La resa dei conti"" ("Sixty Seconds to What?") for the opening baroque mordent of J. S. Bach's Toccata. The cowboy shootout with Gian Maria Volonté takes place in a deconsecrated church, turned into a pigsty, where the theme is heard on the organ at full blast. According to , "It is [...] hard to establish what led the composer to quote Bach—perhaps the shared key of D minor led to the idea of the organ, whereas the small church might have at most accommodated nothing more than a run-down harmonium. In any case, for a classically trained musician such a glaring reference to one of the most hackneyed commonplaces of Western art music—certainly the most hackneyed within Bach's output (although its authorship has long been disputed)—clashes with the alleged intention of paying homage to the Eisenach maestro." In his autobiographical book written with , Morricone wrote that, "The death ritual carried out in a church convinced me to use the Bach quotation and the organ. Volonté's gestures in that sequence reminded me of some paintings of Rembrandt and Vermeer that Leone was fond of. Those artists lived in an epoch close to Bach, and with my music I decided to look at that kind of past."


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: A certain uneasiness regarding the authorship of BWV 565 had been around long before the 1980s. From Hilgenfeldt in 1850, to Elgar in the 1920s, to Basso in the late 1970s, the extraordinary popularity of the piece seems to have taken scholars and musicians by surprise. Of Mendelssohn's prophecy that it was something for both the erudite and the masses, only the latter part had been fulfilled. Some scholars who analysed the composition's counterpoint felt it was substandard. They said it was stylistically too close to the galant style of the later 18th century to be an early 18th century composition. Its presumed time of composition shifted around. Some felt the composition was too modern to have been composed by a young Bach, or too simplistic to have been composed by a middle-aged Bach. Although many commentators have invoked Bach's genius to explain the dislocated modernity in an immature composition, an increasing number of scholars felt unsatisfied with such an intangible explanation.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In a 1981 article, Peter Williams reiterated the speculations, from which he saw a way out of the conundrum, already featured in his 1980 book on Bach's organ compositions:


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The analysis of the material sources for the piece, its oldest surviving manuscripts, although insufficiently pursued according to some scholars, was seen as too limited to give a conclusive answer to these questions. What was available from that branch of the research could be explained in opposite ways. Likewise, whether the more elaborate stylistic evidence was considered conclusive or merely circumstantial, depended on who was trying to prove what.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1982, David Humphreys suggested that BWV 565 may have been composed and/or arranged by Kellner, or by someone from the circle around Kellner. Despite many stylistic similarities, however, Kellner was ruled out a quarter of a century later: "in comparison with the style of Kellner, BWV 565 more resembles the style of J. S. Bach"; "many of Kellner's keyboard pieces revealed that his style boasts pronounced "galant" elements ... this clearly stands in strong contrast to the dramatic style of the Toccata BWV 565".


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: A violin composition by Bach's eldest son Wilhelm Friedemann, transcribed for the organ by Ringk, was named as another possible source. However, according to 21st-century statistical analysis, Wilhelm Friedemann was even less likely to have been the composer of the Fugue than Kellner. The same research indicated that large portions of the Fugue were consistent with the style of Johann Ludwig Krebs, but with more than half of the Fugue more likely composed by J. S. Bach. After initially confirming Williams's doubts about the authorship of BWV 565, by the second decade of the 21st century, statistical analysis left the attribution issue undecided. No-one had found a composer more compatible with the style of its fugue than Bach himself. In the words of Jean-Claude Zehnder, who was sympathetic towards the violin version reconstruction: "The matter still remains open, despite the scholarly discourse that began in 1981. Until proof of the contrary, BWV 565 should be considered as a work by Johann Sebastian Bach." No edition of the Bach Werke Verzeichnis has listed BWV 565 among the works seen as spurious or doubtful, nor does the work's entry on the website of the Bach Archiv Leipzig mention any doubts.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1961, Antony Davies remarked that the Toccata was void of counterpoint. Half a decade later, BWV 565 was further questioned. Walter Emery advocated that scepticism was a necessary condition to approaching the history of Bach's organ compositions, and Friedrich Blume saw problems with the traditional historiography of Bach's youth. Roger Bullivant thought the fugue too simple for Bach and saw characteristics that were incompatible with his style:


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: These doubts about the authorship of BWV 565 were elaborated by Peter Williams in a 1981 article. Hypotheses proposed by Williams in that article included that BWV 565 may have been composed after 1750 and may have been based on an earlier composition for another instrument, supposedly violin. Williams added more stylistic problems to the ones already mentioned by Bullivant, among others the parallel octaves throughout the opening of the toccata, the true subdominant answers in the fugue, and the primitive harmonies throughout the piece, with countersubjects in the fugue frequently moving through thirds and sixths only. All of these characteristics are either unique or extremely rare in organ music of the first half of the 18th century.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1995, Rolf-Dietrich Claus decided against the authenticity of BWV 565, mainly based on the stylistic characteristics of the piece. He named another problem—in its first measure the composition contains a C, a note organs in Bach's time rarely had, and which Bach almost never used in his organ compositions. In his book on BWV 565, which he expanded in 1998 to counter some of the criticisms it received, Claus also dismisses the prior version options suggested by Williams, noting that the toccata was an unknown genre for violin solo compositions of the time. Several essays in John Butt's Cambridge Companion on Bach discuss the attribution problems of BWV 565. Other biographers and scholars have left these attribution and prior version theories unmentioned, or explained the atypical characteristics of the composition by indicating it was a very early composition by Bach, probably written during his stay in Arnstadt (1703–1706).


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The authorship debate has continued in the 21st century. Wolff calls it a pseudo-problem. Williams suggested that the piece may have been created by another composer who must have been born in the beginning of the 18th century, since details of style (such as triadic harmony, spread chords, and the use of solo pedal) may indicate post-1730, or even post-1750 idioms. Statistical analysis conducted by Peter van Kranenburg in 2006 confirmed the fugue was atypical for Bach, but failed to find a composer more likely to have composed it than Bach. David Schulenberg feels that the attribution of BWV 565 to Bach is doubtful. Richard Douglas Jones takes no position with regard to the composition's authenticity. In 2009, Reinmar Emans wrote that Claus and Wolff had diametrically opposed views on the reliability of Ringk as a copyist, inspired by their respective positions in the authenticity debate, and thinks that sort of speculation unhelpful.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: The other hypothesis elaborated by Williams is that BWV 565 may have been a transcription of a lost solo violin piece. Parallel octaves and the preponderance of thirds and sixths may be explained by a transcriber's attempt to fill in harmony which, if preserved as is, would be inadequately thin on a pipe organ. This is corroborated by the fact that the subject of the fugue, and certain passages (such as bars 12–15), are evidently inspired by string music. Bach is known to have transcribed solo violin works for organ at least twice: the first movement of the Partita in E major for solo violin, BWV 1006, was converted by Bach into the solo organ part of the opening movement of the cantata "Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir", BWV 29. Bach also transcribed the Fugue movement of Sonata in G minor for solo violin, BWV 1001, as the second half of Prelude and Fugue in D minor for organ, BWV 539.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: This notion inspired a new theory of adaptation: the reconstruction. Reconstructions have been applied to several other works by Bach, with variable success. A reconstruction for violin has been played by Jaap Schröder and Simon Standage. The violinist Andrew Manze produced his own reconstruction, also in A minor, which he has performed and recorded. In 2000, Mark Argent proposed a scordatura five-stringed cello instead. Williams proposed a violoncello piccolo or a five-stringed cello as alternative possibilities in 2003. A new violin version was created by scholar Bruce Fox-Lefriche in 2004. In 2005, Eric Lewin Altschuler wrote that if the first version of BWV 565 was written for a stringed instrument the most likely candidate would have been a lute.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1997, Bernhard Billeter proposed a harpsichord toccata original, which was deemed unlikely by Williams. However, Billeter's argument makes authorship by Bach more likely: Bach's harpsichord toccatas (most of them early works) have simplistic elements and quirks similar to BWV 565. Bach's early keyboard works, especially the free ones like Preludes and Toccatas, cannot always be clearly separated into organ pieces and harpsichord pieces. Spitta had already remarked on the similarity between a passage in BWV 565 and one in the harpsichord Prelude BWV 921, Robert Marshall compares the continuation patterns and sequences of the harpsichord Toccata BWV 911, and the Fugue theme of the harpsichord Toccata BWV 914, with the same of BWV 565.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: In 1935, Hermann Hesse wrote a poem about the piece, "" (On a toccata by Bach), which contributed to its fame.


title: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565

text: Recordings of BWV 565 that have appeared on popular music charts include Sky's 1980 rock-inspired recording (#83 on "Billboard" Hot 100, #5 on UK Singles Chart) and Vanessa-Mae's 1996 violin recording (#24 on the Billboard charts). In 1993, Salvatore Sciarrino made an arrangement for solo flute, recorded by Mario Caroli. A version for solo horn was arranged by Zsolt Nagy and has been performed by Frank Lloyd. In the mid-1990s, Fred Mills, then trumpet player for Canadian Brass, created an adaptation for brass quintet that became a worldwide standard for brass ensembles.


title: Scott Brown (footballer, born June 1985)

text: Scott Brown (born 25 June 1985) is a Scottish professional football manager and former player who is the current manager of League One side Fleetwood Town. A former midfielder, he is widely known for his 14-year tenure with Celtic, where he was club captain for 11 years and won ten Scottish league championships.


text: Brown started his career with Hibernian, breaking into their first team in 2002. His only trophy with Hibs was the 2006–07 Scottish League Cup; in that season he also won the SFWA Young Player of the Year award. In May 2007, he transferred to Celtic for a fee of £4.4 million, the highest transfer fee paid between two Scottish clubs.


text: During Brown's time at Celtic, the club won ten Scottish championships, six Scottish Cups, and six Scottish League Cups. He captained the club to nine consecutive championships, and successive trebles in 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19 and 2019–20. Individually, Brown won the PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year award twice, in 2008–09 and 2017–18, and the Scottish Footballer of the Year award in 2017–18. He made more European appearances for Celtic than any other player. Brown left Celtic in June 2021, when he signed for Aberdeen and also became their assistant manager. Brown would spend 9 months at Pittodrie before leaving the club in March 2022 and retiring as a player two months later, after which he became manager of Fleetwood Town.


text: Brown played for Scotland at under-19 and under-21 levels before making his full international debut in November 2005, aged 20. He did not play for Scotland again until March 2007, but then became a regular in the squad. He scored his first goal for the senior team on 5 September 2009 in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification win against Macedonia. In March 2016, he won his 50th cap and was inducted into Scotland's Scottish FA International Roll of Honour.


text: Brown was born on 25 June 1985 in Dunfermline, Scotland. He attended Dalgety Bay Primary School, Hill of Beath Primary School and Beath High School. Former Rangers and Scotland player Jim Baxter was also born in the village and a statue to him stands across the road from the house Brown grew up in.


text: Brown trained with Falkirk during his childhood. Around this time, Rangers also showed an interest, but informed him that he was too small to make the grade. He joined Hibernian aged 13, after he was spotted by their chief scout John Park. His mother Heather would regularly take Scott to Hibernian training sessions in Edinburgh and Motherwell, where he was coached by Gordon Rae and Keith Wright, among others.


text: Brown signed for Hibernian as a professional in 2002 and made his debut as a substitute in a 3–1 win against Aberdeen on 3 May 2003. Brown, aged 17, said that "I was very nervous when I went on but that soon disappeared when I got involved in the game." He helped set up all three of Hibs goals in that match. Brown made his first starting appearance the following week, in a 1–0 win against Motherwell. Brown then started in Hibs' remaining two matches of the season and scored in both, a double in a 2–1 win against Livingston and in a 3–2 defeat to Partick Thistle. Brown was part of a "Golden Generation" for Hibs, also including players like Kevin Thomson, Garry O'Connor, Derek Riordan, Steven Whittaker and Steven Fletcher, who all progressed through their youth team at around the same time.


text: Brown became a regular in the Hibernian team in the 2003–04 season, playing 41 times in all competitions and scoring four goals. Despite only finishing eighth in the SPL, Hibs reached the 2004 League Cup final, defeating both Celtic and Rangers en route, but they lost 2–0 to Livingston in the final. Brown featured in all of the matches in that cup run and scored in the 9–0 win over Montrose in the third round.


text: Hibs enjoyed greater success under the guidance of new manager Tony Mowbray, finishing third in the 2004–05 Scottish Premier League. Brown missed four months of the season, due to an injury sustained against Celtic. He consequently played in only 23 matches, scoring just twice, but this included the second goal in a 3–1 win over Celtic at Celtic Park on 30 April.


text: The 2005–06 season was also blighted somewhat by injury, as Brown missed most of the second half of the season due to a broken leg sustained in a challenge by Hearts midfielder Julien Brellier. He therefore missed the Scottish Cup semi-final defeat against Hearts. Brown returned from injury in the last Edinburgh derby of the season, coming on as a substitute in a 2–1 win for Hibs. Brown agreed a new contract with Hibs in March 2006.


text: The 2006–07 season saw Brown emerge as one of the better players in the Scottish game. Brown helped Hibs win their first trophy in 16 years as they defeated Kilmarnock 5–1 in the League Cup final. Brown handed in a transfer request to the Hibernian assistant manager, Tommy Craig, after their home game against Dundee United on 2 December 2006. The action was thought to be taken on the advice of agent Willie McKay, who Brown had recently appointed. Scotland manager Walter Smith criticised Brown and teammate Kevin Thomson for not showing enough responsibility in their dealings with Hibs, given that they had both recently agreed contracts with the club.


text: On 31 January 2007, Brown announced that he was retracting his transfer request and was now happy to remain with Hibernian for the duration of his contract, which was due to end in mid-2009. Despite this, media rumours continued to suggest that he would move. Kevin Thomson, who had signed for Rangers in January 2007, claimed to have spoken with Brown about joining him at Rangers. Premier League club Reading confirmed that they reached agreement with Hibernian to sign Brown, but the player refused the move, saying:


text: Reading were indeed relegated at the end of the 2007–08 season. Despite intense speculation that he would move to Rangers, with Rangers fans taunting Hibs fans that Brown would sign for them, Brown agreed a move to Celtic. Willie McKay commented that Brown was excited about playing for such a successful club and the chance to play in the UEFA Champions League. Brown was transferred for £4.4 million, the largest transfer fee exchanged between two Scottish clubs. The previous record was the £4 million transfer of Duncan Ferguson from Dundee United to Rangers. Brown scored in his final appearance for Hibs, against Celtic, for whom he had agreed to sign the previous week. During the game he was cheered by both sets of supporters.


text: Brown made his Celtic debut in a goalless draw against Kilmarnock on 5 August 2007. Ten days later, he made his UEFA Champions League debut in a 1–1 draw at Spartak Moscow. Brown cleared a header off the Celtic goal line to keep the scores level. His first goal for Celtic came on 25 August, in a 5–0 win against Hearts. Four days later, he played in the return leg against Spartak. Brown won a penalty in extra time, but it was missed by Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink. Celtic went on to win the resulting penalty shootout to qualify for the Champions League group stage. Brown scored in a 5–1 win over St Mirren on 2 September, one week after scoring against Hearts. He played in Celtic's 2–1 win over reigning European champions Milan at Celtic Park.


text: On 6 November 2007, Brown was on the receiving end of a heavy tackle by Gilles Binya during Celtic's 1–0 win over Benfica, but he was relatively unhurt. Binya was subsequently given a six match European ban following the dangerous challenge. Celtic finished second in their Champions League group with nine points. They were drawn with Barcelona in the last 16, but Brown missed the 3–2 defeat in the first leg through suspension. He returned for the second leg at the Camp Nou, which Celtic lost 1–0. Brown was suspended for three league matches, including two Old Firm games, in April 2008. Due to this suspension, manager Gordon Strachan chose a midfield pairing of Barry Robson and Paul Hartley for the final weeks of the season. Brown made a total of 48 appearances for Celtic in his first season with the club, scoring three goals.


text: Early in the 2008–09 season, Strachan praised Brown for re-inventing himself as a more defensive-minded player. Despite taking on these defensive duties, Brown still contributed some goals, such as against his former club Hibernian on 25 October. Brown won the SPL Player of the Month Award for October 2008. In the January transfer window he was linked with a £9 million move to Portsmouth, with Tottenham also reported to be interested in him. Brown stated that he did not want to leave Celtic and that he was happy with the club. Later in the month, he was named by FIFA as one of their players to watch in 2009. He scored his first brace for Celtic in a 7–0 victory over St Mirren on 28 February 2009. Brown was voted Man of the match in the 2009 League Cup Final, which Celtic won 2–0 against Rangers at Hampden Park. and was awarded the SPFA Players' Player of the Year for the 2008–09 season. Due to a suspension, he missed the final Old Firm game of the season, which Celtic lost 1–0. This defeat proved crucial as Rangers regained the championship from Celtic. He suffered an ankle injury towards the end of the season and had to take injections in order to play matches. Brown played 48 times for Celtic during the 2008–09 season, scoring seven goals.


text: Following the resignation of Strachan at the end of the 2008–09 season, Brown's former Hibs boss Tony Mowbray became Celtic manager. Brown underwent surgery during pre-season in an attempt to rectify his ankle problem, but this didn't work, and he played matches despite not being fully fit. Celtic had a fairly good start to their league campaign, going into the first Old Firm match four points ahead of Rangers, but they lost 2–1. Celtic beat Dynamo Moscow in Champions League qualifying, but then lost the play-off to Arsenal, which meant that they dropped into the Europa League group stage. The 1–0 home defeat by Hamburg on 22 October 2009 was Brown's last action of the year,<ref name="09/10"></ref> as Celtic initially chose to rest him in another effort to heal the ankle injury. This proved unsuccessful, and he underwent a second operation in Rotterdam to try and clear up his ankle injury.


text: Brown made his comeback in February 2010 as a substitute in a 1–0 defeat to Kilmarnock, during which he took the captaincy of the team. Mowbray confirmed later that week that Brown would assume the Celtic captaincy. Brown was sent off in the third Old Firm game of the season, after a confrontation with Rangers player Kyle Lafferty. BBC Sport described the decision to dismiss Brown as "harsh". Mowbray was sacked by Celtic in March 2010 and replaced by Neil Lennon, initially on a caretaker basis. After this, Celtic won their remaining eight league matches of the season. Brown played in all of them, and managed to score in Celtic's 3–1 victory over Kilmarnock on 27 March which was Lennon's first match in charge. On 10 April, Brown played in Celtic's 2–0 Scottish Cup semi-final defeat to First Division side Ross County. Being knocked out of this competition meant that Celtic would finish a season without a trophy for the first time in seven years. After the match, Brown apologised to the Celtic fans for the team's performance and stated that it was the players', and not the manager's, fault that Celtic had lost.


text: After being appointed manager on a permanent basis during the summer, Neil Lennon retained Brown as captain because he had contributed significantly to Lennon keeping his position. Brown played in many of Celtic's matches during the early stage of the 2010–11 season. He also managed to get his first goal for the club since March when, on 25 September 2010, he scored a "superb volley" against Hibernian. On 2 October, Brown played in Celtic's 3–1 win over Hamilton before leaving for international duty. He suffered an injury during the game that was reported to be a metatarsal injury, which would mean he would be out for six weeks. Celtic later stated that he had in fact suffered a stress reaction in a metatarsal on his right foot and that he would be out for around ten weeks. Lennon expressed his concern at the injury, as Brown had been one of Celtic's key players. Despite initial fears that Brown would be out until the new year he made his return for Celtic on Boxing Day as they beat St Johnstone 2–0 at home. He then started his second match in three days as Celtic beat Motherwell 1–0, however Brown was sent off after receiving a second yellow card in the 89th minute. This meant he would miss the upcoming Old Firm match on 2 January.


text: Brown scored against Rangers in a Scottish Cup tie at Ibrox on 6 February 2011, which earned Celtic a replay. Brown and El Hadji Diouf, who had played directly against each other on Celtic's right wing, had exchanged words throughout much of the game. After scoring his goal, Brown turned to Diouf and raised his arms in a taunting celebration, he was booked for this. After the match they continued their feud in the media the next day. Two days after the match, Brown then stated that he considered their altercations to be "just a bit of banter" which he regularly encountered on the pitch and that the yellow card he received for his celebration was the best of his life. Several days later, Lennon publicly stated he wanted to agree a new contract with Brown. In the lead up to the replay of the Scottish Cup match, Rangers player Kyle Bartley said that not many Rangers players liked Brown and that they would be targeting him in the next game.


text: Brown was booked in Celtic's penultimate league game against Kilmarnock, which caused him to go over the disciplinary points threshold and receive a suspension for the first two matches of the 2011–12 season. Brown helped Celtic to the 2011 Scottish Cup Final, which Celtic won 3–0 against Motherwell. This allowed him to collect his first trophy as Celtic captain. Brown played 39 times for Celtic, scoring four goals, during the 2010–11 season. He was often used on the right of midfield, partly due to the form of other central midfielders such as Beram Kayal, Joe Ledley and Ki Sung-Yueng, but also because Brown is more able to play in wide areas than them.


text: At the start of the 2011–12 season, Newcastle United were linked with a £6 million bid for Brown, as a replacement for their outgoing captain Kevin Nolan. Brown stated that he did not want to leave Celtic and that he felt privileged to be the captain. He also said that he wanted to sign a new contract as his current deal was to expire at the end of the season. Internazionale and Juventus were also reportedly looking to sign him on a free transfer if he did not sign a new contract. After protracted talks, Brown announced on 29 August that he was to sign a new contract in the next few weeks. Due to his SPL suspension incurred at the end of the 2010–11 season, Brown's first match of the new campaign was Scotland's 2–1 win over Denmark on 10 August. He suffered an ankle injury in this match, but played in the next five games for Celtic and the next international match. He missed Celtic's 4–0 win over Motherwell, on 10 September, due to the injury and then the 2–0 loss to Atlético Madrid five days later.


text: He returned for the first Old Firm match of the season on 18 September 2011, but was substituted towards the end of the match after suffering a further recurrence of the injury. Neil Lennon said after the match that Brown had been one of Celtic's best players, as he had been involved in both of their goals during the 4–2 defeat. Celtic announced after the match that Brown would have to go and see a specialist and would be out of action for several months. Brown made his return on 30 November, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 1–0 loss against Atlético Madrid. The next day, he was able to talk with other clubs about signing a pre-contract agreement. However, Brown signed a new three-year deal on 3 December, with Celtic having the option of extending his contract for a further season. The deal had been delayed for so long because Celtic were not willing to pay the fee demanded by Brown's advisors. Brown continued his comeback by scoring in a 2–0 away win against St Mirren on 21 January 2012. He then scored a penalty against Falkirk, in a 3–1 League Cup semi-final win, on 30 January. He followed this up with another penalty in Celtic's 2–0 win over Inverness five days later. Brown was then named Player of the Month for January 2012. On 25 March 2012, Brown scored a penalty in Celtic's 3–2 loss to Rangers.


text: On 1 October 2013, in Celtic's second UEFA Champions League match of the group stage against Barcelona, Brown kicked out at Neymar and was sent off in the 59th minute. The sending off happened with the game at 0–0 and shortly after Brown's dismissal, Cesc Fàbregas would score the only goal of the game to give Barcelona a 1–0 victory.


text: Brown suffered a hamstring injury in a pre-season friendly match against Rapid Vienna in July 2014. He scored a goal in his first full game after injury, a 2–2 draw in a Europa League group match against FC Red Bull Salzburg. In November 2014, Brown signed a 4-year contract extension keeping him at the Parkhead club until 2018. He made his 300th appearance for Celtic on 21 December 2014 in a 2–1 loss at Dundee United. He made 48 appearances in all competitions in the 2014–15 season, scoring five times.


text: Brown scored his first goal of the 2016–17 season on 17 August 2016 in a 5–2 win over Hapoel Be'er Sheva in a Champions League play-off match. He scored the 25th league goal of his Celtic career on 1 October 2016 in a 1–0 away win over Dundee, and made his 400th appearance for Celtic in a 1–0 win against St Johnstone on 25 January 2017.


text: In April 2018, Brown was named as the PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year for the 2017–18 season, becoming only the second player (after Henrik Larsson) to win the award twice. Brown also won the SFWA Footballer of the Year award for 2017–18, a season in which Celtic won a second consecutive treble ("double treble"). He was granted a testimonial match by Celtic in May 2018, played against a Republic of Ireland XI at Celtic Park.


text: On 2 December 2018, Brown came off the bench as Celtic defeated Aberdeen in the 2018 Scottish League Cup Final to claim seven consecutive domestic trophies. At the end of the same month, he made his 500th appearance for the club. He had already achieved a personal milestone at the start of that season by playing in his 100th UEFA club fixture, becoming the first Scottish player to do so.


text: On 31 January 2019, Brown declined an offer to join new Australian team Western Melbourne FC and other approaches from abroad, instead extending his contract with Celtic until summer 2021, indicating that when it ended he would probably retire from playing.


text: On 31 March 2019, Brown was involved in several incidents during an important Old Firm match against Rangers at Celtic Park, including a red card shown to Alfredo Morelos for elbowing Brown to the head, Ryan Kent shoving Brown to his head using a closed fist following Celtic's winning goal (missed by the officials, but Kent was later charged with misconduct by the league authorities) and being confronted angrily by Andy Halliday after the final whistle when Brown chose to celebrate enthusiastically in front of the small section of visiting supporters. Each time, Brown was seen smiling and laughing at the Rangers players involved, having successfully antagonised them. Responses to his behaviour varied while Police Scotland decided it was a matter for the football authorities. The SFA charged Brown with "failing to act in the best interest of Scottish football" for his actions at the final whistle, but at the hearing on 26 April, the verdict was not proven.


text: Brown made his 600th appearance for Celtic on 6 December 2020, playing in a 1–1 draw with St Johnstone. He received a straight red card after coming on from the bench for striking Livingston player Jaze Kabia, in a 2–2 draw on 20 January 2021. On 25 March, it was confirmed that Brown would end his 14-year stay at the club at the end of the 2020–21 season, as he had signed a pre-contract agreement with Aberdeen.


text: On 25 March 2021, it was announced that Brown would join Aberdeen on 1 July in a player-coach role on a two-year contract working as assistant manager to manager Stephen Glass. On 27 October, Brown scored for Aberdeen against rival Rangers at Ibrox, which ended in a 2–2 draw. Brown left Aberdeen in March 2022, soon after Glass had been replaced as manager by Jim Goodwin. He said that he left Aberdeen because a coaching position would not be available under Goodwin, and that he would look for a coaching role elsewhere.


text: On 6 May 2022, Brown officially announced his retirement from professional football, he made a total of 787 appearances for Hibernian, Celtic and Aberdeen; he also earned himself 55 Scotland caps during two spells; Brown won 23 major honours during his 19-year career.


text: Brown was a regular in the Scotland national under-21 football team managed by Rainer Bonhof, who recommended Brown to contacts in his native Germany. Brown made his debut for Scotland as a 74th-minute substitute for Garry O'Connor in a 1–1 friendly home draw against the United States on 12 November 2005. Scotland manager Walter Smith, who had picked a team featuring eight players under 23 years old, said that Brown performed well and described him as a "chirpy lad". Brown was then put back into the under-21 squad, but he was added to the full squad in September 2006 for the match with Lithuania. Brown was selected for the full squad for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying matches against France and Ukraine in October 2006, but was not used in either game.


text: Brown made his competitive debut for Scotland in March 2007, coming on as a substitute for Gary Teale during a Euro 2008 qualifying match against Georgia. Having performed well in that appearance, Brown made his first start for Scotland in the following match, a 2–0 defeat against 2006 World Cup winners Italy. Brown then became a regular pick for the national team; he started in Scotland's 1–0 victory over 2006 World Cup runners-up France at the Parc des Princes in September 2007. Brown was named by FIFA.com as a player to watch in 2009. He scored his first goal for Scotland on 5 September 2009, in a 2–0 win over Macedonia in a 2010 World Cup qualifying match.


text: Brown scored the first goal of the Craig Levein era, in a 1–0 win over the Czech Republic on 3 March 2010. He then started the first two matches of Scotland's Euro 2012 qualifying campaign, a 0–0 draw against Lithuania and a 2–1 win over Liechtenstein. He missed the next two matches, losses against the Czech Republic and 2010 World Cup winners Spain due to injury. Under Levein, Brown was one of Scotland's key players, with both the manager, and assistant Peter Houston saying that they admire Brown's energy and personality. Brown was suggested as a possible captain for the 2011 Nations Cup match against Northern Ireland, in the absence of Darren Fletcher, but Levein decided to give the armband to Kenny Miller instead. Brown ended up missing the match due to injury.


text: On 22 December 2011, it was revealed that Brown had been invited to the Great Britain team for the 2012 Olympics, although he was not actually selected for the squad that participated at the Games.


text: He played in four 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification games, and was appointed captain by new Scotland manager Gordon Strachan in February 2013 following incumbent Darren Fletcher's bouts with illness. Brown scored his third and fourth international goals in consecutive 1–0 away friendly wins over Norway and Poland.


text: On 29 March 2016, Brown played his 50th international in a 1–0 home win over Denmark, earning himself a place on the roll of honour. In August 2016, he announced his intention to retire from international football in order to dedicate all of his efforts to his club game. He reversed this decision in October 2016, and featured in some 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification matches. In February 2018, Brown announced his retirement from international football for a second time.


text: Following his departure from Celtic in 2021, Brown signed with fellow Scottish Premiership side Aberdeen as a player-coach, working as assistant manager to Stephen Glass in addition to his role on the field. After Glass' dismissal in February 2022, Brown's role as assistant manager was immediately given to Lee Sharp upon the appointment of Jim Goodwin. Brown would depart Aberdeen the following month, citing a desire to pursue coaching opportunities elsewhere; he retired from playing in May 2022 and thus moved into full-time management.


text: In their 2009 "ones to watch" segment FIFA.com described Brown as being a "dynamic box-to-box midfielder", who is "direct, athletic and combative", they also pointed out that he has a "reckless streak". When analysing the 2007 SPFA team of the year, BBC Sport described Brown's "skilful, energetic running" as being integral to Hibs' "fluent" style of play. Scotland Under-21 coach Rainer Bonhof said in 2007 that Brown was a modern midfield player, but he needed to be calmed to avoid disciplinary problems. Early in his career, Brown admitted that he had to avoid sugary products, such as chocolate or fizzy drinks, because they would make him hyperactive.


text: When previewing the 2011 Scottish League Cup Final, Hearts manager Jim Jefferies described Brown as follows:


text: He has, at times, been criticised for his passing ability. As well as not being able to channel his aggression into a more productive manner, he has also been criticised for his disciplinary record due to his tough tackling style and his lack of goalscoring since joining Celtic. "The Daily Telegraph" noted in the lead-up to the 2011 Scottish Cup Final that Brown had only scored six goals in the previous two seasons, but had received eighteen yellow cards and two red cards. After captaining Scotland to an away win over Poland in March 2014, the Scotland national manager described Brown as "fantastic", adding "He's ungainly in a way but he does what all good midfielders do: pass the ball, keep it, move it on. But then he has got the power to win the ball back."


text: Brown frequently finds himself in confrontations with opponents, often mocking them. Most memorable was during a Scottish Cup tie against Rangers at Ibrox in 2011 when he clashed several times with El-Hadji Diouf. Matters came to a head when Brown scored Celtic's equaliser, then turned round in front of Diouf with his arms outstretched and stared directly at the Rangers player. Brown was yellow carded by the referee, but afterwards said "It was the best booking I've had in my life." In a physical encounter against Ross County in 2013, he was booked for goading and laughing at Mihael Kovačević after the Ross County defender rushed up to him and shouted in his face. In August 2015, The "Daily Record" reported complaints from Qarabağ's Gara Garayev that several Celtic players mocked them during a Champions League qualifying, with Brown described as being "the worst".


text: After a game against Celtic in January 2018, Hearts manager Craig Levein criticised Brown for a challenge that injured Hearts player Harry Cochrane. Levein claimed that opponents, particularly younger players like Cochrane, needed greater protection from referees when facing Brown. Levein, who coached Brown when he was Scotland manager, said that Brown was "aggressive" and was responding to a recent fixture where Hearts had beaten Celtic. However, Hearts' captain Don Cowie stated that Brown was not to blame for Cochrane's injury.


text: The following month, Aberdeen's Sam Cosgrove was sent off for a reckless tackle on Brown, to which he reacted by jumping to his feet and 'strutting' towards the crowd while laughing to demonstrate his toughness. Before the end of the campaign, Brown received two foul challenges in which the perpetrator appeared to deliberately stamp on his groin area: Andrew Davies of Ross County was ordered off at the time, with Brown stating "I didn't want more kids anyway" but later adding that "Stamping on opponents when the ball is nowhere near you is definitely not being a hard man or going into a hard tackle"; the referee took no action against Steven Naismith of Hearts at the time, but the Scotland forward was later banned by the SFA. On the latter incident, Brown commented "I think they try to wind me up and get me sent off but let's be honest, I am past that stage and have matured eventually. So it is not going to work."


text: Brown's habit of antagonising opponents was a prominent feature of the 2018–19 season in which Celtic retained all three domestic trophies for the third campaign in succession. His actions during and after an important league match against Rangers that Celtic won to virtually secure the title drew the attention of both the police and the football authorities – although ultimately he was not sanctioned with any offence. He was also criticised for appearing to mock and goad opposing players in the closing stages of the League Cup victory over Aberdeen and the Scottish Cup triumph against Hearts.


text: After Rangers player Glen Kamara was racially abused by Slavia Prague player Ondrej Kudela during a UEFA Europa League match in March 2021, Brown made a public gesture of support for Kamara ahead of an Old Firm match later that month. Brown was subsequently nominated for the 2021 FIFA Fair Play Award.


text: Brown's younger sister Fiona died of skin cancer in May 2008, aged 21. He suffered this loss only two weeks after Celtic first team coach Tommy Burns had died of the same illness. Brown has a tattoo on his right forearm with his sister's dates of birth and death; he later had words from a well-known funeral poem tattooed next to this.


text: Brown married Lisa Taylor in June 2009, in a small ceremony in Cyprus. As of May 2021, the couple have three sons, named Sonny, Kit and Shay.


text: Soon after signing for Celtic, Brown purchased a house in the Cramond area of Edinburgh for £1.475 million. He made the house available for sale in August 2012. Brown has been an Ambassador for the Homeless World Cup since 2014.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey Lín Jónsdóttir (; born April 23, 1999), known by the mononym Laufey , is an Icelandic singer and songwriter who became popular online in the early 2020s. She describes her musical style, a mixture of jazz pop and bedroom pop, as "modern jazz."


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey participated in "The Voice Iceland" in 2015. She released her debut EP "Typical of Me" in 2021, before releasing her debut album "Everything I Know About Love" in 2022.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey Lín Jónsdottír was born on April 23, 1999. Her father is Icelandic and her mother is Chinese. Her Chinese family is from Guangzhou. Her mother is a classical violinist and her grandfather, , was a violin educator at the Central Conservatory of Music in China, which Laufey credits as partly inspiring her love of music. She has an identical twin sister who goes by the name of Junia Jonsdottir. She spent her childhood moving between Reykjavík and Washington, D.C.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: At age 15, she performed as a soloist with the Iceland Symphony Orchestra. Although she was influenced by and played classical music from an early age, she turned to her father's records of female jazz musicians such as Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday to develop her musical style.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: While in Iceland, Laufey participated in the 2014 season of "Ísland Got Talent"—the Icelandic version of "America's Got Talent"—and ended as a finalist. The following year, she also appeared as a contestant on "The Voice Iceland" and reached the semi-finals. At the time, she was the youngest competitor in the series' history.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey released her debut single, "Street by Street", in 2020 and it charted at #1 on Icelandic Radio. She launched her first EP, "Typical of Me", on April 30, 2021. It includes "Street by Street" and six new songs. Many of these tracks were written in her college dorm room. "Rolling Stone" particularly praised her rendition of "I Wish You Love". "American Songwriter" included the EP in their list of best albums of 2021. Additionally, "Typical of Me" received attention from musicians such as Willow Smith and Billie Eilish.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey performed in the London Jazz Festival in November 2021. Around the same time, she collaborated with London's Philharmonia Orchestra to release "Let You Break My Heart Again". In December 2021, she collaborated with Dodie to release another single, "Love To Keep Me Warm", a cover of the original by Irving Berlin.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: Laufey hosts a weekly music show on BBC Radio 3 called "Happy Harmonies", where she highlights uplifting music in a wide variety of genres. She also has a significant following on TikTok, where she frequently hosts live sessions.


title: Laufey (singer)

text: She made her United States network television debut when she appeared as the musical guest on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" on January 21, 2022. She played her song "Like The Movies" from her debut EP, "Typical of Me". Her debut album, "Everything I Know About Love," was released on August 26, 2022 via AWAL to critical acclaim.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: Greed is a 2019 satirical black comedy film written and directed by Michael Winterbottom. The film stars Steve Coogan, David Mitchell, Asa Butterfield, Dinita Gohil, Sophie Cookson, Jonny Sweet, Asim Chaudhry, Shirley Henderson, and Isla Fisher. The film centres around Sir Richard McCreadie, played by Coogan, a billionaire high-street fashion mogul loosely based on Arcadia Group chairman Philip Green, and events surrounding the build-up to his 60th birthday celebrations on the Greek island of Mykonos.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: "Greed" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2019, and was released in the United Kingdom on 21 February 2020 by Sony Pictures Releasing International.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: The film takes a non-linear approach to the life of Sir Richard "Greedy" McCreadie, a billionaire fashion mogul. After a recent damaging appearance at a government inquiry into financial and ethical abuse within the fashion industry, McCreadie has decided to publish his memoirs and has hired Nick, a socially awkward journalist, to ghostwrite it for him. Nick's research into McCreadie's background leads to flashbacks charting his rise from relatively humble (though still affluent and privileged) circumstances as an outcast and rebellious student at an unnamed British public school, to his rise in the 1970s and 1980s as a powerful high-street fashion merchant, to the government hearing. It becomes clear that, despite McCreadie's self-image as a hard-nosed and savvy businessman with multiple celebrity friends, much of his wealth is in fact based on ruthless exploitation and financial corruption, including a reliance on sweatshops in Southeast Asia for his fashion lines, tax avoidance, asset stripping and similar ethically questionable financial dealings.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: The present of the film focusses on the build-up to McCreadie's 60th birthday party, a "Gladiator"-themed celebration on the island of Mykonos, which are intended to allow McCreadie to relax after the hearings. However, even there matters are not progressing smoothly; the centrepiece of the celebrations, a Roman arena where a mock-gladiatorial fight against a lion will be staged, is poorly-constructed because lax local builders rely mainly on undocumented immigrant labour, and the lion itself is quite passive, much to McCreadie's annoyance. Furthermore, many of McCreadie's celebrity guests are distancing themselves from him due to the damage to his reputation, and a crowd of Syrian refugees have constructed a makeshift camp on the public beach adjoining his property and refuse to leave. Tensions also exist among his family, including his ex-wife Samantha, who acts as the public CEO of his family and for whom he continues to have lingering attraction despite having subsequently married Naomi, a much younger trophy wife; his daughter Lily, who is starring with her boyfriend Fabian in a reality-TV show being filmed alongside the celebrations; and his neglected son Finn, who holds an Oedipal obsession with replacing his father.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: As he writes the memoir, Nick struggles with his job of whitewashing McCreadie's public image in light of both his unethical business practices and, on a personal level, his uncouth and bullying personality. He forms a friendship with Amanda, one of McCreadie's personal assistants, who is also struggling with the ethical dilemmas of working for McCreadie. After breaking down when McCreadie reveals that he wants his employees to wear Roman slave outfits to his party, Amanda reveals to Nick that her mother was an employee in one of McCreadie's sweatshops in Sri Lanka, but was fired by the manager when she was no longer physically able to work to McCreadie's requirements. She was subsequently killed after being forced to work in another sweatshop which eventually caught fire due to a lack of safety precautions.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: On the night of the party, McCreadie cons the Syrian refugees into working for him with a three-card monte trick after his local employees down tools. During the lavish celebrations, some of the refugee children steal silverware and are confronted by McCreadie's employees, but Amanda manages to persuade their father to return the stolen items. Simultaneously, Finn steals some cocaine from Naomi and doses the lion's food with it. After Samantha rejects his advances, McCreadie drunkenly wanders into the arena and encounters the lion in its cage. Amanda, crossing paths with him, on impulse releases the lion, which mauls McCreadie to death in a drugged frenzy. Nick witnesses these events in horror, but helps Amanda escape without being discovered.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: Following McCreadie's death, he becomes subject to numerous flattering eulogies, and Nick's project becomes a hagiographic biography. Finn takes over his father's role in the business, and it is implied that he will be just as ruthless if not worse. Nick and Amanda meet and agree to keep Amanda's role in McCreadie's death secret; Amanda tells Nick that she views her action as justified and not so different from the indirect role McCreadie played in her mother's death. Amanda goes to work at her new job: sewing at a Leicester sweatshop. The film ends with facts about exploitation and inequality within the fashion industry being shown over the credits.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: It was announced in November 2016 that Fox Searchlight was looking to acquire the distribution rights to the film, with Michael Winterbottom set as director and Sacha Baron Cohen cast.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: No further development on the film was announced until September 2018, with the castings of Steve Coogan (replacing Baron Cohen), David Mitchell and Isla Fisher.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: In December 2018, it was revealed that filming had concluded, with additional castings being revealed, including Sophie Cookson, Shirley Henderson, Asa Butterfield, and Stephen Fry.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: "Greed" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2019. Prior to, Sony Pictures Classics acquired US distribution rights to the film.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: A trailer for the film was released on 5 December 2019. The film was released in the United Kingdom on 21 February 2020.


title: Greed (2019 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""Greed" rarely hits quite as hard as it ought to, but solid laughs and a smartly assembled cast keep this one-percent satire entertaining." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Conflict (process)

text: A conflict is a struggle and a clash of interest, opinion, or even principles. Conflict will always be found in society; as the basis of conflict may vary to be personal, racial, class, caste, political and international. Conflict may also be emotional, intellectual, and theoretical, in which case academic recognition may, or may not be, a significant motive. Intellectual conflict is a subclass of cultural conflict, a conflict that tends to grow over time due to different cultural values and beliefs.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Conflict in a group often follows a specific course. "Routine group interaction" is first disrupted by an "initial conflict" within the group, often caused by internal differences of opinion, disagreements between its members, or scarcity of resources available to the group. At this point, the group is no longer united, and may split into coalitions. This period of "conflict escalation" in some cases gives way to a "conflict resolution stage", after which the group can eventually return to "routine group interaction" or split.


title: Conflict (process)

text: M. Afzalur, a professor at Western Kentucky University, notes there is no single universally accepted definition of conflict. He notes that one issue of contention is whether the conflict is a situation or a type of behaviour.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Citing a review of definitions of organizational conflicts in 1990 by Robert A. Baron, Afzalur notes that all definitions of conflict include known opposing interests and the process of trying to stop the opposing view or views. Building on that, the proposed definition of conflict by Afzalur is "an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or dissonance within or between social entities." Afzalur also notes that a conflict may be limited to one individual, who is conflicted within himself (the intrapersonal conflict). Afzalur lists some manifestations of conflict behavior, starting with disagreement followed by verbal abuse and interference.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Another definition of conflict is proposed by Michael Nicholson, professor of Internal Relation at the University of Sussex, who defines it as an activity which takes place when conscious beings (individuals or groups) wish to carry out mutually inconsistent acts concerning their wants, needs or obligations. Conflict is an escalation of a disagreement, which is its common prerequisite, and is characterized by the existence of conflict behavior, in which the beings are actively trying to damage one another.


title: Conflict (process)

text: A key player in inter-group relations and conflict is the collective sentiment a person's own group (in-group) feels toward another group (out-group). These inter-group emotions are usually negative, and range in intensity from feelings of discomfort when interacting with a member of a certain other group to full on hatred for another group and its members. For example, in Fischer's organizational research at the University of Oxford, inter-group conflict was so 'heated' that it became mutually destructive and intractable, resulting in organizational collapse.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Out-group-directed emotions can be expressed both verbally and non-verbally, and according to the stereotype content model, are dictated by two dimensions: the perceived warmth (friendliness) and competence of the other group (skillfulness). Depending on the perceived degree of warmth and competence, the stereotype content model predicts four basic emotions that could be directed toward the out-group (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: Envy results when the out-group is perceived to have high competence, but low warmth (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). Envious groups are usually jealous of another group's symbolic and tangible achievements and view that group as competition (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: Contempt results when the out-group is taken to be low in both competence and warmth (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). According to Forsyth, contempt is one of the most frequent intergroup emotions. In this situation, the out-group is held responsible for its own failures. In-group members also believe that their conflict with the out-group can never be resolved (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: Out-groups that are believed by the in-group to be high in warmth but low in competence are pitied (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). Usually pitied groups are lower in status than the in-group and are not believed to be responsible for their failures (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: Admiration occurs when an out-group is taken to be high in both warmth and competence, however, admiration is very rare because these two conditions are seldom met (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). An admired out-group is thought to be completely deserving of its accomplishments. Admiration is thought to be most likely to arise when a member of the in-group can take pride in the accomplishments of the out-group, and when the out-group achieving does not interfere with the in-group (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: In cases of "intragroup conflict", there is a conflict between the overall goals of the general group, and the goals of at least one person in that group. The disagreements may also be examples of "interpersonal conflict", a conflict between two or more people. More specific types of conflict include the following.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Conflict is rarely seen as constructive; however, in certain contexts (such as competition in sports), moderate levels of conflict can be seen as being mutually beneficial, facilitating understanding, tolerance, learning, and effectiveness. In a team setting, the group can learn to overcome intragroup conflict which would conclude to minimizing negative outcomes. With minimizing negative outcomes, positive outcomes will grow with increase of teamwork, working as a group, and increase of understanding and cooperation with teammates which eventually leads to the control on intragroup conflict.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Roy and Judy Eidelson (2003) investigated some of the important roles that beliefs may play in triggering or constraining conflict between groups. On the basis of a review of relevant literature, five belief domains stand out as especially noteworthy: Superiority, injustice, vulnerability, distrust and helplessness.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Individual-level core belief": This is a belief that an individual is better than anyone else and therefore many of the social constructs because the individual sees their own thoughts as "privileged" and therefore do not get along well with others. People with this belief often have attitudes of "specialness, deservingness, and entitlement."


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Group-level worldview": When moving from the individual-level core belief to the Group-level worldview most of the concepts stay the same. The major difference is that these attitudes apply to large groups instead of individuals. One example of this is "ethnocentric monoculturalism," a term meaning that one sees their own cultural heritage as better than another's.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Individual-level core belief": This belief is that an individual has been mistreated in a way that affects them in a major way. This mistreatment is most often an interpretation of "disappointment and betrayal".


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Group-level worldview": This is the receiving end of the superiority group-level. This group takes grievance at another group for the same reasons an individual takes grievance at another. For perceived injustices from disappointment, betrayal, and mistreatment.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Individual-level core belief": This is a constant anxiety. It is when a person feels that he/she is not in control and feel as though they are living "perpetually in harm's way".


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Group-level worldview": A group that feels vulnerability due to an imagined threat in the future. This strengthens the group's ties and allows them to "focus group behavior in specific directions that include hostility."


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Individual-level core belief": This is based on a "presumed hostility and malignant intent seen in others". It drives one to act in hostile ways and prevents the creation of healthy relationships.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Group-level worldview": This separates the in-group from the out-group in a way that is not easily rectified, as the in-group forms a lasting stereotype that is applied to the out-group and must be disproven by the out-group.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Individual-level core belief": A deep set belief that no matter what an individual does the outcome will be unfavorable. As though the individual is "lacking the necessary ability" or a belief the individual did not have sufficient help or the environment is against them.


title: Conflict (process)

text: "Group-level worldview": When a group has those same beliefs of dependency and powerlessness. This also reflects how much growth the environment has to offer.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Although the involved parties may hope to reach a solution to their dispute quickly, psychological and interpersonal factors can frustrate their attempts to control the conflict, and in this case, conflict escalation occurs. Conflict escalation "can be understood as an intensification of a conflict with regard to the observed extent and the means used". A number of factors including increased commitment to one's position, use of harder influence tactics, and formation of coalitions propel the escalation of the conflict.


title: Conflict (process)

text: As conflicts escalate, group members' doubts and uncertainties are replaced with a firm commitment to their position. People rationalize their choices once they have made them: they seek out information that supports their views, reject information that disconfirms their views, and become more entrenched in their original position (also see confirmatory bias). Additionally, people believe that once they commit to a position publicly, they should stick with it. Sometimes, they may realize the shortcomings of their views, but they continue defending those views and arguing against their opponents just to save face. Finally, if the opponents argue too strongly, reactance may set in and group members become even more committed to the position.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Individuals' reactions to the conflict are shaped by their perception of the situation and people in the situation. During the conflict, opponents' inferences about each other's strengths, attitudes, values, and personal qualities tend to be largely distorted.


title: Conflict (process)

text: During the conflict, people explain their opponents' actions in ways that make the problem worse. Fundamental attribution error occurs when one assumes that opponents' behavior was caused by personal (dispositional) rather than situational (environmental) factors. When conflict continues for a while, opponents might decide that this conflict is intractable. People usually expect intractable conflicts to be prolonged, intense, and very hard to resolve.


title: Conflict (process)

text: During the conflict, opponents often become mistrustful of one another wondering if their cooperative motivations were replaced by competitive ones. This loss of trust makes it difficult to return to the cooperative relationship. People with competitive social value orientations (SVOs) are the most inaccurate in their perception of opponents' motivation. They often think that others compete with them when in fact, there is no competition going on. Competitors are also more biased in their search for information that confirms their suspicions that others compete with them. They also tend to deliberately misrepresent their intentions, sometimes claiming to be more cooperatively oriented than they actually are.


title: Conflict (process)

text: People use soft tactics at the outset of the conflict, but as it escalates, tactics become stronger and harder. To demonstrate this phenomenon, Mikolic, Parker, and Pruitt (1997) simulated a conflict situation by creating a "birthday card factory" with study participants who were paid a small amount for each card they manufactured using paper, colored markers, and ribbons. The work went well until researchers' confederate who posed as another participant started hoarding production materials. Initially, group members tried to solve the problem with statements and requests. When these methods failed they shifted to demands and complaints, and then to threats, abuse, and anger.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Although hard tactics can overwhelm the opponent, they often intensify conflicts. Morton Deutsch and Robert Krauss (1960) used trucking game experiment to demonstrate that capacity to threaten others intensifies conflict. They also showed that establishing a communication link does not always help to solve the dispute. If one party threatens the other, the threatened party will fare best if it cannot respond with a counterthreat. Equally powerful opponents, however, learn to avoid the use of power if the fear of retaliation is high.


title: Conflict (process)

text: In many cases, upward conflict spirals are sustained by the norms of reciprocity: if one group or person criticizes the other, the criticized person or group feels justified in doing the same. In conflict situations, opponents often follow the norm of rough reciprocity, i.e. they give too much (overmatching) or too little (undermatching) in return. At low levels of conflict, opponents overmatch their threats, while at high levels of conflict they undermatch their threats. Overmatching may serve as a strong warning, while undermatching may be used to send conciliatory messages.


title: Conflict (process)

text: When conflicts erupt, group members use coalitions to shift the balance of power in their favor, and it is typical for multiparty conflicts to reduce to two-party blocks over time. Coalitions contribute to the conflict because they draw more members of the group into the affray. Individuals in coalitions work not only to ensure their own outcomes but also to worsen outcomes of non-coalition members. Those who are excluded from the coalition react with hostility and try to regain power by forming their own coalition. Thus, coalitions need to be constantly maintained through strategic bargaining and negotiation.


title: Conflict (process)

text: It is generally difficult for most people to remain calm and collected in a conflict situation. However, an increase in negative emotions (i.e. anger) only exacerbates the initial conflict. Even when group members want to discuss their positions calmly and dispassionately, once they become committed to their positions, an emotional expression often replaces logical discussion. Anger is also contagious: when group member negotiates with someone who is angry, they become angry themselves.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Nicholson notes that a conflict is resolved when the inconsistency between wishes and actions of parties is resolved. Negotiation is an important part of conflict resolution, and any design of a process which tries to incorporate positive conflict from the start needs to be cautious not to let it degenerate into the negative types of conflict.


title: Conflict (process)

text: Conflict is a social process that is exacerbated when individual members of a group take sides in the debate. Among the methods to resolve conflict is mediation of the dispute by a group member not currently involved in the dispute. More specifically, a mediator is defined as a person who attempts to resolve a conflict between two group members by intervening in this conflict. Put simply, the mediator can be thought of as a disinterested guide directs the disputants through the process of developing a solution to a disagreement (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: Although the tendency will be for group members who are uninvolved in the dispute to remain uninvolved, in some cases, the sheer intensity of the conflict may escalate to the point where mediation is unavoidable. Third party mediation of the conflict opens avenues for communication between group members in conflict. It allows members to express their opinions and request clarification of other member's standpoints while the mediator acts as a form of protection against any shame or "loss of face" that either disputant may experience. This can be done by shedding a positive light on the reconciliation that was made during the mediation process. For instance, if it was negotiated that two cashiers will rotate the weekends they work, the mediator might point out that now each worker gets a weekend off every two weeks (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: The mediator can also offer assistance in refining solutions and making counter-offers between members, adjusting the time and location of meetings so that they are mutually satisfying for both parties (Forsyth, 2010).


title: Conflict (process)

text: In practice, conflict resolution is often interwoven with daily activities, as in organizations, workplaces and institutions. Staff and residents in a youth care setting, for instance, interweave everyday concerns (meals, lessons, breaks, meetings, or other mundane but concerted projects) with interpersonal disputes.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Groot is the name of two fictional characters voiced by Vin Diesel and portrayed via motion capture by Diesel, Krystian Godlewski, Sean Gunn, James Gunn, and Terry Notary, in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) media franchise, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Both Groots are depicted as tree-like humanoids, with the original being Rocket's associate, and the second becoming his adoptive son. Both are members of the Guardians of the Galaxy.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In March 2017, Gunn confirmed that the character Baby Groot introduced at the conclusion of "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014) following the original Groot's death and adopted by Rocket as his son is a different character from the first Groot, who does not have his biological father's memories.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: , the original Groot appeared in one film, the other in five and the animated series of shorts called "I Am Groot" (2022) released on Disney+. He will return in "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3" (2023) and "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" (2022).


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Groot first appeared in "Tales to Astonish" #13 (November 1960), and was created by Stan Lee, Larry Lieber and Jack Kirby. "Groot" is the Dutch word for "large", possibly referring to his stature and ability to grow in size. He appeared again in "The Incredible Hulk Annual" #5 (Oct. 1976), alongside five other monsters from Marvel's anthology horror comics of the late 1950s and early 1960s. In "The Sensational Spider-Man" #−1 (July 1997), Groot was featured in a nightmare of the young Peter Parker. Groot reappeared in 2006 in the six-issue limited series "Nick Fury's Howling Commandos", and appeared in the "" and "Annihilation: Conquest – Star-Lord" limited series. Groot went on to join the Guardians of the Galaxy in the series of the same name, and remained a fixture of the title until its cancellation with issue #25 in 2010.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige first mentioned "Guardians of the Galaxy" as a potential film at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, stating, "There are some obscure titles, too, like "Guardians of the Galaxy". I think they've been revamped recently in a fun way in the [comic] book." Feige reiterated that sentiment in a September 2011 issue of "Entertainment Weekly", saying, "There's an opportunity to do a big space epic, which "Thor" sort of hints at, in the cosmic side" of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Feige added, should the film be made, it would feature an ensemble of characters, similar to "X-Men" and "The Avengers". Feige announced that the film was in active development at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International during the Marvel Studios panel, with an intended release date of August 1, 2014. He said the film's titular team would consist of the characters Star-Lord, Drax the Destroyer, Gamora, Groot, and Rocket.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In September 2013, Vin Diesel stated that he was voicing Groot, though Marvel did not confirm Diesel's involvement in the film at the time.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: A sentient tree-like being, Groot becomes associated with the raccoon-like mercenary Rocket. In 2014, on the planet Xandar, they spot Peter Quill fighting Gamora for possession of the Power Stone. Rocket and Groot interfere in their fight, as they attempt to capture Quill for a bounty. All four are captured by the Nova Corps and sent to the Kyln, a space prison. Rocket devises an intricate plan to escape from the Kyln, which involves a battery taken from a device from high up on the wall as the last step due to its connection to an alarm. However, Groot, innocently meaning to help, extends himself to a great height and takes the device, triggering alarms and forcing the rest to accelerate the plan. They escape along with Kyln inmate Drax, and the five become the Guardians of the Galaxy. They travel to Knowhere to sell the Power Stone, where Rocket and Drax have a heated argument resulting in a bar fight between Drax and Groot. After Drax drunkenly calls his powerful enemy Ronan to confront him, Ronan arrives and easily beats Drax and acquires the Power Stone, tossing Drax into a vat of spinal fluid from the mining operations on Knowhere. Groot rescues Drax from drowning, and while Rocket wants to flee, he is convinced by Groot and by Drax's apology to help save Xandar from Ronan's attack.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: As Groot and the Guardians battle Ronan the Accuser aboard the "Dark Aster", Rocket crashes a Ravager ship through the control room of the "Dark Aster", causing it to crash-land on Xandar. Before impact, Groot sacrifices himself to shield Rocket and the others by extending his body to form a cocoon, taking the brunt of the impact. On Xandar, the remaining Guardians are able to regain control of the Power Stone and destroy Ronan. Rocket plants a sapling taken from Groot's scattered body, which grows into a baby of his species, whom Rocket names Groot in his biological father's honour.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Following the death of his father, "Baby Groot" is grown from a sapling cut from him in a pot, and raised by Rocket as his son on Peter Quill's ship as a member of the Guardians of the Galaxy. Groot develops a love of music and dances while listening to Quill's music. Sometime later, Baby Groot struggles to take his first steps when his pot is cracked.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Two months later, the Guardians of the Galaxy are hired by the Sovereign to protect valuable batteries from an inter-dimensional monster. Baby Groot accompanies them, but rather than fighting the monster, he picks fights with rat-like reptiles in the area. When Quill's father Ego reveals himself to the Guardians, they split up so that Quill, Gamora, and Drax can go with Ego to his planet while Rocket and Groot stay behind to watch Nebula and repair the ship. However, the Ravagers arrive searching for Quill and after a fight, they capture Rocket and Groot and free Nebula. The Ravagers mutiny against their leader, Yondu, and mistreat Groot, with one Ravager pouring drinks on him and stomping on him. After the Ravagers fall asleep, Rocket and Yondu plot their escape, and Groot tries to find Yondu's fin. Eventually, Groot kills the Ravager who had tormented him and they destroy most of the Ravager vessel except for a breakaway quarter, in which they travel to Ego's planet. They learn that Ego is an evil living planet intent on dominating the universe. Quill keeps Ego occupied in combat with his newfound Celestial powers until Rocket is able to assemble a bomb, which Baby Groot places in Ego's brain.


title: Groot (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Baby Groot encountered the Grunds alien species, who believe he is their hero when Groot farts a leaf. When Groot returns from retrieving additional leaves, he accidentally steps on the Grunds. He also encounters Iwua, a space-shifting alien who impersonates him in a dance off, but Groot kills him via opening the airlock. Sometime later, Groot takes a bath and uses his leaves to form multiple "costumes", and skins a squirrel-bird creature that mocked him. Baby Groot sets out to retrieve tools to paint the Guardians of the Galaxy; which he shows to Rocket, whom he saves from an explosion.