title: Taras Bulba

text: Taras and Ostap continue fighting the Poles. Ostap is captured while his father is knocked out. When Taras regains consciousness he learns that his son was taken prisoner by the Poles. Yankel agrees to take Taras to Warsaw, where Ostap is held captive, hiding Taras in a cartload of bricks. Once in Warsaw, a group of Jews help Yankel dress Taras as a German count. They go into the prison to see Ostap, but Taras unwittingly reveals himself as a Cossack, and only escapes by use of a great bribe. Instead, they attend the execution the following day. During the execution, Ostap does not make a single sound, even while being broken on the wheel, but, disheartened as he nears death, he calls aloud on his father, unaware of his presence. Taras answers him from the crowd, thus giving himself away, but manages to escape.


title: Taras Bulba

text: Taras returns home to find all of his old Cossack friends dead and younger Cossacks in their place. He goes to war again. The new Hetman wishes to make peace with the Poles, which Taras is strongly against, warning that the Poles are treacherous and will not honour their words. Failing to convince the Hetman, Taras takes his regiment away to continue the assault independently. As Taras predicted, once the new Hetman agrees to a truce, the Poles betray him and kill a number of Cossacks. Taras and his men continue to fight and are finally caught in a ruined fortress, where they battle until the last man is defeated.


title: Taras Bulba

text: Taras is nailed and tied to a tree and set aflame. Even in this state, he calls out to his men to continue the fight, claiming that a new Tsar is coming who will rule the earth. The story ends with Cossacks on the Dniester River recalling the great feats of Taras and his unwavering Cossack spirit.


title: Taras Bulba

text: For reasons that are currently disputed, the 1842 edition was expanded by three chapters and included Russian nationalist themes. Potential reasons include a necessity to stay in line with the official tsarist ideology, as well as the author's changing political and aesthetic views (later manifested in "Dead Souls" and "Selected Passages from Correspondence with his Friends"). The changes included three new chapters and a new ending (in the 1835 edition, the protagonist is not burned at the stake by the Poles).


title: Taras Bulba

text: Felix Dreizin and David Guaspari in their "The Russian Soul and the Jew: Essays in Literary Ethnocentrism" discuss anti-Semitism, pointing out Gogol's attachment to "anti-Jewish prejudices prevalent in Russian and Ukrainian culture". In Léon Poliakov's "The History of Antisemitism", the author states that "The 'Yankel' from "Taras Bulba" indeed became the archetypal Jew in Russian literature. Gogol painted him as supremely exploitative, cowardly, and repulsive, albeit capable of gratitude". There is a scene in "Taras Bulba" where Jews are thrown into a river, a scene where Taras Bulba visits the Jews and seeks their aid, and reference by the narrator of the story that Jews are treated inhumanely.


title: Taras Bulba

text: Following the 1830–1831 November Uprising against the Russian imperial rule in the heartland of Poland – partitioned since 1795 – the Polish people became the subject of an official campaign of discrimination by the Tsarist authorities. "Practically all of the Russian government, bureaucracy, and society were united in one outburst against the Poles. The phobia that gripped society gave a new powerful push to the Russian national solidarity movement" – wrote historian Liudmila Gatagova. It was in this particular context that many of Russia's literary works and popular media of the time became hostile toward the Poles in accordance with the state policy, especially after the emergence of the Panslavist ideology, accusing them of betraying the "Slavic family".


title: Taras Bulba

text: According to sociologist and historian Prof. Vilho Harle, "Taras Bulba", published only four years after the rebellion, was a part of this anti-Polish propaganda effort. Inadvertently, Gogol's accomplishment became "an anti-Polish novel of high literary merit, to say nothing about lesser writers."


title: Taras Bulba

text: As in other Russian novels of the era, Turks are treated as barbaric and uncivilized compared to Europeans because of their nomadic nature.


title: Taras Bulba

text: The story was the basis of an opera, "Taras Bulba", by Ukrainian composer Mykola Lysenko, first performed in 1924 some 12 years after the composer's death. The opera's libretto was written by Mykhailo Starytsky, the composer's cousin.


title: Taras Bulba

text: Czech composer Leoš Janáček's "Taras Bulba", a symphonic rhapsody for orchestra, was written in the years 1915–1918, inspired in part by the mass slaughter of World War I. The composition was first performed on 9 October 1921 by František Neumann, and in Prague on 9 November 1924 by Václav Talich and the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Tikkun olam () is a concept in Judaism, which refers to various forms of action intended to repair and improve the world.


title: Tikkun olam

text: In classical rabbinic literature, the phrase referred to legal enactments intended to preserve the social order. In the "Aleinu" prayer, it refers to the eradication of idolatry. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the "repair" is mystical: to return the sparks of Divine light to their source by means of ritual performance.


title: Tikkun olam

text: In the modern era, particularly among the post-Haskalah movements, "tikkun olam" has come to refer to the pursuit of social justice or "the establishment of Godly qualities throughout the world" based on the idea that "Jews bear responsibility not only for their own moral, spiritual, and material welfare, but also for the welfare of society at large".


title: Tikkun olam

text: The earliest use of the term "tikkun olam" comes in the phrase "mip'nei tikkun ha-olam", "for the sake of repairing the world", which appears in the Mishnah (Gittin 4:2-9) with the meaning of amending the law in order to keep society well-functioning.


title: Tikkun olam

text: A number of legal enactments appear in this passage with "mip'nei tikkun ha-olam" given as justification:


title: Tikkun olam

text: More generally, tikkun can mean improvement, establishment, repair, prepare, and more. In this Mishnaic context it generally refers to practical legal measures taken in the present to ameliorate social conditions. In the legal language of the Talmud, however, the verb took on a much more legalistic role, in that a "" - literally, "Affixation" - was a category of legal enactment made by the Sages.


title: Tikkun olam

text: A conception of "tikkun olam" is also found in the "Aleinu", a concluding part of most Jewish congregational prayer, which in contrast to the Mishnah's usage, focuses on the end of time. The "Aleinu" beseeches God:


title: Tikkun olam

text: In other words, when all the people of the world abandon false gods and recognize God, the world will have been perfected.


title: Tikkun olam

text: A common but more modern understanding of this phrase is that we share a partnership with God, and are instructed to take the steps towards improving the state of the world and helping others, which simultaneously brings more honor to God's sovereignty.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Some scholars have argued that the "Aleinu" prayer is actually not a valid source for the concept of "tikkun olam", claiming that the original prayer used a homonym ""l'takhen"" (spelled differently, ) meaning "to establish" (rather than "to fix" or "to repair"); this wording is still used by Yemenite Jews. However, among European Jews, "Aleinu" has used the word "to fix" () since at least the first recorded texts in the 11th-12th centuries. Thus, Aleinu's influence on the concept of "tikkun olam" can date to at least this time.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Over the course of Jewish intellectual history, "tikkun olam" has at times referred to eschatological concerns, as in Aleinu, and at times to practical concerns, as in the Mishnah, but in either context, it refers to some kind of social change or process that is for the betterment of society or humanity or the world. Whether that happens primarily within Jewish society or primarily in relation to the nations of the world, whether that happens primarily through acts of justice and kindness, or equally through ritual observance, whether primarily through internal work of an individual or through external deeds, is something that changes from one source to the next. For example, Talmudic scholar and eminent philosopher of the Middle Ages, Maimonides saw "tikkun olam" as fully inclusive of all these dimensions when he wrote "Through wisdom, which is [represented by] Torah, and the elevation of character, which is [represented by] acts of kindness, and observing the Torah’s commandments, which are [represented by] the sacrifices, one continuously brings "tikkun olam" improvement of the world, and the ordering of reality." Yet he also saw justice as a fundamental component, as for example when he wrote, "Every judge who judges truth unto its [deepest] truth, even for one hour, it’s as if he fixed the whole world entirely / "tikein et kol ha’olam kulo" and caused the Shekhinah to rest upon Israel."


title: Tikkun olam

text: Lurianic Kabbalah dwells on the role of prayer and ritual in "tikkun" of the upper worlds. According to this vision of the world, God contracted part of God's infinite light ("Ohr Ein Sof")—concealing Himself—to create the world. The vessels ("kelim") of the first universe—"Olam HaTohu", i.e., the "world of chaos"—shattered ("Shevirat HaKelim") and their shards became sparks of light ("neẓuẓot)" trapped within the next universe—"Olam HaTikun", i.e., "the world of rectification." Prayer, especially contemplation of various aspects of the divinity ("sephirot"), releases these sparks of God's light and allows them to reunite with God's essence. The “rectification” is two-fold: the gathering of light and of souls, to be achieved by human beings through the contemplative performance of religious acts. The goal of such repair, which can only be effected by humans, is to separate what is holy from the created world, thus depriving the physical world of its very existence, destroying the material universe. This restores all things to a world before disaster within the Godhead.


title: Tikkun olam

text: According to Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, in his book "Derech Hashem", the physical world is connected to spiritual realms above that influence the physical world, and furthermore, Jews have the ability, through physical deeds and free will, to direct and control these spiritual forces. God's desire in creation was that God's creations ultimately will recognize God's unity and overcome evil; this will constitute the perfection ("tikkun") of creation. While the Jews have the Torah now and are aware of God's unity, some believe that when all of humanity recognizes this fact, the rectification will be complete. In recent years Jewish thinkers and activists have used Lurianic Kabbalah to elevate the full range of ethical and ritual "mitzvot" into acts of "tikkun olam". The belief that not only does prayer lift up divine sparks, but so do all of the "mitzvot", including those traditionally understood as ethical, was already a part of Kabbalah, but the contemporary emphasis serves the purpose of finding a mystical depth and spiritual energy in ethical "mitzvot". The application of the Lurianic vision to improving the world can be seen in Jewish blogs, High Holiday sermons and on-line Jewish learning resource centers.


title: Tikkun olam

text: The association between the Lurianic conception of "tikkun" and ethical action assigns an ultimate significance to even small acts of kindness and small improvements of social policy. However, this association can be a double-edged sword and has begun to trigger critique even within the social justice community. On one hand, seeing each action as raising a divine spark can motivate people to action by giving them hope that their actions will have long-term value. On the other hand, if this is done in a manner that separates the concept of "tikkun olam" from its other meanings as found in rabbinic literature and the "Aleinu" prayer, the risk of privileging actions that have no real significance and represent personal agendas is introduced.


title: Tikkun olam

text: The application of Lurianic Kabbalah to ethical "mitzvot" and social action is particularly striking because Lurianic Kabbalah saw itself as repairing dimensions within the spiritual, the mystical worlds, rather than this world and its social relations. Author Lawrence Fine points to two features of Lurianic Kabbalah that have made it adaptable to ethical "mitzvot" and social action. First, he points out that a generation recovering from the tragedy of the Holocaust resonates with the imagery of shattered vessels. Second, both Lurianic Kabbalah and ethical understandings of "tikkun olam" emphasize the role of human responsibility and action.


title: Tikkun olam

text: The original context of the Aleinu prayer, in the Rosh Hashanah liturgy, is accompanied by the hope that "all [people/creatures] will form a single union to do Your will with a whole heart". In many contexts this is interpreted to be a call to universalism and justice for all mankind – sentiments which are common throughout Jewish liturgy. For example, in the American Conservative movement's prayer book, "Siddur Sim Shalom", "A Prayer for Our Country" elaborates on this passage: "May citizens of all races and creeds forge a common bond in true harmony to banish all hatred and bigotry" and "uniting all people in peace and freedom and helping them to fulfill the vision of your prophet: 'Nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they experience war anymore. Both lines express wholeheartedly the idea of universal equality, freedom, and peace for all.


title: Tikkun olam

text: In the liberal movements of Judaism, most especially in the United States, this sentiment is especially embedded in the idea of acting compassionately for all people, as for example in the 1975 New Union prayer book, used by the movement for Reform Judaism" Gates of Prayer", which includes the text "You [Lord] have taught us to uphold the falling, to heal the sick, to free the captive, to comfort all who suffer pain". These aspects of Judaism already have a traditional name however, "gemilut chasadim", and some have criticized the tendency to emphasize social action as a kind of disregard for other aspects of Judaism traditionally connected to "tikkun olam", like learning, prayer, repentance, and ritual commandments.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Perhaps the first Jewish thinker to use the phrase "tikkun olam" in the modern sense of "fixing the world" by building a just society was Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1865-1935). According to Jewish scholar Lawrence Fine, the first use of the phrase "tikkun olam" in modern Jewish history in the United States was by Brandeis-Bardin Camp Institute founder Shlomo Bardin in the 1950s. Bardin interpreted the "Aleinu" prayer, specifically the expression "le-taken olam be-malchut shaddai" (typically translated as "when the world shall be perfected under the reign of the almighty"), as a responsibility for Jewish people to work towards a better world. However, while Bardin was a significant popularizer of the term, one also finds it being used in similar manner in the late 1930s and early 1940s by Alexander Dushkin and Mordecai Kaplan. As left-leaning progressive Jewish organizations started entering the mainstream in the 1970s and 1980s, the phrase "tikkun olam" began to gain more traction. The phrase has since been adopted by a variety of Jewish organizations, to mean anything from direct service to general philanthropy. It was presented to a wide international audience—itself an indication of how widely "tikkun olam" had now permeated American Jewish life—when Mordecai Waxman used the phrase in a speech during Pope John Paul II's visit to the United States in September 1987.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Jews believe that performing of ritual "mitzvot" (good deeds, commandments, connections, or religious obligations) is a means of "tikkun olam", helping to perfect the world, and that the performance of more "mitzvot" will hasten the coming of the Messiah and the Messianic Age. This belief dates back at least to the early Talmudic period. According to Rabbi Yochanan, quoting Rabbi Shim'on bar Yochai, the Jewish people will be redeemed when every Jew observes Shabbat twice in all its details. Some explain that this will occur because Shabbat rest (which is considered a foretaste of the Messianic Age) energizes Jews to work harder to bring the Messianic Age nearer during the six working days of the week. It is expected that in the messianic era there will be no injustice or exploitation, a state comparable with "tikkun olam".


title: Tikkun olam

text: In Jewish thought, ethical "mitzvot" as well as ritual "mitzvot" are important to the process of "tikkun olam". Maimonides writes that "tikkun olam" requires efforts in all three of the great "pillars" of Judaism: Torah study, acts of kindness, and the ritual commandments. Some Jews believe that performing "mitzvot" will create a model society among the Jewish people, which will in turn influence the rest of the world. By perfecting themselves, their local Jewish community or the state of Israel, the Jews set an example for the rest of the world. The theme is frequently repeated in sermons and writings across the Jewish spectrum: Reconstructionist, Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Also, the "mitzvot" often have practical worldly/social effects (in contrast to mystical effects as held by Lurianic Kabbalah).


title: Tikkun olam

text: "Tzedakah" is a central theme in Judaism and serves as one of the 613 commandments. Tzedakah is used in common parlance as charitable giving. "Tzedek", the root of "tzedakah", means justice or righteousness. Acts of "tzedakah" are used to generate a more just world. Therefore, "tzedakah" is a means through which to perform "tikkun olam".


title: Tikkun olam

text: Philanthropy is an effective tool in performing "tikkun olam" as it supports organizations that perform direct service. There are many different philanthropic organizations devoted to repairing the world. The United Jewish Federations of North America, one of the top ten charities in the world, counts "tikkun olam" as one of the three main principles under which it operates. Similarly, the American Jewish World Service supports grassroots organizations creating change in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.


title: Tikkun olam

text: The intersection between "tzedakah", philanthropy, and "tikkun olam" is captured by Yehudah Mirsky in his article "Tikkun Olam: Basic Questions and Policy Directions". Mirsky writes:


title: Tikkun olam

text: By performing the "mitzvot", it is believed that the Jewish people will become a model society. This idea sometimes is attributed to Biblical verses that describe the Jews as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" () and "a light of the nations" or "a light to the nations" ( and ). The philosophies of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, and Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag are prominent in this field, the former rationally and in terms of a "kehilla" (community) of Jews in "galut" (the diaspora) influencing their non-Jewish neighbors, and the latter mystically and in Zionist terms of a Jewish state influencing the other nations of the world. Some other Orthodox rabbis, many but not all of them Modern Orthodox, follow a philosophy similar to Hirsch's, including Joseph H. Hertz, Isidore Epstein, and Eliezer Berkovits. The philosophy of Religious Zionism follows Kook in his philosophy.


title: Tikkun olam

text: In Modern Orthodox philosophy (which often is intertwined with Religious Zionism, especially in America), it is commonly believed that "mitzvot" have practical this-worldly sociological and educational effects on those who perform them, and in this manner, the "mitzvot" will perfect the Jews and the world.


title: Tikkun olam

text: According to the rationalist philosophy of Hirsch and others, the social and ethical "mitzvot" have nearly self-explanatory purposes, while ritual "mitzvot" may serve functions such as educating people or developing relationships between people and God. As examples, prayer either inculcates a relationship between people and God or strengthens beliefs and faith of the one who prays, and keeping kosher or wearing "tzitzit" serve as educational symbols of moral and religious values. Thus, the ultimate goal of "mitzvot" is for moral and religious values and deeds to permeate the Jewish people and ultimately the entire world, but the ritual "mitzvot" nevertheless play a vital role in this model of "tikkun olam", strengthening what is accomplished by the ethical.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Hirsch's "Horeb" is an especially important source, as his exposition of his philosophy of the "mitzvot". He classifies the "mitzvot" into six categories:


title: Tikkun olam

text: Aside from the fact that by perfecting themselves, the Jews set an example for the rest of the world, there is thus the additional distinction that mitzvot have practical, worldly effects—for example, charity benefits the poor materially, constituting "tikkun olam" by its improvement of the world physically or socially, in contrast to the mystical effects of "mitzvot" as held by Lurianic Kabbalah.


title: Tikkun olam

text: For some Jews, the phrase "tikkun olam" means that Jews are not only responsible for creating a model society among themselves but also are responsible for the welfare of the society at large. This responsibility may be understood in religious, social or political terms and there are many different opinions about how religion, society, and politics interact.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Jane Kanarek, a Conservative rabbi, argues that discussions of "tikkun olam" in the Mishnah and Talmud point to the importance of creating systemic change through law.  She concludes that contemporary tikkun olam should also focus on systemic and structural changes to society.


title: Tikkun olam

text: While many non-Orthodox Jews have argued that tikkun olam requires socially liberal politics, some have argued for the validity of a conservative political approach to tikkun olam. Michael Spiro, a Reconstructionist Jew, draws on a conservative tradition that emphasizes free markets precisely because they believed that "was" the path to the greatest public good. In addition, conservatives have always emphasized the importance of "private" efforts of "gemilut chasadim" (benevolence) and "tzedakah" (charity or philanthropy), and Spiro argues that tikkun olam should be carried out through such private efforts rather than through government.


title: Tikkun olam

text: "Tikkun olam" is used to refer to Jewish obligations to engage in social action in the Reform and Conservative movements as well. For example, in USY, the Conservative youth movement, the position in charge of social action on chapter and regional boards is called the SA/TO (social action/tikkun olam) officer. Furthermore, USY has the Abraham Joshua Heschel Honor Society. A requirement of acceptance to the honor society is to perform one act of community service a month. In NFTY, the American branch of Netzer Olami, the Reform youth movement, the position in charge of social action on chapter and regional boards is called the social action vice president (SAVP).


title: Tikkun olam

text: In addition, other youth organizations have also grown to include "tikkun olam" has part of its foundation. BBYO has community service/social action commitments in both of its divisions, AZA and BBG. BBG includes two different programming areas specific to "tikkun olam"—one for community service, and another for social action. AZA includes a combined community service/social action programming area. In addition, both divisions include "pledge principles," principles by which to guide them. For BBG girls the "menorah pledge principles" include citizenship, philanthropy, and community service. For AZA members, the "7 cardinal principles" include charity.


title: Tikkun olam

text: Elon University professor Geoffrey Claussen has asserted that concepts of "tikkun olam" have inspired Jewish fundamentalists such as Meir Kahane and Yitzchak Ginsburgh. According to Claussen, "while visions of "tikkun olam" may reflect humility, thoughtfulness, and justice, they are often marked by arrogance, overzealousness, and injustice."


title: Arturo Castro (Guatemalan actor)

text: Arturo Castro (born November 26, 1985) is a Guatemalan actor best known for his portrayal of Jaimé Castro on the Comedy Central series "Broad City," and David Rodríguez on the Netflix series "Narcos".


title: Arturo Castro (Guatemalan actor)

text: Castro hosted his own show, "Conexion", on Guatemala's national network, a year before moving to New York City. In New York, he attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, and where he met Abbi Jacobson and Ilana Glazer and landed the role of Jaimé in "Broad City". Castro had one of the leading roles in Ang Lee's war drama "Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk", playing Marcellino "Mango" Montoya, a member of Billy Lynn's Bravo Squad.


title: Arturo Castro (Guatemalan actor)

text: In 2017 Arturo landed a role as David Rodríguez, son of Cali Cartel kingpin Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela, in season 3 of the Netflix series "Narcos". He also played Jose in "Bushwick", a film about 20-year-old Lucy and war veteran Stupe depending on each other for survival when a Texas military force invades their Brooklyn neighborhood. He starred in Comedy Central's "Alternatino with Arturo Castro", a sketch comedy show centering on life as a modern Latino man.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: Yvonne Anuli Orji (born 2 December 1983) is a Nigerian-American actress and comedian. She is best known for her role in the television series "Insecure" (2016–2021), for which she has been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and three NAACP Image Awards.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: Orji was born on 2 December 1983, in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria, and grew up in Laurel, Maryland in the United States. She spent her high school years in the small town of Lititz, Pennsylvania where she attended Linden Hall, the oldest all-girls boarding school in the country. Raised Catholic, Orji is now a devout Protestant and has stated that she will remain a virgin until marriage.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: She earned her BA in liberal arts and a master's degree in public health at George Washington University as well. Orji's parents expected her to become a doctor, lawyer, pharmacist, or engineer. However, she was inspired to do comedy as a graduate student when she performed stand-up in the talent portion of a beauty pageant.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: After graduate school, in 2009, Orji moved to New York City to pursue a career in comedy. In 2015, she landed the role of Molly on "Insecure" without an agent or any real acting experience. In 2021, she began development on a series for Disney+ titled "First Gen". The series is based on her personal life and is produced by Oprah Winfrey and David Oyelowo. Orji is the author of the book "Bamboozled by Jesus".


title: Yvonne Orji

text: She gave a speech at TEDxWilmingtonSalon in 2017 titled, "The wait is sexy". In the talk, she explains her reasons for abstaining from sex before marriage.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: She cohosted the 2021 International Emmy Awards. She also hosted the romantic comedy reality dating series "My Mom, Your Dad", which premiered on HBO Max in 2022, which ran for a single season.


title: Yvonne Orji

text: Outside of her creative work, she is dedicated to philanthropy. In 2008 and 2009 she spent six months working in post-conflict Liberia, with Population Services International (PSI), an NGO that utilizes social marketing in the adoption of healthy behaviors. While in Liberia, she worked with a group of talented youth to help build a mentoring program as well as a weekly talk show that helped educate and prevent the spread of teen pregnancy and HIV/AIDS. She currently lends her time and voice as a (RED) Ambassador, a Literacy Champion for Jumpstart, and working with JetBlue for Good.


title: General (India)

text: General is a four-star general officer rank in the Indian Army. It is the highest active rank in the Indian Army. General ranks above the three-star rank of lieutenant general and below the five-star rank of field marshal, which is largely a war-time or ceremonial rank.


title: General (India)

text: A general may be referred to as a full general or four-star general to distinguish them from lower general officer ranks like lieutenant general and major general. The equivalent rank in the Indian Navy is admiral and in the Indian Air Force is air chief marshal.


title: General (India)

text: As of 2022, there are two serving full generals in the Indian Armed Forces, General Anil Chauhan, the Chief of Defence Staff and Chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee, and General Manoj Pandey, the Chief of the Army Staff.


title: General (India)

text: The first Indian to hold the rank of full general was K. M. Cariappa. He was promoted to the acting rank of General when he took over as the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army on 15 January 1949. All the chiefs of the Indian Army after him, have been full generals.


title: General (India)

text: Since 1950, it has been a tradition for the President of India to award the chief of the Nepalese Army with the honorary rank of General of the Indian Army.


title: General (India)

text: The rank is held by the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS), the professional head of the Indian Army, and may also be held by the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS). Until 1 January 2020, when the post of Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) was established, the COAS was the only officer to hold the rank of full general. Upon the creation of the post and the appointment of General Bipin Rawat as the first CDS, there were two serving full generals for the first time in Independent India.


title: General (India)

text: Appointments to the office of CDS and COAS are made by the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC), which is chaired by the Prime Minister of India. The term length of the Chief of Defence Staff is three years or until the age of 65 of the holder, whichever is earlier. The Chief of the Army Staff reaches superannuation upon three years in the office or at the age of 62, whichever is earlier.


title: General (India)

text: A general ranks at No. 12 on the Indian order of precedence, along with the CDS and the Chiefs of Staff of the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force (the CNS and the CAS). A general is at pay level 18, equivalent to Cabinet Secretary of India (at No. 11 on the warrant of precedence), with a monthly pay of ₹250,000 (US$3,500).


title: Star Jones

text: Starlet Marie Jones (born March 24, 1962), better known as Star Jones, is an American lawyer, journalist, television personality, fashion designer, author, and women's and diversity advocate. She is best known as one of the first co-hosts on the ABC morning talk show "The View", which she appeared on for nine seasons from 1997-98 through 2005-06. She was also one of sixteen contestants of the fourth installment of "The Celebrity Apprentice" in 2011, coming in fifth place.


title: Star Jones

text: On January 10, 2022, it was announced that longest running courtroom series, "Divorce Court", would enter its milestone 24th season on September 19, 2022, with Jones, a former Brooklyn prosecutor and district attorney, as the show's next arbitrator. The move will be Jones's return to the court show genre, having previously served as arbitrator over the 1994-95 series, "Jones & Jury". The broadcast made Jones the first Black person to preside over her own court show and first female to preside over arbitration-based reality court shows in particular.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones was born in Badin, North Carolina and grew up in Trenton, New Jersey with her mother, a human services administrator, and her stepfather, a municipal security chief.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones graduated from Notre Dame High School in Lawrenceville, New Jersey. She earned a B.A. degree in Administration of Justice at American University, where she was initiated into the Lambda Zeta chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority. Jones earned a J.D. degree from the University of Houston Law Center in 1986, and was admitted to the New York state bar in 1987.


title: Star Jones

text: From 1986 to 1991, Jones was a prosecutor with the Kings County District Attorney's Office in Brooklyn, New York. In 1992, she was elevated to senior assistant district attorney. She was recruited by Court TV in 1991 as a commentator for the William Kennedy Smith rape trial and spent several years as a legal correspondent for NBC's "Today" and "NBC Nightly News".


title: Star Jones

text: In 1994, she was given her own court show, "Jones & Jury", which mimicked the arbitration-based reality format of "The People's Court", though with a blended talk show like set and style. Although the show was canceled after only one season, it made Jones the first Black person to serve as a court show judge. Though not the first female to serve as a court show judge, Jones is the first female to preside over the court show subcategory of arbitration-based reality programming, only Joseph Wapner preceding her. (As announced on January 10, 2022, Jones is scheduled to make her return to the court show genre in fall 2022, as the 6th judge of longest running courtroom series, "Divorce Court". Jones will begin presiding in the program's 40th season).


title: Star Jones

text: Jones then became chief legal analyst on "Inside Edition", where she led the coverage of the O. J. Simpson murder case. She was the only reporter to interview Simpson during his civil trial, which she covered for "American Journal".


title: Star Jones

text: In 1997, Jones joined "The View" as one of its original four co-hosts. Jones's nine-season tenure on "The View" was marked by controversy at times. Jones, who had been diagnosed as morbidly obese, began to undergo dramatic weight loss beginning in 2003. In a September 2007 essay in "Glamour" magazine, she revealed that she had undergone gastric bypass surgery in August 2003, resulting in a loss of over three years. Many criticized Jones for her initial dishonesty when she claimed she had lost weight via diet and exercise. Barbara Walters told Oprah Winfrey in May 2008 that she had kept Jones' gastric bypass surgery a secret because Jones had asked her to, and that lying on the show turned the audience off.


title: Star Jones

text: Additionally, when she married investment banker Al Reynolds in 2004, Jones reported her wedding plans on "The View" for months beforehand, including "plugs" (public mentions) for her suppliers, such as the wedding invitations, clothing, and airlines. It was later revealed that Jones had pushed product-placement in exchange for receiving those products and services for free. ABC claimed that her excessive self-promotion alienated viewers. On April 21, 2006, Jones discovered that her contract would not be renewed for the following season.


title: Star Jones

text: ABC, Barbara Walters and Bill Geddie then told Jones she could go out on "her own terms". They had collectively decided for Jones to announce her impending departure on Thursday, June 29, 2006, but Jones surprised her co-hosts by announcing it two days earlier on Tuesday, June 27, 2006 when they returned from their first commercial break that she would be leaving the show. She stated that she would remain on the show through July, and she would not return in the fall. She did not reveal during her announcement that her contract wasn't renewed. After Jones revealed her departure live on air, co-host Joy Behar jokingly said, "Who am I going to fight with now?" to which Jones replied, "I have a feeling you'll have someone else to fight with."


title: Star Jones

text: Despite this, Walters announced the next day that Jones would no longer appear on the show with the exception of previously recorded segments, publicly claiming feeling "betrayed" by Jones for unexpectedly making the announcement two days ahead of schedule. In an interview with "People", Jones claimed the decision to leave was not hers and that in April, producers told her that her contract would not be renewed. Walters later stated that ABC executives had decided not to renew Jones' contract due to diminished approval for Jones through their market research.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones's contract was due to expire July 13, but after the program finished on June 27, ABC had discovered Jones had released an article with "People" magazine about her contract not being renewed, and that the decision to leave was not her own, saying, "What you don't know is that my contract was not renewed for the 10th season... I feel like I was fired." The next day, Barbara Walters gave a statement to the audience at the start of the program revealing that she had been "blindsided," and that Jones would no longer appear on "The View". When the series went into summer reruns, only programs in which she had been absent from the panel were rebroadcast. Jones was removed from the opening credits, leaving only Walters, Joy Behar, and Elisabeth Hasselbeck.


title: Star Jones

text: Shortly after her dismissal, Jones appeared on "Larry King Live" to respond to questions about why ABC had refused to renew her contract. Regarding her wedding controversy, Jones insisted that every mention of her wedding had been specifically approved and negotiated by the network, and not in violation of any policy. She also denied that she had caused a ratings drop, and claimed that the ratings during the 2004-05 season were the highest "The View" had had in the nine years she was a co-host.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones' departure caused a rift between her and Walters that lasted nearly six years. In May 2008, in response to allegations in Barbara Walters's autobiography, "Audition", Jones told "Us Weekly": "It is a sad day when an icon like Barbara Walters, in the sunset of her life, is reduced to publicly branding herself as an adulterer, humiliating an innocent family with accounts of her illicit affair and speaking negatively against me all for the sake of selling a book. It speaks to her true character." Walters did not respond.


title: Star Jones

text: On February 22, 2012, Jones returned to "The View" as a guest, and has made subsequent guest appearances since then.


title: Star Jones

text: On March 7, 2007, Jones announced that she would return to her original network, Court TV—now rebranded truTV—as its new executive editor of daytime programming, and that she would host an eponymous live weekday talk show based on the law and pop culture. "Star Jones" premiered on August 20, 2007, as a guest-driven live broadcast (with taped segments) covering recent stories from the worlds of pop culture, entertainment, crime, and justice.


title: Star Jones

text: Just six months later, her show was canceled, and it was announced that Jones was leaving truTV due to "changes in their programming selection." The final episode of "Star Jones" aired on February 1, 2008. Jones received the balance on her $24 million, three-year contract, and the network stated that Jones was eliminated from the channel's lineup because it deemed Jones "too serious" for its tabloid-focused coverage. However, according to "The Washington Post", "[Jones's] show averaged 186,000 viewers and, by its final telecast, was down in the neighborhood of 85,000." In January 2011, the talk show was featured among "10 Notable Talk Show Failures" by CNBC.com.


title: Star Jones

text: From September 2004 to September 2005, Jones was a red-carpet host for the E! television network, conducting interviews at awards shows. E! declined to renew her contract after one year.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones has hosted or guest-hosted numerous cable programs, including the HGTV program "House Hunters" in New York City (which "scored the largest household ratings in the cable channel's history"), the Michael Eric Dyson radio show, "Larry King Live" (where she interviewed Beyoncé Knowles while King was on vacation), and "The Bad Girls Club Season 2" reunion on the Oxygen Network.


title: Star Jones

text: In addition, she has made acting appearances on "" (where she played a former incarnation of herself—a Brooklyn prosecutor named Star Jones—in the eighth-season finale), and as a judge in "Drop Dead Diva" in August 2012.


title: Star Jones

text: She has also served as a legal analyst for "The Insider" and "Dr. Phil", and often appears on "The Wendy Williams Show".


title: Star Jones

text: On July 17, 2009, Jones appeared on a celebrity version of "Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?", during which she won $25,000 to benefit The East Harlem School at Exodus House, a New York City middle school for underserved populations.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones was also a contestant on the fourth season of "The Celebrity Apprentice". She placed fifth on the show, eliminated after her brand messaging efforts in a TV commercial for OnStar were not well received by the OnStar executives.


title: Star Jones

text: She is set to become the judge on "Divorce Court" starting it the program's 40th season, to begin on September 19, 2022. She will replace Faith Jenkins.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones is the author of "You Have to Stand for Something, or You'll Fall for Anything", a collection of autobiographical essays published in 1998. Her second book, "Shine: A Physical, Emotional, and Spiritual Journey to Finding Love" (2006), detailed changes she made to reshape her life, including her marriage and dramatic weight loss. She released a third book in March 2011, "Satan's Sisters", a "roman à clef" about a fictional television talk show featuring five women of clashing temperaments. A scripted television series based on "Satan's Sisters", titled "Daytime Divas", aired for one season on VH1 from June 5 to July 31, 2017. Jones served as an executive producer on the series, and guest-starred as herself in the July 24, 2017, episode.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones is the President of the National Association of Professional Women (NAPW). She created the organization's philanthropic endeavor, NAPW Foundation, to benefit the American Heart Association, of which Jones is also a National Volunteer; the Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Dress For Success and Girls, Inc. Jones also conducts regular visits to NAPW Local Chapters and hosts the organization’s annual National Networking Conference.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones is also the president of Professional Diversity Network (NASDAQ: IPDN). She is also a member of its board of directors, becoming the youngest of a small circle of African-American women in the US leading a public company.


title: Star Jones

text: Jones married investment banker Al Reynolds on November 13, 2004. Reynolds proposed to Jones during the 2004 NBA All-Star Game. Amid much publicity, the wedding was held at Saint Bartholomew's Church in New York City in front of five hundred guests and featured three matrons of honor, twelve bridesmaids, two junior bridesmaids, three best men, twelve groomsmen, three junior groomsmen, six footmen, four ring bearers, and four flower girls. More than thirty corporate "sponsors" donated wedding attire and merchandise for the event in exchange for mentions in the media and on Jones's website. After the wedding, Jones began using the name "Star Jones Reynolds" professionally, but reverted to "Star Jones" in 2007, telling "Entertainment Weekly" that she wanted to keep her public persona separate from her private self. On March 9, 2008, Jones and Reynolds announced they were divorcing.


title: Star Jones

text: On March 17, 2010, Jones underwent cardiac surgery related to a surgery she had three decades earlier for a thoracic tumor.


title: Star Jones

text: On October 24, 2017, Jones went public with her engagement to Ricardo Lugo, who recently worked in the Cook County State’s Attorney’s Office. Lugo was employed as an assistant state's attorney from April to August, according to a State’s Attorney’s Office spokesperson. He was one of 17 prosecutors laid off because of county budget issues. Jones married Ricardo Lugo on a cruise ship in the Bahamas on Sunday, March 25, 2018.


title: Cash crop

text: A cash crop or profit crop is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to differentiate marketed crops from staple crop (or "subsistence crop") in subsistence agriculture, which are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family.


title: Cash crop

text: In earlier times, cash crops were usually only a small (but vital) part of a farm's total yield, while today, especially in developed countries and among smallholders almost all crops are mainly grown for revenue. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in more developed nations, and hence have some export value.


title: Cash crop

text: Prices for major cash crops are set in international trade markets with global scope, with some local variation (termed as "basis") based on freight costs and local supply and demand balance. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets. This system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations.


title: Cash crop

text: Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization. Many developing countries take the position that the current international trade system is unfair because it has caused tariffs to be lowered in industrial goods while allowing for low tariffs and agricultural subsidies for agricultural goods. This makes it difficult for a developing nation to export its goods overseas, and forces developing nations to compete with imported goods which are exported from developed nations at artificially low prices. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices is known as dumping, and is illegal in most nations. Controversy over this issue led to the collapse of the Cancún trade talks in 2003, when the Group of 22 refused to consider agenda items proposed by the European Union unless the issue of agricultural subsidies was addressed.


title: Cash crop

text: The Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for the Arctic is "Rhodiola rosea", a hardy plant used as a medicinal herb that grows in the Arctic. There is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand (as of 2011).


title: Cash crop

text: Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals (wheat, rye, corn, barley, oats), oil-yielding crops (e.g. grapeseed, mustard seeds), vegetables (e.g. potatoes), lumber yielding trees (e.g. Spruce, Pines, Firs), tree fruit or top fruit (e.g. apples, cherries) and soft fruit (e.g. strawberries, raspberries).


title: Cash crop

text: In regions with a subtropical climate, oil-yielding crops (e.g. soybeans), cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, citrus, pomegranates, and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops.


title: Cash crop

text: In regions with a tropical climate, coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, bananas, oranges, cotton and jute are common cash crops. The oil palm is a tropical palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil. The impact of climate change on the ranges of pests and diseasesespecially those of coffee, cocoa, and bananais commonly underestimated. Limiting temperature rise to is vital to maintaining productivity in the tropics.


title: Cash crop

text: Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, with about three-fifths of African farmers being subsistence farmers. For example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents (over two million people) are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of the country's population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow cash crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, cocoa, fruit and rubber. These farms, typically operated by large corporations, cover dozens of square kilometres and employ large numbers of laborers. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a relatively small income for families, but generally fail to produce enough to make re-investment possible.


title: Cash crop

text: The situation in which African nations export crops while a significant number of people on the continent struggle with hunger has been blamed on developed countries, including the United States, Japan and the European Union. These countries protect their own agricultural sectors, through high import tariffs and offer subsidies to their farmers, which some have contended is leading to the overproduction of commodities such as cotton, grain and milk. The result of this is that the global price of such products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete in world markets, except in cash crops that do not grow easily in temperate climates.


title: Cash crop

text: Africa has realized significant growth in biofuel plantations, many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. "Jatropha curcas" is a cash crop grown for biofuel production in Africa. Some have criticized the practice of raising non-food plants for export while Africa has problems with hunger and food shortages, and some studies have correlated the proliferation of land acquisitions, often for use to grow non-food cash crops with increasing hunger rates in Africa.


title: Cash crop

text: Australia produces significant amounts of lentils. It was estimated in 2010 that Australia would produce approximately 143,000 tons of lentils. Most of Australia's lentil harvest is exported to the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East.


title: Cash crop

text: Italy's Cassa per il Mezzogiorno in 1950 led to the government implementing incentives to grow cash crops such as tomatoes, tobacco and citrus fruits. As a result, they created an over abundance of these crops causing an over saturation of these crops on the global market. This caused these crops to depreciate.


title: Cash crop

text: Cash cropping in the United States rose to prominence after the baby boomer generation and the end of World War II. It was seen as a way to feed the large population boom and continues to be the main factor in having an affordable food supply in the United States. According to the 1997 U.S. Census of Agriculture, 90% of the farms in the United States are still owned by families, with an additional 6% owned by a partnership. Cash crop farmers have utilized precision agricultural technologies combined with time-tested practices to produce affordable food. Based upon United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) statistics for 2010, states with the highest fruit production quantities are California, Florida and Washington.


title: Cash crop

text: Coconut palms are cultivated in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tonnes per year. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics.


title: Cash crop

text: Approximately 70% of the world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. The great majority (80%) of the world's farms measure 2 hectares or less. These smallholder farmers are mainly found in developing countries and are often unorganized, illiterate or enjoyed only basic education. Smallholder farmers have little bargaining power and incomes are low, leading to a situation in which they cannot invest much in upscaling their businesses. In general, farmers lack access to agricultural inputs and finance, and do not have enough knowledge on good agricultural and business practices. These high level problems are in many cases threatening the future of agricultural sectors and theories start evolving on how to secure a sustainable future for agriculture. Sustainable market transformations are initiated in which industry leaders work together in a pre-competitive environment to change market conditions. Sustainable intensification focuses on facilitating entrepreneurial farmers. To stimulate farm investment, projects on access to finance for agriculture are also popping up. One example is the SCOPE methodology, an assessment tool that measures the management maturity and professionalism of producer organizations as to give financing organizations better insights in the risks involved in financing. Currently, agricultural finance is always considered risky and avoided by financial institutions.


title: Cash crop

text: Coca, opium poppies and cannabis are significant black market cash crops, the prevalence of which varies. In the United States, cannabis is considered by some to be the most valuable cash crop. In 2006, it was reported in a study by Jon Gettman, a marijuana policy researcher, that in contrast to government figures for legal crops such as corn and wheat and using the study's projections for U.S. cannabis production at that time, cannabis was cited as "the top cash crop in 12 states and among the top three cash crops in 30". The study also estimated cannabis production at the time (in 2006) to be valued at US$35.8 billion, which exceeded the combined value of corn at $23.3 billion and wheat at $7.5 billion.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste or hospital waste is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious) materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g. packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release. As detailed below, discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when not properly contained and disposed. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include discarded blood, sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts (including those as a result of amputation), other human or animal tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may have been in contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described above. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and other devices capable of penetrating skin.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common generators (or producers) of biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, emergency medical services, medical research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, veterinarians, home health care and morgues or funeral homes. In healthcare facilities (i.e. hospitals, clinics, doctor's offices, veterinary hospitals and clinical laboratories), waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called medical or clinical waste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal or industrial waste. Medical facilities generate waste hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials. While such wastes are normally not infectious, they require proper disposal. Some wastes are considered "multihazardous," such as tissue samples preserved in formalin.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Disposal of this waste is an environmental concern, as many medical wastes are classified as "infectious" or "biohazardous" and could potentially lead to the spread of infectious disease. The most common danger for humans is the infection which also affects other living organisms in the region. Daily exposure to the wastes (landfills) leads to accumulation of harmful substances or microbes in the person's body.


title: Biomedical waste

text: A 1990 report by the United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry concluded that the general public is not likely to be adversely affected by biomedical waste generated in the traditional healthcare setting. They found, however, that biomedical waste from those settings may pose an injury and exposure risks via occupational contact with medical waste for doctors, nurses, and janitorial, laundry and refuse workers. Further, there are opportunities for the general public to come into contact with medical waste, such as needles used illicitly outside healthcare settings, or biomedical waste generated via home health care.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed of to protect the environment, general public and workers, especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are at risk of exposure to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard. Steps in the management of biomedical waste include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal.


title: Biomedical waste

text: The development and implementation of a national waste management policy can improve biomedical waste management in health facilities in a country.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation. Treatment may occur on-site or off-site. On-site treatment of large quantities of biomedical waste usually requires the use of relatively expensive equipment, and is generally only cost effective for very large hospitals and major universities who have the space, labour and budget to operate such equipment. Off-site treatment and disposal involves hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service (also called a truck service) whose employees are trained to collect and haul away biomedical waste in special containers (usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a facility designed to handle biomedical waste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with a biohazard symbol. The container, marking, and labels are often red.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1450 and EPA 40 CFR 264.173. standards of safety. Minimal recommended equipment include a fume hood and primary and secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the fume hood, containers containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. An open funnel placed in the mouth of a waste container has been shown to allow significant evaporation of chemicals into the surrounding atmosphere, which is then inhaled by laboratory personnel, and contributes a primary component to the threat of completing the fire triangle. To protect the health and safety of laboratory staff as well as neighboring civilians and the environment, proper waste management equipment, such as the Burkle funnel in Europe and the ECO Funnel in the U.S., should be utilized in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after treatment.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Storage refers to keeping the waste until it is treated on-site or transported off-site for treatment or disposal. There are many options and containers for storage. Regulatory agencies may limit the time for which waste can remain in storage. Handling is the act of moving biomedical waste between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities. Workers who handle biomedical waste must observe "standard precautions."


title: Biomedical waste

text: The goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the waste's hazards, and usually to make the waste unrecognizable. Treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent handling and disposal. There are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals.It include secregating the bio waste


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste is often incinerated. An efficient incinerator will destroy pathogens and sharps. Source materials are not recognizable in the resulting ash. Alternative thermal treatment can also include technologies such as gasification and pyrolysis including energy recovery with similar waste volume reductions and pathogen destruction.


title: Biomedical waste

text: An autoclave may also be used to treat biomedical waste. An autoclave uses steam and pressure to sterilize the waste or reduce its microbiological load to a level at which it may be safely disposed of. Many healthcare facilities routinely use an autoclave to sterilize medical supplies. If the same autoclave is used to sterilize supplies and treat biomedical waste, administrative controls must be used to prevent the waste operations from contaminating the supplies. Effective administrative controls include operator training, strict procedures, and separate times and space for processing biomedical waste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Microwave disinfection can also be employed for treatment of Biomedical wastes. Microwave irradiation is a type of non-contact heating technologies for disinfection. Microwave chemistry is based on efficient heating of materials by microwave dielectric heating effects. When exposed to microwave frequencies, the dipoles of the water molecules present in cells re-align with the applied electric field. As the field oscillates, the dipoles attempts to realign itself with the alternating electric field and in this process, energy is lost in the form of heat through molecular friction and dielectric loss. Microwave disinfection is a recently developed technology which provides advantage over old existing technologies of autoclaves as microwave based disinfection has less cycle time, power consumption and it requires minimal usage of water and consumables as compared to autoclaves.


title: Biomedical waste

text: For liquids and small quantities, a 1–10% solution of bleach can be used to disinfect biomedical waste. Solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemical disinfectants may also be used, depending on the waste's characteristics. Other treatment methods include heat, alkaline digesters and the use of microwaves.


title: Biomedical waste

text: For autoclaves and microwave systems, a shredder may be used as a final treatment step to render the waste unrecognizable. Some autoclaves have built in shredders.


title: Biomedical waste

text: In the UK, clinical waste and the way it is to be handled is closely regulated. Applicable legislation includes the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part II), Waste Management Licensing Regulations 1994, and the Hazardous Waste Regulations (England & Wales) 2005, as well as the Special Waste Regulations in Scotland. A scandal erupted in October 2018 when it emerged that Healthcare Environment Services, which had contracts for managing clinical waste produced by the NHS in Scotland and England, was in breach of the environmental permits at four of its six sites by having more waste on site than their permit allows and storing waste inappropriately. Seventeen NHS trusts in Yorkshire terminated their contracts immediately. The company sued for compensation. Amputated limbs were said to be among 350 tonnes of clinical waste stockpiled instead of incinerated in Normanton. The company maintains that the problem was caused by a reduction in incineration capacity, and the re-classification of clinical waste as “offensive”, which meant more needed incineration. The government's contingency plans included installing temporary storage units at hospitals, but the company say that this is more dangerous than allowing them to exceed their permitted allowances. The company still has contracts with 30 other trusts in England, and a waste disposal contract with NHS England for primary care and pharmacy.


title: Biomedical waste

text: In the United States, biomedical waste is usually regulated as medical waste. In 1988 the U.S. federal government passed the Medical Waste Tracking Act which allowed the EPA to establish rules for management of medical waste in some parts of the country. After the Act expired in 1991, responsibility to regulate and pass laws concerning the disposal of medical waste returned to the individual states. The states vary in their regulations from none to very strict.


title: Biomedical waste

text: In addition to on-site treatment or pickup by a biomedical waste disposal firm for off-site treatment, a mail-back disposal option allows generators of waste to return it to the manufacturer. For instance, waste medicines and equipment can be returned. The waste is shipped through the U.S. postal service. While available in all 50 U.S. states, mail-back medical waste disposal is limited by very strict postal regulations (i.e., collection containers must comply with requirements set out by the Food and Drug Administration, while shipping containers must be approved by the postal service for use).


title: Biomedical waste

text: The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 and further amendments were passed for the regulation of bio-medical waste management. On 28 March 2016 Biomedical Waste Management Rules (BMW 2016) were also notified by Central Govt. Each state's Pollution Control Board or Pollution control Committee will be responsible for implementing the new legislation. New regulations affect the distribution of medical waste by medical professionals into their proper receptacles.


title: Biomedical waste

text: In India, though there are a number of different disposal methods, the situation is desultory and most are harmful rather than helpful. If body fluids are present, the material needs to be incinerated or put into an autoclave. Although this is the proper method, most medical facilities fail to follow the regulations. It is often found that biomedical waste is dumped into the ocean, where it eventually washes up on shore, or in landfills due to improper sorting or negligence when in the medical facility. Improper disposal can lead to many diseases in animals as well as humans. For example, animals, such as cows in Pondicherry, India, are consuming the infected waste and eventually, these infections can be transported to humans who consume their meat or milk. Large number of unregistered clinics and institutions also generate bio-medical waste which is not controlled.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Due to the competition to improve quality and so as to get accreditation from agencies like ISO, NABH, JCI, many private organizations have initiated proper biomedical waste disposal but still the gap is huge.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Many studies took place in Gujarat, India regarding the knowledge of workers in facilities such as hospitals, nursing homes, or home health. It was found that 26% of doctors and 43% of paramedical staff were unaware of the risks related to biomedical wastes. After extensively looking at the different facilities, many were undeveloped in the area regarding biomedical waste. The rules and regulations in India work with The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules from 1998, yet a large number of health care facilities were found to be sorting the waste incorrectly.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Update around 26 March 2020. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has been stringent on the application of the BMW 2016 over the past 12 months. There are now over 200 licensed Common Bio Medical Waste Treatment and Disposal Facilities (CBWTDF) or Common Treatment Facility (CTF) in the country. The rules have been updated over the years. The training of Health Care Facility staff and the awareness of the Hazards of Bio Medical waste is still a challenge in most of the country. The compliance is being enforced through penalties and via awareness. The CTF are operational in most Tier 1 cities and Tier 2 cities of India and compliance is high today because of NGT. But lack of awareness lead to issues of improper segregation. In Tier 2 and 3 cities the general waste is also mixed with biomedical waste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: The syringe tide environmental disaster of 1987–1988 raised awareness about medical waste as medical syringes washed ashore in Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York. A similar situation occurred in 2013 at Island Beach State Park in New Jersey, and brought about the Floatables Action Plan. The syringes endangered marine species and posed a threat to humans who visited the beach. The crises spurred scientists and lawmakers to create mechanisms, policies, and laws so that health care providers would process their bio-waste in an environmentally friendly way.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Improper management of health care waste can have both direct and indirect health consequences for health personnel, community members and on the environment. Indirect consequences in the form of toxic emissions from inadequate burning of medical waste, or the production of millions of used syringes in a period of three to four weeks from an insufficiently well planned mass immunization campaign.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Biomedical waste is not limited to medical instruments; it includes medicine, waste stored in red biohazard bags, and materials used for patient care, such as cotton and bandaids. The most serious effect that biomedical waste has on our seas is the discharge of poisons into the waters that could then be consumed by ocean life creatures. Toxins would interject into the food chain and eventually reach humans who consume sea creatures. Human exposure to such toxins can stunt human growth development and cause birth defects.


title: Biomedical waste

text: The high volume of plastic use in the medical field also poses a dangerous threat to the environment. According to North and Halden, 85% of disposable plastic materials make up all medical equipment. Our current reliance on plastic materials is rooted in their unique capabilities to be lightweight, cost-effective, and durable while preserving the sterility of medical equipment. In addition to the serious health implications of releasing harmful toxins in the environment from medical waste deposits, introducing this volume of single-use plastics can catalyze the compounding health detriments caused by macro and microplastics.


title: Biomedical waste

text: The three type of medical waste incinerators are controlled air, excess air, and rotary kiln. Controlled air is also known as starved-air incineration, two-stage incineration, or modular combustion. This is the process of which waste is fed to a combustion chamber and combustion air begins to dry and facilitates volatilization of the waste. As a result, carbon dioxide and other excess gases are released into the atmosphere.


title: Biomedical waste

text: The second type of incineration is the excess air process. This is similar to the controlled air process, such as the waste being dried, ignited, and combusted by heat provided by the primary chamber burner. However, the main difference is that moisture and volatile components in the waste are vaporized.


title: Biomedical waste

text: In a rotary kiln, the process is similar to the two mention above, however, it is more versatile in terms of being able to mix wet and dry waste components and viewed by many waste engineers as being the most environmentally friendly.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Post incineration process, toxic ash residue is produced and is often disposed at landfills. These landfills are not protected by any barrier and the residue has the potential of reaching underground water that is often exposed to human use. The combustion of plastic material releases toxic gases that escapes and joins breathable air. Human and animal exposure to such gases can cause long term breathing and health issues. The rotation of toxic air does not only impact human well-being, but also of animals and plants. Air pollution caused by the incinerators depletes the ozone layer, causes crop and forest damage, and increases climate change. Constant exposure to such toxins and chemicals in the air could be deemed detrimental to trees and plants and could eventually lead to extinction of certain plants in specific areas. Pollution and chemical leaks also affect the fruits of trees and would cause them to be poisonous and therefore, inedible.


title: Biomedical waste

text: California created the "Medical Waste Management Program", which regulates the generation, handling, storage, treatment, and disposal of medical waste by providing oversight for the implementation of the Medical Waste Management Act. Precautions have been taken in California which permits and inspects all medical waste offsite treatment facilities and medical waste transfer stations. In order to dispose waste, the department recommends the following process to make controlled substance waste nonretrievable. Pills containing a controlled substance are crushed before placing the residue into a pharmaceutical waste container. Controlled substance that is remaining in a syringe is wasted into a pharmaceutical waste container before disposing of the syringe in a sharps container. Expired medications should be returned through a reverse distributor.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Non-incineration treatment includes four basic processes: thermal, chemical, irradiative, and biological. The main purpose of the treatment technology is to decontaminate waste by destroying pathogens. Modern technology invented mechanics that would allow medical professionals and hospitals to dispose medical waste in an environmentally friendly way; such as: autoclaving, plasma pyrolysis, gasification, chemical methods, and microwave irradiation. These alternatives are also highly versatile and can be used for all different types of waste.


title: Biomedical waste

text: An autoclave, similar to a pressure cooker, uses high-temperature steam to penetrate waste material and kill micro-organisms. Autoclave treatment has been recommended for microbiology and biotechnology waste, waste sharps, soiled and solid wastes. Microwave irradiation is based on the principle of generation of high frequency waves. These waves cause the particles within the waste material to vibrate, generating heat and killing the pathogens from within. A simple yet effective method is chemical disinfection: 1% hypochlorite can kill thriving bacteria. Plasma pyrolysis is an environment-friendly mechanism, which converts organic waste into commercially useful byproducts. The intense heat generated by the plasma enables it to dispose all types of waste including municipal solid waste, biomedical waste and hazardous waste in a safe and reliable manner. Gasification can offer carbon sequestration and energy generation, reducing the carbon footprint of biomedical waste treatment.


title: Biomedical waste

text: Initiative from corporations and hospitals is essential to creating a healthier environment, however, there are various methods in which involves action from the general population and would contribute to a clean air environment. By creating surveillance groups within hospitals, everyone would be held accountable for misconduct and improper disposal of waste. Consequences could be implemented where individuals would be required to pay a fine, or face unpaid suspension from work. Companies and governmental organization should also initiate non-routine checkups and searches, this would place pressure on hospitals to ensure that waste is properly disposed all year round. Voluntary clean-ups would involve hospital staff in assuring that medical waste is not littered around the hospital or thrown into regular garbage bins.


title: Urethral sounding

text: Urethral sounding is the medical use of probes called sounds to increase the inner diameter of the urethra and to locate obstructions in it.


title: Urethral sounding

text: If not conducted carefully, sounding carries a risk of irritation, tearing of the urethra, or of urinary tract infection. Infections may become serious if they progress to the bladder or kidneys, and should be referred to a doctor.


title: Urethral sounding

text: The insertion of foreign bodies into the urethra can present serious medical problems: see urethral foreign body.


title: Urethral sounding

text: Urethral play can involve the introduction of either soft or rigid items into the meatus of the penis (as well as farther in). Other toys and items, such as catheters, may be introduced deeper; in some cases even into the bladder. Some items may even be allowed to curl several times or expand within the bladder. This action may be directly or indirectly associated with stimulation of the prostate gland and some types of bladder control.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Miriam Palma Defensor-Santiago ("née" Defensor; June 15, 1945 – September 29, 2016) was a Filipino scholar, academic, lawyer, judge, author, and stateswoman who served in all three branches of the Philippine government: judicial, executive, and legislative. Defensor Santiago was named one of The 100 Most Powerful Women in the World in 1997 by "The Australian". She was known for being a long-serving Senator of the Republic of the Philippines, an elected judge of the International Criminal Court, and the sole female recipient of the Philippines' highest national honor, the Quezon Service Cross.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In 1988, Defensor Santiago was named laureate of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for government service, with a citation "for bold and moral leadership in cleaning up a graft-ridden government agency." After being appointed by President Corazon Aquino as Secretary of Agrarian Reform from 1989 to 1990, she ran in the 1992 presidential election but was controversially defeated in events that involved a car crash injury and power outages during voting process. Defensor Santiago would then serve three terms in the Philippine Senate, where she was known for supporting progressive laws, and authored or campaigned anti-corruption bills.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In 2012, Defensor Santiago became the first Filipina and the first Asian from a developing country to be elected a judge of the International Criminal Court. She later resigned the post, citing chronic fatigue syndrome, which turned out to be lung cancer.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: On October 13, 2015, Defensor Santiago controversially declared her third candidacy for President of the Philippines in the 2016 election after her doctors from the United States declared her cancer "stable" and "receded", but lost the election due to public concern for her health. In April 2016, her last appointed post was part of the International Development Law Organization Advisory Council (IDLO), an intergovernmental body that promotes the rule of law. She died from complications from her cancer on September 29, 2016, and was buried days later at Loyola Memorial Park in Marikina. In December 2018, the prestigious Quezon Service Cross was posthumously conferred upon Santiago, making her the first and, so far, only woman and the sixth person ever to be enthroned in the country's highest roster.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago was known as the Dragon Lady, the Platinum Lady, the Incorruptible Lady, the Impregnable Lady, Feisty Senator, The Doctor of All Laws, the Omniscient Woman and most popularly, the Iron Lady of Asia. She is colloquially known in Philippine pop culture as simply Miriam or MDS, and is positively cited for her lifelong dedication to public service in the Philippine government.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago was born Miriam Palma Defensor in Iloilo City, to Benjamin Defensor, a local judge, and Dimpna Palma, a college dean. She was the eldest of seven children. She graduated valedictorian in grade school, high school, undergraduate school. She graduated high school in Iloilo Provincial High School (now Iloilo National High School) and served as the Editor-in-Chief (EIC) of the said high school's student publication ""The Ilonggo"". In 1965, Defensor Santiago graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science, "magna cum laude" from the University of the Philippines Visayas. After graduation, she was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu and Phi Kappa Phi honor societies.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She proceeded to the University of the Philippines College of Law. There, she was champion in numerous oratorical contests and debates. She became the first female editor of the student newspaper, "The Philippine Collegian", and was twice appointed ROTC muse. She graduated Bachelor of Laws, "cum laude", from the University of the Philippines College of Law in Diliman.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago went on a fellowship to the United States, and earned the Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. She finished both degrees in a period of only one and a half years. Following school, she took a position as special assistant to the Secretary of Justice. She also taught political science at the Trinity University of Asia. She was law professor at the University of the Philippines Diliman, teaching evening classes for some ten years.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She has studied at several universities, including Oxford and Harvard law summer schools; Cambridge; and The Hague Academy of International Law. She earned the degree Master of Religious Studies (without thesis) at the Maryhill School of Theology.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In Oxford, she was a research fellow at St. Hilda's College and also took a summer program in law at St. Edmund's Hall. At Cambridge, she was a research fellow at the Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She became a special assistant to the Secretary of Justice for ten years after her higher studies abroad. At a young age, she became a legal officer to the United Nations afterwards due to her constitutional and international law knowledge and experience.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago served as Legal Officer of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees at Geneva, Switzerland. She was assigned to the Conferences and Treaties Section. She became skilled at treaty negotiation and drafting. She resigned her position when her father in the Philippines developed prostate cancer.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago was appointed judge of the Regional Trial Court (RTC) of Quezon City, Metro Manila by President Ferdinand Marcos. She was the youngest judge appointed to Metro Manila, and exempted from the practice of first serving as a judge outside Metro Manila. As a RTC judge, she quickly proclaimed a "no postponement" policy. At that time, cases were tried in segments that were usually a month apart, resulting in trials that took years to finish. Lawyers were prone to seek postponement of trial. As a result, trial judges scheduled ten or fifteen cases a day, so that they could make up for cases postponed. Defensor Santiago scheduled only five cases a day, heard each case, and disposed of the highest number of cases in her first year in office.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago became nationally famous when she issued perhaps the first decision to rule against martial law. At that time, alleged illegal public assemblies were declared as crimes and were punishable by death. A large group of activist students from the University of the Philippines and Ateneo, as well as activists in the film industry, staged a rally in a central business district, and denounced the First Lady for her excesses. To retaliate, Marcos issued a Preventive Detention Action order which authorized the military to hold suspects indefinitely without bail. The students faced the dire prospect of missing their final exams and, for many of them, missing graduation. Defensor Santiago suspended hearings on all other pending cases, and conducted whole-day trials. In the end, she ordered the military to allow the students to post bail. After promulgating her decision at the end of the day, Defensor Santiago drove herself to the state university, where she was teaching law. The Philippine Jaycees, the Philippine Lions, and the YMCA Philippines all gave her awards for judicial excellence.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: After martial law, in 1988, President Corazon Aquino appointed Defensor Santiago as commissioner of the Bureau of Immigration and Deportation. At that time, the BID was one of the most corrupt government agencies in Southeast Asia. Defensor Santiago declared the Philippines as "the fake passport capital of the world", and directed raids against criminal syndicates, including the Yakuza. She filled the CID detention center with alien criminals, and ordered construction of another detention center. She extended to legal aliens protection from widespread extortion by requesting President Aquino to issue an executive order that authorized the "alien legalization program".


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She received serious death threats, but proclaimed: "I eat death threats for breakfast". A member of the House of Representatives, Laguna Rep. Nereo Joaquin, delivered a privilege speech in 1992 and denounced her raids against pedophile communities in Central Luzon run by alien pedophiles. Defensor Santiago responded by calling him "fungus face".


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: The Rockefeller Foundation named her a laureate of the Magsaysay Award for government service – "for bold and moral leadership in cleaning up a graft-ridden government agency."


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: President Corazon Aquino promoted Defensor Santiago to member of her cabinet, as Secretary of Agrarian Reform. Under a controversial law passed by Congress and signed by President Aquino, all agricultural landholdings were taken by the government and divided among the farmers. Each landowner was allowed to keep only five hectares, and each farmer received three hectares. Payment was in bonds of the Land Bank. To subvert the law, big landowners applied for conversion of the classification of their land as agricultural, to classification as commercial, residential, or industrial. The process became the widespread "conversion scandal of agrarian reform". The DAR officials themselves were the biggest culprits, because they sold conversion permits for bribes on a market rate set at certain amounts per hectare involved in the conversion. Defensor Santiago stopped the conversion scandal, and appeased the landowners by enhancing the incentives for voluntary offers by the landowners for the sale of their landholdings, which entitled them to an additional five percent cash payment. When asked if the hacienda belonging to the president's family should be covered by agrarian reform, Defensor Santiago replied that the family's hacienda should be distributed among the farmers. Shortly thereafter President Aquino accepted Defensor Santiago's resignation.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago's candidacy for President of the Philippines was confirmed on February 19, 1990. She later organized the People's Reform Party (PRP) and ran with a senatorial ticket during the 1992 presidential campaign. Ramon Magsaysay Jr. was her running mate. While campaigning on April 28, 1991, she was severely injured in car crash, which she claimed was an assassination attempt. She was wearing a white bush jacket which became splattered with blood that gushed from a wound to her head. On orders of President Aquino, she was airlifted from Tarlac to a Manila hospital. She underwent surgery on the jaw, and at one point a Catholic priest administered the last rites of the dying. Two months later, she was back on the campaign trail.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago has been dubbed as "The Iron Lady of Asia" and the "Dragon Lady" due to her scathing but bold eloquence both in leadership and writing. She cites physicist Marie Curie and former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher as her major influences throughout her political career, with Thatcher praising her for her book "Cutting Edge" during their meeting while the Prime Minister visited the Philippines.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago was leading the canvassing of votes for the first five days. Following a string of power outages, the tabulation concluded, and Ramos was declared president-elect. Defensor Santiago filed a protest before the Supreme Court as electoral tribunal, citing the power outages during the counting of votes as evidence of massive fraud. Her election protest was eventually dismissed on a technicality.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: The public outrage over the presidential results prompted "Newsweek" to feature her and her rival on the cover with the question: "Was the Election Fair?" In another cover story, "Philippines Free Press" magazine asked: "Who's the Real President?". The quote, 'Miriam won in the elections but lost in the counting' was popularized by the masses.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago was first elected senator in 1995. In 1997, her presidential rival Fidel Ramos initiated a "people's campaign" for an infinite presidential term. Defensor Santiago harshly criticized Ramos' campaign and went to court. In a landmark case, "Defensor Santiago vs COMELEC", she won and preserved the people's mandate for term limits. She again ran for president in the 1998 presidential elections, with running-mate Francisco Tatad, but lost amidst heavy propaganda concerning her mental health, which was later proven false.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She was one of the few senators who were against the opening of the brown envelope during the impeachment trial of then-President Joseph Estrada, who was her foe in the 1998 presidential elections. She said afterwards:Estrada was ousted in the Second EDSA Revolution in 2001, but was pardoned on October 26, 2007, by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Defensor Santiago lost re-election to the Senate in 2001.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Defensor Santiago ran for senator in 2004 and was elected. She focused on creating significant laws that changed the country as a whole. She ran again for senator in 2010 and won. During her three terms, she served as chair mostly of the foreign relations committee and the constitutional amendments committee. She was elected as official candidate of her party People's Reform Party, serving also as chair of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Commission on Appointments. She exposed and named numerous "jueteng" (illegal gambling) lords and illegal-logging lords throughout her terms.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In 2011, Defensor Santiago was elected as a judge of the International Criminal Court (ICC) which hears cases against humanity for former heads of state. She was the first Asian from a third-world country to be elected to such a post. She resigned in 2014 after being diagnosed with lung cancer. She was one of the three senators who voted against the conviction of Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona during his impeachment trial; he was ultimately found guilty for his failure to disclose to the public his statement of assets, liabilities and net worth.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In December 2012, she exposed that the Senate president, Juan Ponce Enrile, used Senate funds to give away as cash gifts. Every senator, except Defensor Santiago and two others, received ₱2 million as a chunk of the Filipino population lived in poverty. This led to the Priority Development Assistance Fund scandal, which put the Senate president behind bars with charges of plunder. Defensor Santiago's live Senate hearings in the case led to public outrage and support for Defensor Santiago's call to abolish the pork barrel system.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She was the first Filipino elected as a commissioner for the International Development Law Organization (IDLO) in 2016. Her role in the organization was advisory to the international law community.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In October 2015, Defensor Santiago announced her intention to run in the 2016 Philippine presidential election after her cancer was deemed 'stable' and 'receded' by doctors from the United States. She later confirmed that Senator Bongbong Marcos would serve as her running mate for vice president. Her campaign focused on the youth sector for which she heavily advocated, making use of social media. She was a landslide winner in numerous polls conducted in various public and private universities and colleges in the country. Despite this, she lost in the elections. Defensor Santiago was subsequently called "the greatest president we never had", a title which had been associated with her prior to her presidential run. The Youth for Miriam, a youth group that supported her on the campaign, rebranded as Youth Reform Movement and founded a standalone organization that bears her writings and literature as philosophical pillars.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Even after retirement, Defensor Santiago continued to advocate the passage of many bills for the nation while in her Quezon City home. A few of these include an anti-dynasty bill, an act institutionalizing an age-appropriate curriculum to prevent the abduction, exploitation, and sexual abuse of children, an anti-"epal" bill, a freedom of information bill, and a magna carta for Philippine internet freedom.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: Before her death, various groups in the country have been lauding her to join the candidacy for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Secretary-General post where the elected Secretary-General will be positioned for 2018. Among other candidates for the position are AirAsia chief Tony Fernandes of Malaysia and an unstated representative from Brunei, which is the lead country for 2018–2022 according to tradition.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: She was branded a "Distinguished Icon of Legal Excellence and Public Service" by the University of the Philippines in September 2016, and posthumously


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: the "PUP Online Personality of the Year Award" by the Polytechnic University of the Philippines in November 2016.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: At the age of 71, Defensor Santiago died in her sleep at exactly 8:52 a.m. on September 29, 2016, while she was confined at the St. Luke's Medical Center in Taguig from lung cancer; several reports cited that Defensor Santiago died in her residence in La Vista Subdivision, Quezon City. Santiago's last words according to her husband were, "I accept this. I do not want to do anything heroic." While her last wish was to remain only in the memory of her own family. Her body lay in state at the Cathedral Grottos of the Immaculate Conception Cathedral in Cubao the following day. Following a Catholic funeral Mass, she was interred at the Loyola Memorial Park in Marikina on October 2, beside the tomb of her son Alexander, who died in 2003. Santiago's hometown, Iloilo City, declared a day of mourning for Defensor Santiago and flew the Philippine flag half-mast from September 29 – October 17, 2016. The local government said in an official statement that Defensor Santiago 'brought pride and honor to all Ilonggos'.


title: Miriam Defensor Santiago

text: In June 2017, members of the Youth Reform Movement lobbied for the posthumous awarding of the Quezon Service Cross to Defensor Santiago. In September 2017, Senator Grace Poe, her freedom of information (FOI) ally and 2016 presidential rival, nominated Defensor Santiago to be awarded the Quezon Service Cross, the highest honor in the entire Republic, subject for approval of both houses of Congress and by President Rodrigo Duterte, who was also her presidential rival. On the same month, Senator Sonny Angara, who considers Defensor Santiago as his mentor, followed suit by filing another resolution nominating Defensor Santiago to become a laureate of the prestigious Quezon Service Cross, just days before Defensor Santiago's first death anniversary on September 29. The Senate expressed its full intent to confer Defensor Santiago the award. The president, through the Presidential Palace, welcomed the proposal to bestow the award to Defensor Santiago once both houses of Congress have ratified the document conferring such award. The House of Representatives is the only body left that has yet to express its intent to bestow the award to Defensor Santiago. Most members of the House are against Defensor Santiago's anti-political dynasty bill which she introduced in Congress. Santiago's bill is backed by the Constitution itself, where it mandates both chambers of Congress to enact such a law. On December 5, 2017, the president officially nominated Defensor Santiago for the award, awaiting concurrence of both chambers of Congress to officially bestow the award. Defensor Santiago is the sixth person, the first Visayan, and the first and only woman to be nominated for the award. She is the sixth person to be immortalized in the 69-year old national roster. On December 11, 2017, the Senate approved the bestowing of the award to Defensor Santiago. On February 20, 2018, the House of Representatives approved the bestowing of the award to Defensor Santiago. On December 3, 2018, the prestigious Quezon Service Cross was officially posthumously conferred upon Santiago, making her the sixth recipient and first and only woman to be included in the country's highest accolade and roster.