title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: Much debate surrounds what Paul means by "law of Christ" in Galatians 6:2, a phrase that occurs only once in all of Paul's letters. As Schreiner explains, some scholars think that the "law of Christ" is the sum of Jesus's words, functioning as a "new Torah for believers". Others argue that the "genitive in the 'law of Christ' 'should be understood as explanatory, i.e. the law which is Christ. Some focus on the relationship between the law of Christ and the Old Testament Decalogue. Still other scholars argue that whereas the "Mosaic law is abolished", the new "law of Christ fits with the Zion Torah", which "hails from Zion ... and is eschatological". Schreiner himself believes that the law of Christ is equivalent to Galatians 5:13–14's "law of love". According to Schreiner, when believers love others, "they behave as Christ did and fulfill his law".


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: As Thomas Schreiner explains, there is significant debate over the meaning of Peter's eating with the Gentiles—specifically, why might the eating have been considered wrong? E. P. Sanders argues that though Jews could eat in the same location with Gentiles, Jews did not want to consume food from the same vessels used by Gentiles. As Sanders explains, Galatia's Jews and Gentiles might have had to share the same cup and loaf (i.e. food from the same vessels). Other scholars such as James Dunn argue that Cephas was "already observing the basic food laws of the Torah" and then "men from James advocated an even stricter observance". Schreiner himself argues that Peter "actually ate unclean food—food prohibited by the OT law—before the men from James came". Depending on how one construes "eating with the Gentiles" in Galatians 2:12, one may reach different conclusions as to why Paul was so angry with Peter in Antioch.


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: There is debate about the meaning of the phrase in Galatians 2:16. Grammatically, this phrase can be interpreted either as an objective genitive "through faith in Jesus Christ" or as a subjective genitive "through the faith of Jesus Christ". There are theological ramifications to each position, but given the corpus of the Pauline literature, the majority of scholars have treated as an objective genitive, translating it as "faith in Jesus Christ". Daniel Harrington writes, "the subjective genitive does not oppose or do away with the concept of faith in Christ. Rather, it reestablishes priorities. One is justified by the faith of Jesus Christ manifested in his obedience to God by his death upon the cross. It is on the basis of that faith that one believes in Christ".


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: says, "There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus." According to Norbert Baumert, Galatians 3:28 is Paul's declaration that one can be in relationship with Jesus no matter their gender. Judith Gundry-Volf argues for a more general approach, stating that one's gender does not provide any benefit or burden. Pamela Eisenbaum argues that Paul was exhorting his readers to be mindful in changing conduct in relationships that involved people of different status. Ben Witherington argues that Paul is combatting the position espoused by opponents who were attempting to influence Paul's community to return to the patriarchal standards held by the majority culture.


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: There are two different interpretations within the modern scholarship regarding the meaning and function of Paul's statement that "there is no longer male and female". The first interpretation states that Paul's words eliminate the biological differences between males and females and thus calls gender roles into question. Nancy Bedford says that this does not mean that there is no distinction between males and females; instead, it means that there is no room for gender hierarchy in the gospel. The second interpretation states that one must recognize the historical background of Paul's time. Jeremy Punt argues that although many scholars want to say that this verse signifies changing gender norms, it actually reflects on the patriarchal structure of Paul's time. In Paul's time, females and males were considered one sex, and the female was understood to be the inferior version of the male. It is under this one sex understanding that Paul says that "there is no longer male and female", and it therefore does not show an abolition of the boundary between genders because that boundary did not exist in Paul's time. At the same time, the women in Paul's time would also not necessarily have heard an ideology of gender equality from the message of Galatians 3:28 because of their subordinated status in society at that time. Punt argues that in Galatians 3:28, Paul's intention was to fix social conflicts rather than to alter gender norms. By stating the importance of becoming one in Christ, Paul tries to give his society a new identity, which is the identity in Christ, and he believes that this will fix the social conflicts.


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: Many scholars debate the meaning of the phrase "Israel of God" in Galatians 6:16, wherein Paul wishes for "peace and mercy" to be "even upon the Israel of God". As Schreiner explains, scholars debate whether "Israel of God" refers to ethnically Jewish believers "within the church of Jesus Christ", or to the church of Christ as a whole (Jewish and Gentiles all included). Those who believe that "Israel of God" only refers to ethnically Jewish believers, argue that had Paul meant the entire church, he would use the word "mercy" before "peace", because Paul "sees peace as the petition for the church, while mercy is the request for unredeemed Jews". Other scholars, such as G. K. Beale, argue that the Old Testament backdrop of Galatians 6:16—e.g. a verse such as Isaiah 54:10 wherein God promises mercy and peace to Israel—suggests that "the Israel of God" refers to a portion of the new, eschatological Israel "composed of Jews and Gentiles". Schreiner himself is sympathetic to this view, believing that treating the "Israel of God" as the church of Christ fits with the whole of Galatians, since Galatians pronounces "believers in Christ" as "the true sons of Abraham".


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: Luther's fundamental belief in justification by faith was formed in large part by his interpretation of Galatians. Masaki claims


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: This development led to some schools of thought, such as Canadian religious historian Barrie Wilson who points out in "How Jesus Became Christian", how Paul's Letter to the Galatians represents a sweeping rejection of Jewish Law (Torah). In so doing, Paul clearly takes his Christ movement out of the orbit of Judaism and into an entirely different milieu. Paul's stance constitutes a major contrast to the position of James, brother of Jesus, whose group in Jerusalem adhered to the observance of Torah.


title: Epistle to the Galatians

text: Galatians 3:28 is one of the most controversial and influential verses in Galatians. There are three different pairs that Paul uses to elaborate his ideology. The first one is "Jew or Greek", the second one is "slave or free", and the third one is "male and female", Paul states that in Jesus Christ there is no longer a distinction between them. However, the meaning of this verse is not expounded upon further by Paul. In modern politics, the debate about the meaning of Galatians 3:28 is significant, as it is used by different people and scholars in order to make normative claims about sexuality, gender, and even marriage. The ongoing nature of this debate reveals that scholars still have not come to a unified conclusion regarding Paul's theology.


title: Crash Holly

text: Michael John Lockwood (August 25, 1971 – November 6, 2003) was an American professional wrestler. He was best known for his appearances with the World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment from 1999 to 2003 under the ring names Crash Holly or simply Crash.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood debuted in 1989 and spent a decade wrestling on the independent circuit before signing with the World Wrestling Federation in 1998, debuting the following year as Crash Holly. He formed a tag team with his kayfabe cousin Hardcore Holly, with whom he won the WWF World Tag Team Championship. The Holly Cousins was expanded into a stable with the addition of Molly Holly in 2000. During his WWF/WWE career, Holly established himself in the hardcore division by winning the WWF Hardcore Championship on 22 occasions, with many of his reigns coming during a period when the title was defended "24/7". After being released from WWE in June 2003, Lockwood joined NWA Total Nonstop Action as Mad Mikey, where he remained until his death later that year.


title: Crash Holly

text: Holly was also a one-time WWF European Champion, and a one-time WWF Light Heavyweight Champion. In total, Holly won over 25 championship reigns in WWE.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood was born on August 25, 1971 in San Francisco, California. He was raised in Pacifica, California, where he graduated from Terra Nova High School. He became interested in professional wrestling in the eighth grade, inspired by Brady Boone. While training as a wrestler and working on the independent circuit, he worked a second job at Safeway.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood debuted in 1989, as "Johnny Pearson" in Bay Area Wrestling, where he wrestled until 1994. He dislocated his shoulder about five times and took 18 months off to recover. He then wrestled on the independent circuit as "'Irish' Erin O'Grady". In 1995, he appeared in Mexico with Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre as "Super Diablo". In 1996, he joined All Pro Wrestling (APW), where he became known as "'The Leprechaun' Erin O'Grady" and had several matches with Vic Grimes.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood joined the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania-based Extreme Championship Wrestling promotion in November 1997 after ECW wrestler Taz viewed a tape of a match between O'Grady and Michael Modest and referred him to ECW owner Paul Heyman. Erin O'Grady lost four untelevised matches in ECW, including a dark match at November to Remember. Following his stint in ECW, Lockwood returned to APW where he performed until October 1998.


title: Crash Holly

text: O'Grady wrestled Grimes in a try-out match for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on January 20, 1998, and both were signed to contracts. In November 1998, Lockwood was sent to Power Pro Wrestling, the WWF's developmental promotion, to train. Here, he won the Power Pro Wrestling Young Guns Championship and the PPW Tag Team Championship. WWF Talent Coordinator Bruce Prichard sent Lockwood to Mexico, to prepare him for the style of the WWF's lucha libre show, "WWF Super Astros". He wrestled in Monterrey for three months, under a mask, as "The Green Ghost" (a play on the word "gringo").


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood debuted on WWF television as "Crash Holly", the storyline cousin of Bob "Hardcore" Holly, on the August 16, 1999 episode of "Raw is War" They became known as The Holly Cousins. Their relationship was a strained one, and Hardcore frequently threatened Crash. When they took the gimmick of claiming to be "super heavyweights", over 400 lb each, Crash would carry a scale to ringside to "weigh in" before matches.


title: Crash Holly

text: Crash made his pay-per-view debut at SummerSlam in August, where The Holly Cousins wrestled in a Tag Team Turmoil match, won by the Acolytes Protection Agency. At Rebellion, Holly Cousins competed against APA and Edge and Christian in a triangle match, which Edge and Christian won. On October 17, at No Mercy, The Holly Cousins defeated The New Age Outlaws by disqualification. The next night on "Raw is War", they defeated The Rock 'n' Sock Connection for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They held the title until the November 4 "SmackDown!", when they lost it to Mankind and his new partner, Al Snow.


title: Crash Holly

text: At Survivor Series on November 14, the Holly Cousins teamed with Too Cool to defeat Edge and Christian and the Hardy Boyz in a survivor series match. Later that month, the Holly Cousins began a short feud with Too Cool and Rikishi Phatu. At Armageddon on December 12, 1999, they defeated Phatu and Viscera. The feud continued into February 2000. At the Royal Rumble on January 23, 2000, both Hollys took part in the titular Royal Rumble match, with Crash Holly being eliminated by The Rock.


title: Crash Holly

text: In February 2000, Crash Holly joined the hardcore division. On the February 24 episode of "SmackDown!", he defeated Test to begin his first of 22 Hardcore Championship reigns. He decreed that he must defend the championship twenty four hours a day, seven days a week, which later became known as the "24/7 Rule". This meant that the title was permanently contested, not just in sanctioned matches, and could change hands anywhere, anytime anyone pinned the champion, so long as a WWF referee counted the fall. Holly was frequently attacked by other wrestlers in unlikely locations, including an airport, a funhouse, a circus, and his hotel room. Although he was often pinned, he usually immediately regained the title. His most common tactic was to sneak a pin, often after the champion had been beaten down by someone else, and quickly run backstage, away from possible challengers. This turned him into a crowd favorite and earned him the nickname "The Houdini of Hardcore". He frequently defended the championship against non-wrestlers, including referees and road agents, like Gerald Brisco and Pat Patterson. He had a long feud with The Mean Street Posse (Pete Gas, Rodney and Joey Abs) over the title. He even lost, and quickly regained, the title against one of the Godfather's hos.


title: Crash Holly

text: At Rebellion, Crash defeated William Regal to win the European Championship. He lost the title to Regal two days later. In late 2000, another of Crash's storyline cousins, Molly Holly, was introduced. In 2001, The Holly Cousins feuded with The Dudley Boyz. In the course of this feud, Molly began a romantic relationship with Spike Dudley, leading to internal disputes within each family, as well as a Romeo and Juliet-style angle between the six of them. On the March 18, 2001 episode of "Heat", Crash defeated Dean Malenko to win the Light Heavyweight Championship. He defended it on two episodes of "Heat", against Funaki and Grandmaster Sexay, before dropping it to the debuting Jerry Lynn on the April 29 episode. In May 2001, Holly and Hardcore briefly reunited as a lower card team until December of that year.


title: Crash Holly

text: In July 2001, Holly appeared with the International Wrestling Association in Puerto Rico, briefly holding the IWA Hardcore Championship and IWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship. Throughout late 2001, he wrestled primarily on house shows and on "Jakked" and "Sunday Night Heat". At Survivor Series on November 18, 2001, Holly took part in a battle royal that would guarantee the winner immunity from being fired that was won by Test. Throughout the remainder of 2001 and early 2002, Holly continued to wrestle primarily on house shows and the WWF's secondary television shows.


title: Crash Holly

text: When the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment and divided into two Raw and SmackDown! brands, Holly was assigned to the Raw roster, where he had little success. He jumped ship to SmackDown! on the September 2, 2002 episode of "Raw" during a match with Jeff Hardy. Earlier, Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff was informed that a Raw wrestler would leave to reunite with a relative on SmackDown!, and ordered a beatdown by 3-Minute Warning on Hardy, who he wrongly suspected of planning to join his brother, Matt Hardy, until Crash revealed that he was the one who was leaving, planning to join his cousin Hardcore Holly on SmackDown!. In his first "SmackDown!" match, on September 5, he defeated The Hurricane. He then feuded with Cruiserweight Champion Jamie Noble. On the October 3 "SmackDown!", Noble defeated Holly to retain the title.


title: Crash Holly

text: On the December 19 "SmackDown!", Holly teamed with Bill DeMott to defeat Noble and Nunzio. After the match, DeMott turned on Holly and attacked him. This led to a match on the next "SmackDown!", which DeMott won. After being sidelined for three months, Holly returned on the April 24, 2003 episode of "SmackDown!". He soon joined Matt Hardy and Shannon Moore in the Mattitude Followers (abbreviated "MF'er") stable. As Crash was Moore's alleged apprentice, Hardy also referred to him as a "Moore-on". His last several matches with the company were tag matches with Moore, as well as house show matches against newcomer Orlando Jordan. On June 30, 2003, Lockwood was released from WWE.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood signed a contract with NWA Total Nonstop Action in July 2003 and debuted as "Mad Mikey" on July 23, accepting an open challenge from Elix Skipper and losing the match. Mad Mikey was angry at many things, on which he elaborated in promos. He wrestled on nine NWA-TNA weekly PPVs, lastly on October 1. He briefly wrestled for Pro Wrestling Iron in Hayward, California. On November 1, 2003, Mad Mikey and Rory Fox defeated Quiten Lee and The Human Time Bomb with Ricky Steamboat as the Special Guest Referee for the Heartland Wrestling Association in what turned out to be Lockwood's final match.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood met his wife, Christeena Wheeler, when she escorted Mark Henry to the ring at Unforgiven 1999, in Charlotte, North Carolina. They married on New Year's Eve, 1999. The couple had one child together, a daughter. In 2002, he opened "Crash Holly's School of Professional Wrestling" in Salisbury, North Carolina, where Wheeler grew up.


title: Crash Holly

text: Lockwood died on November 6, 2003, at his friend and fellow wrestler Stevie Richards' house in Florida. He was 32 years old. He was found partially clothed with a pool of vomit around his face. Empty bottles of the prescription drug carisoprodol and a partially consumed bottle of alcohol were found nearby. He had recently received divorce papers from his wife. His death, caused by choking on his own vomit, was officially ruled a suicide. He was buried in China Grove in Rowan County, North Carolina.


title: Crash Holly

text: In August 2005, Nora Greenwald, who performed alongside Lockwood as Molly Holly, released an autobiographical DVD titled ""Nora Greenwald: Shootin' the Shi Crap"", and a portion of the profits from the sale of the DVD went to Lockwood's daughter's education fund. In March 2005, the New Breed Wrestling Association held the "Mike Lockwood Memorial Tournament", which was won by Michael Modest. At ECW One Night Stand in 2005, Lockwood was one of the deceased former ECW wrestlers honored in a video package.


title: Atarashii Gakko!

text: Atarashii Gakko! (stylized in all caps), known in Japan as Atarashii Gakkou no Leaders (Japanese: 新しい学校のリーダーズ; lit.: New School Leaders), is a Japanese girl group formed in 2015. The group is affiliated with ASOBISYSTEM.


title: Atarashii Gakko!

text: Atarashii Gakko! made its Japanese debut in June 2017 under Victor Entertainment with the single "Dokubana". The group made its worldwide debut in January 2021 under 88rising with the single "NAINAINAI".


title: Dasein

text: Dasein () (sometimes spelled as Da-sein) is the German word for 'existence'. It is a fundamental concept in the existential philosophy of Martin Heidegger. Heidegger uses the expression "Dasein" to refer to the experience of being that is peculiar to human beings. Thus it is a form of being that is aware of and must confront such issues as personhood, mortality and the dilemma or paradox of living in relationship with other humans while being ultimately alone with oneself.


title: Dasein

text: In German, "Dasein" is the vernacular term for "existence", as in "I am pleased with my existence" ("Ich bin mit meinem Dasein zufrieden"). The term was used by several philosophers before Heidegger, most notably Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, with the meaning of "determined being" ("bestimmtes Sein"), "The union of Being and Nothing" ("Quality"). It is derived from "da-sein", which literally means "being-there"/"there-being"—though Heidegger was adamant that this was an inappropriate translation of "Dasein".


title: Dasein

text: Dasein for Heidegger can be a way of being involved with and caring for the immediate world in which one lives, while always remaining aware of the contingent element of that involvement, of the priority of the world to the self, and of the evolving nature of the self itself.


title: Dasein

text: The opposite of this authentic self is everyday and inauthentic "Dasein", the forfeiture of one's individual meaning, destiny and lifespan, in favour of an (escapist) immersion in the public everyday world—the anonymous, identical world of the They and the Them.


title: Dasein

text: In harmony with Nietzsche's critique of the subject, as something definable in terms of consciousness, Heidegger distinguished "Dasein" from everyday consciousness in order to emphasize the critical importance "Being" has for our understanding and interpretation of the world, and so on.


title: Dasein

text: "This entity which each of us is himself…we shall denote by the term 'Dasein'" (Heidegger, trans. 1927/1962, p.27).


title: Dasein

text: "[Dasein is] that entity which in its Being has this very Being as an issue…" (Heidegger, trans. 1927/1962, p.68).


title: Dasein

text: Heidegger sought to use the concept of "Dasein" to uncover the primal nature of "Being" ("Sein"), agreeing with Nietzsche and Dilthey that "Dasein" is always a being engaged in the world: neither a subject, nor the objective world alone, but the coherence of Being-in-the-world. This ontological basis of Heidegger's work thus opposes the Cartesian "abstract agent" in favour of practical engagement with one's environment. "Dasein" is revealed by projection into, and engagement with, a personal world—a never-ending process of involvement with the world as mediated through the projects of the self.


title: Dasein

text: Heidegger considered that language, everyday curiosity, logical systems, and common beliefs obscure "Dasein's" nature from itself. Authentic choice means turning away from the collective world of Them, to face "Dasein", one's individuality, one's own limited life-span, one's own being. Heidegger thus intended the concept of "Dasein" to provide a stepping stone in the questioning of what it means to "be"—to have one's own being, one's own death, one's own truth.


title: Dasein

text: Heidegger also saw the question of "Dasein" as extending beyond the realms disclosed by positive science or in the history of metaphysics. “Scientific research is not the only manner of Being which this entity can have, nor is it the one which lies closest. Moreover, "Dasein" itself has a special distinctiveness as compared with other entities; [...] it is ontically distinguished by the fact that, in its very Being, that Being is an issue for it.” "Being and Time" stressed the ontological difference between entities and the being "of" entities: “Being is always the Being of an entity.” Establishing this difference is the general motif running through "Being and Time".


title: Dasein

text: Some scholars disagree with this interpretation, however, arguing that for Heidegger "Dasein" denoted a structured awareness or an institutional "way of life". Others suggest that Heidegger's early insistence on the ontological priority of "Dasein" was muted in his post-war writings.


title: Dasein

text: Some have argued for an origin of "Dasein" in Chinese philosophy and Japanese philosophy: according to Tomonobu Imamichi, Heidegger's concept of "Dasein" was inspired—although Heidegger remained silent on this—by Okakura Kakuzo's concept of "das-in-der-Welt-sein" (being in the world) expressed in "The Book of Tea" to describe Zhuangzi's Taoist philosophy, which Imamichi's teacher had offered to Heidegger in 1919, after having followed lessons with him the year before. Parallel concepts are also found in Indian philosophy and in Native American philosophies.


title: Dasein

text: For Karl Jaspers, the term "Dasein" meant existence in its most minimal sense, the realm of objectivity and science, in opposition to what Jaspers called ""Existenz"", the realm of authentic being. Due to the drastically different use of the term "Dasein" between the two philosophers, there is often some confusion in students who begin with either Heidegger or Jaspers and subsequently study the other.


title: Dasein

text: In "Philosophy" (3 vols, 1932), Jaspers gave his view of the history of philosophy and introduced his major themes. Beginning with modern science and empiricism, Jaspers points out that as we question reality, we confront borders that an empirical (or scientific) method can simply not transcend. At this point, the individual faces a choice: sink into despair and resignation, or take a leap of faith toward what Jaspers calls "Transcendence". In making this leap, individuals confront their own limitless freedom, which Jaspers calls "Existenz", and can finally experience authentic existence.


title: Dasein

text: Eero Tarasti considered "Dasein" very important in "Existential Semiotics". In Tarasti's view the term "Dasein" has been given a “broader” meaning, has stopped meaning the condition of an individual being flung into the world, having instead come to signify an “existential phase” with the sociohistoric characteristics from which signs extensively emerge.


title: Dasein

text: From this point of view, transcendence is the desire to surpass realist acceptance of the world as it is and to move towards a political, ethical and planned reality of subjectivity in semiotic relations with the world.


title: Dasein

text: Jacques Lacan turned in the 1950s to Heidegger's "Dasein" for his characterisation of the psychoanalyst as being-for-death ("être-pour-la-mort"). Similarly, he saw the analyst as searching for authentic speech, as opposed to “the subject who loses his meaning in the objectifications of discourse...[which] will give him the wherewithal to forget his own existence and his own death”.


title: Dasein

text: Alfred Schütz distinguished between direct and indirect social experience, emphasising that in the latter, “My orientation is not toward the existence ("Dasein") of a concrete individual Thou. It is not toward any subjective experiences now being constituted in all their uniqueness in another's mind”.


title: Dasein

text: Aleksandr Dugin uses "Dasein" as the foundation for the Fourth Political Theory, emphasizing "Dasein" and its role in Russian society. He puts this in opposition to Western (more specifically American) society, which is far too individualistic with an inauthentic view of individuality.


title: Dasein

text: Theodor W. Adorno criticised Heidegger's concept of "Dasein" as an idealistic retreat from historical reality.


title: Dasein

text: Richard Rorty considered that with "Dasein", Heidegger was creating a conservative myth of being, complicit with the Romantic elements of Nazism.


title: Dasein

text: According to Julian Wolfreys, "There is no direct 'face'-to'face' relation for Heidegger; despite his invaluable critique of ontology, he still reduces the relation between Dasein and Dasein as mediated by the question and problematic of being."


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: Fairmont Hotels & Resorts is a global chain of luxury hotels that operates more than 70 properties worldwide, with a strong presence in Canada.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: The company originated from two hotel businesses established in the late 19th century, the Canadian Pacific Limited-owned Canadian Pacific Hotels & Resorts, and Fairmont Hotels. In 1999, Canadian Pacific Hotels acquired a majority interest in Fairmont Hotels; with Canadian Pacific Hotels later renaming its entire hotel portfolio under the Fairmont Hotels & Resorts banner in 2001. Shortly after the hotel division was renamed, Canadian Pacific Limited was split into several smaller companies in a starburst move, with Fairmont becoming a separately-traded company.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 2006, Fairmont was acquired by Colony Capital, who subsequently entered into a joint partnership with the Kingdom Holding Company; consolidating Fairmont with their other hotel brands, Raffles and Swissôtel to form Fairmont Raffles Hotels International (FRHI). Fairmont became a subsidiary of AccorHotels in 2016, after the sale of FRHI to AccorHotels was completed.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: Canadian Pacific Hotels (CP Hotels) began as a division of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) Hotels department. The division operated a series of hotels along CPR's rail lines as early as 1886. Many of these resort hotels were built and operated by the railway's hotel department, while a few were later acquired from Canadian National Hotels, a hotel division of the Canadian National Railway. Over the years, a collection of grand railway hotels was put together throughout Canada, both rural and urban. By the 1980s, CP Hotels' collection included the Chateau Lake Louise, the Banff Springs Hotel, the Château Frontenac, the Empress Hotel, the Palliser Hotel, the Fairmont Royal York, and others. In addition to its properties in Canada, the hotel chain operated a few hotels outside Canada, with properties in Germany, Israel, Mexico, and the United States.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: CPR's rival Grand Trunk Railway and later Canadian National Railway copied Van Horne's approach by building hotels such as the Jasper Park Lodge in Jasper, Alberta, and the Château Laurier in Ottawa. CPR purchased Canadian National Hotels, Canadian National Railway's hotel division in 1988, making CP Hotels the nation's largest hotel owner. In the 1990s, CP Hotels began to expand and purchased the Canadian Delta Hotels chain and the international Princess Hotels chain in 1998, which became wholly owned subsidiaries of CP Hotels. In 1999, the CP Hotels purchased the San Francisco-based Fairmont Hotels and Resorts chain.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: During the 1890s, James Graham Fair bought the land where the Fairmont San Francisco now stands, the first hotel to bear the Fairmont namesake. The nearly completed structure survived the earthquake of 1906. Although heavily damaged by the subsequent fires, the hotel was renovated under the eye of architect Julia Morgan and finally opened in 1907. In 1926, the Penthouse Suite was created with three secret passageways to access it.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 1945, the Fairmont San Francisco was acquired by Benjamin Swig. Beginning in the 1960s, the Swig family developed Fairmont into a small chain of luxury hotels throughout the United States. Operating as Fairmont Hotels Management, the hotel chain acquired, and built a number of hotel properties. The chain acquired the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans in 1965, renaming it the Fairmont Roosevelt, and then Fairmont New Orleans. The Fairmont San Jose was opened by the hotel chain in 1987. The company assumed management of the Plaza Hotel in New York in 1995 and purchased the Copley Plaza Hotel in 1996, renaming it The Fairmont Copley Plaza Hotel. By 1998, the company managed seven properties in the United States.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In addition to those properties, the company also operated the Colony Square Hotel in Atlanta as Fairmont Colony Square Hotel from its opening in 1974 to 1977, and The Bellevue-Stratford Hotel in Philadelphia as Fairmont Philadelphia from 1979 to 1980.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In April 1999, Canadian Pacific Hotels, Kingdom Hotels International and Maritz Wolff & Co. bought Fairmont Hotels Management L.P., with Canadian Pacific Hotels holding the majority of the shares (67%).


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 2001, Canadian Pacific Limited, the parent company of both Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts, and Canadian Pacific Railway, was reorganized. During this reorganization, Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts was renamed to Fairmont Hotels and Resorts, using the name of the company it had purchased in 1999. The newly re-organized Fairmont company transferred several properties to its Delta Hotels subsidiary, although it retained most of the "signature" hotels and resorts under the new Fairmont banner.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: Later that year in October 2001, Canadian Pacific Limited spun off all of its subsidiary companies into separately traded "independent" companies, including Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. Companies like Fairmont Hotels and Resorts were split into smaller companies in a 2001 "starburst" move designed to increase the valuations of its individual divisions.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In the early 2000s, Fairmont multiplied its openings in the United States. In 2001, Fairmont introduced the Willow Stream Spa prototype, a $7 million 2-floor 8,000-square-foot spa located inside the Fairmont Empress Hotel. The signature spa brand was then implemented in many of Fairmont's locations. In July 2001, Fairmont Hotels signed a joint-venture with Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan for a minority-stake purchase and the management of a luxury 393-room hotel in Dubai. The Fairmont Dubai property was the first Fairmont branded hotel in the Middle East. In 2003, Fairmont introduced Fairmont Heritage Place, a chain of timeshare hotels, with the first opening in Mexico.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 2004, Fairmont Hotels & Resorts Inc. paid $70 million to take full control of the management company that runs its properties. Then in early 2006, a cluster of Fairmont Hotels & Resorts was sold for US$3.9 billion to Colony Capital, LLC. As a result of that purchase, Fairmont Hotels & Resorts was united with Raffles Hotels and Resorts and Swissôtel to form Fairmont Raffles Hotels International (FRHI), though the four chains still operate under their individual names.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In April 2010, Kingdom Hotels sold 22% of its shares of FRHI (from 58% to 35%) to Qatari Diar Real Estate Investment, giving them 40% of FRHI and became the second largest shareholder of the company. The remaining 60% belonged to a private shares holding in Sweden, trusted in ACCOR hotels, and other investors. The Middle East became Fairmont's new target market, where Fairmont opened in the Makkah Royal Clock Tower Hotel in 2010 and at the Palm Jumeirah in 2012. In Asia, Fairmont reopened the Peace Hotel in Shanghai in 2010, opened in Baku’s Flame Towers in 2011, and opened its first hotel in India in 2012. In the USA, Fairmont acquired the Claremont Hotel in Berkeley, California in 2014.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 2015, AccorHotels, with the approval and support of the external party, announced the acquisition of FRHI, thus adding Raffles Hotels and Resorts, Fairmont and Swissôtel to its Luxury Hotel Brands portfolio. Acquiring Fairmont Hotels & Resorts enabled the French hotel group to gain greater access to the lucrative North American market.


title: Fairmont Hotels and Resorts

text: In 2015, Fairmont stated it would invest in two new hotels in Egypt, in addition to its existing Fairmont hotel located in Cairo.


title: Cobb salad

text: The Cobb salad is a main-dish American garden salad typically made with chopped salad greens (iceberg lettuce, watercress, endives and romaine lettuce), tomato, crisp bacon, fried chicken breast, hard-boiled eggs, avocado, chives, blue cheese, and red-wine vinaigrette. The ingredients are laid out on a plate in neat rows.


title: Cobb salad

text: Various stories recount how the salad was invented. One says that it came about in 1938 at the Hollywood Brown Derby restaurant, where it became a signature dish. It is named after the restaurant's owner, Robert Howard Cobb. Stories vary whether the salad was invented by Cobb or by his chef, Paul J. Posti. The legend is that Cobb had not eaten until near midnight, and so he mixed together leftovers he found in the kitchen, along with some bacon cooked by the line cook, and tossed it with their French dressing.


title: Cobb salad

text: Another version of the creation is that Robert Kreis, executive chef at the restaurant, created the salad in 1929 (the year the Brown Derby's Hollywood location opened) and named it in honor of Robert Cobb. The same source confirms that 1937 was the reported date of the version noted above, with Cobb making the salad.


title: Cobb salad

text: Another version of events is that the salad was hastily arranged from leftovers by owner Bob Cobb for showman and theater owner Sid Grauman. It was chopped fine, because Grauman had just had dental work done, and couldn't chew well.


title: Cobb salad

text: Authentic versions of the Cobb salad are prepared using four varieties of greens: iceberg lettuce, watercress, endive and romaine lettuce.


title: Cobb salad

text: Some recipes include other types of cheese besides Roquefort, such as cheddar or Monterey Jack, or no cheese at all.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Captain Pugwash is a fictional pirate in a series of British children's comic strips and books created by John Ryan. The character's adventures were adapted into a TV series, using cardboard cut-outs filmed in live-action (the first series was performed and broadcast live), also called "Captain Pugwash", first shown on the BBC in 1957, a later colour series, first shown in 1974–75, and a traditional animation series, "The Adventures of Captain Pugwash", first shown in 1998.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The eponymous hero – Captain Horatio Pugwash – sails the high seas in his ship called the "Black Pig", assisted by cabin boy Tom, pirates Willy and Barnabas, and Master Mate. His mortal enemy is Cut-Throat Jake, captain of the "Flying Dustman".


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Captain Horatio Pugwash made his debut in a comic-strip format in the first issue of "The Eagle" in 1950, then appeared regularly as a strip in "Radio Times". In 1957, the BBC commissioned a series of short cartoon films produced by Gordon Murray. Between 1957 and 1966, Ryan produced a total of 58 five-minute-long episodes for the BBC, made in black-and-white. Between 1974 and 1975, a further 30 were made in a new series made in colour. Ryan used a real-time technique of animation in which cardboard cutouts of the characters were laid on painted backgrounds and moved with levers. The characters' voices were provided by Peter Hawkins. The last series of Pugwash shorts by Ryan was produced in 1975.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Although there are many anachronisms in the series, the book "The Battle of Bunkum Bay" gives some useful clues as to the era in which the stories are set. In this book, the King of Great Britain strongly resembles George I and the King of France resembles Louis XIV, suggesting that this story took place in 1714–15. However, one of the few direct references to a date in the original TV series is in the episode "Pirate of the Year", where Pugwash enters the "Pirate of the Year contest 1775".


title: Captain Pugwash

text: A number of spin-off books were written by Ryan, who in the 1980s drew three new Pugwash comic-strip storybooks: "The Secret of the San Fiasco", "The Battle of Bunkum Bay" and "The Quest for the Golden Handshake". A related book by John Ryan is "Admiral Fatso Fitzpugwash", in which it is revealed that Pugwash had a medieval ancestor who was First Sea Lord but was terrified of water.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The first "Captain Pugwash" episodes were transmitted in black-and-white between 1957 and 1966. The series was revived in colour and broadcast between 16 September 1974 and 11 July 1975. "Captain Pugwash" was also sold to various overseas TV stations, including Australia's ABC Television. There the show was screened during weekday afternoons in the 1970s and 1980s. The rights to "Captain Pugwash" were then purchased by The Britt Allcroft Company which, since 1998, has issued a number of digital and part computer-animated cartoon films based on the Pugwash character, set on the island of "Montebuffo", "somewhere in the Spanish Main". Peter Hawkins did not provide the voices, HIT Entertainment instead employing a full cast with James Saxon in the title role.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: In 2005, a black-and-white episode of "Captain Pugwash" was repeated on BBC4 as part of the "Animation Nation" season.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: A DVD containing "All 30 heroic high sea adventures" from the second-generation colour 1974–75 series (156 minutes running time) was given away with the "Sunday Times" on 20 January 2008. The 1974–5 series was made available for streaming on BritBox in the United Kingdom in July 2021.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The pompous but likeable captain of the "Black Pig". Although he boasts of being the "bravest buccaneer", he is actually quite cowardly and stupid. His greed often gets him into trouble. Nevertheless, he usually wins the day – either with the help of Tom the Cabin Boy or by sheer luck. Despite being a pirate, he is rarely seen committing any acts of piracy.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: A somewhat dopey character, who has a tendency to use malapropisms and to mispronounce common words. He has a teddy bear in his bunk and is quite mild-mannered. It is not entirely clear why he is the mate, as he does not appear to have any authority over the rest of the crew. He was present in the first ever Pugwash story, in which he was depicted as being constantly sleepy. Pugwash's adenoidal pronunciation of this character's name appears to be the main source of the urban legend about characters' sexually suggestive names.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The most aggressive of the pirates, but in reality just as harmless. He is quite rebellious and grumpy, and is perhaps marginally more intelligent than Willy, the Mate or the Captain. He was not present in the 1997 series.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: A simple sailor from Wigan. He appears to be the youngest crew member (apart from Tom). He is a gentle soul, and is against using violence. He does, however, have the occasional brainwave and has been the crew's saviour (admittedly sometimes more by luck than by design). "Just you wait till we get back to Wigan – we won't half have a tale to tell!"


title: Captain Pugwash

text: It might be argued that without Tom, Pugwash would have been sunk long ago. He is the most intelligent and resourceful member of the crew, the only one who can cook and the only one who can actually sail a ship. Although Pugwash would never admit it, Tom's ability to think up schemes is probably the only thing that prevents him from being a total failure as a pirate. The rest of the crew also found they were unable to operate without Tom, after he left with the captain when the crew mutinied. Tom is an expert concertina player, despite this being a 19th-century anachronism for an 18th-century pirate, and part of his repertoire is "The Trumpet Hornpipe" (the "Captain Pugwash" theme).


title: Captain Pugwash

text: He was portrayed with a Home Counties accent in the first television adaptation, and with an Irish accent in the 1997 series.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Captain Pugwash's fearsome arch-enemy, captain of the "Flying Dustman" (a pun on the Flying Dutchman combined with a reference to the occupation of dustman). When he is not scheming to bring about Pugwash's downfall, he is a rather more competent pirate than his enemy, and always seems to have plenty of treasure. He speaks with a stereotypical West Country accent, and is easily recognisable by his eye patch and enormous black beard.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: This character replaced pirate Barnabas, who was in the earlier series. His catchphrase is "No good will come of this, mark my words!" Jonah appears to be of Jamaican origin. He is the tallest of the crew so he often hits his head on the ceiling of the ship's lower deck. He is also one of the strongest of the crew as he is the "Black Pig"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s carpenter.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: This character lives at the top of the island in a mansion covered in vines. He talks very quietly and his head of guard, Lt. Scratchwood, usually acts as a megaphone. He is deeply in love with Donna Bonanza and attends to her every need.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: This pirate queen appeared in the second series when she hijacked the captain's ship to escape from the authorities.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: An Australian pirate who works for Jake. He almost always has a mug of grog in his hand. This character appeared in the original series, but never spoke, nor was he named.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: A Mexican who works for Jake who speaks little English. He repeats everything that Jake says, annoying him greatly. Again, this character was an unnamed, unspeaking character in the earlier series.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The voice for the governor and the law for the town of Portobello. In charge of the guard and collecting taxes, he also spends his time chasing thieves.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: In 1991, the "Pugwash" cartoonist John Ryan successfully sued the "Sunday Correspondent" and "The Guardian" newspapers for inaccurately claiming that some "Pugwash" character names were "double entendres". The claim may have originated in student rag mags from the 1970s.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Captain Pugwash is renowned for his exclamations, owing something to the style of Captain Haddock in "The Adventures of Tintin":


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Cut-Throat Jake has occasionally been known to utter the similar exclamation, "Scupper me skull-and-crossbones!"


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The series' signature tune was the "Trumpet Hornpipe", a folk dance that dates to at least the early nineteenth century. Some early versions of the tune refer to it as "Lascelles Hornpipe" and "Baloon Hornpipe". The composer and country of origin are unknown.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The original black-and-white episodes of "Captain Pugwash" used a solo rendition by the accordionist Tom Edmondson, who had learned the tune from watching Jimmy Shand's band in Northumberland as a teenager. Edmondson's version was recorded in the front room of his home in Harbottle, Northumberland, on 12 July 1954. The recording was made by the folklorist Peter Kennedy as part of the BBC's Folk Music and Dialect Recording Scheme and Edmondson was paid £1.50 (30s) for his efforts. The track was transferred to disc for the BBC Sound Library and, according to John Ryan, it was later chosen as the "Captain Pugwash" theme by "a genius at the BBC", whose name he could not remember.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The full recording was issued by Peter Kennedy on his Folktrax label as part of a collection entitled "Scottish Accordion Music". The original tape was donated to the British Library following Kennedy's death in 2006. As of June 2020, the tape had not been digitised.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: For the colour "Captain Pugwash" episodes, a new recording of the "Trumpet Hornpipe" was commissioned from Johnny Pearson in 1973. This version used accordion, bass and acoustic guitar, and the finished piece was retitled "Shipshape". The recording was published by KPM and was later added to the KPM Recorded Music Library which gave Pearson the composer credit.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: Many online sources state that Philip Lane arranged the original version of the "Captain Pugwash" theme. As Lane would have been four years old in 1954, this would seem unlikely; in fact, Lane is credited on-screen with orchestrating the score for the 1998 series. Johnny Pearson was not credited on these episodes.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The books were 32 pages each, alternating two pages full colour and two pages black, blue and white, by Puffin Books.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: These episodes were transmitted live and voiced by Noel Coleman. Only episode 2 exists in the BBC Archives as a 16mm film telerecording.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: The first four episodes were voiced by Howard Marion-Crawford with Peter Hawkins taking over from part five. These episodes all survive as 16mm film telerecordings apart from part six.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: From 3 October 1962, series 4–6 of "Captain Pugwash" were repeated (skipping only "The Powder Magazine" and "Ivory Cargo"). The twenty episodes ran until 29 March 1963.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: In May 2017, a live-action film adaptation was announced, to be directed by John Hay and starring Nick Frost as Captain Pugwash and Jason Flemyng in an unknown role. Production was set to begin in 2018, with the plot following Captain Pugwash travelling to Botany Bay, where he eventually finds himself at the helm of "The Black Pig" on a mission to rescue Tom the Cabin Boy's father, who is marooned on a volcanic island. In March 2021, Frost revealed that the film had been cancelled because of budget issues.


title: Captain Pugwash

text: On 17 December 1973, a theatre show, "Captain Pugwash", written by Ryan and John Kennett, opened at the King's Road Theatre in Chelsea, London. Directed by John Ingram and designed by John Marsh, the entertainment for children played twelve performances a week (twice daily, Monday to Saturday) until 12 January 1974. Edward Philips as Pugwash headed a cast of live actors playing characters including Tom and Cut-Throat Jake.


title: House of Balloons

text: House of Balloons is the debut mixtape by Canadian singer the Weeknd. It was released on March 21, 2011, by the artist's own record label XO. The mixtape was released for free on the Weeknd's website and was the subject of increased media discussion upon the use of its songs on television, as well as the relative anonymity of the singer-songwriter. "House of Balloons" was entirely recorded in Toronto, with production handled primarily by the Weeknd, Doc McKinney, Illangelo, and Cirkut; the Weeknd would later collaborate with McKinney and Illangelo on several future releases. Its title is derived from the nickname the singer gave to his former home in Parkdale, Toronto.


title: House of Balloons

text: The mixtape received widespread acclaim, with critics praising its dark aesthetic, production, and lyrical content. It is widely regarded as a major influence on both contemporary and alternative R&B. "House of Balloons" also contains elements of soul, trip hop, indie rock, dream pop, and electronic music. Lyrically, the mixtape explores the Weeknd's drug use and experiences with love, heartbreak, and promiscuity.


title: House of Balloons

text: "House of Balloons" was commercially released as part of the compilation album "Trilogy" (2012) and included the singles "Wicked Games" and "Twenty Eight", the latter of which is a bonus track. On its tenth anniversary, the original mixtape was released in digital formats, and included samples which failed to gain copyright clearance on "Trilogy". The reissue was accompanied by a limited edition line of merchandise designed by architect Daniel Arsham.


title: House of Balloons

text: The album's eclectic music uses samples of Beach House's "Master of None" (2006) and "Gila" (2008), and Aaliyah's 2001 song "Rock the Boat". The title track heavily samples Siouxsie and the Banshees' 1980 single "Happy House". "Pitchfork" said: ""Happy House" is worked into a softly anthemic slow-burn number full of diva-ish vocals tied to a chilly beat". The guitar 'riff remains untouched and runs throughout most of the track, giving it a filmy pop feel that periodically peaks with a generous swipe from the "Happy House" chorus". The track "The Knowing" samples the 1990 track "Cherry-Coloured Funk" by Cocteau Twins. Joe Colly of "Pitchfork" observed "weird, morning-after tales of lust, hurt, and over-indulgence", complemented by "lush, downcast music" on the album, and compared its "specific nocturnal quality" to that of The xx's 2009 self-titled debut. "Pitchfork"s Eric Grandy wrote that the title track has the Weeknd "emoting in an androgynous falsetto one minute, muttering unbelievable curses the next". Paul Lewster of "The Guardian" viewed that, although more than half of the mixtape features samples, only the title track makes it "evident".


title: House of Balloons

text: The song "High for This" was featured in the promo for the final season of the HBO show "Entourage" in July 2011. On November 24, 2011, the Weeknd's first official music video, for his song "The Knowing," hit the Internet on his Vimeo page. The song was first released on "House of Balloons" and the video was directed by French filmmaker Mikael Colombu, who has also worked with American singer CeeLo Green. The nearly eight-minute clip is described by authors Carrie Battan and Amy Phillips of "Pitchfork" as, "a time traveling, Afrofuturist, science fiction battle of the sexes that demands to be watched in HD."


title: House of Balloons

text: "House of Balloons" received widespread critical acclaim, and it is considered by many to be one of the most influential R&B releases in recent years, specifically the 2010s. Preceded by a string of low-profile buzz single releases throughout 2010, the mixtape attracted significant interest due to the then-anonymous identity of the individual behind the Weeknd. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, "House of Balloons" received a weighted average score of 87 based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Sean Fennessey of "The Village Voice" was impressed by the mixtape, calling it "patient, often gorgeous, and consistently louche... with the sort of blown-out underbelly and echo-laden crooning that has already made Drake's less-than-a-year-old "Thank Me Later" such an influential guidepost." Maegan McGregor of "Exclaim!" stated that "House of Balloons" "easily stands as one of the year's best debuts so far, hipster, top 40 or otherwise." Sputnikmusic's Tyler Fisher said that "despite being a free album, "House of Balloons" feels like a true album, a true labor of love." Tom Ewing of "The Guardian" felt that while the Weeknd's vocals and lyrics on "House of Balloons" "aren't especially strong by R&B standards," much of the album's attention was attracted by its strong command of mood.


title: House of Balloons

text: In December 2011, Metacritic determined that "House of Balloons" was the third best-reviewed project of the year. Additionally, the mixtape was featured on several music critics' and publications' end-of-year albums lists. "Complex" called it the "best album of 2011;" "Stereogum" ranked it number 5; "The Guardian" ranked it number 8; "The A.V. Club" ranked it number 6; "SPIN" ranked it (as well as "Thursday") number 13; while "Pitchfork" ranked it number 10. As a whole, "House of Balloons" was the seventh most frequently mentioned album in music publications' year-end top ten lists. The mixtape was named as one of the longlisted of nominees for the 2011's Polaris Music Prize. The mixtape's title track was placed on "Pitchfork"s list of top 100 songs of 2011 at number 57, while "The Morning" was number 15. In 2021, it was listed at No. 488 on Rolling Stone's "Top 500 Best Songs of All Time".


title: House of Balloons

text: Julian Kimble of "Complex" wrote, "House of Balloons, in tandem with Frank Ocean’s "Nostalgia, Ultra", was responsible for a sharp pivot within R&B. The project invaded this stale area, soldering genres together to bring much-needed originality to a template mired by stagnancy at the decade’s turn. Neither his songwriting nor subject matter were cavalier, but his overall aesthetic was enticing." He later describes how, "Its channeling of temptation’s distinct gleam is a significant part of its legacy." "Pitchfork" wrote, "Of course, a significant part of House of Balloons’ appeal was that it was unexpected, and that it tapped into our subconscious. It satisfied an unrealized need." Bianca Gracie of "Uproxx" stated, ""House Of Balloons" is frightening in its relatability. It forced listeners to confront the loneliness they feel after realizing partying is the only thing that sustains them." Continuing to add, "Being only a year younger than Tesfaye, we had parallel coming-of-age experiences: dabbling in similar substances, using all-night college parties as escapism from depression, and ultimately sought comfort in a mixtape that targeted a shared despondency." She later stated, "The mixtape reflected a doomed generation who grew up with films like "Kids", "Trainspotting", "Requiem For A Dream", and "A Clockwork Orange". We didn’t want to be seen. Like Tesfaye, we hid our faces behind Tumblr photos that showed both a brilliant, snarky sense of humor and a not-so-subtle cry for help."


title: House of Balloons

text: During an interview with "Rolling Stone" in 2015, the Weeknd said the mixtape "definitely changed the culture. No one can do a trilogy again without thanking The Weeknd [and] a lot of artists started doing things faster and quicker. Just listen to the radio: every song is "House Of Balloons" 2.0."


title: Lyric poetry

text: Modern lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person.


title: Lyric poetry

text: It is not equivalent to song lyrics, though song lyrics are often in the lyric mode, and it is also "not" equivalent to Ancient Greek lyric poetry, which "was" principally limited song lyrics, or chanted verse, hence the confusion.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The term for both modern lyric poetry and modern song lyrics both derive from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the Greek lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument known as a kithara.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed by Aristotle among three broad categories of poetry: lyrical, dramatic, and epic. Lyric poetry is also one of the earliest forms of literature.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Much lyric poetry depends on regular meter based either on number of syllables or on stress – with two short syllables typically being exchangeable for one long syllable – which is required for song lyrics in order to match lyrics with interchangeable tunes that followed a standard pattern of rhythm. Although much modern lyric poetry is no longer song lyrics, the rhythmic forms have persisted without the music.


title: Lyric poetry

text: For the ancient Greeks, lyric poetry had a precise technical meaning: Verse that was accompanied by a lyre, cithara, or barbitos. Because such works were typically sung, it was also known as melic poetry. The lyric or melic poet was distinguished from the writer of plays (although Athenian drama included choral odes, in lyric form), the writer of trochaic and iambic verses (which were recited), the writer of elegies (accompanied by the flute, rather than the lyre) and the writer of epic.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria created a canon of nine lyric poets deemed especially worthy of critical study. These archaic and classical musician-poets included Sappho, Alcaeus, Anacreon and Pindar. Archaic lyric was characterized by strophic composition and live musical performance. Some poets, like Pindar extended the metrical forms in odes to a triad, including strophe, antistrophe (metrically identical to the strophe) and epode (whose form does "not" match that of the strophe).


title: Lyric poetry

text: wrote lyric poetry, which was instead read or recited. What remained were the forms, the lyric meters of the Greeks adapted to Latin. Catullus was influenced by both archaic and Hellenistic Greek verse and belonged to a group of Roman poets called the "Neoteroi" ("New Poets") who spurned epic poetry following the lead of Callimachus. Instead, they composed brief, highly polished poems in various thematic and metrical genres. The Roman love elegies of Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid ("Amores", "Heroides"), with their personal phrasing and feeling, may be the thematic ancestor of much medieval, Renaissance, Romantic, and modern lyric poetry, but these works were composed in elegiac couplets and so were not lyric poetry in the ancient sense.


title: Lyric poetry

text: During China's Warring States period, the "Songs of Chu" collected by Qu Yuan and Song Yu defined a new form of poetry that came from the exotic Yangtze Valley, far from the Wei and Yellow River homeland of the traditional four-character verses collected in the "Book of Songs". The varying forms of the new "Chu Ci" provided more rhythm and greater latitude of expression.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Originating in 10th century Persian, a "ghazal" is a poetic form consisting of couplets that share a rhyme and a refrain. Formally, it consists of a short lyric composed in a single meter with a single rhyme throughout. The subject is love. Notable authors include Hafiz, Amir Khusro, Auhadi of Maragheh, Alisher Navoi, Obeid e zakani, Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, Farid al-Din Attar, Omar Khayyam, and Rudaki. The "ghazal" was introduced to European poetry in the early 19th century by the Germans Schlegel, Von Hammer-Purgstall, and Goethe, who called Hafiz his "twin".


title: Lyric poetry

text: Lyric in European literature of the medieval or Renaissance period means a poem written so that it could be set to music—whether or not it actually was. A poem's particular structure, function, or theme might all vary.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The lyric poetry of Europe in this period was created by the pioneers of courtly poetry and courtly love largely without reference to the classical past.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The troubadors, travelling composers and performers of songs, began to flourish towards the end of the 11th century and were often imitated in successive centuries. Trouvères were poet-composers who were roughly contemporary with and influenced by the troubadours but who composed their works in the northern dialects of France. The first known "trouvère" was Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160s–80s). The dominant form of German lyric poetry in the period was the "minnesang", "a love lyric based essentially on a fictitious relationship between a knight and his high-born lady".


title: Lyric poetry

text: Initially imitating the lyrics of the French troubadours and trouvères, "minnesang" soon established a distinctive tradition. There was also a large body of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Hebrew singer-poets of the Middle Ages included Yehuda Halevi, Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Abraham ibn Ezra.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In Italy, Petrarch developed the sonnet form pioneered by Giacomo da Lentini and Dante's "Vita Nuova". In 1327, according to the poet, the sight of a woman called Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon awoke in him a lasting passion, celebrated in the "Rime sparse" ("Scattered rhymes"). Later, Renaissance poets who copied Petrarch's style named this collection of 366 poems "Il Canzoniere" ("The Song Book"). Laura is in many ways both the culmination of medieval courtly love poetry and the beginning of Renaissance love lyric.


title: Lyric poetry

text: A "bhajan" or "kirtan" is a Hindu devotional song. "Bhajans" are often simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine. Notable authors include Kabir, Surdas, and Tulsidas.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Chinese Sanqu poetry was a Chinese poetic genre popular from the 12th-century Jin Dynasty through to the early Ming. Early 14th century playwrights like Ma Zhiyuan and Guan Hanqing were well-established writers of Sanqu. Against the usual tradition of using Classical Chinese, this poetry was composed in the vernacular.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In 16th-century Britain, Thomas Campion wrote lute songs and Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare popularized the sonnet.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In France, La Pléiade—including Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay, and Jean-Antoine de Baïf—aimed to break with earlier traditions of French poetry—particularly Marot and the "grands rhétoriqueurs"—and began imitating classical Greek and Roman forms such as the odes. Favorite poets of the school were Pindar, Anacreon, Alcaeus, Horace, and Ovid. They also produced Petrarchan sonnet cycles.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Spanish devotional poetry adapted the lyric for religious purposes. Notable examples were Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Garcilaso de la Vega, and Lope de Vega. Although better known for his epic "Os Lusíadas", Luís de Camões is also considered the greatest Portuguese lyric poet of the period.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In Japan, the "naga-uta" ("long song") was a lyric poem popular in this era. It alternated five and seven-syllable lines and ended with an extra seven-syllable line.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Lyrical poetry was the dominant form of 17th century English poetry from John Donne to Andrew Marvell.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The poems of this period were short. Rarely narrative, they tended towards intense expression. Other notable poets of the era include Ben Jonson, Robert Herrick, George Herbert, Aphra Behn, Thomas Carew, John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, John Milton, Richard Crashaw, and Henry Vaughan. A German lyric poet of the period is Martin Opitz; in Japan, this was the era of the noted haiku-writer Matsuo Bashō.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In the 18th century, lyric poetry declined in England and France. The atmosphere of literary discussion in the English coffeehouses and French salons was not congenial to lyric poetry.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Exceptions include the lyrics of Robert Burns, William Cowper, Thomas Gray, and Oliver Goldsmith. German lyric poets of the period include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Novalis, Friedrich Schiller, and Johann Heinrich Voß. Kobayashi Issa was a Japanese lyric poet during this period. In Diderot's "Encyclopédie", Louis chevalier de Jaucourt described lyric poetry of the time as "a type of poetry totally devoted to sentiment; that's its substance, its essential object".


title: Lyric poetry

text: In Europe, the lyric emerged as the principal poetic form of the 19th century and came to be seen as synonymous with poetry.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Romantic lyric poetry consisted of first-person accounts of the thoughts and feelings of a specific moment; the feelings were extreme but personal.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The traditional sonnet was revived in Britain, with William Wordsworth writing more sonnets than any other British poet. Other important Romantic lyric writers of the period include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron. Later in the century, the Victorian lyric was more linguistically self-conscious and defensive than the Romantic forms had been.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Lyric poetry was popular with the German reading public between 1830 and 1890, as shown in the number of poetry anthologies published in the period.


title: Lyric poetry

text: According to Georg Lukács, the verse of Joseph von Eichendorff exemplified the German Romantic revival of the folk-song tradition initiated by Goethe, Herder, and Arnim and Brentano's "Des Knaben Wunderhorn".


title: Lyric poetry

text: For Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire was the last example of lyric poetry "successful on a mass scale" in Europe.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In Russia, Aleksandr Pushkin exemplified a rise of lyric poetry during the 18th and early 19th centuries.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The Swedish "Phosphorists" were influenced by the Romantic movement and their chief poet Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom produced many lyric poems.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Italian lyric poets of the period include Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi, Giovanni Pascoli, and Gabriele D'Annunzio. Spanish lyric poets include Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Rosalía de Castro, and José de Espronceda. Japanese lyric poets include Taneda Santoka, Masaoka Shiki, and Ishikawa Takuboku.


title: Lyric poetry

text: In the earlier years of the 20th century rhymed lyric poetry, usually expressing the feelings of the poet, was the dominant poetic form in the United States, Europe, and the British colonies. The English Georgian poets and their contemporaries such as A. E. Housman, Walter de la Mare, and Edmund Blunden used the lyric form. The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore was praised by William Butler Yeats for his lyric poetry; Yeats compared him to the troubadour poets when the two met in 1912.


title: Lyric poetry

text: The relevance and acceptability of the lyric in the modern age was, though, called into question by modernist poets such as Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, H.D., and William Carlos Williams, who rejected the English lyric form of the 19th century, feeling that it relied too heavily on melodious language, rather than complexity of thought.


title: Lyric poetry

text: After World War II, the American New Criticism returned to the lyric, advocating a poetry that made conventional use of rhyme, meter, and stanzas, and was modestly personal in the lyric tradition.


title: Lyric poetry

text: Lyric poetry dealing with relationships, sex, and domestic life constituted the new mainstream of American poetry in the middle of the 20th century, following such movements as the confessional poets of the 1950s and '60s such that included Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton., the Black Mountain movement with Robert Creeley, Organic Verse represented by Denise Levertov, Projective verse or "open field" composition as represented by Charles Olson, and also Language Poetry which aimed for extreme minimalism along with numerous other experimental verse movements throughout the remainder of the 20th century, up into today where these questions of what constitutes poetry, lyrical or otherwise, are still being discussed but now in the context of hypertext and multimedia as it is used via the Internet.


title: Lyric poetry

text: With the advancement of internet communication technology, poetry saw a surge in various online media especially podcasts. Kevin Young, poetry editor at The New Yorker, remarked that "podcasts connect poetry to a living thing".


title: Conscience

text: Conscience is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience stands in contrast to elicited emotion or thought due to associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and reflexive responses, as in sympathetic central nervous system responses. In common terms, conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an act that conflicts with their moral values. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based on reason has occasioned debate through much of modern history between theories of basics in ethic of human life in juxtaposition to the theories of romanticism and other reactionary movements after the end of the Middle Ages.


title: Conscience

text: Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or to divinity. The diverse ritualistic, mythical, doctrinal, legal, institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential, emotive, spiritual or contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience. Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, with its subject probably learned or imprinted as part of a culture.


title: Conscience

text: Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the "voice within", the "inner light", or even Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός "apotreptikos") inner voice heard only when he was about to make a mistake. Conscience, as is detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law, is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole, has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film.


title: Conscience

text: Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about its role in ethical decision-making, three approaches have addressed it:


title: Conscience

text: In the literary traditions of the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, conscience is the label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil, that a soul acquires from the completion of acts and consequent accretion of karma over many lifetimes. According to Adi Shankara in his "Vivekachudamani" morally right action (characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward), helps "purify the heart" and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us "direct perception of the Reality". This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non-eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness.


title: Conscience

text: In the Zoroastrian faith, after death a soul must face judgment at the "Bridge of the Separator"; there, evil people are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature, or conscience, and "to all time will they be guests for the "House of the Lie"." The Chinese concept of Ren, indicates that conscience, along with social etiquette and correct relationships, assist humans to follow "The Way" (Tao) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony.


title: Conscience

text: Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism. In the Pali scriptures, for example, Buddha links the positive aspect of "conscience" to a pure heart and a calm, well-directed mind. It is regarded as a spiritual power, and one of the "Guardians of the World". The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation. Santideva (685–763 CE) wrote in the Bodhicaryavatara (which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian Buddhist university of Nalanda) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such as generosity, forbearance and training the awareness to be like a "block of wood" when attracted by vices such as pride or lust; so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative absorption. "Conscience" thus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness where the mind withdraws from sensory interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole.


title: Conscience

text: The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote in his "Meditations" that conscience was the human capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true, tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe: "To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind. Only there, delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts."


title: Conscience

text: The Islamic concept of "Taqwa" is closely related to conscience. In the Qur’ān verses 2:197 & 22:37 Taqwa refers to "right conduct" or "piety", "guarding of oneself" or "guarding against evil". Qur’ān verse 47:17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer's taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will but requires inspiration from God. In Qur’ān verses 91:7–8, God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul, the conscience and has taught it the wrong (fujūr) and right (taqwā). Hence, the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul, allowing it to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried, held accountable on the day of judgment for responsibilities to God and all humans.


title: Conscience

text: Qur’ān verse 49:13 states: "O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwā." In Islam, according to eminent theologians such as Al-Ghazali, although events are ordained (and written by God in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet"), humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right, and are thus responsible for their actions; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God enhanced by knowledge and practise of the Five Pillars of Islam, deeds of piety, repentance, self-discipline and prayer; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful acts. Marshall Hodgson wrote the three-volume work: "The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization".


title: Conscience

text: In the Protestant Christian tradition, Martin Luther insisted in the Diet of Worms that his conscience was captive to the Word of God, and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience. To Luther, conscience falls within the ethical, rather than the religious, sphere. John Calvin saw conscience as a battleground: "the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God's throne is not firmly established therein". Many Christians regard following one's conscience as important as, or even more important than, obeying human authority. A Christian view of conscience might be: "God gave us our conscience so we would know when we break His Law; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent." This can sometimes (as with the conflict between William Tyndale and Thomas More over the translation of the Bible into English) lead to moral quandaries: "Do I unreservedly obey my Church/priest/military/political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture?" Some contemporary Christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the Ten Commandments or of Jesus as the highest authority in any situation, regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law. In the Gospel of John (7:53–8:11) (King James Version) Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating: "'He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.' And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground. And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one" [However the word 'conscience' is not in the original New Testament Greek, and is not in the vast majority of Bible versions.] (see Jesus and the woman taken in adultery). In the Gospel of Luke (10: 25–37) Jesus tells the story of how a despised and heretical Samaritan (see Parable of the Good Samaritan) who (out of compassion/pity - the word 'conscience' is not used) helps an injured stranger beside a road, qualifies better for eternal life by loving his neighbor, than a priest who passes by on the other side.


title: Conscience

text: This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law, was demonstrated dramatically in Antigone's defiance of King Creon's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor, appealing to the "unwritten law" and to a "longer allegiance to the dead than to the living".


title: Conscience

text: Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical "judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins [a person] to do good and to avoid evil". The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) describes: "Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey. Its voice, ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid evil, tells him inwardly at the right movement: do this, shun that. For man has in his heart a law inscribed by God. His dignity lies in observing this law, and by it he will be judged. His conscience is man’s most secret core, and his sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in his depths." Thus, conscience is not like the will, nor a habit like prudence, but "the interior space in which we can listen to and hear the truth, the good, the voice of God. It is the inner place of our relationship with Him, who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern, to understand the path we ought to take, and once the decision is made, to move forward, to remain faithful" In terms of logic, conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied. Thus, Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom, so as to form a correct conscience. Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care before confession. Catholic teaching holds that, "Man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions. He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience, especially in religious matters". This right of conscience does not allow one to arbitrarily disagree with Church teaching and claim that one is acting in accordance with conscience. A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources, that is, seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by Christ to teach it. Nevertheless, despite one's best effort, "[i]t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed ... This ignorance can often be imputed to personal responsibility ... In such cases, the person is culpable for the wrong he commits." The Catholic Church has warned that "rejection of the Church's authority and her teaching ... can be at the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct". An example of someone following his conscience to the point of accepting the consequence of being condemned to death is Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). A theologian who wrote on the distinction between the 'sense of duty' and the 'moral sense', as two aspects of conscience, and who saw the former as some feeling that can only be explained by a divine Lawgiver, was John Henry Cardinal Newman. A well known saying of him is that he would first toast on his conscience and only then on the pope, since his conscience brought him to acknowledge the authority of the pope.


title: Conscience

text: Judaism arguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority; the case has been made that throughout Jewish history, rabbis have circumvented laws they found unconscionable, such as capital punishment. Similarly, although an occupation with national destiny has been central to the Jewish faith (see Zionism) many scholars (including Moses Mendelssohn) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important adjunct to the Talmudic tradition. The concept of inner light in the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers is associated with conscience. Freemasonry describes itself as providing an adjunct to religion and key symbols found in a Freemason Lodge are the "square" and "compasses" explained as providing lessons that Masons should "square their actions by the square of conscience", learn to "circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind." The historian Manning Clark viewed "conscience" as one of the comforters that religion placed between man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by the Book of Job and the Book of Ecclesiastes, leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what matters most in life ("being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for") can never happen. Leo Tolstoy, after a decade studying the issue (1877–1887), held that the only power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of religious institutions, was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through reason and conscience. Many prominent religious works about conscience also have a significant philosophical component: examples are the works of Al-Ghazali, Avicenna, Aquinas, Joseph Butler and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (all discussed in the philosophical views section).


title: Conscience

text: The secular approach to conscience includes psychological, physiological, sociological, humanitarian, and authoritarian views. Lawrence Kohlberg considered "critical conscience" to be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans, associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility, being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications (such as Jiminy Cricket) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas. Erik Erikson placed the development of "conscience" in the 'pre-schooler' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality development. The psychologist Martha Stout terms "conscience" "an intervening sense of obligation based in our emotional attachments." Thus a good conscience is associated with feelings of integrity, psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using adjectives such as "quiet", "clear" and "easy".


title: Conscience

text: Sigmund Freud regarded "conscience" as originating psychologically from the growth of civilisation, which periodically frustrated the external expression of aggression: this destructive impulse being forced to seek an alternative, healthy outlet, directed its energy as a superego against the person's own "ego" or selfishness (often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood). According to Freud, the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt, which can be a factor in the development of neurosis; Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super-ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions, disobedience to which provokes a 'fear of conscience'.


title: Conscience

text: Antonio Damasio considers conscience an aspect of extended consciousness beyond survival-related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for behavior.


title: Conscience

text: Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to form societies: groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do.


title: Conscience

text: Charles Darwin considered that "conscience" evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or community; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the "greater duration of impression of social instincts" in the struggle for survival. In such a view, behavior destructive to a person's society (either to its structures or to the persons it comprises) is bad or "evil". Thus, conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid provoking fear or contempt in others; being experienced as guilt and shame in differing ways from society to society and person to person. A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity to see ourselves from the point of view of another person. Persons unable to do this (psychopaths, sociopaths, narcissists) therefore often act in ways which are "evil".


title: Conscience

text: Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some "other" as being "in a social relationship". Thus, nationalism is invoked in conscience to quell tribal conflict and the notion of a Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quell national conflicts. Yet such crowd drives may not only overwhelm but redefine individual "conscience". Friedrich Nietzsche stated: "communal solidarity is annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that, when they break out passionately, whip the individual far past the average low level of the 'herd-conscience.'" Jeremy Bentham noted that: "fanaticism never sleeps ... it is never stopped by "conscience"; for it has pressed "conscience" into its service." Hannah Arendt in her study of the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, notes that the accused, as with almost all his fellow Germans, had lost track of his "conscience" to the point where they hardly remembered it; this wasn't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty, so much as by the fact that anyone whose "conscience" did develop doubts could see no one who shared them: "Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not because he had none, but because his conscience spoke with a "respectable voice", with the voice of the respectable society around him".


title: Conscience

text: Sir Arthur Keith in 1948 developed the Amity-enmity complex. We evolved as tribal groups surrounded by enemies; thus conscience evolved a dual role; the duty to save and protect members of the in-group, and the duty to show hatred and aggression towards any out-group.


title: Conscience

text: An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those of animals, whether animals in human society (pets, working animals, even animals grown for food) or in the wild. One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve, their "conscience" begins to respect that former "other", and urge actions that protect it. Similarly, in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities (such as the Australian magpie) that have a high degree of etiquettes, rules, hierarchies, play, songs and negotiations, rule-breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness.


title: Conscience

text: Contemporary scientists in evolutionary biology seek to explain conscience as a function of the brain that evolved to facilitate altruism within societies. In his book "The God Delusion", Richard Dawkins states that he agrees with Robert Hinde's "Why Good is Good", Michael Shermer's "The Science of Good and Evil", Robert Buckman's "Can We Be Good Without God?" and Marc Hauser's "Moral Minds", that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our Darwinian past. He subsequently reinforced this idea through the lens of the gene-centered view of evolution, since the unit of natural selection is neither an individual organism nor a group, but rather the "selfish" gene, and these genes could ensure their own "selfish" survival by, "inter alia", pushing individuals to act altruistically towards its kin.


title: Conscience

text: Numerous case studies of brain damage have shown that damage to areas of the brain (such as the anterior prefrontal cortex) results in the reduction or elimination of inhibitions, with a corresponding radical change in behaviour. When the damage occurs to adults, they may still be able to perform moral reasoning; but when it occurs to children, they may never develop that ability.


title: Conscience

text: Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate the free will necessary for what is termed the 'veto' of conscience over unconscious mental processes (see Neuroscience of free will and Benjamin Libet) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act occurring 350–400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the 'readiness potential.'


title: Conscience

text: Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial in artificial intelligence systems to improve their long-term performance and direct their introspective processing.


title: Conscience

text: The word "conscience" derives etymologically from the Latin "conscientia", meaning "privity of knowledge"


title: Conscience

text: or "with-knowledge". The English word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one's motives, as well as a consciousness of our own actions. Thus "conscience" considered philosophically may be first, and perhaps most commonly, a largely unexamined "gut feeling" or "vague sense of guilt" about what ought to be or should have been done. Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation (or the applicable normative principles, rules or laws) and can arise from parental, peer group, religious, state or corporate indoctrination, which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ("traditional conscience"). "Conscience" may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a situation ("critical conscience"). In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service to others, "critical conscience" can be aided by a "spark" of intuitive insight or revelation (called marifa in Islamic Sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval Christian scholastic moral philosophy). "Conscience" is accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of 'inner light' and approbation or 'inner darkness' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed or declined.


title: Conscience

text: The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al-Ghazali divided the concept of "Nafs" (soul or self (spirituality)) into three categories based on the Qur’an:


title: Conscience

text: The medieval Persian philosopher and physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi believed in a close relationship between "conscience" or spiritual integrity and physical health; rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, use his intellect and apply justice in his life. The medieval Islamic philosopher Avicenna, whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, wrote his famous isolated-but-awake "Floating Man" sensory deprivation thought experiment to explore the ideas of human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul; his hypothesis being that it is through intelligence, particularly the active intellect, that God communicates truth to the human mind or conscience. According to the Islamic Sufis conscience allows Allah to guide people to the marifa, the peace or "light upon light" experienced where a Muslim's prayers lead to a melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise depicted in the Qur’ān.


title: Conscience

text: Some medieval Christian scholastics such as Bonaventure made a distinction between conscience as a rational faculty of the mind (practical reason) and inner awareness, an intuitive "spark" to do good, called "synderesis" arising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously denied (for example to perform an evil act), becoming a source of inner torment. Early modern theologians such as William Perkins and William Ames developed a syllogistic understanding of the conscience, where God's law made the first term, the act to be judged the second and the action of the conscience (as a rational faculty) produced the judgement. By debating test cases applying such understanding conscience was trained and refined (i.e. casuistry).


title: Conscience

text: In the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas regarded "conscience" as the application of moral knowledge to a particular case (S.T. I, q. 79, a. 13). Thus, conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began with synderesis, the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good (which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory of Natural Law) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles. According to Singer, Aquinas held that conscience, or "conscientia" was an imperfect process of judgment applied to activity because knowledge of the natural law (and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein) was obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow-feeling ("Summa Theologiae", I–II, I). Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of prudence to explain why some people appear to be less "morally enlightened" than others, their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others.


title: Conscience

text: Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is an evil action but an errant conscience is only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable or vincible ignorance of factors that one has a duty to have knowledge of. Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards real goods (from God) which encouraged human flourishing, rather than the apparent goods of sensory pleasures. In his "Commentary" on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Aquinas claimed it was weak will that allowed a non-virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one requiring moral constraint.