title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Besides selecting Robinson for his exceptional baseball skills, Rickey also considered Robinson's outstanding personal character, his UCLA education and rank of captain in the U.S. Army in his decision, since he knew that boos, taunts, and criticism were going to be directed at Robinson, and that Robinson had to be tough enough to withstand abuse without attempting to retaliate.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: The inclusion of Robinson on the team also led the Dodgers to move its spring training site. Prior to 1946, the Dodgers held their spring training in Jacksonville, Florida. However, the city's stadium refused to host an exhibition game with the Montreal Royals – the Dodgers’ own farm club – on whose roster Robinson appeared at the time, citing segregation laws. Nearby Sanford similarly declined. Ultimately, City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach agreed to host the game with Robinson on the field. The team traveled to Havana, Cuba for spring training in 1947, this time with Robinson on the big club. Although the Dodgers ultimately built Dodgertown and its Holman Stadium further south in Vero Beach, and played there for 61 spring training seasons from 1948 through 2008, Daytona Beach renamed City Island Ballpark to Jackie Robinson Ballpark in his honor.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: This event marked the continuation of the integration of professional sports in the United States, with professional football having led the way in 1946, with the concomitant demise of the Negro leagues, and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the American civil rights movement. Robinson was an exceptional player, a speedy runner who sparked the team with his intensity. He was the inaugural recipient of the Rookie of the Year award, which is now named the Jackie Robinson award in his honor. The Dodgers' willingness to integrate, when most other teams refused to, was a key factor in their 1947–1956 success. They won six pennants in those 10 years with the help of Robinson, three-time MVP Roy Campanella, Cy Young Award winner Don Newcombe, Jim Gilliam, and Joe Black. Robinson eventually became the first African-American elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: After the wilderness years of the 1920s and 1930s, the Dodgers were rebuilt into a contending club first by general manager Larry MacPhail and then the legendary Branch Rickey. Led by Jackie Robinson, Pee Wee Reese, and Gil Hodges in the infield, Duke Snider and Carl Furillo in the outfield, Roy Campanella behind the plate, and Don Newcombe, Carl Erskine, and Preacher Roe on the pitcher's mound, the Dodgers won pennants in , , , , and , only to fall to the New York Yankees in all five of the subsequent World Series.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: The annual ritual of building excitement, followed in the end by disappointment, became a common pattern to the long suffering fans, and "Wait ’til next year!" became an unofficial Dodger slogan.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: While the Dodgers generally enjoyed success during this period, in they fell victim to one of the largest collapses in the history of baseball. On August 11, 1951, Brooklyn led the National League by an enormous games over their archrivals, the Giants. While the Dodgers went 26–22 from that time until the end of the season, the Giants went on an absolute tear, winning an amazing 37 of their last 44 games, including their last seven in a row. At the end of the season the Dodgers and the Giants were tied for first place, forcing a three-game playoff for the pennant.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: The Giants took Game 1 by a score of 3–1 before being shut out by the Dodgers' Clem Labine in Game 2, 10–0. It all came down to the final game, and Brooklyn seemed to have the pennant locked up, holding a 4–2 lead in the bottom of the ninth inning. Giants outfielder Bobby Thomson, however, hit a stunning three-run walk-off home run off the Dodgers' Ralph Branca to secure the NL Championship for New York. To this day Thomson's home run is known as the Shot Heard 'Round The World.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: In 1955, by which time the core of the Dodger team was beginning to age, "next year" finally came. The fabled "Boys of Summer" shot down the "Bronx Bombers" in seven games, led by the first-class pitching of young left-hander Johnny Podres, whose key pitch was a changeup known as "pulling down the lampshade" because of the arm motion used right when the ball was released. Podres won two Series games, including the deciding seventh. The turning point of Game 7 was a spectacular double play that began with left fielder Sandy Amorós running down Yogi Berra's long fly ball, then throwing to shortstop Pee Wee Reese, who relayed to first baseman Gil Hodges to double up a surprised Gil McDougald to preserve the Dodger lead. Hank Bauer grounded out and the Dodgers won 2–0.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Although the Dodgers lost the World Series to the Yankees in during which the Yankees pitcher Don Larsen pitched the only World Series perfect game in baseball history and the only post-season no-hitter for the next 54 years, it hardly seemed to matter. Brooklyn fans had their memory of triumph, and soon that was all they were left with – a victory that was remembered decades later in the Billy Joel single "We Didn't Start the Fire", which included the line, "Brooklyn's got a winning team."


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Real estate businessman Walter O'Malley had acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought Rickey's 25 percent share of the team and secured the support of the widow of another equal partner, John L. Smith. Soon O'Malley was working to buy new land in Brooklyn for a new, more accessible and better ballpark than Ebbets Field. Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field had grown old and was not well served by infrastructure, to the point where the Dodgers could not "sell out" the park to maximum capacity even in the heat of a pennant race, despite dominating the league from 1946 to 1957.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: New York City Construction Coordinator Robert Moses sought to force O'Malley into using a site in Flushing Meadows, Queens – the eventual location of Shea Stadium (which opened in 1964), the home of the future New York Mets, who began play in 1962. Moses' vision involved a city-built, city-owned park, which was greatly at odds with O'Malley's real-estate savvy. When O'Malley realized that he was not going to be allowed to buy a suitable parcel of land in Brooklyn, he began thinking of team relocation.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: O'Malley was free to purchase land of his own choosing, but wanted Robert Moses to condemn a parcel of land along the Atlantic Railroad Yards in downtown Brooklyn under Title I authority, after O'Malley had bought the bulk of the land he had in mind. Title I gave the city municipality power to condemn land for the purpose of building what it calls "public purpose" projects. Moses' interpretation of "public purpose" included public parks, public housing and public highways and bridges.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: What O'Malley wanted was for Moses to use Title I authority, rather than to pay market value for the land. With Title I the city via Robert Moses could have sold the land to O'Malley at a below market price. Moses refused to honor O'Malley's request and responded, "If you want the land so bad, why don't you purchase it with your own money?".


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Meanwhile, non-stop transcontinental airline travel had become routine during the years since the Second World War. Teams were no longer bound by much slower railroad timetables. Because of civil aviation advances, it became possible to locate teams farther apart – as far west as California – while maintaining the same busy game schedules.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: When Los Angeles officials attended the 1956 World Series looking to entice a team to move there, they were not even thinking of the Dodgers. Their original target had been the Washington Senators franchise, which eventually moved to Bloomington, Minnesota to become the Minnesota Twins in 1961. At the same time, O'Malley was looking for a contingency in case Moses and other New York politicians refused to let him build the Brooklyn stadium he wanted, and sent word to the Los Angeles officials that he was interested in talking. Los Angeles offered him what New York did not: a chance to buy land suitable for building a ballpark, and own that ballpark, giving him complete control over all its revenue streams. At the same time, the National League was not willing to approve the Dodgers' move unless O'Malley found a second team willing to join them out west, largely out of concern for travel costs.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Meanwhile, Giants owner Horace Stoneham was having similar difficulty finding a replacement for his team's antiquated home stadium, the Polo Grounds. Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minneapolis, but was persuaded instead to move them to San Francisco, ensuring that the Dodgers had a National League rival closer than St. Louis. So the two arch-rival teams, the Dodgers and Giants, moved out to the West Coast together after the 1957 season.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: The Brooklyn Dodgers played their final game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, which the Dodgers won 2–0 over the Pittsburgh Pirates.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: On April 18, 1958, the Los Angeles Dodgers played their first game in L.A., defeating the former New York and newly relocated and renamed San Francisco Giants, 6–5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off-season automobile accident on January 28, 1958, was never able to play for the Dodgers in Los Angeles.


title: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: A 2007 HBO film, "", is a documentary covering the Dodgers history from early days to the beginning of the Los Angeles era. In the film, the story is related that O'Malley was so hated by Brooklyn Dodger fans after the move to California, that it was said, "If you asked a Brooklyn Dodger fan, if you had a gun with only two bullets in it and were in a room with Hitler, Stalin and O'Malley, who would you shoot? The answer: O'Malley, twice!"


title: Blake Harrison

text: Blake Harrison is an English actor, comedian and dancer. He is best known for playing Neil Sutherland in the BAFTA-winning E4 comedy "The Inbetweeners" and more recently as 'Medium' Dan, in the ITV sitcom Kate & Koji since 2020.


title: Blake Harrison

text: Harrison starred in three series and two subsequent films of the multi-award-winning comedy "The Inbetweeners". Harrison's other television work includes the BBC Three comedies "Way to Go" and "Him & Her", and Comedy Central's "Big Bad World", "The Bleak Old Shop of Stuff", and "The Bill". Harrison also starred in all three seasons of "The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret", created by David Cross.


title: Blake Harrison

text: His theatre work includes 'End of the Pier' at the Park Theatre in 2018, "Step 9 of 12" at the Trafalgar Studios, London in 2012 and "The Accidental Lives of Memories" at the White Bear Theatre.


title: Blake Harrison

text: His film work includes "Keeping Rosy" with Maxine Peake, "Madness in the Method" and "Re-Uniting the Rubins" with Timothy Spall; he also starred in "Her Eyes Met With Mine", a short film by Slightly Ajar Productions.


title: Blake Harrison

text: Harrison also provided the voice of Scoop in the British and American versions of the 2015 reboot of the British children's TV series "Bob the Builder".


title: Blake Harrison

text: In 2018 he directed the award-winning short film "Hooves of Clay", in which he also starred alongside Rebecca Humphries. Later he played Andrew Newton in "A Very English Scandal".


title: Blake Harrison

text: Harrison is married to Kerry Ann Lynch. They live in Kent and have two children, a daughter and a son. Harrison is a fan of Millwall F.C.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Hold My Hand" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga, released on May 3, 2022, through Interscope Records. It is the lead single to the for the film "" (2022). The song was written and produced by Gaga and BloodPop as "a love letter to the world during and after a very hard time". Benjamin Rice received additional production credits. Musically, "Hold My Hand" is a "hopeful" arena rock track, featuring an anthemic chorus and an electric guitar.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Hold My Hand" has charted at number one in Croatia, number five in Hungary and Switzerland, number six in Wallonia, and the top 30 in Australia, Canada, Flanders, Japan, the Netherlands, Singapore, Slovakia, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom. It was met with mixed to positive response. Critics noted its inspiration derived from 1980s power ballads, the decade in which the original "Top Gun" (1986) was released. "Hold My Hand" has received various nominations at awards shows, including for Best Original Song at the 80th Golden Globe Awards, Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 65th Annual Grammy Awards, and Best Song at the 28th Critics' Choice Awards.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: An accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kosinski, director of "Top Gun: Maverick", and it was released on May 6, 2022. It featured Gaga performing the song in various settings, interspred with scenes from the two "Top Gun" films. "Hold My Hand" served as the encore for Gaga's 2022 stadium tour, The Chromatica Ball.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: In April 2021, gossip website ShowBiz 411 reported that Lady Gaga would be involved with the soundtrack for "Top Gun: Maverick". The rumor spread to other publications, including "W" magazine. In April 2022, Gaga began posting cryptic messages on Twitter, which fans interpreted as lyrics to the rumored song. She formally announced "Hold My Hand" and its release date on April 27, 2022. During the announcement, Gaga shared that she was working on the song for years, and "didn't even realize the multiple layers it spanned across the film's heart, my own psyche, and the nature of the world we've been living in" while writing it.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: A preview of the song was released on April 30, followed by the release of the full track on May 3, as the first single from the soundtrack for "Top Gun: Maverick". A week after the release, "Hold My Hand" received airplay through adult contemporary and contemporary hit radio stations in the US. The song was later also included on the Japan tour edition of Gaga’s sixth studio album "Chromatica", as the final track.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: Several other artists were considered to contribute music for the film. Tyler Joseph, frontman of American alternative-rock music duo Twenty One Pilots, revealed in an interview that, "...I was working with the music placement person for the new "Top Gun" on writing a new song for them ... and then I believe Tom Cruise came in and just fired everyone." Prior to the release of the film, Cruise described "Hold My Hand" as the missing piece in the film's puzzle: "Gaga came in with this song ... It became our score. It became the heartbeat of the film, what she did ... Emotionally, I was so concerned until I heard that piece. And I knew that that piece, what it does, how it married our story emotionally ... So that was a moment. That was a real moment for all of us."


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: In the film, "Hold My Hand" plays during a bar scene when Penny (played by Jennifer Connelly) and her daughter are having a conversation, and later the full song is played near the end of the film with Penny and Maverick (Tom Cruise) flying off into the sunset in his P-51 Mustang.


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Hold My Hand" was co-written by Gaga with the track's producer, BloodPop. Benjamin Rice received additional production credits. It has been described by music and film critics as a "hopeful, anthemic" arena rock power ballad and a torch song. Jazz Tangcay of "Variety" called "Hold My Hand" a "soaring rock tune with violins and guitar licks that harken back to the power ballads of the '80s." Its lyrics see Gaga reassuring someone that she will always be there for them "without question."


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: Lars Brandle of "Billboard" noted that the song has a close lineage to Berlin's "Take My Breath Away" and Kenny Loggins' "Danger Zone", two tracks from the soundtrack of the original "Top Gun" film. Music critics from other outlets compared "Hold My Hand" to songs such as "Open Arms" by Journey, "Alone" by Heart, and Gaga's own 2011 single, "The Edge of Glory".


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: The song was originally published in the key of G major and starts with G/D/C/G/D chord progression with three intro bars before the singer starts with the lyrics: "Hold my hand, everything will be okay/I heard from the heavens that clouds have been gray/Pull me close, wrap me in your aching arms".


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Hold My Hand" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Robin Murray of "Clash" called the song "a triumph of bombast" which "finds Lady Gaga cutting loose as a vocalist". "Variety" Jazz Tangcay found the song a "catchy earworm" with a "strong guitar solo", and argued that it is "on track to being an Oscar frontrunner in the original song race." Nancy Tartaglione from "Deadline Hollywood" felt similarly, writing "it's another in Gaga's and the "Top Gun" canon that could go all the way to the Oscars". "Vulture", an online blog associated with "New York Magazine" opined that "Hold My Hand" is an "outlier in Gaga's catalogue" as "this is one of her only pop songs with zero subversive elements", while noting that "the song's sheer level of self-determination is quintessential Gaga. It feels like a sincere attempt to write the most inspiring end-credits ballad of all time."


title: Hold My Hand (Lady Gaga song)

text: For the "Evening Standard" Gemma Samways, the track is a sentimental ballad "so brilliantly overblown you simply can't imagine any other major pop artist pulling it off." Stuart Heritage of "The Guardian" thought that the song is "bombastic and emotional, and includes everything you could possibly want from a Lady Gaga power ballad". However, Michael Cragg from the same outlet opined that "Hold My Hand" was "mildly underwhelming", "bloated and saggy". Alexa Camp of "Slant Magazine" argued that "for a song the artist claims she's been perfecting 'for years', 'Hold My Hand' struggles to take flight". "USA Today" Melissa Ruggieri called it "a middling ballad", while "NME" Nick Levine deemed it a "tepid song". The "Dallas Observer" Carly May Gravley found it a "forgettable" single.


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1969 album "Abbey Road". It was written by Paul McCartney and credited to the Lennon–McCartney partnership. The song is about a student named Maxwell Edison who commits murders with a hammer, with the dark lyrics disguised by an upbeat sound. McCartney described the song as symbolic of the downfalls of life, being "my analogy for when something goes wrong out of the blue, as it so often does".


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: The song was initially rehearsed during the "Get Back" sessions in January 1969. During the recording of "Abbey Road" in July and August, the band devoted four recording sessions to completing the track. These sessions were an acrimonious time for the Beatles, as McCartney pressured the group to work at length on the song. All three of his bandmates were vocal in their dislike of "Maxwell's Silver Hammer". In a 2008 interview, Ringo Starr remembered it as "the worst session ever" and "the worst track we ever had to record".


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: While in Rishikesh, India, in early 1968, McCartney began to write the first verse of the song. Having completed most of it by October that year, he intended for its inclusion on the album "The Beatles", but it was never properly recorded during those sessions due to time constraints. It was rehearsed again three months later, in January 1969, at Twickenham film studios during the "Get Back" sessions but would not be recorded for another six months.


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: McCartney's wife Linda said that he had become interested in avant-garde theatre and had immersed himself in the writings of the experimental French author Alfred Jarry. This influence is reflected in the story and tone of "Maxwell's Silver Hammer", and also explains how McCartney came across Jarry's word "pataphysical", which occurs in the lyrics. In 1994, McCartney said that the song epitomises the downfalls of life, being "my analogy for when something goes wrong out of the blue, as it so often does, as I was beginning to find out at that time in my life. I wanted something symbolic of that, so to me it was some fictitious character called Maxwell with a silver hammer. I don't know why it was silver, it just sounded better than Maxwell's hammer."


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: The Beatles began recording the song at EMI Studios (later Abbey Road Studios) in London on 9 July 1969. John Lennon, who had been absent from recording sessions for the previous eight days after being injured in a car crash in Scotland, arrived to work on the song, accompanied by his wife, Yoko Ono, who, more badly hurt in the accident than Lennon, lay on a large double-bed in the studio. Sixteen takes of the rhythm track were made, followed by a series of guitar overdubs. The unused fifth take can be heard on "Anthology 3". Over the following two days the group overdubbed vocals, piano, Hammond organ, anvil, and guitar. The song was completed on 6 August, when McCartney recorded a solo on a Moog synthesizer.


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: The recording process subsequently drew unfavourable comments from Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Lennon said, "I was ill after the accident when they did most of that track, and it really ground George and Ringo into the ground recording it", adding later: "I hate it, 'cos all I remember is the track ... [Paul] did everything to make it into a single, and it never was and it never could have been." In the recollection of engineer Geoff Emerick, Lennon dismissed it as "more of Paul's granny music". Harrison recalled: "Sometimes Paul would make us do these really fruity songs. I mean, my God, 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer' was so fruity. After a while we did a good job on it, but when Paul got an idea or an arrangement in his head …" Starr told "Rolling Stone" in 2008: "The worst session ever was 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer.' It was the worst track we ever had to record. It went on for fucking weeks. I thought it was mad." McCartney recalled: "The only arguments were about things like me spending three days on 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer.' I remember George saying, 'You've taken three days, it's only a song.' – 'Yeah, but I want to get it right. I've got some thoughts on this one.'"


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: In a taped recording of a band meeting conducted in September 1969, Lennon raised the possibility of individual songwriting responsibilities being split equally between the three of them in future. In this arrangement, each of the writers would contribute four songs to an album, and Starr would have the opportunity to contribute two. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn comments on the exchange that proceeded between the three bandmates (Starr was not present):


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: Paul... responds to the news that George now has equal standing as a composer with John and himself by muttering something mildly provocative. “I thought until this album that George’s songs weren’t that good,” he says, which is a pretty double-edged compliment since the earlier compositions he’s implicitly disparaging include Taxman and While My Guitar Gently Weeps. There’s a nettled rejoinder from George: “That’s a matter of taste. All down the line, people have liked my songs." John reacts by telling Paul that nobody else in the group “dug” his Maxwell’s Silver Hammer... and that it might be a good idea if he gave songs of that kind – which, John suggests, he probably didn’t even dig himself – to outside artists in whom he had an interest... “I recorded it,” a drowsy Paul says, “because I liked it.”


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: In his 1969 review of "Abbey Road", for "Rolling Stone", John Mendelsohn wrote: "Paul McCartney and Ray Davies are the only two writers in rock and roll who could have written 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer', a jaunty vaudevillian/music-hallish celebration wherein Paul, in a rare naughty mood, celebrates the joys of being able to bash in the heads of anyone threatening to bring you down. Paul puts it across perfectly with the coyest imaginable choir-boy innocence." Writing in "Oz" magazine, Barry Miles described the song as "a complex little piece" and said that, aside from McCartney's casual interest in Jarry's work, "The only British pop group holding any pataphysical honours are The Soft Machine". Miles also said it was "a perfect example of Paul's combination of American Rock with British brass band music".


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: Derek Jewell of "The Sunday Times" found the album "refreshingly terse and unpretentious", but lamented the inclusion of "cod-1920s jokes (Maxwell's Silver Hammer)" and "Ringo's obligatory nursery arias (Octopus's Garden)". In 1974, Robert Christgau referred to "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" as "a McCartney crotchet".


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: Among Beatles biographers, Ian MacDonald said that "If any single recording shows why The Beatles broke up, it's 'Maxwell's Silver Hammer'." He continued: Author Jonathan Gould cites "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" as an example of the selfishness inherent in the Beatles' creative partnership, whereby a composition by McCartney or Lennon would be given preference over a more substantial song by Harrison. He also rues McCartney's penchant for a light entertainment style that the Beatles had sought to render obsolete, and concludes:


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: In 2009, "PopMatters" editor John Bergstrom concluded his list "the worst of the Beatles" with the song. He said that while McCartney had previously created "some borderline-schmaltzy, music hall-inspired songs", "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" was "where even the secret admirer of 'Rocky Raccoon' must draw the line". Bergstrom described it as "Unnervingly 'cute', unrelentingly obnoxious, too literal-minded by half" and "the single Beatles song out of nearly 200 that is basically unlistenable".


title: Maxwell's Silver Hammer

text: In 2020, author John Tait paired the song with "Mack the Knife" as noteworthy contemporary murder ballads about serial killers.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane is a 1976 cross-genre film directed by Nicolas Gessner and starring Jodie Foster, Martin Sheen, Alexis Smith, Mort Shuman, and Scott Jacoby. It was a co-production of Canada and France and written by Laird Koenig, based on his 1974 novel of the same title.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The plot focuses on 13-year-old Rynn Jacobs (Foster), a child whose absent poet father and secretive behaviours prod the suspicions of her conservative small-town Maine neighbours. The adaptation, originally intended as a play, was filmed in Quebec on a small budget. The production later became the subject of controversy over reports that Foster had conflicts with producers over the filming and inclusion of a nude scene, but a 21-year-old body double (Foster's sister) was used. After a screening at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival, a court challenge was launched regarding distribution, and a general release followed in 1977.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Initially released to mixed reviews, with some critics finding the murder mystery plot weak but Jodie Foster's performance more meritorious, the film won two Saturn Awards, including Best Horror Film and Best Actress for Foster. It subsequently attained cult status, with later critics positively reviewing the screenplay. Writers and academics have interpreted it as a statement on children's rights and variously placed it in the thriller, horror, mystery or other genres.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: On Halloween night, in the seaside town of Wells Harbor, Maine, Rynn Jacobs celebrates her thirteenth birthday alone. She and her father, Lester Jacobs, a poet, had recently moved to the village from England. Frank Hallet, adult son of their landlady Cora Hallet, visits unexpectedly and, finding her alone, makes unwelcome sexual advances toward Rynn.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The following day Cora Hallet comes to the house, first obtrusively poking around the garden, then coming inside and aggressively probing Rynn with pointed questions about herself and her father. Rynn says he is in New York with his publisher and taunts the landlady about her son's intentions. The situation becomes more tense when Mrs. Hallet insists on retrieving jelly glasses she left in the cellar. Rynn makes it obvious she is unwilling to let her landlady go down into the cellar, and Mrs. Hallet finally leaves. She returns later and opens the cellar trapdoor over Rynn's objections. Upset by what she sees there, Mrs. Hallet attempts to flee, but in her haste she knocks down the support. The cellar door falls on her head, killing her.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Attempting to remove evidence of Mrs. Hallet's visit, Rynn goes outside to drive her car away but cannot start it. This attracts the attention of Mario, a teenager passing by. Mario is the nephew of Officer Miglioriti, a village policeman who previously had given Rynn a ride home from town. Mario drives the car back to town, and Rynn rewards him with a dinner she prepares at her house.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Later, Officer Miglioriti stops by and tells them Frank Hallet has reported his mother missing. The officer asks to see Rynn's father, but Mario covers for Rynn by saying her father has gone to bed. Later that night, Frank Hallet makes a surprise visit. Suspicious, and looking for answers about the whereabouts of his mother and Rynn's father, Frank tries to scare Rynn into talking, cruelly killing her pet hamster. Mario chases Frank away.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Rynn now trusts Mario and confesses her actual situation. Rynn's terminally ill father and abusive mother divorced long ago. To protect Rynn from being returned to her mother's custody after his death, her father moved them to America and made arrangements to allow Rynn to live alone, then committed suicide in the ocean when the tides would carry his body out to sea. Her father also left Rynn a jar of potassium cyanide, telling her that it was a sedative to calm her mother if she ever came for her. Rynn coolly recounts how she put the powder in her mother's tea and watched her die.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Trust between Rynn and Mario blossoms into romance. On a cold, rainy day, they bury the bodies behind Rynn's house, but Mario catches cold. Suspicious of Rynn's continued evasions regarding her father's absence, Officer Miglioriti returns to the house one night and demands to see her father. Mario disguises himself as an old man and introduces himself to Miglioriti as Rynn's father.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: As winter sets in, Mario is hospitalized after his cold causes pneumonia. Rynn visits an unconscious Mario in the hospital making her feel lonely. That night, as Rynn is going to bed, she is shocked to find Frank emerging from the cellar. Frank thinks he knows what happened to Rynn's parents and his mother and attempts to blackmail Rynn. He offers to protect Rynn's secrets in exchange for her sexual favors. Rynn, seemingly defeated and resigned to Frank's demands, agrees to have tea together. Rynn puts some of the cyanide in her own cup and then takes the tea and almond cookies into the living room. Suspicious, Frank switches his cup with hers. Rynn watches intently as Frank succumbs to the poison.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Felicia Feaster, writing for Turner Classic Movies, found an "unusual theme" in the film, which she interpreted as being one of independence for children. Professor James R. Kincaid read the film as a call for children's rights. T.S. Kord wrote the film argued that a child with money and a home does not need a parent if he or she does not believe it is necessary. The adults who attempt to intrude in Rynn's affairs are a threat, including her mother, her landlord, and the molester.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Writer Anthony Synnott placed "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane" in a trend of sexualizing children in film, calling Rynn the "murdering nymphet" and comparing her to Foster's character Iris in "Taxi Driver" (1976). Anthony Cortese also referred to Foster as giving an "encore performance" of "Taxi Driver", calling Rynn "a 13-year-old imp of maturing sexuality". Scholar Andrew Scahill described it as fitting a cinematic narrative of children in rebellion, one in which the child appears seemly, as with "The Innocents" (1961), "The Omen" (1976) and others.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The genre has been debated, with Feaster arguing it was more psychological thriller than horror. Jim Cullen summed the film up as "a strange hybrid" of genres, being a horror, thriller and feminist film. Kord listed it among dramas about "Eerie, malevolent or criminal children", distinct from depictions of children in the supernatural horror genre. Martin Sheen said it was a horror film in some ways, but "not overt", with mystery and suspense elements. However, director Nicolas Gessner denied it was horror, characterizing it as "a teenage love story".


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Novelist Laird Koenig adapted the book. Originally, the script was intended as a play, but this idea was abandoned due to the belief that a young actress would not be available to play Rynn for an extended period. Gessner read the book, only to find rights were optioned to Sam Spiegel, but the project was derailed due to creative differences, allowing Gessner to secure them.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The film followed tax incentives for cinema offered by the government of Canada, beginning in 1974, stimulating a "Hollywood North". It was a co-production of Canada and France, with Zev Braun producing as head of Zev Braun Productions, based in Los Angeles, alongside L.C.L. Industries in Montreal and Filmedis-Filmel in Paris. Canadian producer Denis Héroux, who during the decade specialized in popular cinema with financiers from outside the country, also worked on the project. It was shot on a small budget. Financiers disliked how in the novel, Rynn murdered Mrs. Hallet with poisonous gas, causing the scene to be rewritten so the death is accidental.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Director Martin Scorsese was editing "Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore", and Gessner's look at his work led him to discover Jodie Foster. With the guidance of her mother Brandy, Jodie took the role of Rynn, and turned 13 while the film was being shot. She wore a wig for the film, and a gap was added in her teeth.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Sheen said he was contacted by Gessner personally about playing Frank Hallet, which Sheen accepted because he found the part intriguing and because he believed Foster had a promising career. Gessner claimed Sheen was initially more interested in playing Mario, but Gessner persuaded Sheen that he was too old for that part. Gessner noted that casting Alexis Smith, who was born in Canada, also helped secure Canadian tax incentives.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane" was filmed in Montreal and Knowlton, Quebec. Sheen described the set as relaxed and as encouraging creativity, and said Foster also built a friendship with his daughter Renée Estevez during shooting.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: A producer's desire for "sex and violence" led to a nude scene depicting Rynn being added to the film. Foster strongly objected, saying "I walked off the set". As a result, her older sister Connie acted as the nude double. Her mother had suggested Connie, who was 21 at the time. Following the release of "Taxi Driver", the industry shared stories of Foster having conflicts during the production of "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane". However, Gessner claimed Foster only regretted the scene after it was shot, and her request that it be deleted was denied by the Canadian producers.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: The crew built a false trapdoor for Mrs. Hallet's death scene, but Gessner acknowledged Smith was nervous about the effect. For the scene where Frank Hallet kills the hamster Gordon, Sheen handled a dead and frozen rodent, and attempted to make it seem like it was still alive. Sound effects of squealing were added. The dead hamster was obtained from a hospital which carried out animal research, and the live hamster portraying Gordon in other scenes was given to the costume designer after production.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Mort Shuman, who played Officer Miglioriti, was a musician in real life, so the crew intended that Shuman would also write the film score. However, Shuman's arranger Christian Gaubert wrote the bulk of the music, giving him the credit of composer, while Shuman was listed as the music supervisor.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Gessner wanted to use the music of Polish composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin, finding his music a good match with the dialogue. He said Chopin's music was intended to symbolize hope and absolution, along with sadness. Chopin's piano concerto No. 1 in E Minor was performed by pianist Claudio Arrau and The London Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: After a screening at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1976, Astral Bellevue Pathé Limited sold distribution rights to "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane", allowing it to make $750,000 worldwide by June. The film was shown in Paris with a French dub on 26 January and in Toronto on 28 January 1977. According to "Variety", Beachfront Properties secured a temporary restraining order which gave it ownership of the film per a contract from September 1976. This order forbade any new sales but did not change the American International Pictures release in April 1977. The film had trial screenings in Albuquerque and Peoria, Illinois, on 18 March 1977. It opened in Los Angeles on 11 May and in New York City on 10 August 1977, with a PG rating.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: On its initial release, the film poster depicted "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane" as a horror film, with an image of a building evoking the 1960 film "Psycho" and the subtitle "She was only a little girl. She lived in a great big house...all alone. Where is her mother? Where is her father? Where are all the people who went to visit her? What is her unspeakable secret? Everyone who knows is dead."


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: A VHS release of the film removed the nudity, but it was re-added to the DVD. StudioCanal published a DVD in Region 2 on 20 October 2008. Kino Lorber released the film on Blu-ray in Region A on 10 May 2016. Hulu and Amazon Prime also made the film available to their customers in November 2016.


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Janet Maslin for "The New York Times" wrote this was Foster's most natural portrayal of a child and that Sheen was frightening, and found the romance to be the greatest strength. In "The Washington Post", Gary Arnold called the film engaging, but claimed the murder plot is "too glib, too immorally contrived, to be satisfying." "Variety"s review stated the story was unbelievable, and the romance was one of the few positive aspects. "Time"s Christopher Porterfield felt the film failed to address the most interesting mysteries, and that doing so, combined with Foster's acting, would have made the film memorable. Judith Crist's review in the "New York Post" judged it to be "a better-than-average thriller". Foster's biographer Louis Chunovic referred to the film as "much maligned".


title: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane

text: Felicia Feaster of Turner Classic Movies remarked that "The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane" became a cult film, noting Danny Peary profiled it in his "Guide for the Film Fanatic". Peary also listed it in his book "Cult Horror Movies". In 1992, James Monaco gave the film three and a half stars, assessing it as disturbing and complimenting the performances and writing. In their "DVD and Video Guide 2005", Mick Martin and Marsha Porter awarded it three and a half stars, commenting it was "remarkably subdued". Author David Greven praised Foster for a performance "achingly" suggesting "adolescent anomie". In his "2015 Movie Guide", Leonard Maltin gave the film three stars, declaring it as a "Complex, unique mystery". The film has a 93% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Spitsbergen (; formerly known as West Spitsbergen; Norwegian: "Vest Spitsbergen" or "Vestspitsbergen" , also sometimes spelled Spitzbergen) is the largest and the only permanently populated island of the Svalbard archipelago in northern Norway.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Constituting the westernmost bulk of the archipelago, it borders the Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea, and the Greenland Sea. Spitsbergen covers an area of , making it the largest island in Norway and the 36th-largest in the world. The administrative centre is Longyearbyen. Other settlements, in addition to research outposts, are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund, and the mining outpost of Sveagruva. Spitsbergen was covered in of ice in 1999, which was approximately 58.5% of the island's total area.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The island was first used as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which it was abandoned. Coal mining started at the end of the 19th century, and several permanent communities were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognized Norwegian sovereignty and established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol are the only mining companies at Spitsbergen. Research and tourism have become the important supplementary industries, featuring among others the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft, and boats serve as local transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen provides the main point of entry and exit.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The island has an Arctic climate, although with significantly higher temperatures than other places at the same latitude. The flora benefits from the long period of midnight sun, which compensates for the polar night. Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds, and also supports polar bears, arctic foxes, reindeer and marine mammals. Six national parks protect the largely untouched, yet fragile environment. The island has many glaciers, mountains, and fjords.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Dutch navigator Willem Barentsz gave Spitsbergen its name when he discovered it in 1596. The name "Spitsbergen", meaning "pointed mountains" (from the Dutch "spits" - pointed, "bergen" - mountains), at first applied both to the main island and to the associated archipelago as a whole. In the 17th and 18th centuries, English whalers referred to the islands as "Greenland", a practice still followed in 1780 and criticized by Sigismund Bacstrom at that time. The "Spitzbergen" spelling was used in English during the 19th century, for instance by Beechey, Laing, and the Royal Society.


title: Spitsbergen

text: In 1906 the Arctic explorer Sir Martin Conway regarded the "Spitzbergen" spelling as incorrect; he preferred "Spitsbergen", as he noted that the name was Dutch, not German. This had little effect on British practice. In 1920 the international treaty determining the status of the islands was entitled the "Spitsbergen Treaty". The islands were generally referred to in the United States as "Spitsbergen" from that time, although the spelling "Spitzbergen" also commonly occurred through the 20th century.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Norwegian administrating authorities named the archipelago "Svalbard" in 1925, the main island becoming "Spitsbergen". By the end of the 20th century, this usage had become common.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The first recorded sighting of the island was by Willem Barentsz, a Dutch explorer who came across it while searching for the Northern Sea Route in June 1596. The first good map, with the east coast roughly indicated, appeared in 1623, printed by Willem Janszoon Blaeu. Around 1660 and 1728, better maps were produced.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The archipelago may have been known to Russian Pomor hunters as early as the 14th or 15th century, although solid evidence preceding the 17th century is lacking. Following the English whalers and others in referring to the archipelago as Greenland, they named it Grumant (Грумант). The name Svalbard is first mentioned in Icelandic sagas of the 10th and 11th centuries, but this may have been Jan Mayen.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Early whaling expeditions to Svalbard in general and Spitsbergen in particular tended, because of currents and fauna, to cluster on the western coast of Spitsbergen and the islands off shore. Shortly after whaling began (1611), the Danish—Norwegian crown in 1616 claimed ownership of Jan Mayen and the Spitsbergen islands, as all of Svalbard was then known, but in 1613, the English Muscovy Company had done the same.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The primary and most profitable whaling grounds of this joint-stock company came to be centered on Spitsbergen in the early 17th century, and the company's 1613 Royal Charter from the English Crown granted a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen, based on the (erroneous) claim that Hugh Willoughby had discovered the land in 1553. Not only had they wrongly assumed a 1553 English voyage had reached the area, but on 27 June 1607, during his first voyage in search of a "northeast passage" on behalf of the company, Henry Hudson sighted "Newland" (i.e. Spitsbergen), near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later named the Great Indraught (Isfjorden). In this way, the English hoped to head off expansion in the region by the Dutch, at the time their major rival.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Initially, the English tried to drive away competitors, but after disputes with the Dutch (1613–24), they, for the most part, only claimed the bays south of Kongsfjorden.


title: Spitsbergen

text: From 1617 onwards, a Danish-chartered company began sending whaling fleets to Spitsbergen. This successful expansion by Denmark into the North Atlantic has recently been cited by historians as the first step of the Danish-Norwegian state into overseas colonialism. It eventually built a small overseas empire of East Indian trade posts, North Atlantic possessions (such as Greenland and Iceland), and a small Atlantic trade route between possessions on the Guinea Coast (in modern Ghana) and what are now the United States Virgin Islands.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The entire Svalbard archipelago, nominally ruled first by Denmark–Norway, and later the Norwegians (as Union between Sweden and Norway from 1814 to 1905, independent Norway from 1905), remained a source of riches for fishery and whaling vessels from many nations. The islands also became the launching point for a number of Arctic explorers, including William Edward Parry, Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Otto Martin Torell, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, Roald Amundsen, and Ernest Shackleton.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Between 1913 and 1920, Spitsbergen was a neutral condominium. The Spitsbergen Treaty of 9 February 1920, recognises the full and absolute sovereignty of Norway over all the arctic archipelago of Svalbard. The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and not all Norwegian law applies. Originally limited to nine signatory nations, over 40 are now signatories of the treaty. Citizens of any of the signatory countries may settle in the archipelago. Once named Spitsbergen after its largest island, the Svalbard archipelago was made a part of Norway – not a dependency – by the Svalbard Act of 1925. Since this date, it has been a region of Norway, with a Norwegian-appointed governor resident at the administrative centre of Longyearbyen. Limitations on the imposition of certain Norwegian laws are outlined in the Spitsbergen Treaty.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The largest settlement on Spitsbergen is the Norwegian town of Longyearbyen, while the second-largest settlement is the Russian coal-mining settlement of Barentsburg. (This was sold by the Netherlands in 1932 to the Soviet company Arktikugol.) Other settlements on the island include the former Russian mining communities of Grumantbyen and Pyramiden (abandoned in 1961 and 1998, respectively), a Polish research station at Hornsund, and the remote northern settlement of Ny-Ålesund.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Allied soldiers were stationed on the island in 1941 to prevent Nazi Germany from occupying the islands. Norway came under German occupation in 1940. Germany took control of the coal fields and the weather station during this time, although most of the inhabitants on the island were Russian and Germany and the Soviet Union had a non-aggression pact until 22 June 1941. Once the non-aggression pact was ended, the United Kingdom and Canada sent military forces to the island to destroy German installations, both the Soviet coal mines and the German weather station.


title: Spitsbergen

text: In 1943, the German battleship "Tirpitz" and an escort flotilla shelled and destroyed the Allied weather station in Operation Zitronella. On 6 September, a squadron consisting of "Tirpitz", the battleship "Scharnhorst", and nine destroyers weighed anchor in Altenfjord and Kåfjord and headed for Spitsbergen, to attack the Allied base. At dawn on 8 September 1943, "Tirpitz" and "Scharnhorst" opened fire against the two 3-inch guns which comprised the defences of Barentsburg, and the destroyers ran inshore with landing parties, destroying a supply dump and wrecking a landing station. By noon, the hostilities had ended, with the landing parties returning to the ships, along with some prisoners. The German ships returned safely to Altenfjord and Kåfjord on 9 September 1943. This was the last operation for the "Tirpitz".


title: Spitsbergen

text: On 29 August 1996, Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 crashed on the island, killing all 141 people on board.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard. All 40 signatory countries of the treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Spitsbergen is a demilitarized zone, as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations. The treaty requires Norway to protect the natural environment. The island is administered by the Governor of Svalbard, who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police, as well as authority granted from the executive branch. Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the Schengen Agreement, Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area nor EEA.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Residents of Spitsbergen do not need visas for Schengen but are prohibited from reaching Svalbard from mainland Norway without them. People without a means of income can be rejected as residents by the governor. Citizens of any treaty signatory country may visit the island without a visa. Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg.


title: Spitsbergen

text: In 2009, Spitsbergen had a population of 2,753, of whom 423 were Russian or Ukrainian, 10 were Polish and 322 were non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements. The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Thailand, Sweden, Denmark, Russia and Germany. Spitsbergen is among the safest places on Earth, with virtually no crime.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on the island, the seat of the governor, and the only incorporated town. It features a hospital, primary and secondary school, university, sports centre with a swimming pool, library, cultural centre, cinema, bus transport, hotels, a bank, and several museums. The newspaper "Svalbardposten" is published weekly. Only a small fraction of the mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; instead, workers commute to Sveagruva (or Svea) where Store Norske operates a mine. Sveagruva is a dorm town, with workers commuting from Longyearbyen on a weekly basis.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Since 2002, Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality, including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads and ports. No care or nursing services are available, nor is welfare payment available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities. The hospital is part of University Hospital of North Norway, while the airport is operated by state-owned Avinor. Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg are company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol, respectively. Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining, the Norwegian Polar Institute, the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway. Svalbard is subordinate Nord-Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal, both located in Tromsø.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Ny-Ålesund is a permanent settlement based entirely on research. Formerly a mining town, it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state-owned Kings Bay. While there is some tourism at the village, Norwegian authorities limit the access to the outpost to minimise impact on the scientific work. Ny-Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and a summer population of 180. Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund, with ten permanent residents.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Barentsburg is the only remaining Russian settlement, after Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998. A company town, all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen. The village has facilities such as a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm and greenhouse. Pyramiden has similar facilities; both are built in typical Soviet style and are the site of the world's two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realism artwork.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The three main industries on Spitsbergen are coal mining, tourism and research. In 2007, there were 484 people working in the mining sector, 211 people working in the tourism sector and 111 people working in the education sector. The same year, mining produced a revenue of NOK 2,008 million, tourism NOK 317 million and research NOK 142 million. In 2006, the average income for economically active people was NOK 494,700 – 23% higher than on the mainland. Almost all housing is owned by the various employers and institutions and rented to their employees; there are only a few privately owned houses, most of which are recreational cabins. Because of this, it is almost impossible to live on Spitsbergen without working for an established institution.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Since the resettlement of Spitsbergen in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry, operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter sends 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There has previously been some test drilling for petroleum on land, but this did not give results good enough to justify permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum drilling activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as nature reserves or national parks.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Spitsbergen Island coins were issued in 1946, with Russian Cyrillic lettering, in the USSR denomination of 10 and 20 kopecks. Then in 1993, coins were again minted in Russian values of 10, 20, 50 and 100 roubles. Both series have the motto "Arctic coal".


title: Spitsbergen

text: Spitsbergen was historically a base for both whaling and fishing. Norway claimed a exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around Svalbard in 1977, Norway retains a restrictive fisheries policy in the zone, and the claims are disputed by Russia. Tourism is focused on the environment and is centered on Longyearbyen. Activities include hiking, kayaking, walks through glacier caves and snow-scooter and dog-sled safaris. Cruise ships generate a significant portion of the traffic, including stops by both offshore vessels and expeditionary cruises starting and ending in Svalbard. Traffic is strongly concentrated between March and August; overnight stays have quintupled from 1991 to 2008, when there were 93,000 guest-nights.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Research on Svalbard centers on Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, the most accessible areas in the high Arctic. Norway grants permission for any nation to conduct research on Svalbard, resulting in the Polish Polar Station, Indian Himadri Station, and the Chinese Arctic Yellow River Station, plus Russian facilities in Barentsburg. The University Centre in Svalbard in Longyearbyen offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate courses to 350 students in various arctic sciences, particularly biology, geology and geophysics. Courses are provided to supplement studies at the mainland universities; there are no tuition fees and courses are held in English, with Norwegian and international students equally represented.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a "doomsday" seedbank to store seeds from as many of the world's crop varieties and their botanical wild relatives as possible. A cooperation between the government of Norway and the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the vault is cut into rock near Longyearbyen, keeping it at a natural and refrigerating the seeds to .


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Svalbard Undersea Cable System is a fibre optic line from Svalbard to Harstad, needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite through Svalbard Satellite Station and installations in Ny-Ålesund.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The Arctic World Archive, a huge digital archiving concern run by Norwegian private company Piql and the state-owned coal-mining company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, opened in March 2017. In mid-2020, it acquired its biggest customer in the form of GitHub, a subsidiary of Microsoft.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Within Longyearbyen, Barentsburg and Ny-Ålesund, there are road systems, but they do not connect with each other. Off-road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground, but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter – both for commercial and recreational activities. Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg () and Pyramiden () is possible by snowmobile during winter, or by ship all year round. All settlements have ports, and Longyearbyen has a bus system.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Svalbard Airport, Longyear, located from Longyearbyen, is the only airport offering air transport for the island. Scandinavian Airlines has daily scheduled services to Tromsø and Oslo; there are also irregular charter services to Russia. Lufttransport provides regular corporate charter services from Longyearbyen to Ny-Ålesund Airport, Hamnerabben and Svea Airport for Kings Bay and Store Norske; these flights are in general not available to the public. There are heliports in Barentsburg and Pyramiden, and helicopters are frequently used by the governor and to a lesser extent the mining company Arktikugol.


title: Spitsbergen

text: The climate of Svalbard is dominated by its high latitude, with the average summer temperature at to and January averages at to . The North Atlantic Current moderates Spitsbergens's temperatures, particularly during winter, giving it up to higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in Russia and Canada. This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. The interior fjord areas and valleys, sheltered by the mountains, have less temperature differences than the coast, giving about lower summer temperatures and higher winter temperatures. On the south of Spitsbergen, the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west. During winter, the temperature difference between south and north is typically , while about in summer.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Spitsbergen is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild, wet sea air from the south, creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds, particularly in winter; in January, a strong breeze is registered 17% of the time at Isfjord Radio, but only 1% of the time in July. In summer, particularly away from land, fog is common, with visibility under registered 20% of the time in July. Precipitation is frequent but falls in small quantities, typically less than annually in western Spitsbergen. More rain falls in the uninhabited east side, where there can be more than annually.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Three terrestrial mammalian species inhabit the island: the Arctic fox, the Svalbard reindeer, and accidentally introduced southern vole, which are only found in Grumant. Attempts to introduce the Arctic hare and the muskox have both failed. There are fifteen to twenty types of marine mammals, including whales, dolphins, seals, walruses, and polar bears. Arctic charr inhabit Linne´vatn and other freshwater lakes on the island.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Polar bears are the iconic symbol of Spitsbergen and one of the main tourist attractions. While they are protected, persons going outside settlements are required to carry a rifle to kill polar bears in self-defence, as a last resort should they attack. Spitsbergen shares a common polar bear population with the rest of Svalbard and Franz Joseph Land. The Svalbard reindeer ("R. tarandus platyrhynchus") is a distinct sub-species. While it was previously almost extinct, hunting is permitted for both it and the Arctic fox.


title: Spitsbergen

text: About thirty types of bird are found on Spitsbergen, most of which are migratory. The Barents Sea is among the areas in the world with most seabirds, with about 20 million counted during late summer. The most common are little auk, northern fulmar, thick-billed murre and black-legged kittiwake. Sixteen species are on the IUCN Red List. Particularly Storfjorden and Nordvest-Spitsbergen are important breeding ground for seabirds. The Arctic tern has the furthest migration, all the way to Antarctica. Only two songbirds migrate to Spitsbergen to breed: the snow bunting and the northern wheatear. Rock ptarmigan is the only bird to overwinter.


title: Spitsbergen

text: Two partial skeletons of "Pliosaurus funkei" from the Jurassic period were discovered in 2008. It is the largest Mesozoic marine reptile ever found – a pliosaur estimated to be almost long. Svalbard has permafrost and tundra, with both low, middle and high Arctic vegetation. 165 species of plants have been found on the archipelago. Only those areas which defrost in the summer have vegetation. Vegetation is most abundant in Nordenskiöld Land, around Isfjorden and where effected by guano. While there is little precipitation, giving the island a steppe climate, plants still have good access to water because the cold climate reduces evaporation. The growing season is very short, and may last only a few weeks.


title: Spitsbergen

text: There are six national parks on Spitsbergen: Indre Wijdefjorden, Nordenskiöld Land, Nordre Isfjorden Land, Nordvest-Spitsbergen, Sassen-Bünsow Land and Sør-Spitsbergen. The island also features Festningen Geotope Protected Area; some of the northeastern coast is part of Nordaust-Svalbard Nature Reserve. All human traces dating from before 1946 are automatically protected. Svalbard is on Norway's tentative list for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Walk the Moon (stylized as WALK THE MOON) is an American rock band based in Cincinnati, Ohio. Lead singer Nicholas Petricca started the band in 2006, while a student at Kenyon College, deriving the band's name from the song "Walking on the Moon" by the Police. The band is notable for its charting hit singles "Anna Sun", "Shut Up and Dance", and "One Foot".


title: Walk the Moon

text: Walk the Moon have cited Talking Heads, David Bowie, the Police, Tears for Fears, and Phil Collins as influences. The band's use of 1980s musical mainstays, such as keyboard and synthesizer, is also notable.


title: Walk the Moon

text: The group independently released their debut studio album, "I want! I want!", in November 2010, receiving airplay for the track "Anna Sun" on multiple alternative radio stations. Along with the success of "Anna Sun", Alt Nation named them a band you need to the summer of 2012. Influential music blog Neon Gold helped to break the band in January 2011, calling "Anna Sun", "the kind of stuff British A&R dreams, and major label bidding wars, are made of." In February 2011, Walk the Moon signed to RCA Records.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In 2011, the band members began to paint their faces for live performances and they would bring enough paint to share with audience members. They have claimed it has become a “live tradition”. Bonnaroo’s camera crew documented the painting process in a short video from the 2011 festival. The band played at the Sasquatch Music Festival and Firefly Music Festival. In these years, they were known for their energetic performances and tireless touring schedule.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Before the release of their self-titled album, Walk the Moon joined many other performers at the Music Midtown festival and performed on the Great Southeast Music Hall Stage in Atlanta, Georgia in September 2011. In spring 2011, the band went on a short tour with the west coast band, Grouplove, as well as supporting Panic! at the Disco and Weezer on select dates. The band played on the main stage at the 20th Anniversary of Lollapalooza and also supported Local Natives in an Official Lollaplooza Aftershow at Lincoln Hall.


title: Walk the Moon

text: The band's recorded "i Want! i Want!" with Chris Schmidt and Ben Cochran at Soap Floats Recording Studio in their hometown of Cincinnati, Ohio and then self-released it. The lead single from the album, "Anna Sun", became a surprise hit in the summer of 2011 following an endorsement by the "Esquire" article "30 Summer Songs Every Man Should Listen To". The song was written by Petricca and New York songwriter Nick Lerangis as their time at Kenyon College came to an end. "It's about college, about maintaining that little bit of being a kid," Petricca said. "Don't be afraid to play." The song was named after one of their favorite teachers. It was named song of the summer by MTV and Seventeen Mag, and one of the top songs of the year by Amazon. It has been officially remixed by Fool's Gold and received a Trouble Productions remix by Albert Hammond Jr. Anna Sun rose to the number one spot on Alt. Nation on Sirius XM Radio. "Anna Sun" was added to the video rotation of American Eagle Outfitters stores in May 2011. It was featured on the hit TV show "Vampire Diaries" in the first episode of season three. It was also the free single of the week on iTunes for the week of May 15.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Filmed in 2011 in Cincinnati's Over-the-Rhine neighborhood, the "Anna Sun" music video was released to coincide with the album. The video was shot on-location at the Cincinnati Mockbee building, as well as at a city park. It was directed and produced by Patrick Meier of the Cincinnati company, Contrast Productions, and features original choreography from Kim Popa of PONES Inc., as well as a cast full of the band's friends and locals from Cincinnati. MTV Hive calls the video a "hilariously choreographed, neon-colored and awesomely shot in one take" production.


title: Walk the Moon

text: The band's self-titled major label debut "Walk the Moon" was released by RCA Records on June 19, 2012. The album included a re-recorded version of "Anna Sun." The band appeared on the "Late Show with David Letterman" the day the album released.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On June 27, 2012, the band joined many other performers at Summerfest Music Festival and performed on the U.S. Cellular Connection Stage. The first single was "Anna Sun" which peaked at number 10 on the "Billboard" Alternative chart and number 20 on the "Billboard" Rock Songs chart. Also in 2012, Walk the Moon played in the iTunes Festival in London, appeared in KROQ's Weenie Roast 2012, and was the supporting act for Fun on their European tour.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Their song “Quesadilla” was added to the official FIFA 13 soundtrack and their second single, “Tightrope” was used in a commercial for the HP Envy 4 Ultrabook laptop. and was featured in the game "Saints Row IV".


title: Walk the Moon

text: Petricca appeared on the song "Finale" by Madeon, which was included on the FIFA 13 soundtrack. In July and August 2014 before the release of "Talking Is Hard", Walk the Moon was the opener of Panic! at the Disco on the This Is Gospel Tour.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On January 22, 2013 they released the "Tightrope EP", which is made up of Tightrope, three new songs, and a cover of Burning Down The House.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On September 10, 2014, Walk the Moon released the single "Shut Up and Dance" (stylized as "SHUT UP + DANCE") in advance of their new album. It was written by the band members and songwriters Ben Berger and Ryan McMahon. The song is based on an experience frontman Nicholas Petricca had at a Los Angeles nightclub. His girlfriend invited him to dance, inspiring the title, which he envisioned as an anthem for letting go of frustration and having fun. The song reached number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and became a number-one hit on the magazine's Alternative Songs chart and the Hot Adult Contemporary chart. Ryan Seed of "Billboard" gave "Shut Up and Dance" four and a half stars out of five. Outside the United States, the song topped the charts in Poland, peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom, the top twenty of the charts in New Zealand and Sweden, and the top thirty of the charts in the Netherlands. The band has performed "Shut Up and Dance" on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", "Late Night with Seth Meyers", "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", and "Good Morning America". In December 2014, the band released their second major-label studio album, "Talking Is Hard".


title: Walk the Moon

text: During October 2014, Walk the Moon released a series of pictures and videos on their Facebook page that hinted at the album's title. The title was officially revealed to be "Talking Is Hard" on October 29, 2014, with a release date set for December 2. On November 10, 2014, the band released the cover artwork and song listing for "Talking is Hard". On November 17, 2014, they released "Different Colors" as the second single off the album. On November 24, 2014, the album was surprise released on Spotify a week before its set release date. On December 2, 2014, the album was released in digital, CD, and vinyl formats. The album also charted at number 26 on the "Billboard" 200 in its first week of release.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In July 2015, Cincinnati-originated Walk the Moon performed "Shut Up and Dance" in front of a hometown crowd at Great American Ball Park, prior to the start of the Home Run Derby. On July 24, 2015, they joined Taylor Swift on stage at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, during her "1989" tour to perform "Shut Up and Dance". On November 16, 2015, the group sang the national anthem preceding a Monday Night Football game between the Cincinnati Bengals and the Houston Texans, which was played at Paul Brown Stadium in Cincinnati.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Walk the Moon performed their breakout hit "Shut Up and Dance" live at the 43rd Annual American Music Awards (AMA) on November 22, 2015. They were first-time AMA nominees for:


title: Walk the Moon

text: The band's competition for New Artist of the Year included: Sam Hunt (winner), Fetty Wap, Tove Lo, and The Weeknd. For Favorite Pop/Rock Band, the competition was One Direction (winner) and Maroon 5. The other finalists for the Favorite Alternative Rock award were Fall Out Boy (winner) and Hozier.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On January 1, 2016, Walk the Moon performed "Shut Up and Dance" and "Work This Body" on "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve" in New York. The band is also featured on the Knocks' song titled "Best For Last", which was released on their debut album entitled "55". The album was released on March 4, 2016, under the label Big Beat Records.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In April 2016, Walk the Moon announced their "Work This Body" tour would be cancelled due to an illness in Petricca's family. The tour resumed in May of that year. The same month, their previously recorded collaboration with Steve Aoki and Boehm, "Back 2 U", was released as a single. In June, their rendition of the "Ghostbusters" theme song was included on the soundtrack for the 2016 film.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In August 2017, Petricca performed solo at LoveLoud fest, a music festival benefitting LGBTQ+ youth in Utah. The next month, the group released the single "One Foot" from their upcoming third album, along with an accompanying music video. On September 26, 2017, Walk the Moon announced their third studio album "What If Nothing". On October 13, 2017, the band released their second single from the album, "Headphones". On October 27, 2017, Walk the Moon released their third single from the album, "Surrender".


title: Walk the Moon

text: "What If Nothing" was released on November 10, 2017. The album peaked at #40 on the "Billboard" 200, while its lead single "One Foot" peaked at #1 on the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart. In November the band also kicked off its Press Restart Tour with supporting act Company of Thieves. The tour began November 19 in Charlotte, North Carolina, and ended on April 14, 2018, in Glasgow, United Kingdom. "What If Nothing" debuted at #6 on the U.S. iTunes charts. The fourth single from the album, "Kamikaze", was released on April 17, 2018. The fifth single, "Tiger Teeth", was released on October 24, 2018.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On January 14, 2019, the band was announced by Muse as their opening act during their Simulation Theory North American tour.


title: Walk the Moon

text: Throughout 2019, band released stand-alone singles "Timebomb", "Eat Your Heart Out", and "Lose You Again" featuring BRAVES.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On July 20, 2019, the band performed at Houston Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, at the 50th human first moon landing anniversary concert.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In late 2019, the band began working on a new full album, the plans of which were somewhat hindered due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the band pressed ahead with recording and mixing the new album, with each member working in isolation and collaborating through Zoom. No timeline for the completion and release of the album was ever announced.


title: Walk the Moon

text: On December 21, 2020, Nicholas Petricca made an Instagram post on the Walk the Moon account announcing that Kevin Ray was no longer a part of the band due to "firsthand information which leads us to conclude that Kevin Ray has acted out of alignment with our values." He, Sean Waugaman, and Eli Maiman would continue recording and performing as Walk the Moon, and Ray would not be included on the album they were recording.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In July 2021, the band announced the title of their fifth album called "Heights", their first studio album in four years, with the first single called "Can You Handle My Love??" releasing on July 14, along with the tracks "Giants" and "I'm Good". The release was followed by dates for their Dream Plane Tour in Fall 2021.


title: Walk the Moon

text: In September 17, 2021, the band released their second single "Fire In Your House" which features Johnny and Jesse Clegg. On October 28, 2021 they released the single "Rise Up."


title: Walk the Moon

text: The album "i Want! i Want!" was released in late 2010 as shown by the bar on the timeline, but it was recorded earlier when the band lineup consisted of Petricca, Lerangis, Reifsnyder, and Galvin.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: In an aqueous solution, precipitation is the process of transforming a dissolved substance into an insoluble solid from a super-saturated solution. The solid formed is called the precipitate. In case of an inorganic chemical reaction leading to precipitation, the chemical reagent causing the solid to form is called the "precipitant".


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The clear liquid remaining above the precipitated or the centrifuged solid phase is also called the 'supernate' or 'supernatant'.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The notion of precipitation can also be extended to other domains of chemistry (organic chemistry and biochemistry) and even be applied to the solid phases ("e.g.", metallurgy and alloys) when solid impurities segregate from a solid phase.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The precipitation of a compound may occur when its concentration exceeds its solubility. This can be due to temperature changes, solvent evaporation, or by mixing solvents. Precipitation occurs more rapidly from a strongly supersaturated solution.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The formation of a precipitate can be caused by a chemical reaction. When a barium chloride solution reacts with sulphuric acid, a white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed. When a potassium iodide solution reacts with a lead(II) nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide is formed.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of nucleation. The creation of a solid particle implies the formation of an interface with the solution. This involves energy changes depending on the dissolution reaction free energy (endothermic or exothermic process accompanied by an entropy increase) and the relative surface energy developed between the solid and the solution. If energy changes are not favorable, or without suitable nucleation sites, no precipitation occurs and the solution remain supersaturated.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: A common example of precipitation reaction in aqueous solution is that of silver chloride. When silver nitrate (AgNO) is added to a solution of potassium chloride (KCl) the precipitation of a white solid (AgCl) is observed.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The ionic equation allows to write this reaction by detailing the dissociated ions present in aqueous solution.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The Walden reductor is an illustration of a reduction reaction directly accompanied by the precipitation of a less soluble compound because of its lower chemical valence:


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: The Walden reductor made of tiny silver crystals obtained by the immersion of a copper wire into a solution of silver nitrate is used to reduce to their lower valence any metallic ion located above the silver couple in the redox potential scale.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Many compounds containing metal ions produce precipitates with distinctive colors. The following are some typical colors for various metals. However, many of these compounds can produce colors very different from those listed.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Precipitate formation is useful in the detection of the type of cation in a salt. To do this, an alkali first reacts with the unknown salt to produce a precipitate that is the hydroxide of the unknown salt. To identify the cation, the color of the precipitate and its solubility in excess are noted. Similar processes are often used in sequence – for example, a barium nitrate solution will react with sulfate ions to form a solid barium sulfate precipitate, indicating that it is likely that sulfate ions are present.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Without sufficient attraction forces ("e.g.", Van der Waals force) to aggregate the solid particles together and to remove them from solution by gravity (settling), they remain in suspension and form colloids. Sedimentation can be accelerated by high speed centrifugation. The compact mass obtained so is sometimes referred to as a 'pellet'.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Digestion, or "precipitate ageing", happens when a freshly formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher temperature, in the solution from which it precipitates. It results in purer and larger recrystallized particles. The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called Ostwald ripening.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: While precipitation reactions can be used for making pigments, removing ions from solution in water treatment, and in classical qualitative inorganic analysis, precipitation is also commonly used to isolate the products of an organic reaction during workup and purification operations. Ideally, the product of the reaction is insoluble in the solvent used for the reaction. Thus, it precipitates as it is formed, preferably forming pure crystals. An example of this would be the synthesis of porphyrins in refluxing propionic acid. By cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, crystals of the porphyrin precipitate, and are collected by filtration on a Büchner filter as illustrated by the photograph here beside:


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Precipitation may also occur when an "antisolvent" (a solvent in which the product is insoluble) is added, drastically reducing the solubility of the desired product. Thereafter, the precipitate may be easily separated by decanting, filtration, or by centrifugation. An example would be the synthesis of Crtetraphenylporphyrin chloride: water is added to the dimethylformamide (DMF) solution in which the reaction occurred, and the product precipitates. Precipitation is useful in purifying many other products: "e.g.", crude bmim-Cl is taken up in acetonitrile, and dropped into ethyl acetate, where it precipitates.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Proteins purification and separation can be performed by precipitation in changing the nature of the solvent or the value of its dielectric constant ("e.g.", by replacing water by ethanol), or by increasing the ionic strength of the solution. As proteins have complex tertiary and quaternary structures due to their specific folding and various weak intermolecular interactions ("e.g.", hydrogen bridges), these superstructures can be modified and proteins denaturated and precipitated. Another important application of an antisolvent is in ethanol precipitation of DNA.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: In solid phases, precipitation occurs if the concentration of one solid is above the solubility limit in the host solid, due to e.g. rapid quenching or


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: ion implantation, and the temperature is high enough that diffusion can lead to segregation into precipitates. Precipitation in solids is routinely used to synthesize nanoclusters.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Precipitation of ceramic phases in metallic alloys such as zirconium hydrides in zircaloy cladding of nuclear fuel pins can also render metallic alloys brittle and lead to their mechanical failure. Correctly mastering the precise temperature and pressure conditions when cooling down spent nuclear fuels is therefore essential to avoid damaging their cladding and to preserve the integrity of the spent fuel elements on the long term in dry storage casks and in geological disposal conditions.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Hydroxide precipitation is probably the most widely used industrial precipitation process in which metal hydroxides are formed by adding calcium hydroxide ("slaked lime") or sodium hydroxide ("caustic" "soda") as precipitant.


title: Precipitation (chemistry)

text: Powders derived from different precipitation processes have also historically been known as 'flowers'.


title: Diversity index

text: A diversity index is a quantitative measure that reflects how many different types (such as species) there are in a dataset (a community), and that can simultaneously take into account the phylogenetic relations among the individuals distributed among those types, such as "richness", "divergence" or "evenness". These indices are statistical representations of biodiversity in different aspects (richness, evenness, and dominance).


title: Diversity index

text: When diversity indices are used in ecology, the types of interest are usually species, but they can also be other categories, such as genera, families, functional types, or haplotypes. The entities of interest are usually individual plants or animals, and the measure of abundance can be, for example, number of individuals, biomass or coverage. In demography, the entities of interest can be people, and the types of interest various demographic groups. In information science, the entities can be characters and the types of the different letters of the alphabet. The most commonly used diversity indices are simple transformations of the effective number of types (also known as 'true diversity'), but each diversity index can also be interpreted in its own right as a measure corresponding to some real phenomenon (but a different one for each diversity index).


title: Diversity index

text: Many indices only account for categorical diversity between subjects or entities. Such indices, however do not account for the total variation (diversity) that can be held between subjects or entities which occurs only when both categorical and qualitative diversity are calculated.


title: Diversity index

text: True diversity, or the effective number of types, refers to the number of equally abundant types needed for the average proportional abundance of the types to equal that observed in the dataset of interest (where all types may not be equally abundant). The true diversity in a dataset is calculated by first taking the weighted generalized mean of the proportional abundances of the types in the dataset, and then taking the reciprocal of this. The equation is:


title: Diversity index

text: The denominator equals the average proportional abundance of the types in the dataset as calculated with the weighted generalized mean with exponent . In the equation, is richness (the total number of types in the dataset), and the proportional abundance of the th type is . The proportional abundances themselves are used as the nominal weights. The numbers formula_2 are called Hill numbers of order q or effective number of species.


title: Diversity index

text: When , the above equation is undefined. However, the mathematical limit as approaches 1 is well defined and the corresponding diversity is calculated with the following equation:


title: Diversity index

text: which is the exponential of the Shannon entropy calculated with natural logarithms (see above). In other domains, this statistic is also known as the "perplexity".


title: Diversity index

text: and the term inside the parentheses is called the basic sum. Some popular diversity indices correspond to the basic sum as calculated with different values of .


title: Diversity index

text: The value of is often referred to as the order of the diversity. It defines the sensitivity of the true diversity to rare vs. abundant species by modifying how the weighted mean of the species' proportional abundances is calculated. With some values of the parameter , the value of the generalized mean assumes familiar kinds of weighted means as special cases. In particular,


title: Diversity index

text: Generally, increasing the value of increases the effective weight given to the most abundant species. This leads to obtaining a larger value and a smaller true diversity () value with increasing .


title: Diversity index

text: When , the weighted geometric mean of the values is used, and each species is exactly weighted by its proportional abundance (in the weighted geometric mean, the weights are the exponents). When , the weight given to abundant species is exaggerated, and when , the weight given to rare species is. At , the species weights exactly cancel out the species proportional abundances, such that the weighted mean of the values equals even when all species are not equally abundant. At , the effective number of species, , hence equals the actual number of species . In the context of diversity, is generally limited to non-negative values. This is because negative values of would give rare species so much more weight than abundant ones that would exceed .


title: Diversity index

text: Richness simply quantifies how many different types the dataset of interest contains. For example, species richness (usually noted ) of a dataset is the number of species in the corresponding species list. Richness is a simple measure, so it has been a popular diversity index in ecology, where abundance data are often not available for the datasets of interest. Because richness does not take the abundance of the types into account, it is not the same thing as diversity, which does take abundance into account. However, if true diversity is calculated with , the effective number of types () equals the actual number of types, which is identical to Richness ().


title: Diversity index

text: The Shannon index has been a popular diversity index in the ecological literature, where it is also known as Shannon's diversity index, Shannon–Wiener index, and (erroneously) Shannon–Weaver index. The measure was originally proposed by Claude Shannon in 1948 to quantify the entropy (hence "Shannon entropy", related to Shannon information content) in strings of text. The idea is that the more letters there are, and the closer their proportional abundances in the string of interest, the more difficult it is to correctly predict which letter will be the next one in the string. The Shannon entropy quantifies the uncertainty (entropy or degree of surprise) associated with this prediction. It is most often calculated as follows:


title: Diversity index

text: where is the proportion of characters belonging to the th type of letter in the string of interest. In ecology, is often the proportion of individuals belonging to the th species in the dataset of interest. Then the Shannon entropy quantifies the uncertainty in predicting the species identity of an individual that is taken at random from the dataset.


title: Diversity index

text: Although the equation is here written with natural logarithms, the base of the logarithm used when calculating the Shannon entropy can be chosen freely. Shannon himself discussed logarithm bases 2, 10 and , and these have since become the most popular bases in applications that use the Shannon entropy. Each log base corresponds to a different measurement unit, which has been called binary digits (bits), decimal digits (decits), and natural digits (nats) for the bases 2, 10 and , respectively. Comparing Shannon entropy values that were originally calculated with different log bases requires converting them to the same log base: change from the base to base is obtained with multiplication by .


title: Diversity index

text: The Shannon index () is related to the weighted geometric mean of the proportional abundances of the types. Specifically, it equals the logarithm of true diversity as calculated with :


title: Diversity index

text: Since the sum of the values equals unity by definition, the denominator equals the weighted geometric mean of the values, with the values themselves being used as the weights (exponents in the equation). The term within the parentheses hence equals true diversity , and equals .


title: Diversity index

text: When all types in the dataset of interest are equally common, all values equal , and the Shannon index hence takes the value . The more unequal the abundances of the types, the larger the weighted geometric mean of the values, and the smaller the corresponding Shannon entropy. If practically all abundance is concentrated to one type, and the other types are very rare (even if there are many of them), Shannon entropy approaches zero. When there is only one type in the dataset, Shannon entropy exactly equals zero (there is no uncertainty in predicting the type of the next randomly chosen entity).


title: Diversity index

text: The Rényi entropy is a generalization of the Shannon entropy to other values of than unity. It can be expressed:


title: Diversity index

text: This means that taking the logarithm of true diversity based on any value of gives the Rényi entropy corresponding to the same value of .


title: Diversity index

text: The Simpson index was introduced in 1949 by Edward H. Simpson to measure the degree of concentration when individuals are classified into types. The same index was rediscovered by Orris C. Herfindahl in 1950. The square root of the index had already been introduced in 1945 by the economist Albert O. Hirschman. As a result, the same measure is usually known as the Simpson index in ecology, and as the Herfindahl index or the Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI) in economics.


title: Diversity index

text: The measure equals the probability that two entities taken at random from the dataset of interest represent the same type. It equals:


title: Diversity index

text: where is richness (the total number of types in the dataset). This equation is also equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the proportional abundances of the types of interest, with the proportional abundances themselves being used as the weights. Proportional abundances are by definition constrained to values between zero and unity, but it is a weighted arithmetic mean, hence , which is reached when all types are equally abundant.


title: Diversity index

text: By comparing the equation used to calculate λ with the equations used to calculate true diversity, it can be seen that equals , i.e., true diversity as calculated with . The original Simpson's index hence equals the corresponding basic sum.


title: Diversity index

text: The interpretation of λ as the probability that two entities taken at random from the dataset of interest represent the same type assumes that the first entity is replaced to the dataset before taking the second entity. If the dataset is very large, sampling without replacement gives approximately the same result, but in small datasets, the difference can be substantial. If the dataset is small, and sampling without replacement is assumed, the probability of obtaining the same type with both random draws is:


title: Diversity index

text: where is the number of entities belonging to the th type and is the total number of entities in the dataset. This form of the Simpson index is also known as the Hunter–Gaston index in microbiology.


title: Diversity index

text: Since the mean proportional abundance of the types increases with decreasing number of types and increasing abundance of the most abundant type, λ obtains small values in datasets of high diversity and large values in datasets of low diversity. This is counterintuitive behavior for a diversity index, so often, such transformations of λ that increase with increasing diversity have been used instead. The most popular of such indices have been the inverse Simpson index (1/λ) and the Gini–Simpson index (1 − λ). Both of these have also been called the Simpson index in the ecological literature, so care is needed to avoid accidentally comparing the different indices as if they were the same.


title: Diversity index

text: This simply equals true diversity of order 2, i.e. the effective number of types that is obtained when the weighted arithmetic mean is used to quantify average proportional abundance of types in the dataset of interest.


title: Diversity index

text: The Gini-Simpson Index is also called Gini impurity, or Gini's diversity index in the field of Machine Learning. The original Simpson index λ equals the probability that two entities taken at random from the dataset of interest (with replacement) represent the same type. Its transformation 1 − λ, therefore, equals the probability that the two entities represent different types. This measure is also known in ecology as the probability of interspecific encounter ("PIE") and the Gini–Simpson index. It can be expressed as a transformation of the true diversity of order 2:


title: Andrew Forrest

text: John Andrew Henry Forrest (born 18 November 1961), nicknamed Twiggy, is an Australian businessman. He is best known as the former CEO (and current non-executive chairman) of Fortescue Metals Group (FMG), and has other interests in the mining industry and in cattle stations.


title: Andrew Forrest

text: With an assessed net worth of 27.25 billion according to the "Financial Review" 2021 Rich List, Forrest was ranked as the second richest Australian. According to the "Financial Review", Forrest was the richest person in Australia in 2008.