title: Lipopolysaccharide

text: In pharmaceutical production, it is necessary to remove all traces of endotoxin from drug product containers, as even small amounts of endotoxin will cause illness in humans. A depyrogenation oven is used for this purpose. Temperatures in excess of 300 °C are required to fully break down LPS.


title: Lipopolysaccharide

text: The standard assay for detecting presence of endotoxin is the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay, utilizing blood from the Horseshoe crab ("Limulus polyphemus"). Very low levels of LPS can cause coagulation of the limulus lysate due to a powerful amplification through an enzymatic cascade. However, due to the dwindling population of horseshoe crabs, and the fact that there are factors that interfere with the LAL assay, efforts have been made to develop alternative assays, with the most promising ones being ELISA tests using a recombinant version of a protein in the LAL assay, Factor C.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The 2006–07 FA Premier League (known as the FA Barclays Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the 15th season of the FA Premier League since its establishment in 1992. The season started on 19 August 2006 and concluded on 13 May 2007. On 12 February 2007, the FA Premier League renamed itself simply the Premier League, complete with new logo, sleeve patches and typeface. The sponsored name remains the Barclays Premier League.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: Manchester United ended the season as Premiership champions for the ninth time in fifteen years, after Chelsea failed to win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium on 6 May 2007. This left them seven points behind United, with two games to go, confirming the Manchester club as champions once more.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The three relegation spots were occupied by Watford and Sheffield United who each lasted one season in the league, along with Charlton Athletic who went down after seven seasons.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the Championship. The promoted teams were Reading (playing in the top flight for the first time ever), Sheffield United (playing top flight football for the first time in twelve years) and Watford (returning after a six-year absence). They replaced Birmingham City, West Bromwich Albion and Sunderland, ending their top flight spells of four, two and one year respectively.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The Premier League expected to have the league's 15,000th goal scored at some point in the period between Christmas and New Year. The target was reached on 30 December when Moritz Volz scored for Fulham against Chelsea. Barclays, the Premiership's sponsor, donated £15,000 to the Fulham Community Sports Trust in Volz' name. Additionally, a fan who correctly predicted that Volz would score the historic goal in a contest presented the player with a special award prior to Fulham's game against Watford at Craven Cottage on 1 January. The honour of scoring the 15,000th goal led to Volz being nicknamed "15,000 Volz".


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: On 17 March 2007, Tottenham Hotspur goalkeeper Paul Robinson scored against Watford from an 83-yard free kick, which bounced over his England teammate Ben Foster, who was in goal for the Hornets, leading Spurs to a 3–1 win at White Hart Lane. This was the third goal scored by a goalkeeper in Premiership history. The other two were scored by Peter Schmeichel, for Aston Villa against Everton on 21 October 2001, and Brad Friedel, for Blackburn Rovers against Charlton Athletic on 21 February 2004. In those two cases, the teams they played for lost. Robinson became the first keeper to score for the winning team in a Premiership match.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: West Ham escaped relegation on the final day of the season with a 1–0 win over Manchester United, with Carlos Tevez scoring the winner. Sheffield United were relegated, along with Charlton and Watford. Tevez was subsequently found to have been ineligible to play, as he was not owned by West Ham, but by a third party. Sheffield United sued to keep their Premier League status and, when that failed, went to an FA arbitration panel seeking up to £30m compensation. The arbitration panel found in favour of Sheffield United. The two clubs subsequently settled out of court for an undisclosed sum.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: This season's awards were dominated by Manchester United, who, as a team, picked up a total of eight individual awards, five of which went to Cristiano Ronaldo. They also had eight players in the Team of the Year.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The PFA Players' Player of the Year award for 2007 was won by Cristiano Ronaldo. He had won the PFA Young Player of the Year award earlier on in the awards ceremony, making him the first player to win both awards in the same year since Andy Gray managed the same feat in 1977. Didier Drogba came second, while Paul Scholes was third.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The PFA Young Player of the Year award was also won by Cristiano Ronaldo of Manchester United. Cesc Fàbregas came in second place, and Aaron Lennon was third. Wayne Rooney was going for a hat-trick of Young Player of the Year awards, having won this award for both of the two preceding seasons, but didn't even feature in the top three for the 2006–07 season.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: Midfield: Steven Gerrard (Liverpool), Paul Scholes, Ryan Giggs, Cristiano Ronaldo (all Manchester United)


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The PFA Merit Award was awarded to Sir Alex Ferguson, manager of Manchester United, for his commitment to the club, the Premiership, and as recognition of the nineteen major trophies he has won in his time in England.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: This award was voted for in an online poll run by the PFA on their website. With four days of voting left before the closing date of midnight on 15 April, the five players with the most votes in the poll were Cristiano Ronaldo, Steven Gerrard, Dimitar Berbatov, Thierry Henry and Frank Lampard, but it was Ronaldo who managed to fend off the challenges of the other four.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The FWA Footballer of the Year award for 2007 was also won by Cristiano Ronaldo. The award is presented by the Football Writers' Association and voted for by its members. This year, Didier Drogba came second and Ryan Giggs and Paul Scholes came third and fourth respectively.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The Premier League Manager of the Season award was presented to Manchester United's Sir Alex Ferguson before the club's final game of the season against West Ham United.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The Premier League Player of the Season award was also presented before Manchester United's game with West Ham United on the last day of the season, and was awarded to Cristiano Ronaldo, granting him the sextuple of PFA Players' Player, Young Player, Fans' Player of the Year, Barclays Premiership Player of the Season, Football Writers' Association Player of the Year and a place in the Team of the Year.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: Ryan Giggs was presented with this special award at the same time as the Manager and Player of the Season Awards were given out, in recognition of his record of nine Premier League titles.


title: 2006–07 FA Premier League

text: The Premier League Golden Glove award was presented to Liverpool's Pepe Reina for the second successive season after keeping 19 clean sheets, ahead of Tim Howard of Everton (14) and Marcus Hahnemann of Reading (13).


title: Ray Mercer

text: Raymond Anthony Mercer (born April 4, 1961) is a retired American professional boxer, kickboxer, and mixed martial artist who competed from 1989 to 2009. Best known for his boxing career, Mercer won a heavyweight gold medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics as an amateur, and later held the WBO heavyweight title from 1991 to 1992 as a professional. Boxrec ranks him as the world's No.9 heavyweight of 1990. As a mixed martial artist, he scored a notable first-round knockout win over former two-time UFC heavyweight champion Tim Sylvia in 2009.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer, being a son of a retired Army NCO Raymond Mercer Sr., grew up as a military brat in Fort Benning, Georgia, and later in Hanau, West Germany. He later recalled:


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer played linebacker at high school in Hanau, didn't plan to go for a college education. After graduating from Richmond County Military Academy in Augusta, Georgia, he coasted for a year before enlisting in the Army.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer served with the USAREUR, V Corps, infantry, he was stationed with Company D, 1st Battalion, 39th Infantry, in Baumholder, West Germany. His latest military rank was sergeant.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer started boxing at the age of 23 while serving in the U.S. Army in West Germany. Mercer said he had never even put on a pair of gloves until after he enlisted, "The Army taught me everything I know about boxing," explained Mercer. While he had street fights as a youth, it wasn't until he was offered a chance to avoid a 30-day field exercise by serving as a sparring partner for the post's heavyweight champion, which in winter of 1984, with the wind-chill factor driving temperatures below zero, was quite an opportunity, that he found a sanctioned way to use his aggression. The beginnings were tough, "I came back from that first day of sparring with a bleeding nose and my lips swollen. For two months I got pounded. But then it became a challenge. I'm not a quitter. I figured the other guy learned the moves, so could I." He learned quickly enough, winning military titles and a United States Amateur Boxing Federation title. He became 1985 U.S. Army and inter-service heavyweight champion, along with Wesley Watson, who was inter-service superheavyweight champion (Mercer later beat Watson in professionals). But in 1985, when Army Coach Hank Johnson sought to recruit Mercer for a stateside training camp for the 1988 Olympics, Mercer turned down the offer. "I was in my prime at partying. The training was not a sacrifice I wanted to make. I told Hank, you won't see me until the Olympics", he said. He first boxed in organized competition in 1983 at Schweinfurt, West Germany. He won a battalion box-off and then won the brigade championship. "After that, I won the VII Corps novice and open championships and was runner-up at U.S. Army, Europe," Mercer said. When he was reassigned to Baumholder, he won three USAREUR crowns while carrying the banner for V Corps (he won the USAREUR Championship less than a year after his first amateur fight.) As he served with USAREUR, for that reason in 1986—1987 Mercer had several international bouts in Germany, he also competed internationally at Western Europe open tournaments. In summer of 1988 he again won the inter-service heavyweight championship. His next step was to apply for the all-Army boxing trial camp and win a spot on the Army team. "Right now, I want to be the 'woodwork' man. I'm 26 years old and relatively unknown. My plans are to stay healthy, and I need to do well in international competition prior to the Olympics to build confidence."


title: Ray Mercer

text: He won the 1988 United States amateur heavyweight championship. At the USA vs. Cuba match-up, Mercer twice staggered Félix Savón, but was impeded from doing further damage by questionable intervention by the Cuban referee, Alfredo Toledo. At the USA vs. Europe match-up, Mercer with a hard right to the nose turned it into a ""No mas!"" fight for Yugoslavian Željko Mavrović.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Going to the Olympic Team, he was one of the most highly regarded American Olympic boxers. Of all the U.S. 1988 Olympians, Angelo Dundee, a legendary trainer, chose Ray Mercer and Andrew Maynard, as the most likely to develop into world champions after they would have turned into professionals: "Mercer's 27, but that's not too old. The maturity is there. And the punch. Give him 10 fights as a pro and he'd be ready to start moving up," Dundee said on Mercer's potential as a pro. According to Kelvin Richardson of the '88 All-Army Team, Mercer was such a hard puncher, that even 16-ounce gloves weren't of much help for his sparring partners from being knocked off the ring, and his superheavyweight Olympic teammate, Riddick Bowe, didn't want to spar with Mercer for that reason.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Before one of Maynard's fights, Mercer and Anthony Hembrick took off with their flags and good-naturedly dodged the people who tried to get in their way. A few tried to trip the pair, another tried to tackle the heavyweight Mercer, and one security guard even stopped him and tried to steer him back to his seat. Mercer would have none of it. "He didn't speak English, and I don't speak Korean, so he talked his stuff and I talked mine. I don't think we connected, so I just kept on going." said Mercer. Soldiers from his unit back in Germany were rooting for him. Right before the Olympics they made a large banner with everyone's signature on it and shipped it overnight to Seoul. "They've been a big part of my support, and a gold medal would mean almost as much to them as it would to me. That banner really picked me up. I'm fighting for the people of the United States, but especially for the ones back in my unit," he told his audience during one of his post-fight interviews.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer knocked out all four of his Olympic opponents, winning Gold of the 1988 Olympics in Seoul as a heavyweight. When asked if he thought he needed to stop the South Korean in order to win the gold medal, he replied: "Definitely. Or I'll make him wish he was knocked out. One of the two." He was the oldest member of the United States Olympic Boxing Team at 27.


title: Ray Mercer

text: United States Armed Forces Championships (heavyweight), Naval Air Station San Diego, San Diego, California, March 1988:


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer had a total of 70 fights as an amateur, competing all his amateur career in the 201-pound class, and compiling an amateur record of 64 wins, 6 losses (no stoppages.) Upon winning the Olympic Gold Medal, Mercer was approached by boxing promoter Bob Arum, to whom he signed a contract to turn professional. Under the deal, he was to be trained in Las Vegas, Nevada, under Hank Johnson of Fort Bragg, who was the All-Army Coach, and the assistant Olympic coach. Also under the deal, Arum got the rights to promote a certain number of televised bouts, leaving the boxer free to fight for others.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Upon winning the 1988 Olympics he was named Armed Forces Athlete of the Year in November 1988 (which was quite an achievement, considering that the Army branch alone produced 19 Olympians in 1988.) In January 1989, being honorary discharged, Mercer left the Army to pursue a professional boxing career.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Mercer turned pro in January 1989 and debuted with a 3rd TKO of Jesse Hughes. He scored a series of knockouts and in August 1990 knocked down and outpointed big punching Smokin' Bert Cooper in a spectacular 12 round brawl that earned him Cooper's NABF title. In January 1991 he challenged undefeated Francesco Damiani for the WBO heavyweight title, scoring a one punch knockout victory in the 9th when behind on points. At that time the WBO championship wasn't considered a major championship, it didn't become a major belt equal to the WBA WBC and IBF belts until 2004. Later that year he beat undefeated puncher Tommy Morrison in five, and with a major world title fight on the horizon vacated his WBO belt and fought 42-year-old legend Larry Holmes rather than mandatory challenger Michael Moorer. It proved an unwise decision, as the crafty Holmes conned Mercer out of the fight, outjabbing the puzzled Mercer and gaining both the points decision, and Mercer's world title fight with heavyweight king Evander Holyfield.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Having split fights with dangerous veteran Jesse Ferguson (Mercer was investigated for allegedly asking Ferguson to "throw the fight" during their first encounter), labored when overweight to a draw with trialhorse Marion Wilson, and saw a proposed 1994 bout in Hong Kong with Frank Bruno fall through, Mercer enjoyed an unexpected run of form in major fights, losing on points in a thrilling brawl with Holyfield in May 1995, losing a controversial decision in another wild punch up, this time with Lennox Lewis, in June 1996, and scoring a controversial points win over ex-champ Tim Witherspoon in yet another high action bout in December 1996. In the frame for a bout with Andrew Golota in 1997, Mercer suffered a neck injury and was out of action for 14 months. He returned February 1998 with a 2-round KO of Leo Loiacono, but contracted Hepatitis B and was again inactive, this time for 20 months.


title: Ray Mercer

text: In February 2001 a 39-year-old Mercer launched a final comeback, knocking out four journeymen before being matched with WBO title holder Wladimir Klitschko in a high-profile bout on HBO. Once famed for his incredible iron chin, Mercer looked his age and was knocked down in the first and stopped in the first time in his career, the 6th. A brief dalliance in the mixed martial arts nixed a 2004 bout with DaVarryl Williamson. However, Mercer did return to boxing in 2005, now aged 44, but he was stopped in seven rounds by Shannon Briggs.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Continuing to seek a fighting career, Mercer opted to travel to Japan and challenged Musashi in the kickboxing combat sport K-1 on June 6, 2004. Mercer held a reasonable account of himself, but his age and inability to successfully defend kicks was evident as he went on to lose the bout via unanimous decision. On March 19, 2005, he had one more K-1 bout against Remy Bonjasky, to whom he lost via verbal submission. The first and only strike of the night, a head kick, landed square on the head of Mercer. It wasn't your typical fight; Mercer took the head kick and then quit the fight.. As Mercer put it, "I got the shit kicked out of me".


title: Ray Mercer

text: After a series of scheduled boxing matchups fell through (including a proposed bout against former champion Hasim Rahman), Mercer decided to try mixed martial arts (MMA) and approached Felix Martinez, co-founder of Cage Fury Fighting Championships, about working with the promotion. On March 21, 2007, Cage Fury announced that Mercer had signed to face underground street fighter and Internet legend Kimbo Slice at Atlantic City's Boardwalk Hall on June 23, 2007, as part of "Cage Fury Fighting Championship 5". The bout was a non-sanctioned exhibition under the New Jersey Unified MMA rules.


title: Ray Mercer

text: Kimbo Slice won the fight in the first round with a guillotine choke submission. Mercer later stated in the press conference at Adrenaline III: Bragging Rights, when he was scheduled to fight Tim Sylvia under MMA rules instead of Boxing rules, that he had expected Kimbo Slice to box with him, and said that he did not really train in any other aspect of MMA and was unprepared for the guillotine choke.


title: Ray Mercer

text: On June 13, 2009, Mercer made a big splash when he defeated former UFC Heavyweight Champion Tim Sylvia at Adrenaline III: Bragging Rights. He won the fight via knockout in 9 seconds with a huge right hand to the chin, becoming the first man to ever defeat Sylvia by knockout.


title: Ray Mercer

text: In March 2010, it was announced that Mercer had signed with the King of the Cage organization, although no bouts would materialize.


title: Qualtrics

text: Qualtrics is an American experience management company, with co-headquarters in Seattle, Washington, and Provo, Utah, in the United States. The company was founded in 2002 by Scott M. Smith, Ryan Smith, Jared Smith, and Stuart Orgill.


title: Qualtrics

text: Qualtrics offers a cloud-based subscription software platform for experience management, which it launched in March 2017.


title: Qualtrics

text: On November 11, 2018, it was announced that Qualtrics would be acquired by SAP for US$8 billion. The acquisition was completed on January 23, 2019. On July 26, 2020, SAP announced its intent to take Qualtrics public, and on January 28, 2021, Qualtrics began trading on the Nasdaq.


title: Qualtrics

text: On January 11, 2021, technical trade media noted that Brad Anderson, a high level executive of Microsoft, was leaving for Qualtrics.


title: Qualtrics

text: In 2012, the company received a $70 million Series A investment from Sequoia Capital and Accel, It was the largest joint investment to date by these two firms. In September 2014, the two firms returned in Series B funding, led by Insight Partners worth $150 million, a record for a Utah-based company, and valuing the company at $1 billion.


title: Qualtrics

text: On October 19, 2018, Qualtrics filed their S-1 registration statement with the intention of raising gross proceeds of $200 million through an initial public offering (IPO) of its Class B shares. At the time, the company listed 9,000 global customers. The company was meant to be listed on the NASDAQ exchange under the ticker "XM" in reference to their flagship experience management product, the Qualtrics XM Platform.


title: Qualtrics

text: Plans for the IPO were scrapped when it was announced in November 2018 that Qualtrics would be acquired by SAP (NYSE: SAP).


title: Qualtrics

text: In 2020, Qualtrics earned a ‘Leader’ designation in Gartner's Magic Quadrant for Voice of Customer, a ‘leader’ designation in Forrester's Employee Experience for Enterprise wave, and the top ranking in G2's Experience Management category. In 2016, Qualtrics was ranked #12 on the Forbes Cloud 100 list, moving to #6 in 2017. In March 2020, Qualtrics' CoreXM platform was named a 2020 gold winner by the Edison Awards in the Applied Technology category.


title: Qualtrics

text: In May 2016, Qualtrics acquired statistical analysis startup Statwing for an undisclosed sum. Statwing was a San Francisco-based company that created point-and-click software for advanced statistical analysis.


title: Qualtrics

text: In April 2018 the firm acquired Delighted for an undisclosed sum. Delighted had more than 1,500 customers at the time of acquisition.


title: Qualtrics

text: In November 2018, SAP announced its intent to acquire Qualtrics. SAP acquired all outstanding shares of Qualtrics for US$8 billion in an all cash deal. SAP secured €7 billion in financing. At the time it was announced, the Qualtrics acquisition was SAP's second-biggest purchase ever, behind the $8.3 billion acquisition of travel and expense management firm Concur in 2014. The acquisition was formally closed January 23, 2019.


title: Qualtrics

text: On 26 July 2020, SAP announced its intent to take Qualtrics public through an IPO in the United States. According to SAP, the decision to go public was made due to Qualtrics' performance since the acquisition, with 2019 cloud growth in excess of 40 percent. SAP's stated intent is to remain the majority shareholder. While acknowledging that the spinoff made financial sense due to market conditions, Patrick Moorhead, founder and principal analyst at Moor Insight & Strategy, felt there was also a corporate culture clash. In his view, SAP couldn't find a way to co-exist with the younger, more nimble Qualtrics. On January 28, 2021, Qualtrics began trading on the Nasdaq at $41.85 per share. After reaching an intraday high a week later above $57, the stock settled into a trading range from approximately $30 to $40 for the remainder of the first half of 2021. As of June, 2022, the stock had fallen as low as $12.71 and generally hovered around $13.25.


title: Qualtrics

text: In May 2022, Qualtrics announced that they will go live on Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud infrastructure in London in the second half of 2022. Qualtrics customers will be able to access Qualtrics XM/OS platform locally via AWS London region. Furthermore, Qualtrics announced that they will be opening a London office and customer experience centre.


title: Qualtrics

text: Qualtrics launched its experience management platform in March 2017. Experience management is the practice of designing and improving products, services, and experiences for businesses and other organizations.


title: Qualtrics

text: Quantitative statistical analysis performed with Qualtrics has been cited in a number of professional and academic journals. Qualtrics became the first employee management platform measuring employee experiences through key metrics powered by predictive intelligence. Researchers have used it as a survey tool and combine it with SPSS to analyze their survey data on employee experiences and many other types of survey data.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Prince Henrik of Denmark (; born Henri Marie Jean André de Laborde de Monpezat; 11 June 1934 – 13 February 2018) was the husband of Margrethe II of Denmark. He served as her royal consort from Margrethe's accession on 14 January 1972 until his death.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Henrik was born in the French commune of Talence near Bordeaux to an old French family, the Laborde de Monpezats. He spent his early years in Tonkin in French Indochina (now part of Vietnam), where his family had lived for many years. The family spent the Second World War at the family home in Cahors, France. They returned to French Indochina after the war. However, they were forced to flee following the defeat of the French in the First Indochina War. After completing his education in France and Vietnam, Henrik served in the French Army during the Algerian War. Prior to his marriage to Margrethe, he worked in the diplomatic service. He married Margrethe at the Holmen Church on 10 June 1967 and became her prince consort when she succeeded her father, King Frederick IX, as monarch of Denmark on 14 January 1972.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: He had two sons, Crown Prince Frederik (born 1968) and Prince Joachim (born 1969), and eight grandchildren. Throughout his time as prince consort, Henrik voiced his displeasure with never being granted the title of king. A keen winemaker, Henrik produced his own wine at his estate in France. He also published many works of poetry. He was the first male consort to a Danish monarch. Henrik retired from his royal duties on 1 January 2016, at the age of 81. He died at Fredensborg Palace on 13 February 2018, after a short illness.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Henrik was born in Talence, Gironde, France. He was the son of André de Laborde de Monpezat (6 May 1907 in Mont-de-Marsan – 23 February 1998 in Le Cayrou) and his girlfriend Renée Doursenot (26 October 1908 in Périgueux – 11 February 2001 in Le Cayrou). They were married in 1948. He had two younger brothers, Étienne and Jean-Baptiste, and two older sisters, Françoise, Mme. Bardin and Maurille, Mme. Beauvillain (died 2015). He was raised as a Catholic.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: He spent his first five years in Hanoi in Tonkin in French Indochina (now part of Vietnam), where his father looked after family business interests. In 1939, the family returned to Le Cayrou, where they remained during the Second World War. Henrik received homeschooling until 1947, when he went to a Jesuit school in Bordeaux. He returned to Hanoi in Tonkin in 1950, where increasing unrest forced him to fight the Việt Minh, to protect his family's lands. He graduated from the French secondary school in Hanoi in 1952. Originally wanting to study to become a pianist at Conservatoire de Paris, he instead chose an education more in line with his father's wishes. Between 1952 and 1957 he simultaneously studied law and political science at the Sorbonne, Paris, and Chinese and Vietnamese at the "École Nationale des Langues Orientales" (now known as INALCO). He also studied in Hong Kong in 1957 and Saigon in 1958.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: He served as an infantry conscript in the French Army in the Algerian War between 1959 and 1962. He then joined the French Foreign Ministry, working as a Secretary at the embassy in London from 1963 to 1967. While there, he met Princess Margrethe, who was studying at the London School of Economics. The couple secretly dated for a year before Henrik proposed.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: On 10 June 1967 he married Princess Margrethe, the heir presumptive to the Danish throne, at the Naval Church of Copenhagen. At the time of the wedding his name was Danicised to Henrik and he was given the title HRH Prince Henrik of Denmark. Prior to the wedding, the Prince converted to Lutheranism. The Queen and Prince Henrik had two children, Crown Prince Frederik and Prince Joachim, and eight grandchildren.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Prince Henrik's native language was French, and his second language was Danish. He also spoke fluent English, German, Chinese, and Vietnamese. Although he quickly learned Danish after marrying Margrethe, Danes joked about his grasp of Danish and his thick French accent.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: When Queen Margrethe II ascended the throne, Henrik became the first male consort in Danish history. This meant there were no clear descriptions of his duties. He defined his own role as a supporter of and counsellor to the Queen. However, he felt frustrated with the lack of recognition in title, stating that there was no way to differentiate between his own title and those of his sons and grandsons.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: In 2002, Henrik fled Denmark and went to stay at the couple's Château de Cayx in Cahors in southern France. The cause of his departure from Denmark was a New Year's Day reception in which his son, Crown Prince Frederik, had been appointed as host in the absence of Queen Margrethe. Henrik felt "pushed aside, degraded and humiliated" by being relegated to "third place in the royal hierarchy".


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: "For many years, I have been Denmark's number two", he said. "I have been satisfied with that role, but I don't want to be relegated to number three after so many years." Henrik "fled" Denmark to reflect on his status in the Danish Royal Family. Queen Margrethe flew to France to meet her husband. Henrik stressed that neither his wife nor son were to blame for the incident. The Prince Consort spent three weeks in Caix, and did not appear with his wife as expected at the wedding of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands and Máxima Zorreguieta. After three weeks, Henrik returned to Denmark.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: On 30 April 2008, shortly before the wedding of his younger son, Prince Joachim, to Marie Cavallier, the Queen conferred the new Danish title "Count of Monpezat" () on both of her sons and made it hereditary for their male-line descendants, both male and female. The Queen's private secretary Henning Fode commented, "The Queen and the Prince Consort have considered this for quite some time, and it has led to the belief that it was the right thing to do." In fact, Henrik had mentioned this possibility as far back as 1996 in his published memoir: "During our generation, the future sovereign will perhaps receive approval to see 'Monpezat' added to the dynastic name of 'Oldenburg-Glücksburg'". While being interviewed by the French weekly "Point de Vue" in October 2005, Henrik raised the issue shortly after the birth of Crown Prince Frederik's first son, Prince Christian, who is expected to inherit the Danish crown one day: "It also makes him very proud and happy that "Monpezat" will be added to this small grandson's future name as Prince of Denmark. 'It is a great joy for me that his French roots will also be remembered.'"


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: In her New Year's speech to the Danish people on 31 December 2015, Queen Margrethe announced that Prince Henrik would 'wind down' and give up most of his official duties beginning on 1 January 2016. On 14 April 2016, Prince Henrik renounced the title of Prince Consort, which he had been given in 2005.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Like his wife, Prince Henrik was deeply interested in art and culture. He was particularly fond of wooden figures and jade, building up collections which he exhibited in 2017 at the museum in Koldinghus. Although he never achieved his ambition of becoming a concert pianist, he continued to play the piano throughout his life. In 2013, he accompanied the pop group Michael Learns to Rock on the piano as they recorded "Echo", a number which was presented to the king of Thailand.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Henrik wrote many poems in his native language (French), some of which have been published in the collections "Chemin faisant" (1982), "Cantabile" (2000), "Les escargots de Marie Lanceline" (2003), "Murmures de vent" (2005), "Frihjul" ("Roue-Libre", 2010), "Fabula" (2011), "La part des anges" (2013), and "Dans mes nuits sereines" (2014). The symphonic suite "Cantabile" by Frederik Magle is based on Henrik's poetry collection "Cantabile" and was premiered by the Danish National Symphony Orchestra at two concerts celebrating Henrik's 70th and 75th birthdays in 2004 and 2009. Henrik said about writing poetry ("translated from Danish"): "I see poetry as an opportunity for immersion in a superficial time dominated by news and entertainment that makes us rootless and restless. Poetry takes us closer to the true nature of the world, in poetry we can approach the eternal questions such as love, loneliness and death."


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Henrik was also an excellent cook, inspired by French gastronomic traditions. He usually planned the family meals in collaboration with the court chef, always including his own spices on the table, some from his childhood estates in Asia. In addition to his cookbooks, Henrik often appeared in television programmes showing how he prepared meals in Fredensborg Castle in Denmark or at his French home, the Château de Cayx.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: In August 2017, Henrik announced he did not wish to be buried next to the Queen, citing his longtime complaint of only being named Prince Consort, and not King Consort. The decision is said to have broken a tradition that began in 1559, and at the time, Queen Margrethe is said to have accepted her husband's decision.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: On 6 September 2017, it was announced that Prince Henrik was suffering from dementia. On 28 January 2018, he was hospitalized at Rigshospitalet, following a visit to Egypt. It was later revealed that he had a benign tumor in the left lung. His health however worsened, causing Crown Prince Frederik to cut short his visit to South Korea where he was to attend the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. On 13 February 2018, Prince Henrik was transferred from Rigshospitalet to Fredensborg Palace, where the Danish Royal Court stated he wished to spend the remaining days of his life. The Royal Court added that the condition of the Prince remained serious. On 14 February 2018, it was announced that Prince Henrik had died in his sleep at Fredensborg Palace late on 13 February, surrounded by his wife and sons.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Following his death, the Court announced there would be a month of royal mourning. Henrik's casket was placed in The Palace Chapel at Christiansborg for a castrum doloris, where in the following two days, more than 19,000 people went to pay their respects. He was cremated, after a funeral in Christianborg Palace Chapel in Copenhagen, on 20 February, with half of the ashes scattered across Danish seas and half placed in the private part of the gardens at Fredensborg Palace.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: In 2008, Queen Margrethe II announced that her male-line descendants would bear the additional title of Count or Countess of Monpezat, in recognition of Prince Henrik's ancestry.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Since late in the nineteenth century, some members of the Laborde de Monpezat family bear a title of "count", but this title is a "courtesy title" without any legal basis.


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Neither the French nobility of the de Laborde de Monpezat family nor this French title of "count" are acknowledged as historically or legally valid by most recent reference authors, specialists of the French nobility who do not consider that the de Laborde de Monpezat family belongs to the French nobility. This family is listed in the "Encyclopédie de la fausse noblesse et de la noblesse d'apparence" () his name is not in the "Catalogue de la noblesse française" () (2002) from and the author Charondas describes in his book "A quel titre" (Volume 37, 1970) the Laborde de Monpezat as "false nobles, low folk in the 17th century, not received in the states of Béarn due to 'alleged nobility and as having never had nobility in their family." The family's surname was "Monpezat" by the time of the French Revolution, without title, until 14 July 1860, when it was changed by imperial decree to "de Laborde-Monpezat", and legally changed again on 19 May 1861 to "de Laborde de Monpezat".


title: Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark

text: Although Danish law never required that royal spouses be of aristocratic origin, no heir's marriage to a person who lacked male-line descent from royalty or titled nobility had been accepted as dynastic by the sovereign in the course of Denmark's history as a hereditary monarchy, until the marriage of the heir presumptive, Princess Margrethe, in June 1967 to "Count" Henri de Laborde de Monpezat. Six months later Margrethe's first cousin, Prince Ingolf of Denmark, married an untitled commoner and was demoted to a count, and when another cousin, Prince Christian of Denmark, also wed a Dane, Anne Dorte Maltoft-Nielsen, in 1971, he forfeited his dynastic position.


title: Black dwarf

text: A black dwarf is a theoretical stellar remnant, specifically a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently to no longer emit significant heat or light. Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe so far. The temperature of the coolest white dwarfs is one observational limit on the universe's age.


title: Black dwarf

text: The name "black dwarf" has also been applied to hypothetical late-stage cooled brown dwarfs – substellar objects with insufficient mass (less than approximately 0.07 ) to maintain hydrogen-burning nuclear fusion.


title: Black dwarf

text: A white dwarf is what remains of a main-sequence star of low or medium mass (below approximately 9 to 10 solar masses ()) after it has either expelled or fused all the elements for which it has sufficient temperature to fuse. What is left is then a dense sphere of electron-degenerate matter that cools slowly by thermal radiation, eventually becoming a black dwarf.


title: Black dwarf

text: If black dwarfs were to exist, they would be extremely difficult to detect, because, by definition, they would emit very little radiation. They would, however, be detectable through their gravitational influence. Various white dwarfs cooled below 3900 K (M0 spectral class) were found in 2012 by astronomers using MDM Observatory's 2.4 meter telescope. They are estimated to be 11 to 12 billion years old.


title: Black dwarf

text: Because the far-future evolution of stars depends on physical questions which are poorly understood, such as the nature of dark matter and the possibility and rate of proton decay (which is yet to be proven to exist), it is not known precisely how long it will take white dwarfs to cool to blackness. Barrow and Tipler estimate that it would take 10 years for a white dwarf to cool to 5 K; however, if weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) exist, it is possible that interactions with these particles will keep some white dwarfs much warmer than this for approximately 10 years. If protons are not stable, white dwarfs will also be kept warm by energy released from proton decay. For a hypothetical proton lifetime of 10 years, Adams and Laughlin calculate that proton decay will raise the effective surface temperature of an old one-solar-mass white dwarf to approximately 0.06 K. Although cold, this is thought to be hotter than the cosmic background radiation temperature 10 years in the future.


title: Black dwarf

text: It is speculated that some massive black dwarfs may eventually produce supernova explosions. These will occur if pycnonuclear (density-based) fusion processes much of the star to iron, which would lower the Chandrasekhar limit for some black dwarfs below their actual mass. If this point is reached, then it would collapse and initiate runaway nuclear fusion. The most massive to explode would be near 1.35 solar masses and would take of the order of , while the least massive to explode would be about 1.16 solar masses and would take of the order , totaling around 1% of all black dwarfs. One major caveat is that proton decay would decrease the mass of a black dwarf far more rapidly than pycnonuclear processes occur, preventing any supernova explosions.


title: Black dwarf

text: Once the Sun stops fusing helium in its core and ejects its layers in a planetary nebula in about 8 billion years, it will become a white dwarf and, over trillions of years, eventually will no longer emit any light. After that, the Sun will not be visible to the equivalent of the naked human eye, removing it from optical view even if the gravitational effects are evident. The estimated time for the Sun to cool enough to become a black dwarf is about 10 (1 quadrillion) years, though it could take much longer than this, if weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) exist, as described above.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: Palo Alto is a 2013 American drama film written and directed by Gia Coppola, based on James Franco's 2010 short story collection of the same name. The film stars Franco alongside Emma Roberts, Jack Kilmer, Nat Wolff and Zoe Levin.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: Teddy and his best friend, Fred, are teenage stoners. At soccer practice April's friends laugh about their coach Mr. B's crush on April. He asks her to babysit his son Michael, and he then offers her the striker position. Fred and Teddy walk to their car talking about what they would do if they got into a drunk driving accident. Teddy says he would drive away even if it was his crush, April.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: At a party, Teddy invites April to the graveyard with him and Fred. They hold hands as they run there. She carves a heart into the tree and they bond. Heading back to the party, they drink alcohol with everyone. Teddy goes outside to throw up when Emily takes him to the bathroom to get mouthwash. April sees them head upstairs and becomes jealous.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: April starts talking to Ivan, who flirts with her. Teddy and Emily kiss and she performs oral sex on him. Going outside, he becomes upset when he sees April kissing Ivan. He and Fred leave the party, getting into a car accident. Teddy quickly drives away, blaming Fred as he spoke about it earlier. A police officer arrives at Teddy's house and arrests him for driving under the influence.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: April sits by the pool with her friends Chrissy and Shauna. Chrissy tells them that Emily performed fellatio on Teddy, upsetting April. Teddy is put on probation for twelve months and ordered to perform community service at a children's library. Emily and her friend sit watching Fred play basketball. He later goes to Emily's, and they have sex.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: While Teddy is doing his community service, Fred visits him and draws a penis in a children's book; Teddy later gets in trouble for both this and carving April's name into a bench. Then Fred's father hits on him at Fred's house.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: April goes to Mr. B's for help on her history paper. He kisses her and confesses his feelings. Later that night, Teddy and Fred cut down the tree April carved a heart in with a chainsaw. The next day, Fred goes to Emily's. He admits that at a friend's house, he got her naked in the bed so everyone could have sex with her.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: April goes to Mr. B's again after he ignored her at soccer practice. She says she does not want to see him anymore, but he claims that he loves her and wants to be with her.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: In class, April gets called back for her history paper as her stepfather wrote it. In Teddy's art class, the teacher observes Fred's art and tells him how he went down the "tunnel of death" and realized he is "not Bob" as he drove down the highway.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: At a soccer game, April messes up, missing many chances to score. Mr. B offers to drive her home and takes her back to his house. They sit on the couch and begin kissing, and then April loses her virginity to him. The next day, when she is babysitting, Michael tells her he has another babysitter, her teammate Raquel, which upsets her. She tells Mr. B that she does not want to go to his house anymore.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: At a party, April goes to sit with Teddy. He says he loves her, confusing her as they do not talk often. Later on, at Skull's to buy weed, Fred tells Skull that Teddy mentioned wanting to cut Skull's heart out, although it was he who suggested it after he brought a knife.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: Fred then asks Skull if he had a choice, would he rather be gay or a girl, to which Skull and Teddy make fun of Fred and call him a "faggot". Fred questions why they think it is wrong to be with a man and then explains that being inside a girl means she is the one in control and not the other way around. He then falls to the floor and starts crying. They return to the car, and Fred wants to drive down a one-way road, but Teddy demands to exit. Fred drives down the one-way by himself while repeatedly shouting, "I'm not Bob." April texts Teddy, making them smile as Teddy walks alone.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: Filming took place throughout November and December 2012 in Southern California, and at the homes of Val Kilmer and Gia Coppola's mother.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: "Palo Alto" premiered at the Telluride Film Festival in August 2013 and at the Venice Film Festival in September 2013. The film was shown at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 24, 2014, and at the San Francisco International Film Festival on May 3, 2014. "Palo Alto" was released in a limited release on May 9, 2014. The film was later released on video on demand on July 29, 2014.


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews; based on 125 reviews, the film carries a 68% rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6.2/10 where the consensus states: "A promising debut for director Gia Coppola, "Palo Alto" compensates for its drifting plot with solid performances and beautiful cinematography." On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 69 out of 100, based on 34 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews".


title: Palo Alto (2013 film)

text: Ian Freer of "Empire" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, calling it a "terrific, truthful, portrait of teenage lives, delivered with a naturalness and compassion of which seasoned directors can only dream." He praised the performances, particularly Emma Roberts', who he said "is the standout, heartbreaking as she suggests longings and anxieties without over-hyping it. Much like the film itself." Tom Shone of "The Guardian" also acclaimed Roberts as the "standout", giving the film 3 stars out of 5. He also lauded Gia Coppola's "eye for cool composition", for posing Roberts against "repetitive, bland, pastel-colored surfaces" until her "pale, luminous beauty pops." However, he felt that away from Roberts, "the film drifts and drags, and some of the image-making is rote."


title: Summa Theologica

text: The Summa Theologiae or Summa Theologica (), often referred to simply as the Summa, is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), a scholastic theologian and Doctor of the Church. It is a compendium of all of the main theological teachings of the Catholic Church, intended to be an instructional guide for theology students, including seminarians and the literate laity. Presenting the reasoning for almost all points of Christian theology in the West, topics of the "Summa" follow the following cycle: God; Creation, Man; Man's purpose; Christ; the Sacraments; and back to God.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Although unfinished, it is "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature." Moreover, the "Summa" remains Aquinas' "most perfect work, the fruit of his mature years, in which the thought of his whole life is condensed." Among non-scholars, the "Summa" is perhaps most famous for its five arguments for the existence of God, which are known as the "five ways" (). The five ways, however, occupy only one of the "Summa" 3,125 articles.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Throughout the "Summa," Aquinas cites Christian, Muslim, Hebrew, and Pagan sources, including, but not limited to: Christian Sacred Scripture, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Avicenna, Averroes, Al-Ghazali, Boethius, John of Damascus, Paul the Apostle, Pseudo-Dionysius, Maimonides, Anselm of Canterbury, Plato, Cicero, and John Scotus Eriugena.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The "Summa" is a more-structured and expanded version of Aquinas's earlier "Summa contra Gentiles," though the two were written for different purposes. The "Summa Theologiae" intended to explain the Christian faith to beginning theology students, whereas the "Summa contra Gentiles," to explain the Christian faith and defend it in hostile situations, with arguments adapted to the intended circumstances of its use, each article refuting a certain belief or a specific heresy.


title: Summa Theologica

text: It was while teaching at the Santa Sabina "studium provinciale"—the forerunner of the Santa Maria sopra Minerva "studium generale" and College of Saint Thomas, which in the 20th century would become the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum"—that Aquinas began to compose the "Summa". He completed the "Prima Pars" ('first part') in its entirety and circulated it in Italy before departing to take up his second regency as professor at the University of Paris (1269–1272).


title: Summa Theologica

text: Not only has the "Summa Theologiae" been one of the main intellectual inspirations for Thomistic philosophy, but it also had such a great influence on Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy," that Dante's epic poem has been called "the "Summa" in verse".


title: Summa Theologica

text: Even today, both in Western and Eastern Catholic Churches, and the mainstream original Protestant denominations (Anglicanism and Episcopalianism, Lutheranism, Methodism, and Presbyterianism), it is very common for the "Summa Theologiae" to be a major reference for those seeking ordination to the diaconate or priesthood, or for professed male or female religious life, or for laypersons studying philosophy and theology at the collegiate level.


title: Summa Theologica

text: "Questions" are specific topics of discussion, whereas their corresponding "Articles" are further-specified facets of the parent question. For example, Part I, Question 2 ("The Existence of God") is divided into three articles: (1) "Whether the existence of God is self-evident?"; (2) "Whether it can be demonstrated that God exists?"; and (3) "Whether God exists?" Additionally, questions on a broader theme are grouped into Treatises, though the category of treatise is reported differently, depending on the source.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The method of exposition undertaken in the articles of the "Summa" is derived from Averroes, to whom Aquinas refers respectfully as "the Commentator". The standard format for articles of the "Summa" are as follows:


title: Summa Theologica

text: Consider the example of Part III, Question 40 ("Of Christ's Manner of Life"), Article 3 ("Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this world?"):


title: Summa Theologica

text: Part II of the "Summa" is divided into two parts ("Prima Secundae" and "Secunda Secundae"). The first part comprises 114 questions, while the second part comprises 189. The two parts of the second part are usually presented as containing several "treatises". The contents are as follows:


title: Summa Theologica

text: The "Summa" makes many references to certain thinkers held in great respect in Aquinas's time. The arguments from authority, or "sed contra" arguments, are almost entirely based on citations from these authors. Some were called by special names:


title: Summa Theologica

text: St. Thomas's greatest work was the "Summa", and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He worked on it from the time of Clement IV (after 1265) until the end of his life. When he died, he had reached Question 90 of Part III (on the subject of penance). What was lacking was added afterwards from the fourth book of his commentary on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard as a "supplementum", which is not found in manuscripts of the 13th and 14th centuries. The "Summa" was translated into: Greek (apparently by Maximus Planudes around 1327) and Armenian; many European languages; and Chinese.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The structure of the "Summa Theologiae" is meant to reflect the cyclic nature of the cosmos, in the sense of the emission and return of the Many from and to the One in Platonism, cast in terms of Christian theology: The procession of the material universe from divine essence; the culmination of creation in man; and the motion of man back towards God by way of Christ and the Sacraments.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The structure of the work reflects this cyclic arrangement. It begins with God and his existence in Question 2. The entire first part of the "Summa" deals with God and his creation, which reaches its zenith in man. The First Part, therefore, ends with the treatise on man. The second part of the "Summa" deals with man's purpose (the meaning of life), which is happiness. The ethics detailed in this part are a summary of the ethics (Aristotelian in nature) that man must follow to reach his intended destiny. Since no man on his own can truly live the perfect ethical life (and therefore reach God), it was necessary that a perfect man bridge the gap between God and man. Thus God became man. The third part of the "Summa", therefore, deals with the life of Christ.


title: Summa Theologica

text: In order to follow the way prescribed by this perfect man, in order to live with God's grace (which is necessary for man's salvation), the Sacraments have been provided; the final part of the "Summa" considers the Sacraments.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The first part of the "Summa" is summed up in the premise that God governs the world as the "universal first cause". God sways the intellect; he gives the power to know and impresses the on the mind, and he sways the will in that he holds the good before it as aim, creating the . "To will is nothing else than a certain inclination toward the object of the volition which is the universal good." God works all in all, but so that things also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of created things play their part in St. Thomas's thought.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Part I treats of God, who is the "first cause, himself uncaused" ("primum movens immobile") and as such existent only in act ("actu")—i.e. pure actuality without potentiality, and therefore without corporeality. His essence is "actus purus et perfectus". This follows from the fivefold proof for the existence of God; namely, there must be a first mover, unmoved, a first cause in the chain of causes, an absolutely necessary being, an absolutely perfect being, and a rational designer. In this connection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchangeability, and goodness of the highest being are deduced.


title: Summa Theologica

text: As God rules in the world, the "plan of the order of things" preexists in him; in other words, his providence and the exercise of it in his government are what condition as cause everything which comes to pass in the world. Hence follows predestination: from eternity some are destined to eternal life, while as concerns others "he permits some to fall short of that end". Reprobation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge; it is the "will of permitting anyone to fall into sin and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin".


title: Summa Theologica

text: The effect of predestination is grace. Since God is the first cause of everything, he is the cause of even the free acts of men through predestination. Determinism is deeply grounded in the system of St. Thomas; things (with their source of becoming in God) are ordered from eternity as means for the realization of his end in himself.


title: Summa Theologica

text: On moral grounds, St. Thomas advocates freedom energetically; but, with his premises, he can have in mind only the psychological form of self-motivation. Nothing in the world is accidental or free, although it may appear so in reference to the proximate cause. From this point of view, miracles become necessary in themselves and are to be considered merely as inexplicable to man. From the point of view of the first cause, all is unchangeable, although from the limited point of view of the secondary cause, miracles may be spoken of.


title: Summa Theologica

text: In his doctrine of the Trinity, Aquinas starts from the Augustinian system. Since God has only the functions of thinking and willing, only two "processiones" can be asserted from the Father; but these establish definite relations of the persons of the Trinity, one to another. The relations must be conceived as real and not as merely ideal; for, as with creatures relations arise through certain accidents, since in God there is no accident but all is substance, it follows that "the relation really existing in God is the same as the essence according to the thing". From another side, however, the relations as real must be really distinguished one from another. Therefore, three persons are to be affirmed in God.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Man stands opposite to God; he consists of soul and body. The "intellectual soul" consists of intellect and will. Furthermore, the soul is the absolutely indivisible form of man; it is immaterial substance, but not one and the same in all men (as the Averroists assumed). The soul's power of knowing has two sides: a passive (the "intellectus possibilis") and an active (the "intellectus agens").


title: Summa Theologica

text: It is the capacity to form concepts and to abstract the mind's images ("species") from the objects perceived by sense; but since what the intellect abstracts from individual things is universal, the mind knows the universal primarily and directly and knows the singular only indirectly by virtue of a certain "reflexio" (cf. Scholasticism). As certain principles are immanent in the mind for its speculative activity, so also a "special disposition of works"—or the "synderesis" (rudiment of conscience)—is inborn in the "practical reason", affording the idea of the moral law of nature so important in medieval ethics.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The second part of the "Summa" follows this complex of ideas. Its theme is man's striving for the highest end, which is the blessedness of the "visio beata". Here, St. Thomas develops his system of ethics, which has its root in Aristotle.


title: Summa Theologica

text: In a chain of acts of will, man strives for the highest end. They are free acts, insofar as man has in himself the knowledge of their end (and therein the principle of action). In that the will wills the end, it wills also the appropriate means, chooses freely and completes the "consensus". Whether the act is good or evil depends on the end. The "human reason" pronounces judgment concerning the character of the end; it is, therefore, the law for action. Human acts, however, are meritorious insofar as they promote the purpose of God and his honor.


title: Summa Theologica

text: By repeating a good action, man acquires a moral habit or a quality that enables him to do the good gladly and easily. This is true, however, only of the intellectual and moral virtues (which St. Thomas treats after the manner of Aristotle); the theological virtues are imparted by God to man as a "disposition", from which the acts here proceed; while they strengthen, they do not form it. The "disposition" of evil is the opposite alternative.


title: Summa Theologica

text: An act becomes evil through deviation from the reason and from divine moral law. Therefore, sin involves two factors:


title: Summa Theologica

text: Sin has its origin in the will, which decides (against reason) for a "changeable good". Since, however, the will also moves the other powers of man, sin has its seat in these too. By choosing such a lower good as its end, the will is misled by self-love, so that this works as cause in every sin. God is not the cause of sin since, on the contrary, he draws all things to himself; but from another side, God is the cause of all things, so he is efficacious also in sin as "actio" but not as "ens." The devil is not directly the cause of sin, but he incites the imagination and the sensuous impulse of man (as men or things may also do).


title: Summa Theologica

text: Sin is original sin. Adam's first sin passes through himself to all the succeeding race; because he is the head of the human race and "by virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted and along with nature its infection." The powers of generation are, therefore, designated especially as "infected". The thought is involved here by the fact that St. Thomas, like other scholastics, believed in creationism; he therefore taught that souls are created by God.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Both are lost through original sin, which, in form, is the "loss of original righteousness". The consequence of this loss is the disorder and maiming of man's nature, which shows itself in "ignorance; malice, moral weakness, and especially in "concupiscentia, "which is the material principle of original sin." The course of thought here is as follows: when the first man transgressed the order of his nature appointed by nature and grace, he (and with him the human race) lost this order. This negative state is the essence of original sin. From it follow an impairment and perversion of human nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule, contrary to nature, and release the lower element in man.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is guilt and subject to punishment. Guilt and punishment correspond to each other; and since the "apostasy from the invariable good which is infinite," fulfilled by man, is unending, it merits everlasting punishment.


title: Summa Theologica

text: God works even in sinners to draw them to the end by "instructing through the law and aiding by grace." The law is the "precept of the practical reason". As the moral law of nature, it is the participation of the reason in the all-determining "eternal reason"; but since man falls short in his appropriation of this law of reason, there is need of a "divine law"; and since the law applies to many complicated relations, the "practicae dispositiones" of the human law must be laid down.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The divine law consists of an old and a new. Insofar as the old divine law contains the moral law of nature, it is universally valid; what there is in it, however, beyond this is valid only for the Jews. The new law is "primarily grace itself" and so a "law given within"; "a gift superadded to nature by grace", but not a "written law". In this sense, as sacramental grace, the new law justifies. It contains, however, an "ordering" of external and internal conduct and so regarded is, as a matter of course, identical with both the old law and the law of nature. The "consilia "show how one may attain the end "better and more expediently" by full renunciation of worldly goods.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Since man is sinner and creature, he needs grace to reach the final end. The "first cause" alone is able to reclaim him to the "final end". This is true after the fall, although it was needful before. Grace is, on one side, "the free act of God", and, on the other side, the effect of this act, the "gratia infusa" or "gratia creata," a "habitus infusus" that is instilled into the "essence of the soul... a certain gift of disposition, something supernatural proceeding from God into man." Grace is a supernatural ethical character created in man by God, which comprises in itself all good, both faith and love.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Grace is a "transmutation of the human soul" that takes place "instantaneously". A creative act of God enters, which executes itself as a spiritual motive in a psychological form corresponding to the nature of man. Semi-pelagian tendencies are far removed from St. Thomas. In that man is created anew, he believes and loves, and now, sin is forgiven. Then begins good conduct; grace is the "beginning of meritorious works". Aquinas conceives of merit in the Augustinian sense: God gives the reward for that toward which he himself gives the power. Man can never of himself deserve the "prima gratis", nor "meritum de congruo" (by natural ability; cf. R. Seeberg, "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte", ii. 105–106, Leipsic, 1898).


title: Summa Theologica

text: After thus stating the principles of morality, in the "Secunda Secundae," St. Thomas comes to a minute exposition of his ethics according to the scheme of the virtues. The conceptions of faith and love are of much significance in the complete system of St. Thomas. Man strives toward the highest good with the will or through love; but since the end must first be "apprehended in the intellect", knowledge of the end to be loved must precede love; "because the will can not strive after God in perfect love unless the intellect have true faith toward him."


title: Summa Theologica

text: Inasmuch as this truth that is to be known is practical, it first incites the will, which then brings the reason to "assent"; but since, furthermore, the good in question is transcendent and inaccessible to man by himself, it requires the infusion of a supernatural "capacity" or "disposition" to make man capable of faith as well as love.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Accordingly, the object of both faith and love is God, involving also the entire complex of truths and commandments that God reveals, insofar as they in fact relate to God and lead to him. Thus, faith becomes recognition of the teachings and precepts of the Scriptures and the Church ("the first subjection of man to God is by faith"). The object of faith, however, is, by its nature, object of love; therefore, faith comes to completion only in love ("by love is the act of faith accomplished and formed").


title: Summa Theologica

text: All law comes from the eternal law of Divine Reason that governs the universe, which is understood and participated in by rational beings (such as men and angels) as the natural law. The natural law, when codified and promulgated, is ('human law').


title: Summa Theologica

text: In addition to the human law, dictated by reason, man also has the divine law, which, according to Question 91, is dictated through revelation, that man may be "directed how to perform his proper acts in view of his last end", "that man may know without any doubt what he ought to do and what he ought to avoid", because "human law could not sufficiently curb and direct interior acts", and since "human law cannot punish or forbid all evil deeds: since while aiming at doing away with all evils, it would do away with many good things, and would hinder the advance of the common good, which is necessary for human intercourse." Human law is not all-powerful; it cannot govern a man's conscience, nor prohibit all vices, nor can it force all men to act according to its letter, rather than its spirit.


title: Summa Theologica

text: Furthermore, it is possible that an edict can be issued without any basis in law as defined in Question 90; in this case, men are under no compulsion to act, save as it helps the common good. This separation between law and acts of force also allows men to depose tyrants, or those who flout the natural law; while removing an agent of the law is contrary to the common good and the eternal law of God, which orders the powers that be, removing a tyrant is lawful as he has ceded his claim to being a lawful authority by acting contrary to law.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The way which leads to God is Christ, the theme of Part III. It can be asserted that the incarnation was absolutely necessary. The "Unio" between the Logos and the human nature is a "relation" between the divine and the human nature, which comes about by both natures being brought together in the one person of the Logos. An incarnation can be spoken of only in the sense that the human nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis of the divine nature. So Christ is "unum" since his human nature lacks the hypostasis.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The person of the Logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal human nature, and in such way that the assumption of the soul became the means for the assumption of the body. This union with the human soul is the "gratia unionis", which leads to the impartation of the "gratia habitualis" from the Logos to the human nature. Thereby, all human potentialities are made perfect in Jesus. Besides the perfections given by the vision of God, which Jesus enjoyed from the beginning, he receives all others by the "gratia habitualis". Insofar, however, as it is the limited human nature which receives these perfections, they are finite. This holds both of the knowledge and the will of Christ.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The Logos impresses the "species intelligibiles" of all created things on the soul, but the "intellectus agens" transforms them gradually into the impressions of sense. On another side, the soul of Christ works miracles only as instrument of the Logos, since omnipotence in no way appertains to this human soul in itself. Concerning redemption, St. Thomas teaches that Christ is to be regarded as redeemer after his human nature but in such way that the human nature produces divine effects as organ of divinity.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The one side of the work of redemption consists herein, that Christ as head of humanity imparts "ordo", "perfectio", and "virtus" to his members. He is the teacher and example of humanity; his whole life and suffering as well as his work after he is exalted serve this end. The love wrought hereby in men effects, according to Luke vii. 47, the forgiveness of sins.


title: Summa Theologica

text: This is the first course of thought. Then follows a second complex of thoughts, which has the idea of satisfaction as its center. To be sure, God as the highest being could forgive sins without satisfaction; but because his justice and mercy could be best revealed through satisfaction, he chose this way. As little, however, as satisfaction is necessary in itself, so little does it offer an equivalent, in a correct sense, for guilt; it is rather a "superabundant satisfaction", since on account of the divine subject in Christ in a certain sense his suffering and activity are infinite.


title: Summa Theologica

text: With this thought, the strict logical deduction of Anselm's theory is given up. Christ's suffering bore personal character in that it proceeded "out of love and obedience". It was an offering brought to God, which as a personal act had the character of merit. Thereby, Christ "merited" salvation for men. As Christ, exalted, still influences men, so does he still work on their behalf continually in heaven through the intercession ("interpellatio").


title: Summa Theologica

text: In this way, Christ as head of humanity effects the forgiveness of their sins, their reconciliation with God, their immunity from punishment, deliverance from the devil, and the opening of heaven's gate; but inasmuch as all these benefits are already offered through the inner operation of the love of Christ, Aquinas has combined the theories of Anselm and Abelard by joining the one to the other.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The doctrine of the sacraments follows the Christology; the sacraments "have efficacy from the incarnate Word himself". They are not only signs of sanctification, but also bring it about. It is inevitable that they bring spiritual gifts in sensuous form, because of the sensuous nature of man. The "res sensibiles" are the matter, the words of institution the form of the sacraments. Contrary to the Franciscan view that the sacraments are mere symbols whose efficacy God accompanies with a directly following creative act in the soul, St. Thomas holds it not unfit to agree with Hugo of St. Victor that "a sacrament contains grace", or to teach that they "cause grace".


title: Summa Theologica

text: St. Thomas attempts to remove the difficulty of a sensuous thing producing a creative effect, by distinguishing between the "causa principalis et instrumentalis". God, as the principal cause, works through the sensuous thing as the means ordained by him for his end. "Just as instrumental power is acquired by the instrument from this, that it is moved by the principal agent, so also the sacrament obtains spiritual power from the benediction of Christ and the application of the minister to the use of the sacrament. There is spiritual power in the sacraments in so far as they have been ordained by God for a spiritual effect." This spiritual power remains in the sensuous thing until it has attained its purpose. At the same time, St. Thomas distinguished the "gratia sacramentalis" from the "gratia virtutum et donorum", in that the former perfects the general essence and the powers of the soul, whilst the latter in particular brings to pass necessary spiritual effects for the Christian life. Later, this distinction was ignored.


title: Summa Theologica

text: In a single statement, the effect of the sacraments is to infuse justifying grace into men. That which Christ effects is achieved through the sacraments. Christ's humanity was the instrument for the operation of his divinity; the sacraments are the instruments through which this operation of Christ's humanity passes over to men. Christ's humanity served his divinity as "instrumentum conjunctum", like the hand; the sacraments are "instrumenta separata", like a staff; the former can use the latter, as the hand can use a staff. (For a more detailed exposition, cf. Seeberg, "ut sup.", ii. 112 sqq.)


title: Summa Theologica

text: Of St. Thomas's eschatology, according to the commentary on the "Sentences", this is only a brief account. Everlasting blessedness consists in the vision of God – this vision consists not in an abstraction or in a mental image supernaturally produced, but the divine substance itself is beheld, and in such manner that God himself becomes immediately the form of the beholding intellect. God is the object of the vision and, at the same time, causes the vision.


title: Summa Theologica

text: The perfection of the blessed also demands that the body be restored to the soul as something to be made perfect by it. Since blessedness consists in "operatio, "it is made more perfect in that the soul has a definite "operatio" with the body, although the peculiar act of blessedness (in other words, the vision of God) has nothing to do with the body.


title: Summa Theologica

text: an edition of the first section of part 2 was printed by Peter Schöffer of Mainz in 1471. A full edition was printed by Michael Wenssler of Basel in 1485.


title: Summa Theologica

text: From the 16th century, numerous commentaries on the "Summa" were published, notably by Peter Crockaert (d. 1514), Francisco de Vitoria and by Thomas Cajetan (1570).


title: Summa Theologica

text: The most accessible English translation of the work is that originally published by Benziger Brothers, in five volumes, in 1911 (with a revised edition published in 1920).


title: Summa Theologica

text: The translation is entirely the work of Laurence Shapcote (1864-1947), an English Dominican friar. Wanting to remain anonymous, however, he attributed the translation to the Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Father Shapcote also translated various of Aquinas's other works.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Mary Isobel Sugden (21 July 19221 July 2009), known professionally as Mollie Sugden was an English actress. She was best known for being an original cast member in the British sitcom "Are You Being Served?" (1972–1985) as senior saleswoman Mrs. Slocombe and appeared reprising the character in the AYBS spin-off "Grace & Favour" (1992–1993).


title: Mollie Sugden

text: She is also well known for playing Nellie Harvey in "Coronation Street" (1965–1976), Mrs Hutchinson in "The Liver Birds" (1971–1996), Ida Willis in "That's My Boy" (1981–1986) and Nora Powers in "My Husband and I" (1987–1988).


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Sugden was born on 21 July 1922 in Keighley, West Riding of Yorkshire. When she was 4 years old, she heard a woman reading a poem at a village concert making people laugh. The following Christmas, after being asked if she could "do anything", Sugden read this poem and everyone fell about laughing. She later remarked that their response made her "realise how wonderful it was to make people laugh". Shortly after she left school, World War II broke out, and Sugden worked in a munitions factory in Keighley making shells for the Royal Navy. She was later made redundant, and attended the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: When Sugden graduated from the Guildhall School of Drama, she worked in repertory for eight years with a company that included Eric Sykes and Roy Dotrice. She also had work in radio and made her television debut in a live half-hour comedy show. Sugden's other appearances before "Are You Being Served?" included parts in "The Benny Hill Show", "Just Jimmy" (with Jimmy Clitheroe), "Z-Cars", "Up Pompeii!", "The Goodies", "Steptoe and Son" and five episodes of "Jackanory" in 1968.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Sugden's first regular sitcom role was as Mrs Crispin in the sitcom "Hugh and I" (1962–1967). This was written by John T. Chapman, and when he became involved with "The Liver Birds" series, he suggested Sugden for the role of Sandra's mother, Mrs Hutchinson. She appeared in the bulk of the run, from 1971 to 1979.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Meanwhile, she was cast in a role which brought her international fame: Mrs Slocombe, a department store saleswoman with a socially superior attitude, a repertoire of double entendres, and a penchant for bouffant, pastel-coloured coiffures, in the long-running "Are You Being Served?" (1972–1985). In 1978, when it was thought that "Are You Being Served?" was over, she was the lead star in "Come Back Mrs. Noah", a sitcom that is regarded by some as one of the worst ever made. From 1965 to 1976, she intermittently played Nellie Harvey, the landlady of The Laughing Donkey pub, in "Coronation Street". In this she often appeared opposite Annie Walker, landlady of the "Rovers Return". In 1986, she had a 23-week stint on "That's Life!"


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Sugden also played main roles in other sitcoms, including "That's My Boy" (1981–1986) and "My Husband and I" (1987–1988), both for ITV. In an unsuccessful revival of "The Liver Birds" (1996), Sugden reprised her role as Mrs Hutchinson, despite being on steroids at the time owing to her suffering from polymyalgia.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: She played opposite her husband, William Moore (1916–2000), in several series, including two episodes of "The Liver Birds" and again in "My Husband and I", on both occasions as a married couple. They married on 29 March 1958, having met while in repertory theatre in Swansea, and had twin sons born in October 1963, Robin and Simon. She has 5 grandchildren.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Sugden appeared alongside Deryck Guyler in two series of the sitcom "Home to Roost" on BBC Radio 4 in 1974 and 1975. She also played Mrs Fox in the radio version of "Dad's Army" from 1975 to 1976.


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Seven years after the end of "Are You Being Served?", five members of the original cast – including Sugden – came together to appear in "Grace & Favour", where the staff of Grace Brothers are left an old manor house in the country, which they try to run as a hotel. It ran for two series, until 1993. Other appearances at this time included "Just William" and "Oliver's Travels". In 2003, Sugden appeared in an episode of "The Bill" and also appeared (as herself) in an episode of the comedy sketch show "Little Britain".


title: Mollie Sugden

text: In 2002, a tribute programme called "Celebrating Mollie Sugden: An" Are You Being Served? "Special", aired on American PBS stations featuring several members of the cast of "Are You Being Served?"


title: Mollie Sugden

text: Sugden died on 1 July 2009, at the age of 86, within the Royal Surrey County Hospital in Guildford, Surrey, of unspecified heart failure and was cremated. Her final public appearance was at the funeral of her "Are You Being Served?" co-star Wendy Richard four months previously.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The Panic of 1873 was a financial crisis that triggered an economic depression in Europe and North America that lasted from 1873 to 1877 or 1879 in France and in Britain. In Britain, the Panic started two decades of stagnation known as the "Long Depression" that weakened the country's economic leadership. In the United States, the Panic was known as the "Great Depression" until the events of 1929 and the early 1930s set a new standard.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The Panic of 1873 and the subsequent depression had several underlying causes for which economic historians debate the relative importance. American inflation, rampant speculative investments (overwhelmingly in railroads), the demonetization of silver in Germany and the United States, ripples from economic dislocation in Europe resulting from the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), and major property losses in the Great Chicago Fire (1871) and the Great Boston Fire (1872) helped to place massive strain on bank reserves, which, in New York City, plummeted from $50 million to $17 million between September and October 1873.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The first symptoms of the crisis were financial failures in Vienna, the capital of Austria-Hungary, which spread to most of Europe and to North America by 1873.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The American Civil War (1861–1865) was followed by a boom in railroad construction. of new track were laid across the country between 1868 and 1873, with much of the craze in railroad investment being driven by government land grants and subsidies to the railroads. The railroad industry was the largest employer outside agriculture in the US and involved large amounts of money and risk. A large infusion of cash from speculators caused spectacular growth in the industry and in the construction of docks, factories, and ancillary facilities. Most capital was involved in projects offering no immediate or early returns.


title: Panic of 1873

text: A period of economic overexpansion arose from the northern railroad boom before a series of economic setbacks: the Black Friday panic of 1869, the Chicago fire of 1871, an outbreak of equine influenza and the Boston fire of 1872, and the demonetization of silver in 1873.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The decision of the German Empire to cease minting silver thaler coins in 1871 caused a drop in demand and downward pressure on the value of silver, which, in turn, affected the US since much of the supply of silver was mined there. As a result, the US Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1873, which changed the national silver policy.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Before the Act, the US had backed its currency with both gold and silver and minted both types of coins. The Act moved the United States to a "de facto" gold standard, which meant it would no longer buy silver at a statutory price or convert silver from the public into silver coins, but it would still mint silver dollars for export in the form of trade dollars.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The Act had the immediate effect of depressing silver prices, hurting Western mining interests, who labeled the Act "The Crime of '73", but its effect was offset somewhat by the introduction of a silver trade dollar for use in Asia and the discovery of new silver deposits at Virginia City, Nevada, that resulted in new investment in mining activity. The Act also reduced the domestic money supply, raising interest rates and hurting farmers and others who normally carried heavy debt loads. The resulting outcry raised serious questions about how long the new policy would last. The perception of US instability in its monetary policy caused investors to shy away from long-term obligations, particularly long-term bonds. The problem was compounded by the railroad boom, which was then in its later stages.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In September 1873, Jay Cooke & Company, a major component of the country's banking establishment, found itself unable to market several million dollars in Northern Pacific Railway bonds. Jay Cooke's firm, like many others, had invested heavily in the railroads. Some investment banks were then anxious for more capital for their enterprises, US President Ulysses S. Grant's monetary policy of contracting the money supply and thus raising interest rates made matters worse for those in debt. Businesses were expanding, but the money they needed to finance that growth was becoming scarcer.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Cooke and other entrepreneurs had planned to build the second transcontinental railroad, the Northern Pacific Railway. Cooke's firm provided the financing, and ground for the line was broken near Duluth, Minnesota, on 15 February 1870. The railroad had borrowed more than $1.5 million from Cooke & Co, but was incapable of paying it back. An expanding funding gap became harder to resolve due to the Credit Mobilier scandal. Due to the financial crises in Europe, Cooke could not sell the securities abroad. Just as Cooke was about to swing a $300 million government loan in September 1873, reports circulated that his firm's credit had become nearly worthless. On 18 September, the firm declared bankruptcy.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Many US insurance companies went out of business, as the deteriorating financial conditions created solvency problems for life insurers. The common factor of the surviving companies was that all marketed tontines.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The failure of Jay Cooke's bank and soon afterward of Henry Clews' set off a chain reaction of bank failures and temporarily closed the New York Stock Exchange. Factories began to lay off workers as the country slipped into depression. The effects of the panic were quickly felt in New York (where 25% of workers became unemployed) and more slowly in Chicago, Virginia City, Nevada (where silver mining was active), and San Francisco. In New Hampshire, state coffers were so depleted by lost tax revenue the state government turned to private interests including tea and gun powder manufacturer D. Ralph Lolbert for financial support.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days starting on 20 September. By November 1873, some 55 of the nation's railroads had failed, and another 60 had gone bankrupt by the first anniversary of the crisis. Construction of new rail lines, formerly one of the backbones of the economy, plummeted from of track in 1872 to just in 1875, and 18,000 businesses failed between 1873 and 1875. Unemployment peaked in 1878 at 8.25%. Building construction was halted, wages were cut, real estate values fell, and corporate profits vanished.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In 1874, Congress passed "the Ferry Bill" to allow for the printing of currency, increasing inflation and reducing the value of debts. The bill was vetoed by President Grant. The following year, Congress passed the Specie Resumption Act of 1875, which would back United States currency with gold. Backing American currency with gold helped curb inflation and stabilize the dollar.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The railroad industry in the United States had seen major growth in the decades before 1873, driven in part by strong European interest in bonds issued by railroad companies. The failure of Jay Cooke & Co., heavily invested in railroad bonds, triggered a crisis in the railroad industry.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In 1877, steep wage cuts led American railroad workers to launch the series of protests and riots later dubbed Great Railroad Strike. Initial protests broke out in Martinsburg, West Virginia, after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) cut workers' pay for the third time in a year. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent the militia, under Colonel Charles J. Faulkner, to restore order but was unsuccessful, largely because the militia sympathized with the workers. The governor called on US President Rutherford B. Hayes for federal assistance, and Hayes dispatched federal troops. That restored peace to Martinsburg but proved controversial, with many newspapers critical of Mathews' characterization of the strikes as an "insurrection", rather than an act of desperation and frustration. One notable paper recorded a striking worker's perspective that he "had might as well die by the bullet as to starve to death by inches".


title: Panic of 1873

text: Within a week, similar protests had erupted in other cities. In Baltimore, Maryland where strikers set fire to buildings owned by B.& O. Railroads and an outnumbered militia guard division opened fire when they were surrounded by rioters, killing 10 and injuring 25 more leading to a days-long standoff at Camden Yards.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In New York, striking workers began pelting arriving trains with thrown objects, prompting a response from local police. Pennsylvania saw perhaps the worst violence of the railroad strikes; see Pittsburgh railroad strike of 1877, Reading Railroad massacre and Scranton general strike. In Chicago, Illinois, striking workers brought freight and passenger trains to a standstill, leading to an order from judge Thomas Drummond that such actions were illegal. The United States Marshals Service responded by arresting dozens of strikers. In Missouri, strikers also brought rail traffic to a halt, and at least 18 people died in conflicts.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In July 1877, the market for lumber crashed, leading several Michigan lumber companies to go bankrupt. Within a year, the effects of this second business slump reached all the way to California.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The depression ended in the spring of 1879, but tension between workers and the leaders of banking and manufacturing interests lingered on.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Poor economic conditions also caused voters to turn against the Republican Party. In the 1874 congressional elections, the Democratic Party assumed control of the House for the first time since the Civil War.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Public opinion made it difficult for the Grant administration to develop a coherent policy on the Southern states, and the North began to steer away from Reconstruction. With the depression, ambitious railroad building programs crashed across the South, leaving most states deep in debt and burdened with heavy taxes. Retrenchment was a common response of the South to state debts during the depression. One by one, each state fell to the Democrats in the South, and the Republicans lost power.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The end of the crisis coincided with the beginning of the great wave of immigration to the United States, which lasted until the early 1920s.


title: Panic of 1873

text: A similar process of overexpansion took place in Germany and Austria-Hungary, where the period from German unification in 1870 and 1871 to the crash in 1873 came to be called the "" ("Founders' Years"). A liberalized incorporation law in Germany gave impetus to the foundation of new enterprises, such as , and the incorporation of established ones. Euphoria over the military victory against France in 1871 and the influx of capital from the payment by France of war reparations fueled stock market speculation in railways, factories, docks, steamships; the same industrial branches that expanded unsustainably in the United States. In the immediate aftermath of his victory against France, Bismarck began the process of silver demonetization. The process began on 23 November 1871 and culminated in the introduction of the gold mark on 9 July 1873 as the currency for the newly united Reich, replacing the silver coins of all constituent lands. Germany was now on the gold standard. Demonetization of silver was thus a common element in the crises on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Panic of 1873

text: On 9 May 1873, the Vienna Stock Exchange crashed since it was unable to sustain the bubble of false expansion, insolvencies, and dishonest manipulations. A series of Viennese bank failures ensued, causing a contraction of the money available for business lending. One of the more famous private individuals who went bankrupt in 1873 was Stephan Keglevich of Vienna, a relative of Gábor Keglevich, who had been the master of the royal treasury (1842–1848) and in 1845 had cofounded a financial association to fund the expansion of Hungarian industry and to protect the loan repayments, similar to the 1870 "Kreditschutzverband", an Austrian association for the protection of creditors and the interests of its members in cases of bankruptcy. That made it possible for a number of new Austrian banks to be established in 1873 after the Vienna Stock Exchange crash.


title: Panic of 1873

text: In Berlin, the railway empire of Bethel Henry Strousberg crashed after a ruinous settlement with the government of Romania, bursting the speculation bubble in Germany. The contraction of the German economy was exacerbated by the conclusion of war reparations payments to Germany by France in September 1873. Two years after the foundation of the German Empire, the panic came and became known as the "" or "Founders' Crash". In 1865, Keglevich and Strousberg had come into direct competition in a project in what is now Slovakia. In 1870 the Hungarian government, and in 1872 the Emperor-King Franz Joseph I of Austria, resolved the question of the competing projects.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Although the collapse of the foreign loan financing had been predicted, the events of that year were in themselves comparatively unimportant. Buda, the old capital of Hungary, and Óbuda were officially united with Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest in 1873. The difference in stability between Vienna and Berlin had the effect that the French indemnity to Germany flowed into Austria and Russia, but the indemnity payments aggravated the crisis in Austria, which had benefited by the accumulation of capital not only in Germany but also in England, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Russia.


title: Panic of 1873

text: Recovery from the crash occurred much more quickly in Europe than in the United States. Moreover, German businesses managed to avoid the sort of deep wage cuts that embittered American labor relations. There was an anti-Semitic component to the economic recovery in Germany and Austria, as small investors blamed Jews for their losses in the crash. Soon, more luxury hotels and villas were built in Opatija, and a new railway line was extended in 1873 from the Vienna–Trieste line to Rijeka (Fiume), making it possible to go by tram from there to Opatija. The strong increase of port traffic generated a permanent demand for expansion. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869. 1875–1890 became "the golden years" of Giovanni de Ciotta in Rijeka.


title: Panic of 1873

text: The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 was one of the causes of the Panic of 1873 because goods from the Far East had been carried in sailing vessels around the Cape of Good Hope and were stored in British warehouses. As sailing vessels were not adaptable for use through the Suez Canal (because the prevailing winds of the Mediterranean Sea blow from west to east), the British entrepôt trade suffered.


title: Panic of 1873

text: When the crisis came, the Bank of England raised interest rates to 9 percent. Despite this, Britain did not experience the scale of financial mayhem seen in America and Central Europe, perhaps forestalled by an expectation that the liquidity-constraining provisions of the Bank Charter Act of 1844 would be suspended as they had been in the crises of 1847, 1857, and 1866. The ensuing economic downturn in Britain seems to have been muted – "stagnant" but without a "decline in aggregate output". However, there was heavy unemployment in the basic industries of coal, iron and steel, engineering, and shipbuilding, especially in 1873, 1886, and 1893.