title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: Note: Unrestricted free agents who were originally Restricted free agents (RFA) had three accrued seasons whose contracts expired at the end of the previous season, and did not receive a qualifying offer before the start of the 2022 league year on March 16.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: All undrafted free agents were signed at the conclusion of the 2022 NFL Draft on April 30, unless noted otherwise.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: On March 16, the Broncos acquired quarterback Russell Wilson and a 2022 fourth-round selection (No. 116 overall) from the Seattle Seahawks, in one of the largest trades in NFL history. The Broncos sent quarterback Drew Lock, tight end Noah Fant, defensive end Shelby Harris, their 2022 first-, second- and fifth-round selections (Nos. 9, 40 and 145 overall) and their 2023 first- and second-round selections to the Seahawks in exchange. In his ten seasons in Seattle (2012–2021), Wilson reached nine Pro Bowls, led the Seahawks to eight playoff appearances and two Super Bowl berths, including a 43–8 victory over the Broncos in Super Bowl XLVIII. Wilson will become the Broncos' 12th different starting quarterback since Peyton Manning's retirement after their 2015 Super Bowl-winning season—tied with the Washington Commanders for the most in the NFL during that span.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: Each NFL team is permitted to elevate up to two players from the practice squad to the active game day roster per week, with those designated players being allowed to return to the practice squad after each game without being exposed to waivers. Each player can be elevated a maximum of three times.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The 2022 season opener marked Russell Wilson's return to Seattle, where he led the Seahawks to eight playoff appearances and two Super Bowl berths during his ten seasons in Seattle from 2012–2021. After his trade from the Seahawks to the Broncos in March, he became the Broncos' sixth different opening day starting quarterback in as many seasons. This also marked Nathaniel Hackett's debut as the Broncos' head coach.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: Each team alternated scoring plays in the first half. The Seahawks took the early lead on the game's opening drive, with quarterback Geno Smith connecting on a 38-yard touchdown pass to tight end Will Dissly in the first quarter. Placekicker Brandon McManus got the Broncos on the scoring board, with a 30-yard field goal. The Seahawks increased their lead to 10–3 midway through the second quarter, with a 49-yard field goal. The Broncos then pulled even with the Seahawks, when Wilson threw his first touchdown pass as a Bronco—a 67-yarder to wide receiver Jerry Jeudy. However, the Seahawks responded, with Smith's second touchdown of the first half—a 25-yarder to tight end Colby Parkinson prior to the 2-minute warning. The Broncos' defense held the Seahawks scoreless for the remainder of the game. McManus added a 30-yard field goal as time expired in the first half to narrow the Seahawks' lead to 17–13.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos had the ball on the 1-yard line on back-to-back drives in the third quarter, but suffered two very costly turnovers when running backs Melvin Gordon and Javonte Williams fumbled on the goal line on two consecutive possessions. In between the two goal line fumbles, Broncos' linebacker Randy Gregory forced a fumble off Seahawks' wide receiver D. K. Metcalf near midfield and a recovery by safety Justin Simmons. After a scoreless third quarter, the Broncos started their first possession of the fourth quarter with 12:50 remaining in the game, but failed to reach the end zone after a 1st-and goal at the 3-yard line. McManus kicked a 26-yard field goal to narrow the Seahawks' lead to 17–16 at the 6:16 mark of the fourth quarter. After the defense forced a three-and-out from the Seahawks' offense, the Broncos started their final drive at their own 22-yard line with 4:02 remaining in the game. Wilson marched the Broncos down the field and forced a 4th-and-5 on the Seahawks' 46-yard line with 56 seconds to play. Instead of calling a timeout and calling a play, Hackett decided to let the clock run down to 20 seconds and called his first timeout to send out placekicker Brandon McManus to kick a 64-yard game-winning field goal, which he missed wide left, sealing the win for the Seahawks. Hackett's decision to burn over 40 seconds of game clock to kick a 64-yard field goal instead of letting the offense try to convert and move the ball further down the field was widely criticized. The Broncos' offense failed to reach the end zone on all three of their red zone trips, including the aforementioned 30-yard field goal by McManus.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: Through the midway point of the third quarter, all of the scoring came courtesy of the placekickers—40-, 44- and 24-yard field goals by the Texans' Ka'imi Fairbairn, and 24- and 50-yard field goals by the Broncos' Brandon McManus. The 24-yard field goal by Fairbairn occurred after an interception of Broncos' quarterback Russell Wilson on the first possession of the first half. The Broncos took the lead for good early in the fourth quarter, with Wilson connecting on a 22-yard touchdown pass to tight end Eric Saubert—the game's only touchdown. After forcing a Texans' punt, McManus added a 50-yard field goal with 3:36 remaining in the game. The Broncos' defense forced two Texans' turnovers on downs, ending their rally attempt, and in the process, held the Texans to 234 total yards, helping Nathaniel Hackett earning his first win as Broncos head coach.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos' offense had ten drives that ended in a 3-and-out, but their defense stymied the 49ers throughout the entire game. The only scoring plays within the first quarter were a 3-yard touchdown pass from 49ers' quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo to wide receiver Brandon Aiyuk in the first quarter, and a 55-yard field goal by Broncos' placekicker Brandon McManus early in the second quarter. After the Broncos went 3-and-out on their first two possessions of the third quarter, the 49ers were backed up near their own goal line. Garoppolo accidentally stepped out of the back of the end zone for a safety while being pressured by Broncos' nose tackle Mike Purcell—a play which proved critical to the game's outcome. The Broncos trailed 10–5 following a 51-yard field goal by 49ers' placekicker Robbie Gould early in the 4th quarter, but finally found their rhythm on a 12-play, 80-yard drive, which running back Melvin Gordon capped off with a 1-yard touchdown run. While they failed to convert the 2-point conversion, they took an 11–10 lead with 4:13 remaining in the game. The Broncos' defense then forced two game-saving turnovers. First, Garoppolo was intercepted by linebacker Jonas Griffith, following a deflection by cornerback Kareem Jackson. Then, after the Broncos went 3-and-out just after the two-minute warning, and in the process, forcing the 49ers to burn two of their team timeouts, safety P.J. Locke forced a fumble off 49ers' running back Jeff Wilson deep in 49ers' territory, with Jackson recovering the fumble to seal the Broncos' victory.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: After a 30-yard field goal by Raiders' placekicker Daniel Carlson early in the first quarter, the Broncos responded, with a 5-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Russell Wilson to wide receiver Courtland Sutton. It would be their only lead of the game, as a 5-yard touchdown run by running back Josh Jacobs early in the second quarter gave the Raiders the lead. Like the previous three games, red zone struggles continued to plague the Broncos, as they were forced to settle on a 28-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus to tie the game at 10–10. After forcing a Raiders' punt on a 3-and-out, disaster struck on the Broncos' next possession just as they were hoping to re-take the lead. Running back Melvin Gordon fumbled, and Raiders' cornerback Amik Robertson recovered the football, returning it for a 68-yard touchdown (with a missed extra point attempt). The Broncos pulled even with the Raiders, with a 5-play, 75-yard drive, culminating in a 20-yard touchdown pass from Wilson to wide receiver Jerry Jeudy. McManus missed short on the extra-point attempt that would have given the Broncos the lead. The Raiders then drove down the field that resulted in a 39-yard field goal by Carlson for a 19–16 lead just before halftime. A 22-yard field goal by Carlson was the only scoring play of the third quarter. The Broncos' running game struggled after running back Javonte Williams was forced to leave the game with, what turned out to be, a season-ending knee injury. After the Broncos went 3-and-out on the first possession of the fourth quarter, Carlson's fourth field goal of the game—from 30 yards out, gave the Raiders a 25–16 lead. The Broncos drove down the field, culminating a 3-yard rushing touchdown by Wilson to narrow the Raiders' lead to 25–23 with 7:19 remaining in the game. The drive was aided by a 55-yard completion from Wilson to wide receiver K. J. Hamler to the Raiders' 3-yard line, after two holding penalties backed up the Broncos with a 1st-and-30 from their own 19-yard line. However, the Broncos' defense was unable to hold the Raiders a pair of 3rd-down conversions. Carr scrambled for 9 yards on a critical 3-and-6 for a first down, and backup running back Zamir White scrambled for 22 yards on a 3rd-and-2 from the Broncos' 29-yard line. On the next play, Jacobs rushed for a 7-yard game-clinching touchdown. Wilson rushed for 5 yards on their first play from scrimmage just before the 2-minute warning, then threw three straight incomplete passes to end the Broncos' rally attempt.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: All of the scoring came by way of the placekickers—Brandon McManus (Broncos) and Chase McLaughlin (Colts). McManus gave the Broncos a 6–0 lead with a 33-yarder in the first quarter, followed by a 44-yarder early in the second quarter. McLaughlin got the Colts on the board just before the halftime, with a 52-yard field goal, then pulled the Colts even with the Broncos, with a 51-yarder midway through the third quarter. McManus' third attempt of the game—from 34 yards out—was blocked by Colts' defensive tackle Grover Stewart—a play that would prove to be critical to the game's outcome. Following an interception of Colts' quarterback Matt Ryan by safety Caden Sterns, McManus redeemed himself with a 45-yarder late in the third quarter. The Broncos advanced into field goal range early in the fourth quarter; however, they blew a chance to add to their lead, when quarterback Russell Wilson was intercepted by Colts' safety Rodney Thomas II near the goal line. The Broncos' defense was able to stop the Colts from advancing past midfield on this possession and the next. The Broncos held a 9–6 lead with 6:47 remaining in the game, and marched down the field, hoping to either add to their lead or run out the clock. Wilson completed a 9-yard pass to tight end Eric Saubert, after facing a 4th-and-1 at the Colts' 28-yard line, forcing the Colts to use all of their team timeouts on defense. However, three plays later, Wilson was intercepted by Colts' cornerback Stephon Gilmore in the end zone for a touchback, on a pass intended for wide receiver Tyrie Cleveland. With 2:19 remaining in the fourth quarter, the Colts marched down the field, and McLaughlin sent the game to overtime with a 31-yard field goal. The Colts won the overtime coin toss, and grabbed a 12–9 lead, with McLaughlin's fourth field goal, from 48 yards out midway through overtime. The Broncos reached the Colts' 5-yard line in only six plays, and faced a 4th-and-1. However, instead of tying the game, they decided to either go for a new set of downs of try to win with a touchdown. However, Wilson's pass intended for wide receiver Courtland Sutton was broken up by Gilmore, resulting in a gut-wrenching loss for the Broncos. Wilson missed a wide-open K. J. Hamler on the game's final play. It was later revealed that Wilson had playing with a partially torn lat in his throwing shoulder since the second quarter of the Broncos' .


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: Yet another stellar effort by the Broncos' defense was wasted by a poor performance from their offense. A 51-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus, followed by a 39-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Russell Wilson to rookie tight end Greg Dulcich gave the Broncos a 10–0 lead in the first quarter. However, the offense struggled through the remainder of the game. The Chargers responded in the second quarter, with a 6-yard touchdown run by running back Austin Ekeler and a 37-yard field goal by placekicker Dustin Hopkins. A 27-yard field goal by McManus gave the Broncos a 13–10 lead at halftime. After the Broncos went 3-and-out on the opening opening possession of the second half, Hopkins tied the game with a 31-yard field goal. The Chargers faced a 4th-and-2 at the Broncos' 29-yard line; however, the Broncos' defense came up with a stop, forcing an incomplete pass off Chargers' quarterback Justin Herbert. On the Chargers' next possession, Herbert was intercepted by linebacker Baron Browning, giving the Broncos good field position at the Chargers' 30-yard line. However, the Broncos failed to gain any yardage, and McManus kicked a 47-yard field goal to give the Broncos a 16–13 lead midway through the fourth quarter. The Chargers responded once again, and Hopkins' third field goal of the game—from 35 yards out, tied the game at 16–16 with 4:02 remaining in the fourth quarter. Neither team advanced past midfield, sending the game to overtime.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos went 3-and-out on both of their overtime possessions, and Hopkins later kicked the game-winning 43-yard field goal. Wilson threw for 188 yards, but 173 of those came in the first half, and Wilson played through a hamstring injury during the second half.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos fell behind early, after Jets' running back Breece Hall ran for a 62-yard touchdown. The Broncos responded late in the first quarter, with a 2-yard run by running back Latavius Murray. However, placekicker Brandon McManus missed wide-right on the extra point attempt, and again on a 56-yard field goal attempt early in the second quarter. McManus later atoned for his missed kicks, with a 44-yard field goal to give the Broncos their only lead of the game, at 10–9. However, the Broncos were held scoreless for the remainder of the game, and the Jets took the lead for good, with a 45-yard field goal by placekicker Greg Zuerlein at the end of the first half. Quarterback Brett Rypien, starting in place of the injured Russell Wilson, was intercepted by Jets' safety Lamarcus Joyner, resulting in the Jets adding to their lead, with a 33-yard field goal by Zuerlein early in the fourth quarter. After the Broncos went 3-and-out, the Jets increased their lead to 16–9, with a 40-yard field goal by Zuerlein with 4:39 remaining in the game. The Broncos faced a 4th-and-3 at the Jets' 25-yard line at the two-minute warning, but Rypien's deep pass intended for wide receiver Courtland Sutton was incomplete. The Broncos' defense forced a 3-and-out from the Jets, and had one last offensive possession with 1:30 remaining in the game, but turned the football over on downs after two first downs and reaching midfield.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: This was the Broncos' second appearance in the International Series in London—the other occurred in . After quarterback Russell Wilson was intercepted on the Broncos' second possession, the Jaguars capitalized, with quarterback Trevor Lawrence throwing a 22-yard touchdown pass to tight end Evan Engram. The Jaguars were attempting to add to lead, with a 1st-and-goal, but Broncos' safety Justin Simmons intercepted a pass in the end zone from Lawrence intended for wide receiver Marvin Jones. The Jaguars eventually added to their lead on their next possession, with a 37-yard field goal by placekicker Riley Patterson. The Broncos finally got on the scoreboard late in the first half, with Wilson connecting with wide receiver Jerry Jeudy on a 6-yard touchdown pass, and later took the lead in the third quarter, with running back Melvin Gordon rushing for a 1-yard touchdown. Following several punt exchanges, the Jaguars took a 17–14 lead, with running back Travis Etienne rushing for a 1-yard touchdown. With 3:54 remaining in the game, Wilson engineered a fourth quarter comeback, culminating in a 2-yard touchdown run by running Latavius Murray with 1:47 remaining. After a touchback on the kickoff, the Broncos' defense subdued the Jaguars' rally attempt, as Lawrence was intercepted by cornerback K'Waun Williams on the first play from scrimmage.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos' entire scoring output occurred in the second quarter—a 66-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Russell Wilson to wide receiver Jalen Virgil, along with a 39-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus. The Titans got on the scoreboard just before halftime, with quarterback Ryan Tannehill connecting on a 9-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Nick Westbrook-Ikhine in the corner of the end zone. The Titans grabbed the lead in the third quarter, with Tannehill throwing a 63-yard touchdown pass to Westbrook-Ikhine by way of a flea-flicker. A 35-yard field goal by placekicker Randy Bullock increased the Titans' lead to 17–10 with three minutes remaining in the fourth quarter. The Broncos' punted on their first five possessions of the second half, failing to advance past their own 42-yard line on four possessions. Wilson tried to engineer a rally, and the Broncos faced a 4th-and-8 at the Titans' 25 line with 20 seconds remaining. However, Wilson was intercepted by Titans' cornerback Terrance Mitchell near the goal line, ending the Broncos' rally attempt.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos reached the end zone on their opening possession, with a 1-yard touchdown run by running back Latavius Murray, and placekicker Brandon McManus gave the Broncos a 10–0 lead, with a 48-yard field goal early in the second quarter. In between, Raiders' placekicker Daniel Carlson missed wide right on a 46-yard field goal attempt, but a 31-yard touchdown pass from quarterback Derek Carr to wide receiver Davante Adams put the Raiders on the scoreboard. The Broncos marched down the field, and were attempting to add to their lead just before halftime; however, McManus' field goal attempt from 25 yards out was blocked by Raiders' defensive end Maxx Crosby. After the Broncos' went three-and-out to begin the second half, a 52-yard field goal by Carlson tied the game at 10–10. After an exchange of punts, McManus countered with a 52-yard field goal of his own at the beginning of the fourth quarter. Each team went three-and-out on their next offensive possessions, and a 57-yard field goal by Carlson tied the game at 13–13. McManus responded, with a 48-yard field goal to give the Broncos a 16–13 lead with 3:34 remaining in the game. After a forcing a three-and-out, the Broncos were attempting to run out the clock, but only earned one first down and were forced to punt just after the two-minute warning. The Broncos' defense was unable to stop the Raiders, as Carlson kicked a 25-yard field goal to send the game to overtime tied a 16–16. The Raiders' game-tying drive was aided by two deep pass completions from Carr—a 21-yarder to wide receiver Keelan Cole, and from midfield, a 43-yarder to running back Josh Jacobs. The Raiders won the overtime coin toss, and on the third play from scrimmage, Carr threw the game-winning 35-yard touchdown pass to Adams.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos' struggled offensively throughout the entire game, in a 23–10 loss to the Panthers. The Broncos trailed 23–3 midway through the fourth quarter, and failed to advance past their own 38-yard line in seven of their first ten possessions. The only scoring play came by way of a 27-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus early in the second quarter, after a Panthers' fumble on a punt return. In the other two possessions in which the Broncos' found themselves past midfield, quarterback Russell Wilson was strip-sacked after reaching the Panthers' 23-yard line, and McManus missed wide left on a 56-yard field goal attempt at the end of the first half. The Broncos finally reached the end zone at the 3:24 mark of the fourth quarter, with Wilson throwing a 1-yard touchdown pass to undrafted rookie wide receiver Brandon Johnson. The Broncos' subsequent onside kick attempt was unsuccessful. Defensively, the Broncos surrendered two touchdowns to Panthers' quarterback Sam Darnold—one passing and one rushing, as well as three field goals by placekicker Eddy Piñeiro.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos failed to score a touchdown for the third time in 2022, settling for three field goals by placekicker Brandon McManus, going 2-of-12 on third down and never advancing any further than the Ravens' 23-yard line. The Broncos led 9–3 with five minutes remaining in the fourth quarter. The scoring play that the Broncos' defense had yielded to that point was a 26-yard field goal by Ravens' placekicker Justin Tucker in the second quarter. However, the Broncos' defense failed to protect the lead, and Ravens' backup quarterback Tyler Huntley engineered a 16-play, 91-yard game-winning drive, culminating in a 2-yard touchdown run. Huntley entered the game after starting quarterback Lamar Jackson exited with a knee injury in the first half. With 28 seconds left in the game, quarterback Russell Wilson tried to put the Broncos in position for a game-winning field goal. After a 16-yard pass completion to wide receiver Jerry Jeudy and two runs of 17 and 4 yards by Wilson, the Broncos reached the Ravens' 45-yard line with two seconds remaining after exhausting the last two of their three team timeouts. McManus attempted a long field goal from 63 yards out, but it fell short.


title: 2022 Denver Broncos season

text: The Broncos fell behind 27–0 to the Chiefs, following two field goals by placekicker Harrison Butker in the first quarter, two touchdown passes from quarterback Patrick Mahomes to running back Jerick McKinnon and a 47-yard interception of Broncos' quarterback Russell Wilson by cornerback Willie Gay for a touchdown. The Broncos took advantage of two interceptions by Mahomes, and within the last two minutes of the first half, Wilson threw a pair of touchdown passes to wide receiver Jerry Jeudy—from 18 and 5 yards out. The Broncos took the opening possession of the second half, and narrowed the Chiefs' lead to 27–21, with Wilson's third touchdown pass of the game—a 66-yarder to running back Marlon Mack. Following an exchange of punts, the Chiefs increased their lead to 34–21, with Mahomes' third touchdown pass of the game—a 4-yarder to wide receiver JuJu Smith-Schuster near the end of the third quarter. While the Broncos drove down the field on their next possession, Wilson suffered a concussion after a 14-yard scramble to the Chiefs' 2-yard line. Backup quarterback Brett Rypien took over for the remainder of the game, and on the same drive, he connected with Jeudy on a 7-yard touchdown pass— Jeudy's third touchdown reception of the game—to pull the Broncos within a 34–28 deficit. With six minutes remaining in the game, Mahomes was intercepted by linebacker Josey Jewell. However, just as the Broncos were hoping for a miraculous comeback from a 27–0 deficit, they failed to capitalize, as Rypien was intercepted three plays later by cornerback L'Jarius Sneed at the Chiefs' 24-yard line at the 4:34 mark of the fourth quarter. The Broncos' defense was unable to prevent the Chiefs' from running out the clock.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Listeria monocytogenes is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host's cells and is one of the most virulent foodborne pathogens: 20 to 30% of foodborne listeriosis infections in high-risk individuals may be fatal. Responsible for an estimated 1,600 illnesses and 260 deaths in the United States annually, listeriosis ranks third in total number of deaths among foodborne bacterial pathogens, with fatality rates exceeding even "Salmonella" spp. and "Clostridium botulinum". In the European Union, listeriosis follows an upward trend that began in 2008, causing 2,161 confirmed cases and 210 reported deaths in 2014, 16% more than in 2013. Listeriosis mortality rates are also higher in the EU than for other foodborne pathogens.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "Listeria monocytogenes" is a Gram-positive bacterium, in the phylum Bacillota, named after Joseph Lister. Its ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C permits multiplication at typical refrigeration temperatures, greatly increasing its ability to evade control in human foodstuffs. Motile via flagella at 30 °C and below, but usually not at 37 °C, "L. monocytogenes" can instead move within eukaryotic cells by explosive polymerization of actin filaments (known as comet tails or actin rockets).


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Studies suggest up to 10% of human gastrointestinal tracts may be colonized by "L. monocytogenes". Nevertheless, clinical diseases due to "L. monocytogenes" are more frequently recognized by veterinarians, especially as meningoencephalitis in ruminants. See: listeriosis in animals.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Due to its frequent pathogenicity, causing meningitis in newborns (acquired transvaginally), pregnant mothers are often advised not to eat soft cheeses such as Brie, Camembert, feta, and queso blanco fresco, which may be contaminated with and permit growth of "L. monocytogenes". It is the third-most common cause of meningitis in newborns. "Listeria monocytogenes" can infect the brain, spinal-cord membranes and/or the bloodstream of the host through the ingestion of contaminated food such as unpasteurized dairy or raw foods.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" is a Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, and expresses a beta hemolysin, which causes destruction of red blood cells. This bacterium exhibits characteristic tumbling motility when viewed with light microscopy. Although "L. monocytogenes" is actively motile by means of peritrichous flagella at room temperature (20−25 °C), the organism does not synthesize flagella at body temperatures (37 °C).


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The genus "Listeria" belongs to the class Bacilli and the order Bacillales, which also includes "Bacillus" and "Staphylococcus". "Listeria" currently contains 27 species: "Listeria aquatica, Listeria booriae, Listeria cornellensis, Listeria cossartiae, Listeria costaricensis, Listeria farberi, Listeria fleischmannii, Listeria floridensis, Listeria goaensis, Listeria grandensis, Listeria grayi, Listeria immobilis, Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria marthii, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria murrayi, Listeria newyorkensis, Listeria portnoyi, Listeria riparia, Listeria rocourtiae, Listeria rustica, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria thailandensis, Listeria valentina, Listeria weihenstephanensis, Listeria welshimeri". "L. denitrificans", previously thought to be part of the genus "Listeria", was reclassified into the new genus "Jonesia". Both "L. ivanovii" and "L. monocytogenes" are pathogenic in mice, but only "L. monocytogenes" is consistently associated with human illness. The 13 serotypes of "L. monocytogenes" can cause disease, but more than 90% of human isolates belong to only three serotypes: 1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b. "L. monocytogenes" serotype 4b strains are responsible for 33 to 35% of sporadic human cases worldwide and for all major foodborne outbreaks in Europe and North America since the 1980s.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" was first described by E.G.D. Murray (Everitt George Dunne Murray) in 1924 based on six cases of sudden death in young rabbits, and published a description with his colleagues in 1926 .


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Murray referred to the organism as "Bacterium monocytogenes" before Harvey Pirie changed the genus name to "Listeria" in 1940. Although clinical descriptions of "L. monocytogenes" infection in both animals and humans were published in the 1920s, it was not recognized as a significant cause of neonatal infection, sepsis, and meningitis until 1952 in East Germany. Listeriosis in adults was later associated with patients living with compromised immune systems, such as individuals taking immunosuppressant drugs and corticosteroids for malignancies or organ transplants, and those with HIV infection.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" was not identified as a cause of foodborne illness until 1981, however. An outbreak of listeriosis in Halifax, Nova Scotia, involving 41 cases and 18 deaths, mostly in pregnant women and neonates, was epidemiologically linked to the consumption of coleslaw containing cabbage that had been contaminated with "L. monocytogenes"-contaminated sheep manure. Since then, a number of cases of foodborne listeriosis have been reported, and "L. monocytogenes" is now widely recognized as an important hazard in the food industry.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Invasive infection by "L. monocytogenes" causes the disease listeriosis. When the infection is not invasive, any illness as a consequence of infection is termed febrile gastroenteritis. The manifestations of listeriosis include sepsis, meningitis (or meningoencephalitis), encephalitis, corneal ulcer, pneumonia, myocarditis, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion (second to third trimester) or stillbirth. Surviving neonates of fetomaternal listeriosis may suffer granulomatosis infantiseptica — pyogenic granulomas distributed over the whole body — and may suffer from physical retardation. Influenza-like symptoms, including persistent fever, usually precede the onset of the aforementioned disorders. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, may precede more serious forms of listeriosis or may be the only symptoms expressed. Gastrointestinal symptoms were epidemiologically associated with use of antacids or cimetidine. The onset time to serious forms of listeriosis is unknown, but may range from a few days to 3 weeks. The onset time to gastrointestinal symptoms is unknown, but probably exceeds 12 hours. An early study suggested that "L. monocytogenes" is unique among Gram-positive bacteria in that it might possess lipopolysaccharide, which serves as an endotoxin. Later, it was found to not be a true endotoxin. "Listeria" cell walls consistently contain lipoteichoic acids, in which a glycolipid moiety, such as a galactosyl-glucosyl-diglyceride, is covalently linked to the terminal phosphomonoester of the teichoic acid. This lipid region anchors the polymer chain to the cytoplasmic membrane. These lipoteichoic acids resemble the lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria in both structure and function, being the only amphipathic polymers at the cell surface.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" has D-galactose residues on its surface that can attach to D-galactose receptors on the host cell walls. These host cells are generally M cells and Peyer's patches of the intestinal mucosa. Once attached to these cells, "L. monocytogenes" can translocate past the intestinal membrane and into the body.. Alternatively, losses of structural integrity (such as small lacerations) in the gastrointestinal epithelium could allow the microorganism to penetrate from the gastrointestinal tract to the bloodstream.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The infective dose of "L. monocytogenes" varies with the strain and with the susceptibility of the victim. From cases contracted through raw or supposedly pasteurized milk, one may safely assume that, in susceptible persons, fewer than 1,000 total organisms may cause disease. "L. monocytogenes" may invade the gastrointestinal epithelium. Once the bacterium enters the host's monocytes, macrophages, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, it becomes bloodborne (sepsis) and can grow. Its presence intracellularly in phagocytic cells also permits access to the brain and probably transplacental migration to the fetus in pregnant women. This process is known as the "Trojan Horse mechanism". The pathogenesis of "L. monocytogenes" centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. It seems that "Listeria" originally evolved to invade membranes of the intestines, as an intracellular infection, and developed a chemical mechanism to do so. This involves a bacterial protein internalin (InlA/InlB), which attaches to a protein on the intestinal cell membrane "cadherin" and allows the bacteria to invade the cells through a zipper mechanism. These adhesion molecules are also to be found in two other unusually tough barriers in humans — the blood-brain barrier and the fetal–placental barrier, and this may explain the apparent affinity that "L. monocytogenes" has for causing meningitis and affecting babies "in utero". Once inside the cell, "L. monocytogenes" rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. This frees the pathogen and gives it access to the cytosol of the cell, where it continues its pathogenesis. Motility in the intracellular space is provided by actin assembly-inducing protein, which allows the bacteria to use the host cell's actin polymerization machinery to polymerize the cytoskeleton to give a "boost" to the bacterial cell so it can move in the cell. The same mechanism also allows the bacteria to travel from cell to cell.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" can act as a saprophyte or a pathogen, depending on its environment. When this bacterium is present within a host organism, quorum sensing and other signals cause the up-regulation of several virulence genes. Depending on the location of the bacterium within the host organism, different activators up-regulate the virulence genes. SigB, an alternative sigma factor, up-regulates "Vir" genes in the intestines, whereas PrfA up-regulates gene expression when the bacterium is present in blood. "L. monocytogenes" also senses the entry to host by examining available nutrient sources. For example L-glutamine, an abundant nitrogen source in the host, induces the expression of virulence genes in "L. monocytogenes". Little is known about how this bacterium switches between acting as a saprophyte and a pathogen; however, several noncoding RNAs are thought to be required to induce this change.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "L. monocytogenes" has three distinct lineages, with differing evolutionary histories and pathogenic potentials. Lineage I strains contain the majority of human clinical isolates and all human epidemic clones, but are underrepresented in animal clinical isolates. Lineage II strains are overrepresented in animal cases and underrepresented in human clinical cases, and are more prevalent in environmental and food samples. Lineage III isolates are very rare, but significantly more common in animal than human isolates.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The Anton test is used in the identification of "L. monocytogenes"; instillation of a culture into the conjunctival sac of a rabbit or guinea pig causes severe keratoconjunctivitis within 24 hours.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "Listeria "species grow on media such as Mueller-Hinton agar. Identification is enhanced if the primary cultures are done on agar containing sheep blood, because the characteristic small zone of hemolysis can be observed around and under colonies. Isolation can be enhanced if the tissue is kept at 4 °C for some days before inoculation into bacteriologic media. The organism is a facultative anaerobe and is catalase-positive and motile. "Listeria" produces acid, but not gas, when fermenting a variety of carbohydrates.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The motility at room temperature and hemolysin production are primary findings that help differentiate Listeria from Corynebacterium.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The methods for analysis of food are complex and time-consuming. The present U.S. FDA method, revised in September 1990, requires 24 and 48 hours of enrichment, followed by a variety of other tests. Total time to identification takes five to seven days, but the announcement of specific non-radiolabelled DNA probes should soon allow a simpler and faster confirmation of suspect isolates.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Recombinant DNA technology may even permit two- to three-day positive analysis in the future. Currently, the FDA is collaborating in adapting its methodology to quantitate very low numbers of the organisms in foods.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: When listeric meningitis occurs, the overall mortality may reach 70%, from sepsis 50%, and from perinatal/neonatal infections greater than 80%. In infections during pregnancy, the mother usually survives. Reports of successful treatment with parenteral penicillin or ampicillin exist. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole has been shown effective in patients allergic to penicillin.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: A bacteriophage, "Listeria phage P100", has been proposed as food additive to control "L. monocytogenes". Bacteriophage treatments have been developed by several companies. EBI Food Safety and Intralytix both have products suitable for treatment of the bacterium. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a cocktail of six bacteriophages from Intralytix, and a one-type phage product from EBI Food Safety designed to kill "L. monocytogenes". Uses would potentially include spraying it on fruits and ready-to-eat meat such as sliced ham and turkey.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Because "L. monocytogenes" is an intracellular bacterium, some studies have used this bacterium as a vector to deliver genes "in vitro". Current transfection efficiency remains poor. One example of the successful use of "L. monocytogenes" in "in vitro" transfer technologies is in the delivery of gene therapies for cystic fibrosis cases.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "Listeria monocytogenes" is being investigated as a cancer immunotherapy for several types of cancer.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: A live attenuated "Listeria monocytogenes" cancer vaccine, ADXS11-001, is under development as a possible treatment for cervical carcinoma.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Researchers have found "Listeria monocytogenes" in at least 37 mammalian species, both domesticated and feral, as well as in at least 17 species of birds and possibly in some species of fish and shellfish. Laboratories can isolate "Listeria monocytogenes" from soil, silage, and other environmental sources. "Listeria monocytogenes" is quite hardy and resists the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat remarkably well for a bacterium that does not form spores. Most "Listeria monocytogenes" strains are pathogenic to some degree.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: "Listeria monocytogenes" has been associated with such foods as raw milk, pasteurized fluid milk, cheeses (particularly soft-ripened varieties), hard-boiled eggs, ice cream, raw vegetables, fermented raw-meat sausages, raw and cooked poultry, raw meats (of all types), and raw and smoked fish. Most bacteria can survive near freezing temperatures, but cannot absorb nutrients, grow or replicate; however, "L. monocytogenes" has the ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C which permits exponential multiplication in refrigerated foods. At refrigeration temperature, such as 4 °C, the amount of ferric iron can affect the growth of "L. monocytogenes".


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The primary site of infection is the intestinal epithelium, where the bacteria invade nonphagocytic cells via the "zipper" mechanism. Uptake is stimulated by the binding of listerial internalins (Inl) to E-cadherin, a host cell adhesion factor, or Met (c-Met), hepatocyte growth factor. This binding activates certain Rho-GTPases, which subsequently bind and stabilize Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp). WASp can then bind the Arp2/3 complex and serve as an actin nucleation point. Subsequent actin polymerization creates a "phagocytic cup", an actin-based structure normally formed around foreign materials by phagocytes prior to endocytosis. The net effect of internalin binding is to exploit the junction-forming apparatus of the host into internalizing the bacterium. "L. monocytogenes" can also invade phagocytic cells (e.g., macrophages), but requires only internalins for invasion of nonphagocytic cells.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO encoded by "hly") phospholipase A (encoded by "plcA") and phospholipase B ("plcB"). Secretion of LLO and PlcA disrupts the vacuolar membrane and allows the bacterium to escape into the cytoplasm, where it may proliferate.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: Once in the cytoplasm, "L. monocytogenes" exploits host actin for the second time. ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole (being a bacillus, "L. monocytogenes" septates in the middle of the cell, thus has one new pole and one old pole) are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. Actin polymerization then propels the bacterium unidirectionally into the host cell membrane. The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB. This mode of direct cell-to-cell spread involves a cellular mechanism known as paracytophagy.


title: Listeria monocytogenes

text: The ability of L. monocytogenes to successfully infect depends on its resistance to the high concentrations of bile encountered throughout the gastrointestinal tract. This resistance is due, in part, to the nucleotide excision repair protein UvrA that is necessary for repair of DNA damages caused by bile salts.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun International Limited is a Chinese multinational conglomerate holding company. Founded in 1992 by Guo Guangchang and four others, the company is headquartered in Shanghai and was incorporated in Hong Kong in 2004. Its Co-CEOs are Chen Qiyu and Xu Xiaoliang. Wang Qunbin joined Guo Guangchang as co-chairman in early 2020. The company is located in 16 countries and is one of the largest privately owned conglomerates in China. It was ranked 371st on the Forbes Global 2000 ranking in 2020.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun Group was founded in 1992 as the Guangxin Technology Development Company by five graduates of Fudan University in Shanghai: Guo Guangchang, Liang Xinjun, Wang Qunbin (), Fan Wei (), and Tan Jian (). Fosun started its business by doing market research. The major holding company of the group, Fosun High Technology, was incorporated in 1994 in mainland China. Then Fosun extended its business into the healthcare industry (as Fosun Pharmaceutical), real estate, and steel etc.


title: Fosun International

text: In 2004, a new holding company of the group, Fosun International Limited was incorporated in Hong Kong. In July 2007, Fosun International was listed on the main board of the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong as SEHK:656.


title: Fosun International

text: During 2011, the three major growth engines of Fosun, industrial profits, investment profits and asset management profits rose rapidly, enabling Fosun to make strides toward its vision of becoming "a premium investment group with a focus on China's growth momentum".


title: Fosun International

text: From 2010 through 2015, Fosun spent billions buying foreign firms in the healthcare, tourism, fashion, and banking industries in the US and Europe. These included France's Club Med, Britain's Thomas Cook Group, Canada's Cirque du Soleil, American clothing label St John, and Greek jeweler Folli Follie. At the end of 2014 Fosun acquired the US insurer Meadowbrook for around $433 million, marking the first full purchase of a US insurer by a Chinese company. Fosun also purchased Australian oil company Roc Oil, its first acquisition in the petroleum industry.


title: Fosun International

text: On 11 December 2015, the chairman of Fosun, Guo Guangchang, was reported missing. Guo however reappeared on 14 December 2015 at a Fosun board of directors meeting. During his disappearance, Fosun requested that trading of shares be temporarily suspended. The Fosun board of directors issued a statement saying that Guo was assisting in a government inquiry which, in their opinion, did not present a “material adverse impact” on Fosun's finances or operations.


title: Fosun International

text: On 21 July 2016, it was confirmed that Fosun had bought the English football club Wolverhampton Wanderers from its previous owner Steve Morgan for an estimated £45 million. Under Fosun's ownership, Wolves have progressed from being a mid table side in the Football League Championship (second tier of English football) to finishing seventh in the FA Premier League, reaching an FA Cup semi-final and qualifying for the UEFA Europa League.


title: Fosun International

text: In 2016 Fosun began to invest in India. “Delhivery” was one such investment made in 2017, in addition to previous investments in MakeMyTrip, India's largest online travel company and Gland Pharma. Fosun is also involved in the Indian real estate market.


title: Fosun International

text: On 28 August 2019, Thomas Cook Group announced that the group "had agreed the main terms of a rescue package that will see Hong Kong’s Fosun Tourism take over its tour operations and creditor banks and bondholders acquire its airline"


title: Fosun International

text: In early November 2019, Fosun said it would purchase the Thomas Cook brand for £11m. The company viewed itself as a "potential saviour" by purchasing the name.


title: Fosun International

text: In March 2020, the company acquired a 55.4% equity interest in French jewelry brand Djula. They also signed an agreement in July 2020 with a high-end Italian jewelry group to develop the Damiani and Salvini brands in China. In August 2020 the company bought a 30% stake in Jinhui Liquor for $262 million.


title: Fosun International

text: During the coronavirus pandemic of 2020, Fosun Pharmaceuticals partnered with German biotech firm Biopharmaceutical New Technologies (BioNTech) to produce and distribute the COVID-19 mRNA vaccine BNT162b2. Once approved, Fosun will market the vaccine in China, and BioNTech will retain the rights to sell it internationally.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun was part of an alliance of Chinese companies that donated medical supplies to 23 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Fosun International

text: In March 2020, Fosun brought medical supplies to Milan, Italy, including 5,500 protective suits and 40,000 N95 respirator masks together with the Longfor Group and Beijing Taikiang Yicai Foundation. This donation was in addition to 5,000 masks that had been donated to Milan's municipal government earlier by Fosun.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun launched the Global anti-Virus Relief Scheme which created a forum for China, the US, the UK, and Portugal to share information and experience about COVID-19 in early March 2020. Several companies have also joined the effort, including Baidu, New Oriental, Xiaomi and Sequoia Capital. Fosun has distributed close to 4 million units of medical supplies around the world, including surgical masks, protective suits, and diagnostic reagents.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun donated medical protection supplies to South Korea in two shipments in March, 36,000 early in the month and additional 22,000 later in the month. The company also donated supplies to the UK, Japan and India.


title: Fosun International

text: At the end of March 2020, the Chinese National Medical Products Administration gave Fosun Pharmaceutical emergency approval for the use of a novel coronavirus nucleic acid detection kit that it developed.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun, Haitong Securities, and the Portuguese football agency Gestifute brought 461 kilos representing 58,400 units of medical supplies to Shanghai’s sister city in Portugal, Porto at the end of March 2020.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun delivered medical supplies in several shipments during March 2020 to the city of Wolverhampton, UK, the home of the Wolves football team, which is owned by Fosun.


title: Fosun International

text: The company donated N95 masks to New York's NYU Langone Medical Center and Mount Sinai Hospital as well as similar donations to hospitals in Chicago, Boston, New Jersey, California and elsewhere in the United States. The Coalition of Asian-American IPA (CAIPA) accepted 7,000 N95 masks from Fosun, and then distributed them to hospitals throughout the New York area during March 2020.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun has a wide array of business activities, including investing in other firms, managing a number of private equity funds, and entering joint ventures.


title: Fosun International

text: Fosun has invested in a number of businesses throughout different sectors, such as asset management, insurance, and industrial operations.


title: Fosun International

text: The major shareholder of Fosun International was a Hong Kong incorporated company Fosun Holdings, which was a wholly owned subsidiary of British Virgin Islands incorporated company Fosun International Holdings. Three founders of Fosun International, Guo Guangchang, Liang Xinjun and Wang Qunbin, owned 64.45%, 24.44% and 11.11% respectively in Fosun International Holdings. Fan Wei, another founder, withdrew his stake in Fosun International Holdings in September 2015.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albertus Magnus (c. 1200 – 15 November 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great or Albert of Cologne, was a German Dominican friar, philosopher, scientist, and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his lifetime as "Doctor universalis" and "Doctor expertus" and, late in his life, the sobriquet "Magnus" was appended to his name. Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages. The Catholic Church distinguishes him as one of the 37 Doctors of the Church.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: It seems likely that Albert was born sometime before 1200, given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280. Two later sources say that Albert was about 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert's birth, but this information does not have enough evidence to be confirmed. Albert was probably born in Lauingen (now in Bavaria), since he called himself 'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family name. Most probably his family was of "ministerial" class; his familiar connection with (being son of the count) the Bollstädt noble family is almost certainly mere conjecture by 15th century hagiographers.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert was probably educated principally at the University of Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with the Blessed Virgin Mary, who convinced him to enter Holy Orders. In 1223 (or 1229) he became a member of the Dominican Order, and studied theology at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, as well as in Regensburg, Freiburg, Strasbourg, and Hildesheim. During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote his "Summa de bono" after discussion with Philip the Chancellor concerning the transcendental properties of being. In 1245, Albert became master of theology under Gueric of Saint-Quentin, the first German Dominican to achieve this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert was able to teach theology at the University of Paris as a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James. During this time Thomas Aquinas began to study under Albertus.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings of Aristotle, thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notably Avicenna and Averroes, and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In 1254 Albert was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on John the Evangelist, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Islamic philosopher Averroes.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In 1259 Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Valenciennes together with Thomas Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto, Florentius, and Peter (later Pope Innocent V) establishing a "ratio studiorum" or program of studies for the Dominicans that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's "studium provinciale" at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, the "Angelicum".


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In 1260 Pope Alexander IV made him bishop of Regensburg, an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing his huge diocese on foot. In 1263 Pope Urban IV relieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach the eighth Crusade in German-speaking countries. After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties. In Cologne he is known not only for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for "the big verdict" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert was a scientist, philosopher, astrologer, theologian, spiritual writer, ecumenist, and diplomat. Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans, Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students, introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work of Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus. Indeed, it was the thirty years of work done by Aquinas and himself that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: After suffering a collapse of health in 1278, he died on 15 November 1280 in the Dominican convent in Cologne, Germany. Since 15 November 1954 his relics are in a Roman sarcophagus in the crypt of the Dominican St. Andrew's Church in Cologne. Although his body was discovered to be incorrupt at the first exhumation three years after his death, at the exhumation in 1483 only a skeleton remained.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert was beatified in 1622. He was canonized and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 December 1931 by Pope Pius XI and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St. Albert's feast day is November 15.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such as logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, astrology, mineralogy, alchemy, zoology, physiology, phrenology, justice, law, friendship, and love. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard ("Magister Sententiarum"), and the "Summa Theologiae" in two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great: not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus, including his scientific works, but Albert also added to and improved upon them. His books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also results of his own empirical investigations. These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward, beyond the reliance on classical texts. In the case of embryology, for example, it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert, who managed to identify organs within eggs. Furthermore, Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences, where Aristotle has not covered a topic. For example, prior to Albert, there was no systematic study of minerals. For the breadth of these achievements, he was bestowed the name "Doctor Universalis."


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Much of Albert's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded, but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern. For example, in "De Mineralibus" (Book II, Tractate ii, Ch. 1) Albert claims, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things."


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as an alchemist and magician. "Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as the "Secreta Alberti" or the "Experimenta Alberti", were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association." On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary, "De mineralibus", he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be. A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These include "Metals and Materials"; the "Secrets of Chemistry"; the "Origin of Metals"; the "Origins of Compounds", and a "Concordance "which is a collection of "Observations on the philosopher's stone"; and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name of "Theatrum Chemicum". He is credited with the discovery of the element arsenic and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, including silver nitrate. He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his work "De mineralibus". However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: According to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation." Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert was deeply interested in astronomy, as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli and Scott Hendrix. Throughout the Middle Ages –and well into the early modern period– astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert argued that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts. The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in a work he authored around 1260, now known as the "Speculum astronomiae". However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his early "De natura boni" to his last work, the "Summa theologiae". His "speculum" was critiqued by Gerard of Silteo.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, he referred to it as "quod est" and "quo est". Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version of hylomorphism is very similar to the Aristotelian doctrine.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle's "Poetics". He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which plainchant could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Both of his early treatises, "De natura boni" and "De bono", start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good as "bonum naturae". Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines of Pseudo-Dionysius. Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert devoted the last tractatus of "De Bono" to a theory of justice and natural law. Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albert mentions friendship in his work, "De bono", as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning of "Tractatus II". Later in his life he published "Super Ethica". With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote from Cicero, who writes, "friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement. Albert calls this harmony, "consensio", itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful ("utile"), the pleasurable ("delectabile") and the authentic or unqualified good ("honestum"). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness ("amicitia utilis"), friendship based on pleasure ("amicitia delectabilis"), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness ("amicitia honesti"; "amicitia quae fundatur super honestum").


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The iconography of the tympanum and archivolts of the late 13th-century portal of Strasbourg Cathedral was inspired by Albert's writings. Albert is frequently mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free will the basis of his ethical system. In his "Divine Comedy", Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom ("Spiriti Sapienti") in the Heaven of the Sun.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In "The Concept of Anxiety", Søren Kierkegaard wrote that Albert, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying ""Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus"" [Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass].


title: Albertus Magnus

text: A number of schools have been named after Albert, including Albertus Magnus High School in Bardonia, New York; Albertus Magnus Lyceum in River Forest, Illinois; and Albertus Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Albertus Magnus Science Hall at Thomas Aquinas College, in Santa Paula, California, is named in honor of Albert. The main science buildings at Providence College and Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, are also named after him.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The central square at the campus of the University of Cologne features a statue of Albert and is named after him.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The Academy for Science and Design in New Hampshire honored Albert by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: As a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, the University of Houston Law Center displays a statue of Albert. It is located on the campus of the University of Houston.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In Managua, Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: In the Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at the University of Santo Tomas that houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor. The Saint Albert the Great Science Academy in San Carlos City, Pangasinan, which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008. San Alberto Magno Academy in Tubao, La Union is also dedicated in his honor. This century-old Catholic high school continues to live on its vision-mission up to this day, offering Senior High school courses.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Due to his contributions to natural philosophy, the plant species "Alberta magna" and the asteroid 20006 Albertus Magnus were named after him.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: Numerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools are named for him, including schools in Toronto; Calgary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: At the University of Notre Dame du Lac in South Bend, Indiana, USA, the Zahm Hall Chapel is dedicated to St. Albert the Great. Fr. John Zahm, C.S.C., after whom the men's residence hall is named, looked to St. Albert's example of using religion to illumine scientific discovery. Fr. Zahm's work with the Bible and evolution is sometimes seen as a continuation of St. Albert's legacy.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The second largest student's fraternity of the Netherlands, located in the city of Groningen, is named Albertus Magnus, in honor of the saint.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The Colegio Cientifico y Artistico de San Alberto, Hopelawn, New Jersey, USA with a sister school in Nueva Ecija, Philippines was founded in 1986 in honor of him who thought and taught that religion, the sciences and the arts may be advocated as subjects which should not contradict each other but should support one another to achieve wisdom and reason.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The Vosloorus catholic parish (located in Vosloorus Extension One, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa) is named after the saint.


title: Albertus Magnus

text: The catholic parish in Leopoldshafen, near Karlsruhe in Germany is also named after him also considering the huge research center of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology nearby, as he is the patron saint of scientists.


title: Olivier Richters

text: Olivier Richters (born 5 September 1989) is a Dutch bodybuilder, actor, model, and the founder and CEO of Muscle Meat. Known for his imposing height of 218 cm and physique, he was the cover model of the November 2018 Netherlands' edition of "Men's Health", and subject of a documentary by the magazine. He was interviewed on "Good Morning Britain" in April 2019 in which his upcoming acting roles were discussed, and he revealed as his inspiration Richard Kiel, the actor of equal height who had portrayed the henchman Jaws in two "James Bond" films.


title: Olivier Richters

text: In 2021, Richters portrayed Ursa in the 2021 film "Black Widow" in a minor role. He also appeared in "The King's Man" and "Louis Wain" in 2021, and will star in "Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny" in 2023.


title: Olivier Richters

text: Richters also holds the record for the "tallest professional bodybuilder" in 2021, five inches taller than The Mountain


title: Olivier Richters

text: Due to his size, Richters maintains a regiment of 5,000 calorie intake for filming, and 6,500 to 7,000 calories for all other purposes, within a 24 hour period. The intake is spread out in seven meals, one at 3am, and consists of carbs, rice, meat and vegetables, in addition to an oat shake, made of "ultrafine oats, blended with a whey scoop".


title: Olivier Richters

text: Richters was born with Pectus Excavatum, causing the bones to grow in such a way to squeeze the cardiac muscle. CT-scans revealed his heart was 20% smaller than it should have been. He underwent a procedure involving breaking the ribs and allowing the heart and lungs to continue growing, something made possible due to his still young age at the time. Richters spent six months recovering (two under morphine, his third month was spent learning to gain basic mobility-walking, cycling and swimming- and his fourth month saw a return to weightlifting).


title: Aung San

text: Aung San (, ; 13 February 191519 July 1947) was a Burmese politician, independence activist and revolutionary. He was instrumental in Myanmar's struggle for independence from British rule, but he was assassinated just six months before his goal was realized. Aung San is considered the founder of modern-day Myanmar and the Tatmadaw (the country's armed forces), and is commonly referred to by the titles "Father of the Nation", "Father of Independence", and "Father of the Tatmadaw".


title: Aung San

text: Devoted to ending British Colonial rule in Burma, Aung San founded or was closely associated with many Burmese political groups and movements and explored various schools of political thought throughout his life. He was a life-long anti-imperialist and studied socialism as a student. In his first year of university he was elected to the executive committee of the Rangoon University Students' Union and served as the editor of its newspaper. He joined the Thakin Society in 1938 and served as its general secretary. He also helped establish the Communist Party of Burma in 1939 but quit shortly afterwards due to vehement disagreements with the rest of the party leadership. He subsequently co-founded the People's Revolutionary Party (later the Burma Socialist Party) with the primary goal of Burmese independence from the British.


title: Aung San

text: Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, Aung San fled Burma and went to China to solicit foreign support for Burmese independence. During the Japanese occupation of Burma, he served as the minister of war in the Japan-backed State of Burma led by Dr. Ba Maw. As the tide turned against Japan, he switched sides and merged his forces with the Allies to fight against the Japanese. After World War II, he negotiated Burmese independence from Britain in the Aung San-Attlee agreement. He served as the 5th Premier of the British Crown Colony of Burma from 1946 to 1947. He led his party, the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, to victory in the 1947 Burmese general election, but he and most of his cabinet were assassinated shortly before the country became independent.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San's daughter, Aung San Suu Kyi, is a stateswoman, politician, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. She was Burma's State Counsellor and its 20th (and first female) Minister of Foreign Affairs in Win Myint's Cabinet until the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San was born in Natmauk, Magway District, on 13 February 1915 during the British Raj. The family was considered middle-class. He was the youngest of nine siblings; he had three older sisters and five older brothers. Aung San's name was given to him by his brother Aung Than. Aung San received his primary education at a Buddhist monastic school in Natmauk, but he moved to Yenangyaung in grade 4 because his eldest brother, Ba Win, had become the principal of the high school there.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San rarely spoke before the age of eight. As a teenager, he often spent hours reading and thinking alone, oblivious to those around him. In his youth he was generally unconcerned with his appearance and clothing. In his earliest articles, published in the "Opinion" section of "The World of Books", he opposed the ideology of Western-style individualism supported by U Thant in favour of a social philosophy based on the "standardization of human life". Aung San later became friends with U Thant through their mutual friendship with U Nu.


title: Aung San

text: After Aung San entered Rangoon University in 1933, he quickly became a student leader. He was elected to the executive committee of the Rangoon University Students' Union (RUSU). He then became editor of the RUSU's magazine "Oway" (Peacock's Call). Aung San was described by contemporary students as being charismatic and keenly interested in politics.


title: Aung San

text: In February 1936 he was expelled from the university, along with U Nu, for refusing to reveal the name of the author of an article he had run in the student newspaper called "Hell Hound at Large", which criticized a senior university official. The expulsion led to the three-month long Second University Students' Strike, after which the university authorities reinstated Aung San and Nu.


title: Aung San

text: The events of 1936 had a profound effect on the future of Aung San. Before 1936 he was not well known outside of Rangoon University, but during the student strike his name and image were published and discussed in daily newspapers, and he became known nationwide as a nationalist revolutionary and a student leader. He also served in his first student leadership positions, first as secretary of the student boycott council and second as the student representative for the government's University Act Amendment Committee, which the government formed in response to the strike. Later in 1936, after the student strike was over, he was elected the vice president of the Rangoon University Student Union. Because of his participation in the student strike he was not able to sit for the examination in 1936, and received his Bachelor of Arts in 1937.


title: Aung San

text: After his graduation Aung San began studying for a law degree. His intention at the time was to "take a shot at the examinations for the Indian Civil Service... and go into politics". Along with other student leaders he founded the All Burma Student Union (later known as All Burma Federation of Student Unions) in 1937, in which he was elected general secretary. In 1938 he became the president of both the All Burma Student Union and the Rangoon University Student Union, but his pursuit of these commitments did not leave him enough time to study, and he failed his examination in 1938. After 1938 he resolved to abandon the pursuit of a conventional career and committed himself to revolutionary politics.


title: Aung San

text: In October 1938, Aung San left his law classes and entered national politics. At this point, he was anti-British and staunchly anti-imperialist. He became a "Thakin" ("lord" or "master": a title often used as an informal title for Westerners in Burma; the usage by Burmese proclaimed that the Burmese people were the true masters of their country) when he joined the "Dobama Asiayone" ("We Burmans Association"). He acted as its general secretary until August 1940. While in this role, he helped organize a series of countrywide strikes that became known as the ME 1300 Revolution. The name of this movement was based on the Burmese calendar year 1300: in the Western calendar this year occurred between August 1938 and July 1939.


title: Aung San

text: On 18 January 1939 the "Dobama Asiayone" declared its intention to use force in order to overturn the government, leading the authorities to crack down on the organization. On 23 January Police raided their headquarters at Shwedagon Pagoda, arrested Aung San, and held him in prison for fifteen days on charges of conspiracy to overthrow the government, but these charges were dropped. Upon his release Aung San proposed a strategy of pursuing Burmese independence by staging countrywide strikes, anti-tax drives, and guerrilla insurgency.


title: Aung San

text: In August 1939, Aung San became a founding member and the first Secretary General of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). Aung San later claimed that his relationship with the CPB was not smooth, since he joined and left the party twice. Shortly after founding the CPB, Aung San founded a similar organization, alternatively known as either the "People's Revolutionary Party" or the "Burma Revolutionary Party". This party was Marxist, formed with the goal of supporting Burmese independence against the British. It survived and was reformed into the Burma Socialist Party following World War II.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San was not paid for most of his work as a student or political leader, and lived for most of this time in a state of poverty. He was recognized by his peers for his strong work ethic and organizational skills, but was sometimes criticized by them for having poor public relations skills or for a perceived arrogance. He never drank alcohol and abstained from romantic relationships.


title: Aung San

text: Following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 Aung San helped to found another nationalist organization, the Freedom Bloc, by forming an alliance between the Dobama, the All Burma Students Union, politically active monks, and Dr. Ba Maw's Poor Man's Party. Dr. Ba Maw served as the "anarshin" ("dictator") of the Freedom Bloc, while Aung San worked under him as the group's general secretary. The group's goals were organized around the idea of taking advantage of the war to gain Burmese independence. The organization, goals, and tactics of the Freedom Bloc were modeled on the Indian revolutionary group "Forward Bloc", whose leader, Subhas Chandra Bose, was in regular contact with Ba Maw. In 1939, Aung San was briefly arrested on the grounds of conspiring to overthrow the government by force, but was released after seventeen days. Upon his release Aung San proposed a strategy of pursuing Burmese independence by staging countrywide strikes, anti-tax drives, and guerrilla insurgency.


title: Aung San

text: In March 1940, he attended an Indian National Congress Assembly in Ramgarh, India, along with other "Thakins", including Than Tun and Ba Hein. While there, Aung San met many leaders of the Indian independence movement, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, and Subhas Chandra Bose. When Aung San returned to Burma, he found the Burmese government had issued a warrant for his arrest, and the arrest of many other leaders of the "Thakins" and the Freedom Bloc, due to those organizations' efforts to organize a revolution against the British, at least partially with Japanese support.


title: Aung San

text: Besides his other warrants, the district superintendent of Henzada, a man named "Xavier", had issued a reward of 500 rupees for anyone who could capture Aung San. Some of Aung San's colleagues advised him to go to the Shanghai International Settlement and make contact with communist agents there, but he was in a hurry to leave and was unable to find passage on a ship travelling to that city. On 14 August 1939, Aung San and another "Thakin" colleague, Hla Myaing, boarded the Norwegian cargo ship "Hai Lee" to Xiamen, China. Neither Aung San nor Hla Myaing gave their real names, identifying themselves as "Tan Luang Shun" and "Tan Su Taung". They wandered the city for several weeks with no precise plan and little money, until they were intercepted by Japanese secret police who convinced them to go to Japan instead. The pair left for Tokyo via Taiwan and arrived in Japan on 27 September 1940.


title: Aung San

text: In May 1940 Japanese intelligence officers led by Suzuki Keiji had arrived in Yangon posing as journalists in order to gather information and to seek the cooperation of local parties for the intended Japanese invasion of Burma, occupying an office at 40 Judah Ezekiel Street for that purpose. Among their network of local collaborators they made close connections with the "Thakins", of which Aung San was a leading member. The familiarity of Japanese intelligence with prominent political actors in Burma ensured that they were aware of Aung San's activities by the time he arrived in Japanese-occupied China.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San spent the rest of 1940 in Tokyo, learning the Japanese language and political ideology. At the time he wrote that he was opposed to Western individualism and that he intended to create an authoritarian state modelled on Japan with "one state, one party, [and] one leader". While in Japan he dressed in a Japanese Kimono and adopted a Japanese name, "Omoda Monji". During this time the "Blue Print for a Free Burma" was drafted. This document has been attributed to Aung San, though its authorship is disputed.


title: Aung San

text: In February 1941 Aung San, working with Japanese intelligence, left Hla Myaing in Bangkok and secretly re-entered Burma and began efforts to contact and recruit additional Burmese agents to work with the Japanese. He entered the colony secretly through the port of Bassein, changed into a longyi, and booked a train to Rangoon using a pseudonym. Within weeks he had recruited thirty of his old revolutionary colleagues and smuggled them out of the country via Japanese intelligence networks. These "Thirty Comrades" were taken to the Japanese-occupied island of Hainan for further training. Aung San was twenty-five, the third-oldest of the group. While training on Hainan all thirty of the men took pseudonyms beginning with the word "Bo", meaning "officer", which had become a title used by Westerners in Burma. Aung San took the nom de guerre "Bo Teza" ("Teza" means "fire"). The Thirty Comrades trained for six months on Hainan with Suzuki Keiji and other Japanese officers. Aung San, Ne Win, and Setkya all received special training, since the Japanese intended to place them in senior positions in the Burmese government following the Japanese conquest of the territory.


title: Aung San

text: Between November and December 1941 Aung San and his party were successful in recruiting approximately 3,500 Burmese volunteers from the Siam-Burma border to serve in their army. On 28 December 1941, Aung San and the rest of the Thirty Comrades formally inaugurated the Burma Independence Army in Bangkok. The event involved the "thwe thauk" ("blood drinking") ceremony, a tradition inherited from the Burmese aristocracy. The participants collected their blood from a cut in their arms, mixing the participants' blood together with alcohol in a silver bowl, and drinking it while pledging eternal comradeship and loyalty. Three days later the BIA entered Burma behind the invading Japanese Fifteenth Army. The BIA left most of the fighting to the Japanese Army but occupied the areas behind Japanese lines after the British had retreated. The arrival of BIA units in many areas of Burma was followed by escalating communal violence, especially against Karen people and others who held privileged positions and whom they believe to have oppressed the Buddhist Burmese during the British administration. The violence lasted for several weeks until the Japanese Army intervened.


title: Aung San

text: The capital of Burma, Rangoon, fell to the Japanese as part of the Burma Campaign in March 1942. The BIA formed an administration for the country under "Thakin" Tun Oke that operated in parallel with the Japanese military administration until the Japanese disbanded it. In July, the disbanded BIA was re-formed as the Burma Defense Army (BDA). Aung San was made a colonel and put in charge of the force. He was later invited back to Japan, and was presented with the Order of the Rising Sun by Emperor Hirohito.


title: Aung San

text: On 1 August 1943, the Japanese held an independence ceremony in Rangoon, in which they formally granted Burma independence on condition that it would be under a wartime administration for the duration of the war. Burma was also required to declare war on the Allies. The Japanese had planned to make Aung San the leader of the country, but in the end they were more impressed with Dr. Ba Maw, and made him the leader instead, giving him virtually dictatorial control under their direction. Aung San was made the second most powerful person in the government. The government was modelled after Japan, and intentionally eschewed democratic principles and patterns of government. The army, still under the control of Aung San, took their motto, "One Blood, One Voice, One Command" at this time. It is still the official motto of the Burmese military.


title: Aung San

text: As the tide of war turned against Japan, Aung San was increasingly skeptical of Japan's ability to win the war and made plans to organize an anti-Japanese uprising in Burma, secretly forming the "Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League" in August 1944. He organized a secret meeting in Bago between the Burma National Army, the Communist Party of Burma, and the People's Revolutionary Party (which later reformed into the Burma Socialist Party). After this meeting, Aung San's forces began to secretly store supplies in preparation of their fight against the Japanese. In late March 1945, as Allied forces advanced towards Rangoon, Aung San led the BNA in a parade in front of Government House in Rangoon, after which they were sent by the Japanese to the front. A few days later, on 27 March, the BNA switched sides and attacked the Japanese instead. 27 March came to be commemorated as Resistance Day, until the military regime renamed it "Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) Day".


title: Aung San

text: After the Burmese army began the attack on the Japanese, it was renamed the "Patriotic Burmese Forces" and its command structure was divided into eight different regions. Aung San was given command of the first region, comprising the areas of Prome, Henzada, Tharrawaddy, and Insein. His designated political advisor was Thakin Ba Hein, a Communist Party leader. On 30 March, the Allied commander in Southeast Asia, Louis Montbatten, formally recognized the Burmese army as "an Allied force".


title: Aung San

text: The Burmese National Army continued to harass the Japanese throughout the remainder of the war. When Allied forces retook Rangoon on 2 May 1945, the BNA were symbolically sent into the city two days before any other soldiers. The Allies helped to arm Aung San's forces somewhat after their defection, supplying the BNA with 3,000 small arms.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San first met with General Bill Slim on 16 May 1945, appearing unexpectedly in Slim's camp in the uniform of a Japanese major general. At the meeting Aung San stated his intentions to ally with the British until the Japanese had been driven out of Burma, and agreed to incorporate his forces into Slim's British-led army. When Slim asked Aung San whether he was taking a risk by unexpectedly coming to his camp in the uniform of a Japanese officer and adopting a bold attitude, Aung San answered that he was not, "because you are a "British" officer." Slim later wrote that Aung San had made a good impression in the meeting.


title: Aung San

text: World War II ended on 12 September 1945. Following the end of the war the Burma National Army was renamed the Patriotic Burmese Forces (PBF), and then gradually disarmed by the British as the Japanese were driven out of various parts of the country.


title: Aung San

text: The leaders of the Patriotic Burmese Forces, while disbanded, were offered positions in the Burma Army under British command according to the Kandy conference agreement with Lord Louis Mountbatten in Ceylon in September 1945. Aung San was not invited to negotiate, since the British Governor General, Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, was debating whether he should be put on trial for his role in the public execution of a Muslim headman in Thaton during the war. The delegates agreed that the new Burmese army would be composed of 5,000 of Aung San's Japanese-trained Bamar soldiers, and 5,000 British-trained soldiers, most of whom were either Chin, Kachin, or Karen. Aung San wrote to U Seinda in Arakan, saying that he supported U Seida's guerrilla fight against the British, but that he would cooperate with them for tactical reasons. After the Kandy Conference, he reorganized his formally disbanded soldiers as a paramilitary organization the People's Volunteer Organization (PVO), which continued to wear uniforms and drill in public. The PVO was personally loyal to Aung San and his party rather than the government. By 1947, the PVO had over 100,000 members. In January 1946 a victory festival was held in the Kachin capital of Myitkyina. Governor Dorman-Smith was invited to attend, but neither Aung San nor anyone from his party were, due to "their connection with the Burma Independence Army".


title: Aung San

text: In an audacious move, Aung San turned himself in for the execution of a village headman. As arresting him would mean a nationwide armed rebellion by the PVO, Dorman-Smith was replaced by a new Governor General of Burma, Sir Hubert Rance. Rance agreed to recognize and negotiate directly with Aung San, possibly to distance them both from the Communist Party of Burma. He also agreed to appoint Aung San to the position of counselor for defense on the Executive Council (a provisional cabinet made in lieu of the upcoming Burmese national election). On 28 September 1946, Aung San was appointed to the even higher position of deputy chairman, making him effectively the 5th Prime Minister of the British-Burma Crown Colony. Aung San had at first worked closely with the Communist Party of Burma, but after they began criticizing him for working with the British he banned all communists from his Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League on 3 November 1946.


title: Aung San

text: Aung San was to all intents and purposes Prime Minister, although he was still subject to a British veto. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee invited Aung San to visit London in 1947 in order to negotiate the conditions of Burmese independence. At a press conference during a stopover in Delhi, while on the way to meet Attlee in London, he stated that the Burmese wanted "complete independence" and not dominion status, and that they had "no inhibitions of any kind" about "contemplating a violent or non-violent struggle or both" in order to achieve it. He concluded that he hoped for the best, but was prepared for the worst. He arrived in Britain by air in January 1947 along with his deputy Tin Tut, who he considered his brightest official. Attlee and Aung San signed their agreement on the terms of Burmese independence on 27 January; following the Burmese election in 1947 Burma would join the British Commonwealth (like Canada and Australia), though its government would have the option to leave, its government would control the Burmese Army once Allied armies had withdrawn, a constitutional assembly would be drawn up as soon as possible, with the resulting constitution presented to the British parliament as soon as possible, and Britain would nominate Burma's entrance into the newly founded United Nations. The agreement was not unanimous: two other delegates who attended the conference, U Saw and Thakin Ba Sein, refused to sign it, and it was denounced in Burma by Aung San's critics, including Than Tun and Thakin Soe. No delegates representing Burma's ethnic minorities were present, and both Karen and Shan leaders sent messages warning that they would not consider any agreement signed at the conference legally binding to their communities.


title: Aung San

text: Two weeks after the signing of the agreement with Britain, Aung San signed an agreement at the second Panglong Conference on 12 February 1947, with leaders representing the Shan, Kachin, and Chin peoples. In this agreement these leaders agreed to join a united independent Burma, under the condition that they would have "full autonomy" and the right to secede in 1958, after ten years. Karen leaders were not consulted and were not a part of the agreement. They hoped for a separate Karen State within the British Empire. The date of the signing of the Panglong Agreement has been celebrated in Burma as "Union Day", even though Ne Win effectively dissolved any agreement with Burma's minority communities following his coup in 1962.


title: Aung San

text: The general election held in April 1947 was not ideal; the Karens, Mon, and most of Aung San's other political opponents boycotted the process. Since they ran virtually unopposed, every delegate in Aung San's party was elected. In the end Aung San's AFPFL won 176 out of the 210 seats in the Constituent Assembly, while the Karens won 24, the Communists 6, and the Anglo-Burmans 4. In July, Aung San convened a series of conferences at Sorrenta Villa in Rangoon to discuss the rehabilitation of Burma.


title: Aung San

text: Following the 1947 election Aung San began to form his own cabinet. In addition to ethnic Burmese statesmen like himself and Tin Tut, he also persuaded the Karen leader Mahn Ba Khaing, the Shan chief Sao Hsam Htun, and the Bamar leader U Razak (who was of Tamil ancestry) to join his cabinet. No Communists were invited to participate.


title: Aung San

text: In the final years of the British administration of Burma, Aung San became good friends with the second-last Governor of Burma, Colonel Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, an Anglo-Irishman with whom he would regularly discuss his personal difficulties. In early 1946, approximately a year before his death, Aung San complained to Dorman-Smith that he felt melancholic, that he did not feel close to his old friends in the Burmese military, that he had many enemies, and that he was worried that someone would attempt to assassinate him soon.


title: Aung San

text: A little after 10:30 AM on 19 July 1947, a single army jeep carrying gunmen in military fatigues drove into the courtyard of the Secretariat Building, where Aung San was having a meeting with his new cabinet. There was no wall or gate protecting the government building, and although Aung San had been warned that someone may have been plotting to kill him the sentries guarding the building did not challenge or stop the car in any way. Four men from the car, armed with three Tommy Guns, a Sten gun, and grenades, ran up the stairs towards the council chamber, shot the guard standing outside, and burst into the council chamber. The gunmen shouted, "Remain seated! Don't move!" Aung San stood up and was immediately shot in the chest, killing him. The gunmen sprayed the area where he was standing with gunfire for approximately thirty seconds, killing four other council members immediately and mortally wounding another three. Only three in the room survived.