title: DJ Muggs

text: After linking up with B-Real and Sen Dog to form the group Cypress Hill, he went on to produce seven studio albums with the group from 1991 to 2004. Of the seven, four reached platinum status, and three gold. Meanwhile, he scored hits on the side with Ice Cube's "Check Yo Self" and House of Pain's "Jump Around". During Cypress Hill's early years, DJ Muggs met The Alchemist and his Dilated Peoples brethren on tour, deciding to take the young producer under his wing, providing a jump-start for his career.


title: DJ Muggs

text: In 1997, Muggs released an album under the name Soul Assassins. The album, "Soul Assassins I", reached #86 on the "Billboard" 200 and earned critical praise. Produced by Muggs, it featured Dr. Dre, B-Real, La the Darkman, Mobb Deep, RZA, GZA, Goodie Mob, KRS-One and Wyclef Jean. In 2000 he returned to the Soul Assassins with "Soul Assassins II", which reached only #178 on the charts but garnered similarly positive reviews. He also put out the record "Dust", an atmosphere-heavy trip hop affair with Greg Dulli, Amy Trujillo and Everlast on vocals. After the 2004 album "Till Death Do Us Part", which reached #23 on the "Billboard" 200, Cypress Hill went on a hiatus from recording, enabling its members to focus more on their side projects.


title: DJ Muggs

text: In 2005, DJ Muggs teamed up with Wu-Tang Clan's GZA for the album "Grandmasters", the first project released on his label Angeles Records. Patterned after a chess game, it received positive reviews; Muggs also announced a "Soul Assassins III" album, produced jointly by himself and Alchemist, reportedly to be preceded by a record called "Cloak & Dagger", also featuring Alchemist. Instead, Muggs produced an album for Psycho Realm member Sick Jacken, "Legend of the Mask and the Assassin" two years later, in 2007. In 2008, Muggs announced that his album with California rapper Planet Asia would be the third Soul Assassins album, but the two released "Pain Language" later that year as a simple collaboration.


title: DJ Muggs

text: Before the release of his solo album "Smoke n Mirrors" in 2009, B-Real reported that Cypress Hill has been working on an album for roughly a year. Currently in the mixing phase, Muggs has produced half of the album's material so far, going to DJ Premier, Pete Rock and Mike Shinoda for the rest. In 2009, Muggs entered the Gumball 3000 cross-country race, and on June 23, 2009, "" was released, featuring RZA, Prodigy, Evidence, The Alchemist and Bun B. The first single for the album was "Gangsta Shit" by Bun B and M1. Despite its high-profile guest list, the release was met with lukewarm reception, and Muggs later clarified its status as a preview before the release of "Soul Assassins III", the next full-fledged installment of his Soul Assassins series. Muggs plans next on recording his 5th V.S. album with group member B-Real. and in 2013 he confirmed a VS album with Meyhem Lauren as well.


title: DJ Muggs

text: On the Soul Assassins official website, it was also revealed that Muggs contributed production to Apathy's song "Fear Itself" from rapper's "Honkey Kong" album, which was released August 23, 2011.


title: DJ Muggs

text: In 2011, Muggs announced the release of a new album entitled "Bass for Your Face", which he described as a 'West Coast dubstep album'. In October 2011, Muggs confirmed via his Twitter account that Public Enemy frontman Chuck D would contribute to the album, and the lead single would feature UK artist Dizzee Rascal and Los Angeles upstart MC Bambu.


title: DJ Muggs

text: Muggs returned to the trip hop genre by teaming up with vocalist Brevi, fellow producer Andrew Kline (from the hardcore punk band Strife) and Sean Bonner, who served as a curator, hacker and creative technologist of the project. CMHHTD released their debut four-track self-titled extended play on April 2, 2013, and it was promoted by three music videos "Wild Side", "Miracles" and "Roller Coasting". On July 29, 2014, the band released their second extended play, "Vita E Morte", it was supported by two music videos "Two Shots" and "Tears Of God". Both EPs were released via Alpha Pup Records and also were released later as "Cross My Heart Hope To Die" eight-track album.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Claude Giroux (; born January 12, 1988) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward and alternate captain for the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has previously played for the Philadelphia Flyers and the Florida Panthers. Selected by the Flyers 22nd overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft, Giroux was named the Flyers' team captain in 2013, and became the longest-tenured captain in team history. Giroux played his 1,000th game with the Flyers on March 17, 2022. Giroux has been known to be a very flexible offensive player; capable of playing comfortably on both center and wing throughout his career.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Before playing in the NHL, Giroux played his major junior career with the Gatineau Olympiques of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), where he helped the team win a 2008 President's Cup and earned the Guy Lafleur Trophy as the 2008 playoff MVP. Internationally, he won a gold medal with Team Canada in the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux made his debut with the Flyers in February 2008 and joined the roster full-time midway through the 2008–09 season. In 2011, after the trades of Mike Richards and Jeff Carter, Giroux took over the role of the club's first-line centre. He was the club's top point-scorer for seven seasons. In 2012 and 2014, he finished third in the league in point scoring. In 2018, he finished second in the league with 102 points, behind only Connor McDavid.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux was born on January 12, 1988 in Hearst, Ontario, a Francophone town, and is fluent in both English and French. He is the son of Raymond and Nicole Giroux, and has one sister named Isabelle. Giroux and his family were supporters of the Montreal Canadiens, but his favourite hockey player growing up was Pavel Bure.


title: Claude Giroux

text: In the summer of 2002, at the age of 14, Giroux and his family moved to Ottawa, Ontario, where he attended Béatrice-Desloges High School in the suburban community of Orléans. While living in Orléans, Giroux played Major Bantam AA and Minor Midget AA hockey for the Cumberland Barons, and was the club's leading scorer in the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons. After being passed over in the 2004 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) draft, Giroux played for the Cumberland Grads during the 2004–2005 season at age 16. Despite missing most of the season after contracting mononucleosis, Giroux scored 40 points across 48 games and was named the Canadian Junior Hockey League (CJHL)'s Rookie of the Year.


title: Claude Giroux

text: A free agent, Giroux was invited to Gatineau Olympiques training camp for a walk-on tryout. He was signed shortly after. During his rookie season with the Olympiques, Giroux scored 39 goals for a total of 103 points in 69 games and was named Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL)'s Rookie of the Year. He entered the 2006 NHL Entry Draft and was selected 22nd overall by the Philadelphia Flyers. The Flyers signed Giroux to an entry-level contract on July 23, 2007.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux made his NHL debut when the Flyers visited the Ottawa Senators on February 19, 2008, recording no points and being the team's first shooter in the shootout. Sent back down to the Olympiques, he helped the club win the QMJHL Playoffs and earned himself the Guy Lafleur Trophy as MVP in the QMJHL Playoffs by scoring 17 goals and 34 assists in 19 playoff games, also setting a franchise record.


title: Claude Giroux

text: After a disappointing training camp for the Flyers at the beginning of the 2008–09 season, Giroux was assigned to the team's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Philadelphia Phantoms. After acclimatizing to professional hockey, however, things turned around quickly; he was named Rookie of the Month for December for his eight goals and six assists in eight games played. He was then called up to the Flyers after the Christmas break and remained there throughout the rest of the season. On December 31, he recorded his first NHL point by assisting on a Jeff Carter goal in a win over the Vancouver Canucks. He suffered a mild concussion during the next game when Corey Perry of the Anaheim Ducks elbowed him in the head. Giroux finished the game but missed the next five; Perry was suspended for four games.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On January 27, 2009, Giroux scored his first NHL goal against goaltender Tomáš Vokoun and the Florida Panthers in a 3–2 loss. His first Stanley Cup playoff goal came in a 6–3 win in Game 3 of the 2009 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against Marc-André Fleury of the Pittsburgh Penguins. The same game also saw him setting up a short-handed goal when he stole the puck in the corner of the Penguins zone and outworked their backcheck, skating past the back of their net twice protecting the puck while looking for incoming support in the form of Simon Gagné. Giroux ended the 2008–09 season with nine goals and 27 points in 42 games played.


title: Claude Giroux

text: The Flyers were an inconsistent team for the bulk of the 2009–10 season, which affected all of their players. Giroux spent a large amount of time centering James van Riemsdyk, the highly touted rookie winger that the Flyers had drafted second overall in 2007. The Flyers' fortunes, however, soon turned dramatically: they qualified for the 2010 playoffs on Giroux's game-winner in a shootout against the New York Rangers. Giroux was a major point producer in a first round of the playoffs, dismantling the second-seeded New Jersey Devils. The Flyers made an historic comeback from three games to none down against the Boston Bruins to win the next four and advance to the Eastern Conference Final, where they dominated the Montreal Canadiens. Giroux scored the winning goal in overtime against the Chicago Blackhawks in Game 3 of the 2010 Stanley Cup Final, but despite his continued production, the Flyers eventually lost in overtime in Game 6 of the Final. Giroux ended the post-season with 21 playoff points, cementing his reputation as an emerging young talent.


title: Claude Giroux

text: A month into the season, the Flyers signed Giroux to a three-year, $11.25 million contract extension. The contract, which was signed on November 8, 2010, accounted for a $3.75 million cap hit annually. On January 11, 2011, Giroux was named to the 2011 NHL All-Star Game roster. He finished his break-out season with 25 goals and 51 assists in 82 games and scored a goal and 11 assists in 11 2011 playoff games, in which the Flyers defeated the Buffalo Sabres but were ultimately defeated by the Bruins. Giroux played his 200th career game on March 26, 2011, against the New York Islanders.


title: Claude Giroux

text: After the Flyers traded away Jeff Carter and Mike Richards in the 2011 off-season, Giroux took over the role as first line centre for the club. The trading of Richards and Carter also made him the second-longest tenured member of the Flyers. Giroux formed a new top line with Scott Hartnell and free agent acquisition Jaromír Jágr. Giroux led the League in point-scoring for much of the season, and was considered a favourite for the Hart Memorial Trophy for League MVP at the season's All-Star break. He finished the season, however, 16 points behind eventual Hart Trophy winner Evgeni Malkin. On April 13, 2012, Giroux recorded his first career hat trick during game two of the first round of the 2012 playoffs against Pittsburgh. He recorded six points during that same game, earning a Flyers record for most points during a single Stanley Cup playoff game. On May 7, 2012, Giroux received a one-game suspension for a hit to the head of New Jersey Devils forward Dainius Zubrus during Game 4 of the Eastern Conference Semi-finals. After the Flyers were eliminated by the Devils, Giroux ended the season as both the Flyers' top regular season point-scorer (93 points) and top playoff point scorer (17 points). After the Flyers' elimination, Giroux had surgery on both of his wrists; the right to repair torn cartilage, and the left to remove bone spurs. He later claimed that Sidney Crosby had repeatedly slashed his wrists during face-offs in the first round series against Pittsburgh. At the time news of the surgery was revealed, Giroux was still the playoffs' leading point scorer, even though his team had been eliminated two weeks earlier. On June 20, 2012, Giroux was named the cover athlete for "NHL 13" at the NHL awards in Las Vegas; he became the first Philadelphia Flyer on an EA Sports "NHL" video game cover since Eric Lindros on "NHL 99".


title: Claude Giroux

text: During the 2012–13 NHL lock-out, Giroux and Flyers teammate Daniel Brière played for Eisbären Berlin of the German Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). In his ninth game in Germany, he suffered a neck and shoulder injury that was initially feared to be a concussion. He returned to North America and remained inactive through the remainder of the lock-out. After the lock-out ended, Giroux was named the 19th team captain in Flyers history on January 15, 2013, taking over for the indefinitely-injured Chris Pronger.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux got off to a slow start once the shortened season began. Missing linemates Jaromír Jagr, who signed with the Dallas Stars during free agency, and Scott Hartnell, who suffered a broken foot during the third game of the season, Giroux registered only seven points through the team's first 13 games. His season turned around once right winger Jakub Voráček, who was also struggling, was placed on his line. From February 12 through the end of the regular season, Giroux was the fourth-most productive player in the League, scoring ten goals and 30 assists for a total of 40 points during that span. He finished with 48 points in 48 games and new linemate Voráček finished with a career-high 22 goals. The team as a whole struggled, however, and the Flyers missed the playoffs for the first time since the season. On July 5, 2013, Giroux signed an eight-year, $66.2 million contract extension to stay in Philadelphia. The entire Flyers team struggled out of the gate, as Philadelphia won just one of their first eight games. Giroux was no exception, and had a difficult start to the 2013–14 season. In his first 15 games, he put up just seven assists and failed to tally a goal. Eventually, the team's struggles ran their course and the Flyers' and Giroux's play seemed to revert to normal.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux's year took another turn when it came down to the Olympic roster selection. He was one of the biggest names left off of the Canadian team. But since that point, Giroux picked up his play. As of April 12, he was third in the league in points and the Flyers were in third place in the Metropolitan Division. At the conclusion of the season, Giroux was nominated for the NHL's Hart Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award, both of which he lost to Sidney Crosby.


title: Claude Giroux

text: During the 2015–16 season Giroux required surgery to repair hip and abdominal muscle injuries in May 2016. The following year, Giroux ended the season with 14 goals, which concluded a 3 season streak of 20-plus goal seasons. Giroux said the lack of numbers was due to him still recovering from the surgery in 2016.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Things began turning upwards for Giroux during the 2017–18 season, as he moved from center to wing. This allowed Sean Couturier to move up to the top line, and both players had career years as a result. He was named to the 2018 NHL All-Star Game for the fifth time in his career during this season. This also made him the first Flyers skater since John LeClair and Eric Lindros to be selected for the All-Star Game roster five or more times. On March 13, 2018, after the Philadelphia Eagles released Brent Celek, Giroux became the longest tenured professional athlete in Philadelphia. On March 20, 2018, Giroux passed Eric Lindros for 5th on the Flyers' all-time scoring list. He recorded an assist on Sean Couturier's goal to record point 660. Near the conclusion of the regular season, Giroux was nominated for the Bill Masterton Trophy, and was later awarded the Bobby Clarke Trophy and the Toyota Cup award. In the final game of the regular season, Giroux became the 6th player in Flyers franchise history to reach the 100-point mark in a season, recording a power-play goal in the second period of a 5–0 win against the New York Rangers. He was the first Flyers' player to reach 100 points in a season since Eric Lindros in 1995–96. Giroux helped the Flyers qualify for the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs, where he recorded 3 points in 6 games in an eventual first round loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins. Following the season, Giroux was named a Second-Team NHL All-Star. He also finished 4th in the MVP voting.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On January 26, 2021, in a match against the New Jersey Devils, Giroux recorded his 611th game played as Flyers team captain, beating Bobby Clarke's 1984 record. Giroux's iron man streak of 328 consecutive games ended on February 18, when he was unavailable to play a game against the New York Rangers due to a positive COVID-19 test. Giroux returned on February 24, and recorded three assists in the Flyers' 4–3 win against the New York Rangers.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On December 10, 2021, Giroux recorded his 334th career power play point with an assist on Sean Couturier's goal; in doing so, he passed Bobby Clarke's record for most power play points in Flyers history. On December 29, 2021, two days shy of the anniversary of his first NHL point, Giroux assisted on a James van Riemsdyk goal against the Seattle Kraken for his 600th career assist and 884th career point. He is the 10th active player to achieve 600 assists, and his points total surpassed Hall of Famer Bill Barber for second overall in Flyers' franchise history. With the Flyers having a poor 2021–22 season and his contract approaching expiration, the possibility of Giroux being traded in advance of the 2022 Stanley Cup playoffs became a major point of discussion in sports media. Giroux was named the captain of the Metropolitan Division team for the 2022 NHL All-Star Game, his seventh all-star game appearance, and was named MVP of the game after scoring two goals in the finals. Giroux scored his 900th NHL point in his 999th NHL game on March 13, 2022, a 4–3 loss to the Montreal Canadiens, while also passing Eric Lindros for eighth place on the Flyers' all-time goals list.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On March 17, 2022, Giroux played in his 1000th NHL game, a 5–4 home victory over the Nashville Predators. Mere days before the trade deadline, it was widely assumed that this would be his final game with the team. He was presented with a silver stick at a pre-game ceremony by Bobby Clarke, and named the first star of the game despite not registering a point. He became the 40th NHL player to play 1000 games with a single team, and only the second Flyer, after Clarke.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On March 19, 2022, Giroux was traded to the Florida Panthers along with a 2024 5th-round pick, Connor Bunnaman, and German Rubtsov in exchange for Owen Tippett, a 2024 first-round draft pick, and a 2023 third-round pick. He made his debut with the Panthers in a March 24 road game against the Montreal Canadiens, registering two assists in a 4–3 victory. He scored his first goal with his new team in an April 5 game against the Toronto Maple Leafs, where the Panthers rallied to a 7–6 victory in overtime after a 5–1 deficit in the second period. Giroux finished the regular season with 3 goals and 20 assists in 18 games, while the Panthers finished first in the league and won the Presidents' Trophy.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Entering the 2022 Stanley Cup playoffs as one of the favourites, the Panthers faced the Washington Capitals in the first round. Giroux played a pivotal role in the series-clinching win in Game 6, leading the team past the first round for the first time in a quarter century. In the second round matchup against the Tampa Bay Lightning, the Panthers were swept in four games, bringing the postseason run to an end. Following the defeat, Giroux said that he was contemplating re-signing with the Panthers.


title: Claude Giroux

text: On July 13, 2022, Giroux signed a three-year, $19.5 million contract with the Ottawa Senators. He was announced as an alternate captain on September 19, 2022. Giroux recorded his 300th career goal in a November 5, 2022 game against his old team, the Flyers.


title: Claude Giroux

text: Giroux competed with Team Canada in the IIHF World Junior Ice Hockey Championship in 2008. He scored two goals and four assists in seven games to help Canada win its fourth consecutive WJC. He competed with Team Canada in the IIHF World Championship in April 2013. He scored three goals and five assists in eight games.


title: Claude Giroux

text: In 2015, he was a member of Canada's gold medal-winning team at the World Hockey Championships. He competed with Team Canada in the 2015 IIHF World Championship, and was awarded Player of the Game in the team's victory against Team Russia in the final game of the Championship.


title: Claude Giroux

text: During the 2010–2011 season, Giroux lived with teammate Daniel Brière and Brière's three sons in their Haddonfield, New Jersey home. In 2011, Giroux moved out and into an apartment with teammate Brayden Schenn.


title: Claude Giroux

text: During the 2012–13 lockout, Giroux also made a voice appearance in the 2012 TV film, The Magic Hockey Skates (based on the book of the same name).


title: Claude Giroux

text: On July 1, 2014, Giroux was arrested by police in Ottawa after twice grabbing the buttocks of a male police officer while intoxicated inside an Ottawa nightclub. Though he reportedly spent the night in jail, no charges were laid.


title: Claude Giroux

text: In December 2016, Giroux became engaged to his longtime girlfriend Ryanne Breton and the two married in July 2018. Their son Gavin was born on August 26, 2019. The couple's second son, Palmer, was born August 5, 2021.


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: In a corporation, a stakeholder is a member of "groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist", as defined in the first usage of the word in a 1963 internal memorandum at the Stanford Research Institute. The theory was later developed and championed by R. Edward Freeman in the 1980s. Since then it has gained wide acceptance in business practice and in theorizing relating to strategic management, corporate governance, business purpose and corporate social responsibility (CSR). The definition of corporate responsibilities through a classification of stakeholders to consider has been criticized as creating a false dichotomy between the "shareholder model" and the "stakeholders model" or a false analogy of the obligations towards shareholders and other interested parties.


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: Any action taken by any organization or any group might affect those people who are linked with them in the private sector. For examples these are parents, children, customers, owners, employees, associates, partners, contractors, and suppliers, people that are related or located nearby. Broadly speaking there are three types of stakeholders:


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: In the field of corporate governance and corporate responsibility, a debate is ongoing about whether the firm or company should be managed primarily for stakeholders, stockholders (shareholders), customers, or others. Proponents in favor of stakeholders may base their arguments on the following four key assertions:


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: A corporate stakeholder can affect or be affected by the actions of a business as a whole. Whereas shareholders are often the party with the most direct and obvious interest at stake in business decisions, they are one of various subsets of stakeholders, as customers and employees also have stakes in the outcome. In the most developed sense of stakeholders in terms of real corporate responsibility, the bearers of externalities are included in stakeholdership.


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: In the last decades of the 20th century, the word "stakeholder" became more commonly used to mean a person or organization that has a legitimate interest in a project or entity. In discussing the decision-making process for institutions—including large business corporations, government agencies, and non-profit organizations—the concept has been broadened to include everyone with an interest (or "stake") in what the entity does. This includes not only vendors, employees, and customers, but even members of a community where its offices or factory may affect the local economy or environment. In this context, a "stakeholder" includes not only the directors or trustees on its governing board (who are stakeholders in the traditional sense of the word) but also all persons who paid into the figurative stake and the persons to whom it may be "paid out" (in the sense of a "payoff" in game theory, meaning the outcome of the transaction). Therefore, in order to effectively engage with a community of stakeholders, the organisation's management needs to be aware of the stakeholders, understand their wants and expectations, understand their attitude (supportive, neutral or opposed), and be able to prioritize the members of the overall community to focus the organisation's scarce resources on the most significant stakeholders. Stakeholder management is particularly important in crisis contexts, where stakeholder demands are typically more salient and can conflict with an organisation's predetermined plans.


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: The holders of each separate kind of interest in the entity's affairs are called a "constituency," so there may be a constituency of stockholders, a constituency of adjoining property owners, a constituency of banks the entity owes money to, and so on. In that usage, "constituent" is a synonym for "stakeholder".


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives and policies. Some examples of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees, government (and its agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources.


title: Stakeholder (corporate)

text: Not all stakeholders are equal. A company's customers are entitled to fair trading practices but they are not entitled to the same consideration as the company's employees. The stakeholders in a corporation are the individuals and constituencies that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to its wealth-creating capacity and activities, and that are therefore its potential beneficiaries and/or risk bearers." This definition differs from the older definition of the term stakeholder in Stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1983) that also includes competitors as stakeholders of a corporation. Robert Allen Phillips provides a moral foundation for stakeholder theory in "Stakeholder Theory and Organizational Ethics". There he defends a "principle of stakeholder fairness" based on the work of John Rawls, as well as a distinction between normative and derivative legitimate stakeholders. Real stakeholders, labelled stakeholders: genuine stakeholders with a legitimate stake, the loyal partners who strive for mutual benefits. Stake owners own and deserve a stake in the firm. Stakeholder reciprocity could be an innovative criterion in the corporate governance debate as to who should be accorded representation on the board. Corporate social responsibility should imply a corporate stakeholder responsibility.


title: Eric Thompson

text: Eric Norman Thompson (9 November 1929 – 30 November 1982) was an English actor, scriptwriter and stage director. He is best remembered for creating and performing the English narration for "The Magic Roundabout", which he adapted from the original French "Le Manège enchanté".


title: Eric Thompson

text: Eric Norman Thompson was born on 9 November 1929 in Sleaford, Lincolnshire, England, the son of Annie (née Jackson) and George Henry Thompson, a hotel waiter, and grew up in Rudgwick, Sussex, attending Collyer's School, Horsham. He trained to be an actor at the Old Vic acting school in London and joined the Old Vic theatre company in 1952.


title: Eric Thompson

text: Thompson worked regularly for the BBC, and was a presenter of the children's television programme "Play School" from 1964 to 1967. He was best known as the narrator of "The Magic Roundabout", for which he also wrote the English language scripts, using the visuals from the original French "Le Manège enchanté". These were transmitted from October 1965 to January 1977. Thompson rarely worked in television after his voice became well-known, but occasionally appeared in programmes including "Doctor Finlay's Casebook" (episode: "Beware of the Dog"), "Doctor Who" in the serial "The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve" in 1966, and in two episodes of "Coronation Street", in 1964 and 1969 (playing two different characters).


title: Eric Thompson

text: Thompson married Scottish actress Phyllida Law, whom he met while at the Old Vic in 1957. Their daughters Emma and Sophie Thompson followed into acting.


title: Eric Thompson

text: In 1967, he had a heart attack, resulting from overwork and heavy smoking, and therefore changed his focus to directing. He directed Kenneth Williams in "My Fat Friend" in 1972 and the conflicts between the two are extensively discussed in the Williams' diaries.


title: Semtex

text: Semtex is a general-purpose plastic explosive containing RDX and PETN. It is used in commercial blasting, demolition, and in certain military applications.


title: Semtex

text: Semtex was developed and manufactured in Czechoslovakia, originally under the name B 1 and then under the "Semtex" designation since 1964, labeled as "SEMTEX 1A", since 1967 as "SEMTEX H", and since 1987 as "SEMTEX 10".


title: Semtex

text: Originally developed for Czechoslovak military use and export, Semtex eventually became popular with paramilitary groups and rebels or terrorists because prior to 2000 it was extremely difficult to detect, as in the case of Pan Am Flight 103.


title: Semtex

text: The composition of the two most common variants differ according to their use. The 1A (or 10) variant is used for mining, and is based mostly on crystalline PETN. The versions 1AP and 2P are formed as hexagonal booster charges; a special assembly of PETN and wax inside the charge assures high reliability for detonating cord or detonator. The H (or SE) variant is intended for explosion hardening.


title: Semtex

text: Semtex was invented in the late 1950s by Stanislav Brebera and Radim Fukátko, chemists at VCHZ Synthesia, Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic). The explosive is named after Semtín, a suburb of Pardubice where the mixture was first manufactured starting in 1964. The plant was later renamed to become Explosia a.s., a subsidiary of Synthesia.


title: Semtex

text: Semtex was very similar to other plastic explosives, especially C-4, in being highly malleable; but it is usable over a greater temperature range than other plastic explosives, since it stays plastic between −40 and +60 °C. It is also waterproof. There are visual differences between Semtex and other plastic explosives, too: while C-4 is off-white in colour, Semtex is red or brick-orange.


title: Semtex

text: The new explosive was widely exported, notably to the government of North Vietnam, which received 14 tons during the Vietnam War. However, the main consumer was Libya; about 700 tons of Semtex were exported to Libya between 1975 and 1981 by Omnipol. It has also been used by Islamic militants in the Middle East and by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army in Northern Ireland.


title: Semtex

text: Sales declined after Semtex became closely associated with terrorist attacks. Rules governing the explosive's export were progressively tightened over the years, and since 2002 all of Explosia's trading has been controlled by a government ministry. , only approximately 10 tons of Semtex were produced annually, almost all for domestic use. On 21 December 1988, 340 g (12 ounces) of Semtex brought down a Boeing 747 over Lockerbie, Scotland killing all 259 passengers and crew aboard the aircraft and 11 bystanders on the ground.


title: Semtex

text: Also in response to international agreements, Semtex has a detection taggant added to produce a distinctive vapor signature to aid detection. First, ethylene glycol dinitrate was used, but was later switched to 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMDNB) or "p"-mononitrotoluene (1-methyl-4-nitrobenzene), which is used currently. According to the manufacturer, the taggant agent was voluntarily being added by 1991, years before the protocol became compulsory. Batches of Semtex made before 1990, however, are untagged, though it is not known whether there are still major stocks of such old batches of Semtex. According to the manufacturer, even this untagged Semtex can now be detected. The shelf life of Semtex was reduced from ten years before the 1990s to five years now. Explosia states that there is no compulsory tagging allowing reliable post-detonation detection of a certain plastic explosive (such as incorporating a unique metallic code into the mass of the explosive), so Semtex is not tagged in this way.


title: Semtex

text: On 25 May 1997, Bohumil Šole, a scientist who claimed to have been involved with inventing Semtex, committed suicide at a spa in Jeseník by blowing himself up with explosives. Šole, 63, was being treated there for psychological problems. It was unclear what explosives were used. Twenty other people were hurt in the explosion, while six were seriously injured. According to the manufacturer, Explosia, he was not a member of the team that developed the explosive in the 1960s.


title: Semtex

text: According to the producer's 2017 catalog, several variants of Semtex are offered: Semtex 1A, Semtex 1H, Semtex 10, Semtex 10-SE, Semtex S 30, Semtex C-4, Semtex PW 4, and Semtex 90.


title: State-space representation

text: In control engineering, a state-space representation is a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations or difference equations. State variables are variables whose values evolve over time in a way that depends on the values they have at any given time and on the externally imposed values of input variables. Output variables’ values depend on the values of the state variables.


title: State-space representation

text: The "state space" is the Euclidean space in which the variables on the axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a "state vector" within that space.


title: State-space representation

text: If the dynamical system is linear, time-invariant, and finite-dimensional, then the differential and algebraic equations may be written in matrix form.


title: State-space representation

text: The state-space method is characterized by significant algebraization of general system theory, which makes it possible to use Kronecker vector-matrix structures. The capacity of these structures can be efficiently applied to research systems with modulation or without it.


title: State-space representation

text: The state-space representation (also known as the "time-domain approach") provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs. With formula_1 inputs and formula_2 outputs, we would otherwise have to write down formula_3 Laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state-space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions.


title: State-space representation

text: The state-space model can be applied in subjects such as economics, statistics, computer science and electrical engineering, and neuroscience. In econometrics, for example, state-space models can be used to decompose a time series into trend and cycle, compose individual indicators into a composite index, identify turning points of the business cycle, and estimate GDP using latent and unobserved time series. Many applications rely on the Kalman Filter to produce estimates of the current unknown state variables using their previous observations.


title: State-space representation

text: The internal state variables are the smallest possible subset of system variables that can represent the entire state of the system at any given time. The minimum number of state variables required to represent a given system, formula_4, is usually equal to the order of the system's defining differential equation, but not necessarily. If the system is represented in transfer function form, the minimum number of state variables is equal to the order of the transfer function's denominator after it has been reduced to a proper fraction. It is important to understand that converting a state-space realization to a transfer function form may lose some internal information about the system, and may provide a description of a system which is stable, when the state-space realization is unstable at certain points. In electric circuits, the number of state variables is often, though not always, the same as the number of energy storage elements in the circuit such as capacitors and inductors. The state variables defined must be linearly independent, i.e., no state variable can be written as a linear combination of the other state variables, or the system cannot be solved.


title: State-space representation

text: The most general state-space representation of a linear system with formula_1 inputs, formula_2 outputs and formula_4 state variables is written in the following form:


title: State-space representation

text: In this general formulation, all matrices are allowed to be time-variant (i.e. their elements can depend on time); however, in the common LTI case, matrices will be time invariant. The time variable formula_26 can be continuous (e.g. formula_27) or discrete (e.g. formula_28). In the latter case, the time variable formula_29 is usually used instead of formula_26. Hybrid systems allow for time domains that have both continuous and discrete parts. Depending on the assumptions made, the state-space model representation can assume the following forms:


title: State-space representation

text: Stability and natural response characteristics of a continuous-time LTI system (i.e., linear with matrices that are constant with respect to time) can be studied from the eigenvalues of the matrix formula_31. The stability of a time-invariant state-space model can be determined by looking at the system's transfer function in factored form. It will then look something like this:


title: State-space representation

text: The denominator of the transfer function is equal to the characteristic polynomial found by taking the determinant of formula_33,


title: State-space representation

text: The roots of this polynomial (the eigenvalues) are the system transfer function's poles (i.e., the singularities where the transfer function's magnitude is unbounded). These poles can be used to analyze whether the system is asymptotically stable or marginally stable. An alternative approach to determining stability, which does not involve calculating eigenvalues, is to analyze the system's Lyapunov stability.


title: State-space representation

text: The zeros found in the numerator of formula_35 can similarly be used to determine whether the system is minimum phase.


title: State-space representation

text: The system may still be input–output stable (see BIBO stable) even though it is not internally stable. This may be the case if unstable poles are canceled out by zeros (i.e., if those singularities in the transfer function are removable).


title: State-space representation

text: The state controllability condition implies that it is possible – by admissible inputs – to steer the states from any initial value to any final value within some finite time window. A continuous time-invariant linear state-space model is controllable if and only if


title: State-space representation

text: where rank is the number of linearly independent rows in a matrix, and where "n" is the number of state variables.


title: State-space representation

text: Observability is a measure for how well internal states of a system can be inferred by knowledge of its external outputs. The observability and controllability of a system are mathematical duals (i.e., as controllability provides that an input is available that brings any initial state to any desired final state, observability provides that knowing an output trajectory provides enough information to predict the initial state of the system).


title: State-space representation

text: The "transfer function" of a continuous time-invariant linear state-space model can be derived in the following way:


title: State-space representation

text: Assuming zero initial conditions formula_46 and a single-input single-output (SISO) system, the transfer function is defined as the ratio of output and input formula_47. For a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system, however, this ratio is not defined. Therefore, assuming zero initial conditions, the transfer function matrix is derived from


title: State-space representation

text: Consequently, formula_50 is a matrix with the dimension formula_3 which contains transfer functions for each input output combination. Due to the simplicity of this matrix notation, the state-space representation is commonly used for multiple-input, multiple-output systems. The Rosenbrock system matrix provides a bridge between the state-space representation and its transfer function.


title: State-space representation

text: Any given transfer function which is strictly proper can easily be transferred into state-space by the following approach (this example is for a 4-dimensional, single-input, single-output system):


title: State-space representation

text: Given a transfer function, expand it to reveal all coefficients in both the numerator and denominator. This should result in the following form:


title: State-space representation

text: This state-space realization is called controllable canonical form because the resulting model is guaranteed to be controllable (i.e., because the control enters a chain of integrators, it has the ability to move every state).


title: State-space representation

text: This state-space realization is called observable canonical form because the resulting model is guaranteed to be observable (i.e., because the output exits from a chain of integrators, every state has an effect on the output).


title: State-space representation

text: Transfer functions which are only proper (and not strictly proper) can also be realised quite easily. The trick here is to separate the transfer function into two parts: a strictly proper part and a constant.


title: State-space representation

text: The strictly proper transfer function can then be transformed into a canonical state-space realization using techniques shown above. The state-space realization of the constant is trivially formula_58. Together we then get a state-space realization with matrices "A", "B" and "C" determined by the strictly proper part, and matrix "D" determined by the constant.


title: State-space representation

text: Notice how the output also depends directly on the input. This is due to the formula_62 constant in the transfer function.


title: State-space representation

text: A common method for feedback is to multiply the output by a matrix "K" and setting this as the input to the system: formula_63.


title: State-space representation

text: The presence of a negative sign (the common notation) is merely a notational one and its absence has no impact on the end results.


title: State-space representation

text: The advantage of this is that the eigenvalues of "A" can be controlled by setting "K" appropriately through eigendecomposition of formula_71.


title: State-space representation

text: This assumes that the closed-loop system is controllable or that the unstable eigenvalues of "A" can be made stable through appropriate choice of "K".


title: State-space representation

text: For a strictly proper system "D" equals zero. Another fairly common situation is when all states are outputs, i.e. "y" = "x", which yields "C" = "I", the Identity matrix. This would then result in the simpler equations


title: State-space representation

text: Newton's laws of motion for an object moving horizontally on a plane and attached to a wall with a spring:


title: State-space representation

text: which has full rank for all formula_91 and formula_93. This means, that if initial state of the system is known (formula_87, formula_88, formula_89), and if the formula_91 and formula_93 are constants, then there is a force formula_108 that could move the cart into any other position in the system.


title: State-space representation

text: If the function formula_112 is a linear combination of states and inputs then the equations can be written in matrix notation like above.


title: State-space representation

text: The formula_90 argument to the functions can be dropped if the system is unforced (i.e., it has no inputs).


title: State-space representation

text: The equilibrium/stationary points of a system are when formula_127 and so the equilibrium points of a pendulum are those that satisfy


title: Decision theory

text: Decision theory (or the theory of choice; not to be confused with choice theory) is a branch of applied probability theory concerned with the theory of making decisions based on assigning probabilities to various factors and assigning numerical consequences to the outcome.


title: Decision theory

text: Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, mathematicians, data scientists, psychologists, biologists, political and other social scientists, philosophers and computer scientists.


title: Decision theory

text: Empirical applications of this theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods.


title: Decision theory

text: Normative decision theory is concerned with identification of optimal decisions where optimality is often determined by considering an ideal decision maker who is able to calculate with perfect accuracy and is in some sense fully rational. The practical application of this prescriptive approach (how people "ought to" make decisions) is called decision analysis and is aimed at finding tools, methodologies, and software (decision support systems) to help people make better decisions.


title: Decision theory

text: In contrast, descriptive decision theory is concerned with describing observed behaviors often under the assumption that those making decisions are behaving under some consistent rules. These rules may, for instance, have a procedural framework (e.g. Amos Tversky's elimination by aspects model) or an axiomatic framework (e.g. stochastic transitivity axioms), reconciling the Von Neumann-Morgenstern axioms with behavioral violations of the expected utility hypothesis, or they may explicitly give a functional form for time-inconsistent utility functions (e.g. Laibson's quasi-hyperbolic discounting).


title: Decision theory

text: Prescriptive decision theory is concerned with predictions about behavior that positive decision theory produces to allow for further tests of the kind of decision-making that occurs in practice. In recent decades, there has also been increasing interest in "behavioral decision theory", contributing to a re-evaluation of what useful decision-making requires.


title: Decision theory

text: The area of choice under uncertainty represents the heart of decision theory. Known from the 17th century (Blaise Pascal invoked it in his famous wager, which is contained in his "Pensées", published in 1670), the idea of expected value is that, when faced with a number of actions, each of which could give rise to more than one possible outcome with different probabilities, the rational procedure is to identify all possible outcomes, determine their values (positive or negative) and the probabilities that will result from each course of action, and multiply the two to give an "expected value", or the average expectation for an outcome; the action to be chosen should be the one that gives rise to the highest total expected value. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published an influential paper entitled "Exposition of a New Theory on the Measurement of Risk", in which he uses the St. Petersburg paradox to show that expected value theory must be normatively wrong. He gives an example in which a Dutch merchant is trying to decide whether to insure a cargo being sent from Amsterdam to St Petersburg in winter. In his solution, he defines a utility function and computes expected utility rather than expected financial value.


title: Decision theory

text: In the 20th century, interest was reignited by Abraham Wald's 1939 paper pointing out that the two central procedures of sampling-distribution-based statistical-theory, namely hypothesis testing and parameter estimation, are special cases of the general decision problem. Wald's paper renewed and synthesized many concepts of statistical theory, including loss functions, risk functions, admissible decision rules, antecedent distributions, Bayesian procedures, and minimax procedures. The phrase "decision theory" itself was used in 1950 by E. L. Lehmann.


title: Decision theory

text: The revival of subjective probability theory, from the work of Frank Ramsey, Bruno de Finetti, Leonard Savage and others, extended the scope of expected utility theory to situations where subjective probabilities can be used. At the time, von Neumann and Morgenstern's theory of expected utility proved that expected utility maximization followed from basic postulates about rational behavior.


title: Decision theory

text: The work of Maurice Allais and Daniel Ellsberg showed that human behavior has systematic and sometimes important departures from expected-utility maximization (Allais paradox and Ellsberg paradox). The prospect theory of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky renewed the empirical study of economic behavior with less emphasis on rationality presuppositions. It describes a way by which people make decisions when all of the outcomes carry a risk. Kahneman and Tversky found three regularities – in actual human decision-making, "losses loom larger than gains"; persons focus more on "changes" in their utility-states than they focus on absolute utilities; and the estimation of subjective probabilities is severely biased by anchoring.


title: Decision theory

text: Intertemporal choice is concerned with the kind of choice where different actions lead to outcomes that are realised at different stages over time. It is also described as cost-benefit decision making since it involves the choices between rewards that vary according to magnitude and time of arrival. If someone received a windfall of several thousand dollars, they could spend it on an expensive holiday, giving them immediate pleasure, or they could invest it in a pension scheme, giving them an income at some time in the future. What is the optimal thing to do? The answer depends partly on factors such as the expected rates of interest and inflation, the person's life expectancy, and their confidence in the pensions industry. However even with all those factors taken into account, human behavior again deviates greatly from the predictions of prescriptive decision theory, leading to alternative models in which, for example, objective interest rates are replaced by subjective discount rates.


title: Decision theory

text: Some decisions are difficult because of the need to take into account how other people in the situation will respond to the decision that is taken. The analysis of such social decisions is more often treated under the label of game theory, rather than decision theory, though it involves the same mathematical methods. From the standpoint of game theory, most of the problems treated in decision theory are one-player games (or the one player is viewed as playing against an impersonal background situation). In the emerging field of socio-cognitive engineering, the research is especially focused on the different types of distributed decision-making in human organizations, in normal and abnormal/emergency/crisis situations.


title: Decision theory

text: Other areas of decision theory are concerned with decisions that are difficult simply because of their complexity, or the complexity of the organization that has to make them. Individuals making decisions are limited in resources (i.e. time and intelligence) and are therefore boundedly rational; the issue is thus, more than the deviation between real and optimal behaviour, the difficulty of determining the optimal behaviour in the first place. One example is the model of economic growth and resource usage developed by the Club of Rome to help politicians make real-life decisions in complex situations. Decisions are also affected by whether options are framed together or separately; this is known as the distinction bias.


title: Decision theory

text: Heuristics in decision-making is the ability of making decisions based on unjustified or routine thinking. While quicker than step-by-step processing, heuristic thinking is also more likely to involve fallacies or inaccuracies. The main use for heuristics in our daily routines is to decrease the amount of evaluative thinking we perform when making simple decisions, making them instead based on unconscious rules and focusing on some aspects of the decision, while ignoring others. One example of a common and erroneous thought process that arises through heuristic thinking is the Gambler's Fallacy — believing that an isolated random event is affected by previous isolated random events. For example, if a fair coin is flipped to tails for a couple of turns, it still has the same probability (i.e., 0.5) of doing so in future turns, though intuitively it seems more likely for it to roll heads soon. This happens because, due to routine thinking, one disregards the probability and concentrates on the ratio of the outcomes, meaning that one expects that in the long run the ratio of flips should be half for each outcome. Another example is that decision-makers may be biased towards preferring moderate alternatives to extreme ones. The "Compromise Effect" operates under a mindset that the most moderate option carries the most benefit. In an incomplete information scenario, as in most daily decisions, the moderate option will look more appealing than either extreme, independent of the context, based only on the fact that it has characteristics that can be found at either extreme.


title: Decision theory

text: A highly controversial issue is whether one can replace the use of probability in decision theory with something else.


title: Decision theory

text: The proponents of fuzzy logic, possibility theory, quantum cognition, Dempster–Shafer theory, and info-gap decision theory maintain that probability is only one of many alternatives and point to many examples where non-standard alternatives have been implemented with apparent success; notably, probabilistic decision theory is sensitive to assumptions about the probabilities of various events, whereas non-probabilistic rules, such as minimax, are robust in that they do not make such assumptions.


title: Decision theory

text: A general criticism of decision theory based on a fixed universe of possibilities is that it considers the "known unknowns", not the "unknown unknowns": it focuses on expected variations, not on unforeseen events, which some argue have outsized impact and must be considered – significant events may be "outside model". This line of argument, called the ludic fallacy, is that there are inevitable imperfections in modeling the real world by particular models, and that unquestioning reliance on models blinds one to their limits.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesians (Indonesian: "orang Indonesia") are citizens or people originally from Indonesia, regardless of their ethnic or religious background. There are more than 1,300 ethnicities in Indonesia, making it a multicultural archipelagic country with a diversity of languages, culture and religious beliefs. The population of Indonesia according to the 2020 national census was 270.2 million. 56% live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island. Around 95% of Indonesians are Native Indonesians (formerly grouped as "Pribumi"), with 40% Javanese and 15% Sundanese forming the majority, while the other 5% are Indonesians with ancestry from foreign origin, such as Arab Indonesians, Chinese Indonesians, Indian Indonesians, and Indos.


title: Indonesians

text: As of 2020, Indonesians make up 3.4% of world total population and Indonesia is the fourth most populous country after China, India and the United States.


title: Indonesians

text: Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1967, for the decade ending in 2020, Indonesia's population growth was 1.1 percent. At that rate, Indonesia's population is projected to surpass the present population of the United States and would - if the current US population did not rise – become the world's third biggest after China and India by 2043. The family planning already revitalised based on the 1967 program to avoid Indonesia becoming the world's third most populous country.


title: Indonesians

text: With a population of 151.6 million, Java is home to 56 per cent of the Indonesian population, and is the most populous island on Earth. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the centre of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally.


title: Indonesians

text: The other major islands of Indonesia are Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and New Guinea, which are home to the other 49 percent of Indonesian population. There are also other small populated island(s) such as Bali, Bangka, Madura, Nias, Maluku, Lesser Sunda Islands, Riau Islands and others.


title: Indonesians

text: There are over 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. This number makes Indonesia one of the most diverse countries in the world.


title: Indonesians

text: The largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up nearly 40% of the total population. The Javanese are concentrated on the island of Java but millions have migrated to other islands throughout the archipelago because of the transmigration program. The Sundanese, Malays, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, and Minangkabau are the next largest groups in the country. Many ethnic groups, particularly in Kalimantan and Papua, have only hundreds of members. Most of the local languages belong to Austronesian language family, although a significant number, particularly in Maluku Islands and West Papua belong to Papuan languages. The Chinese Indonesians (Tionghoa) population makes up a little less than 1% of the total Indonesian population according to the 2000 census. Some of these Indonesians of Chinese descent speak various Chinese languages, most notably Hokkien and Hakka.


title: Indonesians

text: The classification of ethnic groups in Indonesia is not rigid and in some cases unclear due to migrations, cultural and linguistic influences; for example, some may consider Osing people and Cirebonese to be members of Javanese people, however, some others argue that they are different ethnic groups altogether since they have their own distinct dialects. This is the same case with Baduy people that actually are sub-ethnic of the Sundanese people but sometimes considered as separated ethnicities. An example of hybrid ethnicity is the Betawi people, descended not only from marriages between different peoples in Indonesia but also with foreign origin like Arab, Chinese and Indian migrants since the era of colonial Batavia (Jakarta).


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a standardized variety of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Most Indonesians also speak one of more than 700 indigenous languages.


title: Indonesians

text: Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in another regional language (examples include Javanese, Sundanese and others), which are commonly used at home and within the local community. Most formal education, and nearly all national media and other forms of communication, are conducted in Indonesian. In East Timor, which was an Indonesian province from 1975 to 1999, Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being English), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesian literature can refer to literature produced in the Indonesian archipelago. It is also used to refer more broadly to literature produced in areas with common language roots based on the Malay language (of which Indonesian is one scion). This would extend the reach to the Maritime Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, but also other nations with a common language such as Malaysia and Brunei, as well as population within other nations such as the Malay people living in Singapore.


title: Indonesians

text: There are also works written in and about Indonesia in unrelated languages. There are several languages and several distinct but related literary traditions within the geographical boundaries of the modern nation of Indonesia. For example, the island of Java has its own Javanese pre-national cultural and literary history. There are also Sundanese, Balinese, and Batak or Madurese traditions. Indonesia also has a colonial history of Dutch, British and Japanese occupation, as well as a history of Islamic influence that brought its own texts, linguistic and literary influences. There is also an "oral literature" tradition in the area.


title: Indonesians

text: The term "Indonesian literature" is used in this article to refer to Indonesian as written in the nation of Indonesia, but also covers literature written in an earlier form of the Indonesian language i.e. Malay written in the Dutch East Indies.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesia is constitutionally a secular state and the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila, is "belief in the one and only God". A number of different religions are practised in the country, and their collective influence on the country's political, economic and cultural life is significant. The Indonesian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion. However, the government recognises only six official religions (Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism). Although based on data collected by the Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace (ICRP), there are about 245 non-official religions in Indonesia. Indonesian law requires that every Indonesian citizen hold an identity card that identifies that person with one of these six religions, although citizens may fill in 'believer' on that section in case that person adhere to other religion than six recognized religion or leave that section blank. Indonesia does not recognise agnosticism or atheism, and blasphemy is illegal. Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population In the 2018 Indonesian census, 86.7% of Indonesians identified themselves as Muslim (with Sunnis forming about 99%, Shias 1%, Ahmadis 0.2%), 7.6% Protestant, 3.12% Catholic, 1.74% Hindu, 0.77% Buddhist, 0.03% Confucianism, and 0.04% other religions/ No religion.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesia's political leadership has played an important role in the relations between groups, both positively and negatively, promoting mutual respect by affirming Pancasila but also promoting a Transmigration Program, which has caused a number of conflicts in the eastern region of the country.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavor. It is diverse, in part because Indonesia is composed of approximately 6,000 populated islands of the total 17,000 in the world's largest archipelago, with more than 1,300 ethnic groups. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences. Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has many different influences. Sumatran cuisine, for example, often has Middle Eastern and Indian influences, featuring curried meat and vegetables such as "gulai" and "kari", while Javanese cuisine or Sundanese cuisine is mostly indigenous, with some hint of Chinese influence. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine. Elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine: foods such as "bakmi" (noodles), "bakso" (meat or fish balls), and "lumpia" (spring rolls) have been completely assimilated.


title: Indonesians

text: Indonesian architecture reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole. Invaders, colonizers, missionaries, merchants and traders brought cultural changes that had a profound effect on building styles and techniques.


title: Indonesians

text: Traditionally, the most significant foreign influence has been Indian. However, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also played significant roles in shaping Indonesian architecture. Religious architecture varies from indigenous forms to mosques, temples, and churches. The sultans and other rulers built palaces. There is a substantial legacy of colonial architecture in Indonesian cities. Independent Indonesia has seen the development of new paradigms for postmodern and contemporary architecture.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The Ford LTD (pronounced ) is a range of automobiles manufactured by Ford Motor Company for the 1965 to 1986 model years. Introduced as the highest trim level of the full-size Ford model range, then the Galaxie, the LTD offered options and features that had previously been reserved for more luxurious Lincoln and Mercury models. The largest vehicle produced by Ford in North America for most of its production, the LTD was joined by the intermediate Ford LTD II from 1977 to 1979; the LTD II served as the replacement for the Torino/Gran Torino range. At various times throughout its production, the LTD range included two- and four-door pillared and hardtop sedans, a two-door convertible, and the Country Squire five-door woodgrain station wagon.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1979 model year, the LTD was downsized, becoming externally smaller than the LTD II, and for 1983, it became a mid-size car. The Ford Granada was discontinued, with the LTD nameplate moving to a restyled version of that car; the full-size LTD then became LTD Crown Victoria. The mid-size LTD was replaced by the 1986 Ford Taurus, as Ford continued its shift towards front-wheel drive vehicles.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Outside of North America, the 1966 Ford Galaxie 500 was manufactured in South America into the 1980s and marketed as the Ford LTD.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The LTD designation has been speculated by some to be an abbreviation of "Luxury Trim Decor" and by others as a "Limited" trim designation for the Galaxie. There is evidence in early 1970s Australian LTD sales brochures, that "Lincoln Type Design" was adapted by Ford's Australian marketing, as the meaning of the LTD nameplate to play up Lincoln-like exclusitivity and design influence of its Falcon-based LTD luxury car, since actual Lincoln models were not sold in that country. However, there is no evidence of "Lincoln Type Design" nor any other meaning ever being used in brochures or advertising copy of North American sales literature. The original "Car Life" review at the time the first Galaxie 500 LTD was released suggests that "LTD" stood for nothing and was ambiguous in meaning.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1965 model year, Ford introduced an all-new design for its full-size model range. To further expand its flagship Galaxie 500 series, the 500 LTD was introduced. Sharing top billing within the Galaxie series with the performance 500XL, the 500 LTD was designed as a luxury-oriented vehicle, offering many features of more expensive vehicles under the lower price of the Ford nameplate. In contrast with other full size Ford models, the LTD featured a luxurious, plush cloth interior with woodgrain accents, along with contoured seats and door panels. In line with Cadillac and Imperial (and its own Lincoln-Mercury offerings), the LTD offered features and options such as power windows, power driver's seat, power brakes, power steering, air conditioning, and a full or half-vinyl top (called a landau or brougham interchangeably by the same manufacturers). Ford offered the Galaxie 500 LTD in two body styles: a two-door hardtop and a four-door hardtop.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The launch of the LTD would lead to several responses from other American manufacturers. As a mid-year introduction, Chevrolet introduced the Caprice (its closest rival), with 1966 bringing the AMC Ambassador DPL, Plymouth Fury VIP, and Dodge Monaco. As with the LTD, all of these model lines were full-size sedans/hardtops offered with higher-trim features and content.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1966, the Galaxie name was dropped from the LTD, making it a nameplate in its own right. Along with the rest of the Galaxie line, the LTD received a minor exterior revision, including a split grille. Front disc brakes became an option.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1967, the LTD underwent several changes, with a four-door pillared sedan joining the model range. To comply with federally-mandated safety regulations, the LTD received a padded steering wheel center hub, non-protruding instrument panel knobs, a dual-circuit brake master cylinder, four-way hazard flashers, and front outboard shoulder belt mounting points. While the roofline of the four-door hardtop saw minor styling revisions, the two-door hardtop saw extensive changes, giving it a formal profile. The front seats saw a new option, Twin Comfort Lounge Seats (a 50/50 split bench seat). In various forms, the configuration would be adopted by American automakers into the early 2000s. For the first time, the LTD was produced with a direct Lincoln-Mercury counterpart, as Mercury introduced the Marquis two-door hardtop.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Serving largely as a preview of the upcoming major redesign, the 1968 LTD adopted several minor revisions of its own. For the first time, the LTD badge was added to the wood-trimmed Country Squire station wagon (as part of the distinct Ford station wagon series, it did not fully adopt the LTD name until 1969).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: While the two-door hardtop saw slight changes to its roofline, four-door hardtops were restyled to more closely match their two-door counterparts, with the rear doors receiving more curves to their greenhouse design. The vertically-stacked headlamps introduced in 1965 were replaced by a hidden headlamps; shared with Lincoln-Mercury, the configuration would be a design feature denoting the top-trim LTD for the next decade. The hidden-headlamp system was operated by engine vacuum; if the system were to fail, the headlamp doors retracted up to ensure the headlamps were visible.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The model year also saw further changes to comply with safety regulations. Along with the addition of side marker lights and reflectors, the parking lights illuminated with the headlights; front outboard shoulder belts were fitted to cars built effective January 1, 1968. The padded steering wheel was replaced, following the addition of an energy-absorbing steering column.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: A limousine version of the car was also considered, with the extra length at the C-pillar and the rear doors. At least one example was built by Lehmann-Peterson. This car does not appear to have a B-pillar or a division window.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Andy Hotton Associates also built about 10 examples of an LTD limo, in which the extra length was added at the B-pillar and C-pillar.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1969 model year, the LTD was given a major redesign. Based on a largely carryover chassis, the wheelbase of all full-size Ford sedans now stretched to 121 inches.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: 1969: Ford LTD is given a redesign on a longer (121-inch) wheelbase chassis; the hidden headlights and formal roofline introduced in 1967 are retained. An all-new body features a split grille with a horizontal center divider (shared with XLs and Country Squires).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: A modified 1971 Ford Custom is featured prominently in the 1973 American film "White Lightning". It is the car driven by the film’s lead character, portrayed by Burt Reynolds.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: 1973-1978 Ford LTD Police Package & Police Interceptor Package: 1973-1978, Police Package contained a 351/400 CID motor for city patrol cars, while the 460 Police Interceptor was for heavy Duty and high Speed use. The 460 Police Interceptor motor was rated at 260 Net horsepower and capable of 0-60 times in the 8 second range. Quarter mile times in the upper 15 second bracket, and top speeds in excess of 135 Mph. 1975-1978 Ford LTD 460 Police Interceptor "C code"


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Approximately 7,850,000 full-size Fords and Mercurys were sold over the 1969–1978 period. This makes it the second best selling Ford automobile platform after the Ford Model T.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the first time since the 1940s, the full-size Ford line was powered exclusively by V8 engines. The base engine was the 302 cid V8. The next largest engine was Ford's 351 CID V8, the most common choice. Still larger was Ford's 400 CID V8. Topping the range was the 429 cid V8, which was replaced by the 460 CID V8 for 1974. The full-sized Fords remained strong sellers each year during this period, due to their high comfort, powerful engines, good build quality and reasonable cost.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: When Ford updated its mid-size product line for 1977, they took on the LTD name as well. To differentiate them from the full-size product lineup, the mid-size cars were called the LTD II in an attempt to appeal to buyers as a downsized alternative to the full-sized LTD which had competition from GM's newly downsized full-sized cars. The LTD II was based on the Ford Torino and served as a restyled replacement for it. The LTD II styling was also adapted to update the final generation of the Ford Ranchero. The LTD II was discontinued after 1979 without being replaced, as the new Panther-platform LTD was nearly a foot shorter than an LTD II and the Granada became Ford's mid-size product line with its 1981 redesign.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1977 model year, General Motors became the first American auto manufacturer to introduce downsized full-size sedans, with its B/C full-size sedans having a smaller exterior footprint than their A-body intermediates.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: As Ford remained in development with its downsizing of the LTD (and its Lincoln-Mercury counterparts), Ford touted the aspects of its larger sedans, comparing the LTD side-by-side with the GM flagship sedan Cadillac Fleetwood Brougham. Nearly matching the Chevrolet Caprice in size, Ford offered the "Trim Size" LTD II, a new generation of the Torino intermediate.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Trailing GM for nearly two years, Ford began production of the third-generation LTD on July 31, 1978 at Louisville Assembly; in August, production came online at Atlanta Assembly, Los Angeles Assembly, and Oakville Assembly. The LTD marked the launch of the rear-wheel drive Ford Panther platform; in stark contrast to the Chrysler R platform, the Panther chassis was completely new from the ground up. In line with the GM B/C downsizing, the Panther design introduced trimmer body profiles, nimbler body handling (from smaller size), and better fuel economy (to better comply with CAFE standards).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1979, Ford introduced the Ford LTD sedans and LTD Country Squire station wagons; the Lincoln Continental was delayed until 1980, making Lincoln the final brand to introduce a downsized model range. In Canada, the Custom 500 nameplate continued on for the last time, serving as the base model through the 1981 model year.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: In comparison to its 1978 predecessor, the 1979 LTD shed approximately 15 inches of body length and 7 inches of wheelbase; (dependent on powertrain) the Panther chassis shed over 700 pounds in curb weight. While slightly narrower overall, the body design also led to increased interior and trunk space. The lighter Panther chassis and body displaced the need for the big-block 400 and 460 V8s; Ford made the small-block 302 V8 standard and a 351 optional, now advertised in metric as 5.0 and 5.8 liters respectively. In contrast to Chrysler and General Motors, Ford Panther-chassis vehicles retained V8 engines as standard equipment. For 1981, to further improve its CAFE performance (while avoiding the use of 6-cylinder or diesel engines), a variant became the standard engine, making the 5.0L optional; output decreased to only 115 hp (the lowest since the final Flathead V8 in 1953).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Adopting the sharp-edged styling of the (smaller) Ford Fairmont, the 1979 LTD would shed its optional hidden headlamps, with all versions adopting exposed rectangular headlights (besides a much wider grille). Base-trim examples were fitted with dual headlamps and clear parking lamp lenses; higher-trim versions used quad headlamps with amber lenses. 1979 was the only year the standard LTD was fitted with a hood ornament.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1980, trim levels were revised, with the base trim becoming the LTD S and the LTD Landau replaced by the LTD Crown Victoria, with the standard LTD in between. The Ford equivalent of the Mercury Grand Marquis, the LTD Crown Victoria drew its name from a styling element, a brushed aluminum band covering the B-pillar and the roof, influenced by its 1955-1956 Ford Fairlane namesake. Intended largely for fleet sales, the LTD S was sold as both a sedan and a station wagon (without wood trim). A 4-speed overdrive automatic transmission became an option for the 5.0L V8 (exclusive to the Panther chassis at the time). The Lincoln-style hood ornament of 1979 was replaced by a horizontal design; fitted only to the LTD Crown Victoria, the design would be used unchanged through 1987.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1981, alongside the addition of the 4.2-liter V8, the body underwent minor revisions to improve fuel economy. The vents in the front bumpers were removed (shifting the license plate mount under the left headlamp) and the sideview mirrors were repositioned (leading to the return of vent windows as an option).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For 1982, the LTD saw the addition of the Ford Blue Oval emblem on the grille and trunklid (replacing "FORD" badging). To aid in tracking fuel consumption, a trip computer was added as an option. While standard, the 4.2L engine was offered for the final time. The 5.8-liter engine was dropped from retail sale, becoming exclusive to police car use; alongside the Motorcraft 7200VV two-barrel variable venturi carburetor; a conventional carburetor was available with the police option high-output 351. Introduced as an option with the 5.0L engine for 1980, the AOD overdrive transmission became paired with all three engines.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: From 1981 to 1983, Ford underwent a major revision of its full-size and mid-size product lines, involving all three of its divisions. For the 1983 model year, the LTD and LTD Crown Victoria split into distinct product lines. The latter became the full-size Ford sedan range (alongside the LTD Country Squire), with the LTD nameplate effectively replacing the Ford Granada in a mid-cycle model revision. In line with Ford, the Mercury Marquis and Grand Marquis were also split into distinct product lines; replacing the Cougar (sedan and wagon), the Marquis became the counterpart of the repackaged LTD.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Shedding nearly 13 inches of length, 9 inches of wheelbase, 7 inches of width, and over 600 pounds of curb weight (dependent on powertrain), the 1983 LTD underwent nearly the same reduction in size as its 1979 predecessor, although the downsizing was the result of re-marketing a stronger-selling nameplate for a slow-selling model line. Ultimately, the LTD became the third-best selling automobile in the U.S. for 1983 and 1984.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Sharing the mid-size version of the Fox platform with its Granada predecessor, the fourth-generation LTD has a 105.6-inch wheelbase. In contrast to both the Granada and the full-size LTD, the fourth-generation LTD was sold as a four-door sedan and a five-door station wagon (no two-door versions were offered). Alongside the base-trim sedan and wagon, the LTD Brougham trim made its return, along with a LTD Squire wood-trimmed wagon.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For its 1983 launch, the LTD retained two engines from the Granada: a 2.3L "Lima" inline-four (not available as a wagon) and a 3.3 L "Falcon Six" inline-six. Also inherited from the Granada was a 3.8 L "Essex" V6, which replaced the inline-six entirely for 1984. For 1984, both engines gained central point fuel injection in the United States (the Canadian-market V6 remained carbureted until 1986). A rare option, seen only in 1982–1984, was an LPG (propane)-powered version of the four-cylinder engine; it was largely discontinued due to poor sales and lack of propane fueling infrastructure. The four-cylinder was a slow seller throughout; Ford kept offering it for the duration of production but in 1986 only 485 four-cylinder LTDs were sold, representing 0.7 percent of overall LTD/Squire sales for the year.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the first time since 1971, the LTD was offered with a manual transmission; a three-speed automatic was optional on the 2.3L engine and standard on the 3.3L engine.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1985 model year, the LTD underwent a minor model revision. Along with minor changes to the taillamps, the LTD received a new grille, distinguished by a centered Ford Blue Oval emblem. 1986 models are identifiable by the addition of a federally-mandated CHMSL (center brake lamp).


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: From the mid-1984 model year and throughout the 1985 model year, Ford offered a performance version of the LTD, marketed as the "LTD LX". It came standard with a high-output 5.0 L CFI V8 engine, four-speed automatic transmission with overdrive, 600 lb-in front and 270 lb-in rear coil springs, front and rear sway bars, 10 inch front disc and 10 inch rear drum brakes, and a 3.27:1 rear gear ratio with a Traction-Lok differential. The LX was the only LTD to have a tachometer in the instrument cluster. The center console and floor-mounted shifter re-appeared, having last been available in the full-size 1972 model year. 3,260 units were produced. Mercury's counterpart to the LX, the Marquis LTS, was available only in Canada and only in the 1985 model year, with 134 produced.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: A police package of the mid-size LTD was produced. Featuring bigger sway bars and brakes, it also included bench seats with an automatic trunk opener located underneath the steering wheel. They were a factory option and most were equipped with light bars and police accessories, although some came without.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: As the 1980s progressed, the use of front-wheel drive expanded out of the compact segment towards the mid-size segment. Following the success of the Chrysler K-Cars and the General Motors A-body sedans (along with the introduction of Honda Accord sedan and Toyota Camry), Ford was one of the last major manufacturers to introduce a mid-size front-wheel drive model line. For 1986, Ford introduced the Ford Taurus and Mercury Sable; originally developed as the replacements for the Panther-platform model lines, the mid-size Taurus and Sable would replace the LTD and Marquis product lines. Along with the transition to front-wheel drive, the exterior of the Taurus was designed to optimize fuel efficiency, replacing the boxy LTD with one of the most aerodynamic sedans in the world.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: For the 1986 model year, Ford marketed the LTD alongside its replacement, transitioning potential buyers into the massive model change. Atlanta Assembly produced its final LTD on December 13, 1985 (13 days before the Taurus was unveiled); Chicago Assembly produced the final example on January 3, 1986.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The LTD was built locally in Brazil between 1967 and 1981, based on the 1966 Galaxie platform. An upper version called Landau was assembled locally as well.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: The LTD was introduced to the Venezuelan market in 1966, aiming to compete with Chrysler's New Yorker, with the LTD performing much better than its rivals. Over 85,000 LTDs were assembled in the Ford plant of Valencia, Venezuela, some for export to Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru.


title: Ford LTD (Americas)

text: Versions of the North American Fox-body 1983–1986 LTD manufactured in Venezuela continued the use of the Granada name complete with uplevel Elite badged versions. There was also a Ford Cougar equivalent to the North American Mercury Marquis.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In 303, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians' legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. Later edicts targeted the clergy and demanded universal sacrifice, ordering all inhabitants to sacrifice to the gods. The persecution varied in intensity across the empire—weakest in Gaul and Britain, where only the first edict was applied, and strongest in the Eastern provinces. Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors (Galerius with the Edict of Serdica in 311) at different times, but Constantine and Licinius' Edict of Milan in 313 has traditionally marked the end of the persecution.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Christians had been subject to intermittent local discrimination in the empire, but emperors prior to Diocletian were reluctant to issue general laws against the religious group. In the 250s, under the reigns of Decius and Valerian, Roman subjects including Christians were compelled to sacrifice to Roman gods or face imprisonment and execution, but there is no evidence that these edicts were specifically intended to attack Christianity. After Gallienus's accession in 260, these laws went into abeyance. Diocletian's assumption of power in 284 did not mark an immediate reversal of imperial inattention to Christianity, but it did herald a gradual shift in official attitudes toward religious minorities. In the first fifteen years of his rule, Diocletian purged the army of Christians, condemned Manicheans to death, and surrounded himself with public opponents of Christianity. Diocletian's preference for activist government, combined with his self-image as a restorer of past Roman glory, foreboded the most pervasive persecution in Roman history. In the winter of 302, Galerius urged Diocletian to begin a general persecution of the Christians. Diocletian was wary and asked the oracle at Didyma for guidance. The oracle's reply was read as an endorsement of Galerius's position, and a general persecution was called on February 23, 303.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Persecutory policies varied in intensity across the empire. Whereas Galerius and Diocletian were avid persecutors, Constantius was unenthusiastic. Later persecutory edicts, including the calls for universal sacrifice, were not applied in his domain. His son, Constantine, on taking the imperial office in 306, restored Christians to full legal equality and returned property that had been confiscated during the persecution. In Italy in 306, the usurper Maxentius ousted Maximian's successor Severus, promising full religious toleration. Galerius ended the persecution in the East in 311, but it was resumed in Egypt, Palestine, and Asia Minor by his successor, Maximinus. Constantine and Licinius, Severus's successor, signed the Edict of Milan in 313, which offered a more comprehensive acceptance of Christianity than Galerius's edict had provided. Licinius ousted Maximinus in 313, bringing an end to persecution in the East.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: The persecution failed to check the rise of the Church. By 324, Constantine was sole ruler of the empire, and Christianity had become his favored religion. Although the persecution resulted in death, torture, imprisonment, or dislocation for many Christians, the majority of the empire's Christians avoided punishment. The persecution did, however, cause many churches to split between those who had complied with imperial authority (the "traditores"), and those who had remained "pure". Certain schisms, like those of the Donatists in North Africa and the Melitians in Egypt, persisted long after the persecutions. The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Church until after 411. Some historians consider that, in the centuries that followed the persecutory era, Christians created a "cult of the martyrs" and exaggerated the barbarity of the persecutions. Other historians using texts and archeological evidence from the period assert that this position is in error. Christian accounts were criticized during the Enlightenment and afterwards, most notably by Edward Gibbon. This can be attributed to the political anticlerical and secular tenor of that period. Modern historians, such as G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution, but disagreements continue.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: From its first appearance to its legalization under Constantine, Christianity was an illegal religion in the eyes of the Roman state. For the first two centuries of its existence, Christianity and its practitioners were unpopular with the people at large. Christians were always suspect, members of a "secret society" whose members communicated with a private code and who shied away from the public sphere. It was popular hostility—the anger of the crowd—which drove the earliest persecutions, not official action. Around 112, Pliny,the governor of Bithynia–Pontus, was sent long lists of denunciations of Christians by anonymous citizens, which Emperor Trajan advised him to ignore. In Lyon in 177, it was only the intervention of civil authorities that stopped a pagan mob from dragging Christians from their houses and beating them to death.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: To the followers of the traditional cults, Christians were odd creatures: not quite Roman but not quite barbarian either. Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional mores. Christians rejected public festivals, refused to take part in the imperial cult, avoided public office, and publicly criticized ancient traditions. Conversions tore families apart: Justin Martyr tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife, and Tertullian tells of children disinherited for becoming Christians. Traditional Roman religion was inextricably interwoven into the fabric of Roman society and state, but Christians refused to observe its practices. In the words of Tacitus, Christians showed "hatred of the human race" ("odium generis humani"). Among the more credulous, Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims and to practise incest and cannibalism.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Nonetheless, for the first two centuries of the Christian era, no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church. These persecutions were carried out under the authority of local government officials. At Bithynia–Pontus in 111, it was Pliny; at Smyrna in 156 and Scilli near Carthage in 180, it was the proconsul; at Lyon in 177, it was the provincial governor. When Emperor Nero executed Christians for their alleged involvement in the fire of 64, it was a purely local affair; it did not spread beyond the city limits of Rome. These early persecutions were certainly violent, but they were sporadic, brief and limited in extent. They were of limited threat to Christianity as a whole. The very capriciousness of official action, however, made the threat of state coercion loom large in the Christian imagination.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: In the 3rd century, the pattern changed. Emperors became more active, and government officials began to actively pursue Christians rather than merely to respond to the will of the crowd. Christianity also changed. No longer were its practitioners merely "the lower orders fomenting discontent"; some Christians were now rich or from the upper classes. Origen, writing at about 248, tells of "the multitude of people coming in to the faith, even rich men and persons in positions of honour and ladies of high refinement and birth." Official reaction grew firmer. In 202, according to the "Historia Augusta", a 4th-century history of dubious reliability, Septimius Severus ("r". 193–211) issued a general rescript forbidding conversion to either Judaism or Christianity. Maximin ("r". 235–238) targeted Christian leaders. Decius ("r". 249–251), demanding a show of support for the faith, proclaimed that all inhabitants of the empire must sacrifice to the gods, eat sacrificial meat, and testify to these acts. Christians were obstinate in their non-compliance. Church leaders, like Fabian, bishop of Rome, and Babylas, bishop of Antioch, were arrested, tried and executed, as were certain members of the Christian laity, like Pionius of Smyrna. Origen was tortured during the persecution and died about a year after from the resulting injuries.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church. At Carthage, there was mass apostasy (renunciation of the faith). At Smyrna, the bishop Euctemon sacrificed and encouraged others to do the same. Because the Church was largely urban, it should have been easy to identify, isolate and destroy the Church hierarchy. This did not happen. In June 251, Decius died in battle, leaving his persecution incomplete. His persecutions were not followed up for another six years, allowing some Church functions to resume. Valerian, Decius's friend, took up the imperial mantle in 253. Though he was at first thought of as "exceptionally friendly" towards the Christians, his actions soon showed otherwise. In July 257, he issued a persecutory edict. As punishment for following the Christian faith, Christians were to face exile or condemnation to the mines. In August 258, he issued a second edict, making the punishment death. This persecution stalled in June 260, when Valerian was captured in battle. His son Gallienus ("r". 260–268), ended the persecution and inaugurated nearly 40 years of freedom from official sanctions, praised by Eusebius as the "little peace of the Church". The peace was undisturbed, save for occasional, isolated persecutions, until Diocletian became emperor.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Diocletian, acclaimed emperor on November 20, 284, was a religious conservative, faithful to the traditional Roman cult. Unlike Aurelian ("r". 270–275), Diocletian did not foster any new cult of his own. He preferred older gods, Olympian gods. Nonetheless, Diocletian did wish to inspire a general religious revival. As the panegyrist to Maximian declared: "You have heaped the gods with altars and statues, temples and offerings, which you dedicated with your own name and your own image, whose sanctity is increased by the example you set, of veneration for the gods. Surely, men will now understand what power resides in the gods, when you worship them so fervently." Diocletian associated himself with the head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter; his co-emperor, Maximian, associated himself with Hercules. This connection between god and emperor helped to legitimize the emperors' claims to power and tied imperial government closer to the traditional cult.


title: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship of Jupiter and Hercules, which would have been a drastic change in the pagan tradition. For example, Elagabalus had tried fostering his own god and no others and had failed dramatically. Diocletian built temples for Isis and Sarapis at Rome and a temple to Sol in Italy. He did, however, favor gods who provided for the safety of the whole empire instead of the local deities of the provinces. In Africa, Diocletian's revival focused on Jupiter, Hercules, Mercury, Apollo and the imperial cult. The cult of Saturn, the Romanized Baal-hamon, was neglected. In imperial iconography Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive. The same pattern of favoritism affected Egypt as well. Native Egyptian deities saw no revival, nor was the sacred hieroglyphic script used. Unity in worship was central to Diocletian's religious policies.