title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The neighborhood is part of New York's 9th congressional district, represented by Democrat Yvette Clarke . It is also part of the 20th State Senate district, represented by Democrat Zellnor Myrie, and the 55th State Assembly district, represented by Democrat Latrice Walker. Brownsville is located in New York's 41st City Council district, represented by Democrat Darlene Mealy.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: In the 2016 Democratic presidential primary, Hillary Rodham Clinton received 4,889 votes (73.9%) to Bernie Sanders's 1,729 votes (26.1%). Brownsville had very few Republican primary voters: just 40 Brownsville voters cast ballots in the 2016 Republican primary.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brownsville suffers from major health disparities in comparison to the rest of New York City. In 2006, Brownsville had the highest infant mortality rate in New York City (12.5 per 1,000 births), twice the overall city rate (5.9 per 1,000 births). , preterm births and births to teenage mothers were also more common in Brownsville than in other places citywide. In Brownsville, there were 127 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 31.2 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 20.2 per 1,000 citywide). In 2015, Brownsville had the lowest average life span (74.1 years) of any New York City neighborhood; the average life span in 2018 was 75.1 years, significantly lower than the city's median life span. A New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene community health profile the next year found that in Brownsville, the average life expectancy is more than ten years shorter than in Manhattan's Financial District. Brownsville has a high population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 12%, which is equal to the citywide rate.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Air pollution in Brownsville is , higher than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Seventeen percent of Brownsville residents are smokers, which is slightly higher than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Brownsville, 41% of residents are obese, 13% are diabetic, and 33% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 23% of children are obese, higher than the citywide average of 20%.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Eighty percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is lower than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 79% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", slightly more than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Brownsville, there are 15 bodegas.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brookdale University Hospital and Medical Center is located in the neighborhood. The hospital has suffered from violence; in 2014, the federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration issued a citation to the hospital for "willful" failure to protect hospital employees after an extensive series of incidents of violence against hospital workers took place.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brownsville has one of the highest rates of psychiatric hospitalization in the city, with 1,727 such hospitalizations per 100,000 adults.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The area has also historically suffered from high levels of childhood lead exposure from environmental lead, particularly from lead-based paint in dilapidated housing stock.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brownsville has significantly high dropout rates in its schools. Brownsville also has one of the highest concentrations of "persistently violent" schools of any area in New York State, with five such schools in Brownsville and East New York on the 2015–2016 list of most dangerous schools. Students must pass through metal detectors and swipe ID cards to enter the buildings. This arose from two school shootings in East New York in 1991–1992 that, combined, resulted in the deaths of three students and the injury of one teacher. Other problems in local schools include low test scores, with 95% of students scoring below grade level on state tests.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brownsville generally has a lower ratio of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . While 21% of residents have a college education or higher, 27% have less than a high school education and 52% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Brownsville students excelling in reading and math has been increasing, with reading achievement rising from 26 percent in 2000 to 31 percent in 2011, and math achievement rising from 20 percent to 38 percent within the same time period.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Brownsville has the second-highest rate of student homelessness in Brooklyn. It also has the highest rate of elementary school student absenteeism in New York City, with 39 percent of Brownsville elementary school students missing twenty or more days per school year. Additionally, 65% of high school students in Brownsville graduate on time, less than the citywide average of 75%. As a result, Brownsville's average educational attainment rates were low compared to the rest of the city, with few students continuing to college.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Public schools are operated by the New York City Department of Education. Due to the area's high population density, there are 39 public and charter schools serving elementary and middle school students in Brownsville. Numbered public primary schools include P.S. 150 Christopher; P.S. 156 Waverly; P.S. 165 Ida Posner; P.S. 184 Newport; P.S. 189 Lincoln Terrace; P.S. 219 Kennedy-King; P.S. 284 Lew Wallace; P.S. 298; P.S. 327 Dr Rose B English; P.S. 332 Charles H Houston School; I.S. 392; P.S. 396 Special Education School; P.S. 398 Walter Weaver; P.S. 41 Francis White; P.S. 770 New American Academy; and P.S/I.S. 323 Elementary School.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: There are three high schools in Brownsville; two are housed in the same building at 226 Bristol Street. Teachers Preparatory opened in September 2001, while Frederick Douglass Academy VII opened in September 2004. Teachers Preparatory School serves 6th through 12th graders with 99% minority enrollment, receiving a grade of "A" on both its middle school and high school report cards for 2008. FDA VII serves 9th through 12th grades with 99% minority enrollment. The third high school is Brownsville Academy, which is a Diploma Plus transfer school serving 10th through 12th grades with a 100% minority enrollment. It received a "Well Developed" score for 2008–2009. It also received a grade of B on its 2007–2008 report card. Brownsville Academy, a relatively small school with 205 students as of 2016–2017, is located at 1150 East New York Avenue, close to the Crown Heights border.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL) has two branches in Brownsville. The Brownsville branch is located on 61 Glenmore Avenue, near Watkins Street. It opened in 1905 and used a second-floor space of another building. The current branch opened in 1908.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The Stone Avenue branch is located at 581 Mother Gaston Boulevard. When it opened in 1914 as the Brownsville Children's Library, it was among the world's first children's libraries, as well as one of the last Carnegie libraries in Brooklyn. The branch was renovated in 2014.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The area is well-served by public transport. The New York City Subway serves Brownsville on the IRT New Lots Line () and BMT Canarsie Line (). The New Lots Line from Saratoga Avenue to Junius Street is definitively in Brownsville; additionally, the New Lots Line's Sutter Avenue–Rutland Road station and the Canarsie Line from Atlantic Avenue to New Lots Avenue are located along the neighborhood's borders with East Flatbush and East New York, respectively. Due to the lines being created by two different, competing subway companies (the Interborough Rapid Transit Company and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, respectively), a free transit connection does not exist between the two lines, which provide the area's only subway service. A pedestrian bridge from the Livonia Avenue station on the Canarsie Line spans west across the Long Island Rail Road's Bay Ridge Branch to Junius Street, where an entrance to that street's station along the New Lots Line is less than a block away. There are proposals to convert the overpass into a free-transfer passage between the two stations, due to increasing ridership and plans for additional housing in the area. Money is allocated in the Metropolitan Transportation Authority's 2015–2019 Capital Program to build this transfer. The stations would also need to be upgraded to become compliant with mobility accessibility guidelines under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: MTA Regional Bus Operations operates bus lines in the area. The B15 bus crosses Brownsville horizontally, for the most part using New Lots Avenue; the B14 bus uses Pitkin and Sutter Avenues through its route in the area where Brownsville overlaps with East New York. North–south bus lines include the B7 on Saratoga Avenue and the B60 on Rockaway Avenue. The B8, B35, and B47 have segments along the outer borders of Brownsville, and the B8 and B35 both terminate along Hegeman Avenue in the neighborhood's southwestern portion.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: In 2011, 72% of residents used public transportation, up from 66% in 2000. More than 85% of residents live within of the subway.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The street grid aligns with the general East New York street grid, which contains streets that generally run north–south, though ten streets from the slightly diagonal street grid of Canarsie extend into Brownsville. The easternmost of these streets, East 98th Street, serves as the ending point for many main thoroughfares in central Brooklyn, including Church Avenue, Kings Highway, and Sutter Avenues.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: As a result of its Jewish heritage, there are several streets named after Jewish community figures in the western portion of Brownsville. In 1913, nine years after writer Theodor Herzl died, residents successfully petitioned to rename Ames Street to Herzl Street, marking one of the few streets outside Israel that are named Herzl Street. One block away, the incorrectly spelled Strauss Street was named after two former Macy's co-owners, brothers Nathan and Isidor Straus, the latter of whom died when his wife Ida gave up a seat on a lifeboat off the sinking RMS "Titanic".


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: One of Brownsville's main thoroughfares, Pitkin Avenue, is named after businessman John R. Pitkin of Connecticut. Pitkin developed East New York starting in 1835.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Hopkinson Street, originally named after Declaration of Independence signer Francis Hopkinson, was renamed in honor of State Assemblyman Thomas S. Boyland, who served the neighborhood from 1977 until his death in 1982. Incidentally, many places in Brownsville, including two schools and a housing development, are named after Boyland and two of his family members (his brother William F. Boyland Sr. and his nephew William Boyland Jr.), who also went into politics and represented Brownsville in various levels of local government.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: Stone Avenue was renamed after Rosetta Gaston (1895–1981), founder of the Brownsville Heritage House on the avenue, as Mother Gaston Boulevard. Mother Gaston, as she was called, operated the Heritage House inside the Stone Avenue Library, a Jacobean Revival-style library built in 1914 by William Tubby.


title: Brownsville, Brooklyn

text: The 1934 novel "Call It Sleep", by Henry Roth, is about the Schearl family, who moves from Brownsville back to the Lower East Side. The main character, young David Schearl, must endure the "terror of poverty" on the Lower East Side. Brownsville, by contrast, is described in the book as a vast improvement over the Lower East Side. In addition, Alfred Kazin wrote about 1920s-era Brownsville in his memoir "A Walker in the City".


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The series involves the adventures of the Knight Sabers, an all-female group of mercenaries who don powered exoskeletons and fight numerous problems, most frequently rogue robots. The success of the series spawned several sequel series.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The series begins in late 2032, seven years after the Second Great Kanto earthquake has split Tokyo geographically and culturally in two and it also forced the United States of America to annex Japan in the legitimate name of keeping the peace and from it descending into anarchy . During the first episode, disparities in wealth are shown to be more pronounced than in previous periods in post-war Japan. The main adversary is Genom, a megacorporation with immense power and global influence. Its main product are boomers—artificial cybernetic life forms that are usually in the form of humans, with most of their bodies being machine; also known as "cyberoids". While Boomers are intended to serve mankind, they become deadly instruments in the hands of ruthless individuals. The AD Police (Advanced Police) are tasked to deal with Boomer-related crimes. One of the series' themes is the inability of the department to deal with threats due to political infighting, red tape, and an insufficient budget.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The setting displays strong influences from the movies "Blade Runner" and "Streets of Fire". The opening sequence of episode 1 is even modeled on that of the latter film. The humanoid robots known as "boomers" in the series were inspired by several movies, including Replicants from the aforementioned "Blade Runner", the titular cyborgs of the "Terminator" film franchise, and the Beast from the film "Krull".


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: Suzuki explained in a 1993 "Animerica" interview the meaning behind the cryptic title: "We originally named the series 'bubblegum' to reflect a world in crisis, like a chewing-gum bubble that's about to burst."


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The series started with Toshimichi Suzuki's intention to remake the 1982 film "Techno Police 21C". In 1985, he met Junji Fujita and the two discussed ideas, and decided to collaborate on what later became "Bubblegum Crisis". Kenichi Sonoda acted as character designer, and designed the four female leads. Masami Ōbari created the mechanical designs. Obari would also go on to direct episodes 5 and 6. Satoshi Urushihara acted as the chief production supervisor and guest character designer for Episode 7.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The OVA series is eight episodes long but was originally slated to run for 13 episodes. Due to legal problems between Artmic and Youmex, who jointly held the rights to the series, the series was discontinued prematurely.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: English: Amanda Tancredi, Chuck Denson Jr., Chuck Kinlaw, David Kraus, Eliot Preschutti, Gray Sibley, Hadley Eure, Hank Troscianiec, J. Patrick Lawlor, Jack Bowden, Jay Bryson, Kevin Reilly, Marc Garber, Marc Matney, Michael Sinterniklaas, Scott Simpson, Sean Clay, Sophia Tolar, Steve Lalla, Steve Rassin, Steve Vernon, Zach Hanner


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: In North America, AnimEigo first released "Bubblegum Crisis" to VHS and Laserdisc in 1991 in Japanese with English subtitles. The series is notable in that it was one of the few early anime series that were brought over from Japan unedited and subtitled in English. While anime has become much more popular in the years since, in 1991, it was still mostly unknown as a storytelling medium in North America. "Bubblegum Crisis" was aired in the US when it first aired on PBS affiliate Superstation KTEH in the 1990s, and STARZ!'s Action Channel in 2000.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: An English dub of the series was produced beginning in 1994 by AnimEigo through Southwynde Studios in Wilmington, NC, and released to VHS and Laserdisc beginning that year. A digitally-remastered compilation, featuring bilingual audio tracks and production extras, was released on DVD in 2004 by AnimEigo. The company later successfully crowdfunded a collector's edition Blu-ray release through Kickstarter in November 2013. The series was released on a regular edition Blu-ray on September 25, 2018. The series is currently available for streaming on Night Flight Plus.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: There are eight soundtrack releases (one per OVA), as well as numerous "vocal" albums which feature songs "inspired by" the series as well as many drawn directly from it.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: Critical reception of "Bubblegum Crisis" has been generally positive. Raphael See of THEM Anime Reviews gave the series a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, praising the quality of the animation, the soundtrack, and the series' sense of humor. However, he suggested it was held back by a low quality dub, a lack of character development, and an inconsistent plot, saying that while some episodes were "really solid", others would leave out many major details, forcing the viewer to make their own assumptions: "Overall, not a bad watch. In fact, at times, "Bubblegum Crisis" can be really good. Unfortunately, oversights and carelessness here and there keep this series from being all it can be."


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: Tim Henderson of Anime News Network gave the series an A- rating, praising the animation, soundtrack, story, and characters. He states that the series gets better with every passing episode, and that the final two episodes are the best of the series.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: Masaki Kajishima and Hiroki Hayashi, who both worked on the "Bubblegum Crisis" OVAs, cite the show as being the inspiration for their harem series "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki". In an interview with AIC, Hayashi described "Bubblegum Crisis" as "a pretty gloomy anime. Serious fighting, complicated human relationships, and dark Mega Tokyo." They thought it would be fun to create some comedy episodes with ideas like the girls going to the hot springs, but it was rejected by the sponsors. He also said that there was a trend to have a bunch of characters of one gender and a single one of the other gender, and asked what if Mackey (Sylia's brother) was a main character, reversing the "Bubblegum" scenario. This idea then became the basis for Tenchi. Hayashi said that Mackey is "sort of" the original model for Tenchi.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: Kevin Siembieda's becoming aware of "Boomers" being already in use in this caused him to changed his planned name for the "Rifts" RPG which he had named after the "Boom Gun"–wielding power armor which was also renamed to "Glitter Boy".


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: The success of the series spawned several sequel series. The first of them was the three-part OVA . After the split between Artmic and Youmex, Artmic proceeded to make a sequel on their own, "Bubblegum Crash", which ran three OVA episodes and is conjectured that it was a shortened version of how "Crisis" was to end. Youmex promptly sued Artmic, cutting "Crash" short and tying the entire franchise up in legal issues for the next several years.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: It is set in 2034, and the Knight Sabers seem to be finished; each of its members—except Nene—have seemingly drifted off to pursue their own goals. But at the same time, parts of a unique artificial intelligence are stolen by several villains acting under the orders of a mysterious voice. Unexpectedly, Sylia resurfaces and prepares her teammates for battle. And as a gigantic machine drills its way to Mega Tokyo's main nuclear power plant, they meet again with an old and deadly enemy.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: English (Southwynde Studios): Amanda Tancredi, Chuck Kinlaw, Grenoldo Frazier, Jack Bowden, Lou Criscuolo, Matthew Alexander, Michael Sinterniklaas, Scott Simpson, Sean Clay, Sophia Tolar, Steve Vernon, Zach Hanner


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: In 1993, it appeared on "Scramble Wars", a crossover event between "Bubblegum Crisis", "Gall Force", "Genesis Survivor Gaiarth", "AD Police" and "Riding Bean".


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: In Japan, a number of comic books were produced that featured characters and storylines based in the same universe. Some were very much thematically linked to the OVA series, while others were "one-shots" or comedy features. A number of artists participated in the creation of these comics, including Kenichi Sonoda, who had produced the original Knight Saber character designs. A North American comic based in the "Bubblegum Crisis" universe was published in English by Dark Horse Comics.


title: Bubblegum Crisis

text: In May 2009 it was announced that a live-action movie of "Bubblegum Crisis" was in the early stages of production. A production agreement was signed at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival. The film was expected to be released in late 2012 with a budget of 30 million. The production staff was said to have consulted with the original anime's staff members, Shinji Aramaki and Kenichi Sonoda, to help maintain consistency with the world of the original. However, no further developments have been announced.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Monkeypox virus (MPV, MPXV, or hMPXV) is a species of double-stranded DNA virus that causes monkeypox in humans and other mammals. Monkeypox virus is a zoonotic virus belonging to the "orthopoxvirus" genus, making it closely related to the variola (VARV), cowpox (CPX), and vaccinia (VACV) viruses. MPV is oval-shaped with a lipoprotein outer membrane. The genome is approximately 190 kb.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The variola and monkeypox virus are both orthopoxviruses, and so the smallpox vaccine is effective against monkeypox if given within 3–5 years before contracting the disease. The clinical presentation of Monkeypox is similar to smallpox, but with a milder rash and lower mortality rate. The virus is transmissible between animals and humans, by direct contact to the lesions or bodily fluids. Monkeypox was given its name after being isolated from monkeys, but the majority of the carriers of this virus are rodents.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Variation in virulence of the virus has been observed in isolates from Central Africa, where strains are more virulent than those from Western Africa. The two areas have distinct clades of the virus, termed clade I, formerly the Congo Basin (Central African) clade, and clade II, formerly the West African clade. Though there are many natural hosts for the monkeypox virus, the exact reservoirs and how the virus is circulated in nature needs to be studied further.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Though the monkeypox virus has been circulating around the globe for the past several decades, first discovered in 1970, research on this virus is minimal compared to other orthodox viruses. Most of the what is known about the monkeypox virus is information pieced together from studies on different but related viruses, notably other orthopox viruses.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: MPV is part of the genus "Orthopoxvirus," belonging to the "Poxviridae" family, which have been listed by the WHO as diseases with epidemic or pandemic potential. There are two major clades one from the Congo Basin and the other one has been endemic to the West Africa region. The Congo Basin clade has been found to be more virulent and deadly with a reproductive number of 0.6 to 1.0.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: MPV is 96.3% identical to the variola virus in regards to its coding region, but it does differ in parts of the genome which encode for virulence and host range. Through phylogenetic analysis, it was found that MPV is not a direct descendent of the variola virus.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The monkeypox virus, like other poxviruses, is oval shaped, with a lipoprotein outer membrane. The outer membrane protects the enzymes, DNA, and transcription factors of the virus. Typical DNA viruses replicate and express their genome in the nuclease of ekaryotic cells. They heavily rely on the host cells machinery; however, the monkeypox viruses rely mostly on the protein encoded in their genome that allow them to replicate in the cytoplasm.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Genome of the monkeypox virus is around 200kb long coding for approximately 200 proteins. It has double stranded DNA which presents in a linear shape with covalently closed hairpin ends; the 3’ and 5’ ends are not free. Similar to other poxviruses, the irons of monkey pox have large oval shaped envelopes. Within each viiron there is a core which holds the genome along with the enzymes that assist in dissolving the protein coat and replication. The center of the genome codes for genes involved in key functions such as viral transcription and assembly; genes located on the extermities of the viral genome are associated more towards interactions between the virus and the host cell such as spike protein characteristics.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The monkeypox DNA genome consists of approximately 197 kb with 190 non-overlapping Open Reading Frames (ORFs). The monkeypox virus contains a conserved coding region, with variable inverted terminal repeats at each end.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: As shown in the image below, the monkeypox virus is relatively large compared to other viruses. This makes it harder for the virus to breach the defenses of the host defenses, such as crossing past gap junctions. Furthermore, the large size makes it harder for the virus to quickly replicate and evade immune response. To evade host immune systems, and buy more time for replication; the monkeypox and other orthopox viruses has evolved to evade host immune cells by coding for both intracellular and extracellular modulatory proteins.The monkeypox virus has multiple surface proteins that facilitate its entry into host cells; the virus can use 11-12 transmembrane proteins to merge with the host cells. It likely binds to glycosaminoglycans or laminin on the cell surface.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Due to it being a DNA virus with a relatively low reproduction number, the virus is less likely to mutate compared to RNA viruses such as SARS-COV-2.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: As an "Orthopoxvirus", MPV replication occurs entirely in the cell cytoplasm within 'factories'- created from the host rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- where viral mRNA transcription and translation also take place. The factories are also where DNA replication, gene expression, and mature virions (MV) are created.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: MVs are able to bind to the cell surface with the help of viral proteins. Virus entry into the host cell plasma membrane is dependent on a neutral pH, otherwise entry occurs via a low-pH dependent endocytic route. The MV of the monkeypox virus has an Entry Fusion Complex (EFC), allowing it to enter the host cell after attachment.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Translation of mRNA into structural virions occurs using the host ribosomes. Gene expression begins when MPV releases viral proteins and enzymatic factors that disable the cell. Mature virions are infectious, however, they will stay inside the cell, until they are transported from the factories to the Golgi/endosomal comportment. Protein synthesis allows for the ER membrane of the factory to dismantle, while small two lipid bilayer membranes will appear to encapsulate the genomes of new virions, now extracellular viruses (EVs). The VPS52 and VPS54 genes of the GARP complex, which is important for transport, are necessary for wrapping the virus, and formation of EVs. DNA concatemers process the genomes, which appear in new virions, along with other enzymes, and genetic information needed for the replication cycle to occur. EVs are necessary for the spread of the virus from cell-to-cell and its long-distance spread.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The MPV virus is primarily transmitted through direct contact, infection from respiratory droplets is much lower. These two different modes of transmission also determines the host cells that are targeted by the MPV virus.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Zoonotic transmission can occur from direct contact with the blood, bodily fluids, wounds, or mucosal lesions of infected animals whether they are dead or alive. The virus is thought to have originated in Africa where evidence of the virus has been observed in multiple animals ranging from rope squirrels, tree squirrels, Gambian pouched rats, dormice, different species of monkeys. Though the natural reservoir of the monkeypox virus has not yet been established, rodents are speculated to be the most likely reservoir. Eating meat that has not been properly cooked and consuming other products of infected animals proves to be a major risk factor in the spread of infection.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Anthropogenic spread of the monkey pox disease is attributed to close contact with respiratory secretions and skin lesions of infected people or contaminated surfaces. For the virus to propagate through inhalation of contaminated air droplets, prolonged face to face contact is required. Pregnant women can spread the virus to their fetus through the placenta. In the United States, men are more disproportionately infected by the virus primarily during intercourse. The effective reproduction number of monkeypox has been found to be the highest in the United States, estimated as 1.55 (95% CrI: 1.42, 1.73). This means a single infected person is, on average, spreading it to 1.55 people.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The incubation period is between generally between 6 and 13 days; however, can range anywhere from 5 to 21 days. Prodromal symptoms include swelling of lymph nodes, muscle pain, headache, fever, prior to the emergence of the rash.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Signs and symptoms of monkeypox usually present themselves after the incubation period which can range from 5–21 days but is most commonly in the range of 6–13 days. Being a self-limited virus, the symptoms of monkeypox in humans does not typically last longer than 4 weeks but can vary in severity depending on several factors including age of the patient and extent of time exposed to the virus. Children and immunocompromised patients are more likely to experience severe symptoms when exposed and infected with monkeypox. Monkeypox has many similar symptoms to other pox viruses in the infection period including fever, headaches, back pain, muscle pains and an intense lack of energy. A sign unique to monkeypox compared to other pox viruses is lymphadenopathy, or swelling of the lymph nodes, particularly in the mandibular, cervical, or inguinal regions. Skin lesions typically present themselves on patients within 3 days of experiencing fever where they affect the face in an overwhelming majority of cases and other extremities of the body before affecting the trunk. The rash gradually develops on the body progressing from macules to pustules over a period of time eventually crusting over and falling off, sometimes sloughing off a portion of skin depending on the number of lesions and the severity of the case.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Because of the close relation of monkeypox to other poxviruses such as smallpox, many of the same vaccines that have been proven to protect against smallpox are presumed to protect against the human monkeypox virus as well. These presumptions about the effectiveness of smallpox vaccines for the use of treating the human monkeypox virus are not yet conclusive, as smallpox vaccinations have stopped being administered in many countries, like the United States, after the virus was deemed to have been eradicated. Still, the CDC has made a recommendation for those considered at high risk for infection by the monkeypox virus to consider receiving a smallpox vaccine. There are three existing smallpox vaccines in the US Strategic National Stockpile, two of which, JYNNEOS and ACAM2000, are licensed for protection against smallpox. The JYNNEOS vaccine is a two-dose vaccine that was developed to fight and protect against both the smallpox and monkeypox viruses, while the ACAM2000 is a vaccine that was developed to protect against smallpox but has been approved to help protect against monkeypox as well. People who have had close contact with other humans or animals that were shown to have monkeypox are recommended to get vaccinated. Other prevention recommendations from the CDC are to avoid interacting with or touching materials that have been touched by an infected animal or human as well as to rinse your hands with soap and water following exposure or contact with an infected animal or human.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: As a self-limited disease, the Monkeypox virus generally does not require treatment in the majority of people who acquire it. In general, most patients infected by Monkeypox will recover within 2–4 weeks without treatment. While fatality rate associated with Monkeypox is significantly lower than other poxviruses like smallpox (~ 30%), the fatality rate associated with those infected by the Monkeypox virus is regionally variable and ranges from less than 1% to as high as 11%. Thus, treatment options are often necessary for individuals who are immunocompromised or have a higher risk for severe disease. Currently, there are no FDA-approved treatments for the Monkeypox virus specifically. There are, however, FDA-approved antivirals that are designed to treat smallpox and are thought to potentially be able to treat Monkeypox in humans as well. The treatment of choice for smallpox in humans is Tecovirimat (TPOXX). TPOXX has not been approved by the FDA for treatment against Monkeypox, but has been approved by the CDC to be used as a form of early treatment against non-variola orthopoxvirus infections, which includes Monkeypox, under an Investigational New Drug (EA-IND) protocol.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Pox viruses have mechanisms to evade the hosts' innate and adaptive immune systems. When infected human fibroblast cells have been observed to show cytopathic changes, but gene expression of the host cell remains unchanged. Interferon produced by human fibroblast cells were not sufficient to slow viral replication. The Monkeypox virus gene BR-209 is an interleukin-1β (IL-1β) inhibitor that prevents interaction with the receptor. The viral complement control protein (CCP), also known as MOPICE, a virulence factor, allows the virus to evade neutralization, opsonization, viral particle lysis, and phagocytosis.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The monkey pox virus can prevent apoptosis in infected cells by targeting apoptotic pathways; the mechanism is still under research. Moreover, the monkey pox virus can evade cytotoxicity mediated by t-cell and natural killer cells by producing MHC classI-like protein(OMCP) which resembles MHC class I module and it binds to NKG2D. Natural killer T cells continually survey cells with NKG2D for absence of MHC class I proteins; the monkeypox virus with its OMCP passes the check. The virus also produces other proteins that further block cytotoxic activities. Evading the host immune system is crucial because of how large the monkeypox virus is.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: In short, MPV has a unique immune system, MHC dependent, evasion tactic to evade antiviral CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The virus is subclassified into two main clades, the Central African/Congo Basin clade (CA) and the West African clade (WA). The World Health Organization uses Roman numerals to denote each clade and a lowercase Latin script letter for subclades.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: At the protein level, the CA clade and WA clade share 170 orthologs, and their transcriptional regulatory sequences show no significant differences. Both clades have 53 common virulence genes, which contain different types of amino acid changes. 121 of the amino acid changes in the virulence genes are silent, while 61 are conservative, and 93 are non-conservative.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Both clades vary in virulence, with the CA clade having more human-human transmission, and having a higher mortality rate in non-vaccinated people. The WA clade was thought to be less transmissible between humans. The 2022 Monkeypox outbreak was caused by the WA clade of the virus.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Monkeypox virus is carried by various animals including primates. It was first identified by Preben von Magnus in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1958 in crab-eating macaque monkeys ("Macaca fascicularis") being used as laboratory animals. The 2003 outbreak in the United States was traced to prairie dogs infected from an imported Gambian pouched rat from Ghana.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Monkeypox virus causes disease in both primates and in other animals. The virus is mainly found in tropical rainforest regions of Central and West Africa.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The virus is mainly found in the tropical forests of Central Africa and West Africa. It was first discovered in monkeys in 1958, and in humans in 1970. Between 1970 and 1986, over 400 cases in humans were reported. Small viral outbreaks with secondary human-to-human infection occur routinely in equatorial Central and West Africa. The primary route of infection is thought to be contact with the infected animals or their bodily fluids. The first reported outbreak outside Africa occurred in 2003 in the Midwestern United States in Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, with one occurrence in New Jersey. A significant outbreak in Nigeria occurred in 2017.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: The Monkeypox virus is a highly complex virus and is not yet fully understood. Many laboratories across the globe continue to study the virus as it has been spreading significantly outside of its endemic areas. Pathologic examination of the virus are carefully being done on formalin-fixed or inactivated tissues. One study done by Manes et al. inoculated a MPV strain obtained from the CDC into HeLa cells. The original strain was obtained from a victim of the virus. Most of our current understanding of the monkeypox virus stems from the knowledge cultivated from studying the variola virus.


title: Monkeypox virus

text: Moreover, there are multiple sites conducting epidemiological analysis on the spread of the disease and its evolution as new variants arise. Like the public extinction of smallpox through a global coordinated effort of vaccination, it may be possible to drive the monkeypox virus into extinction with effective vaccination due to its relatively low virulence.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina Sforza (1463 – 28 May 1509) was an Italian noblewoman, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, firstly with her husband Girolamo Riario, and after his death as a regent of her son Ottaviano.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina was a noblewoman who lived a life maintaining her responsibilities with her family and power as a ruler in the courts. Her status and image was shaped by the masculine and feminine roles she took on throughout her lifetime as a ruler, wife, widow, and mother, in addition to the cultural activities she participated in during Renaissance Italy.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The descendant of a dynasty of noted condottieri, from an early age, Caterina distinguished herself through her bold and impetuous actions taken to safeguard her possessions from possible usurpers and to defend her dominions from attack, when they were involved in political intrigues.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In her private life, Caterina was devoted to various activities, including experiments in alchemy and a love of hunting, dancing, and horse riding. She was educated and engaged in religious rituals and matters, commissioned works of art, a fashion icon, and was a collector of many jewels and clothing. In addition, she undertook urban, residential, and military architectural projects. While her role as a ruler was considered to be masculine, Caterina had series of portrait medals that embodied her diplomatic skills and political power as a successful regent. At the time, portrait medals were important among the noble society and could be distributed and exchanged as a way to communicate self-presentation, characteristic, and accomplishments of that person. Caterina's first medal represented her beauty, womanly virtue, and conformity to the female role as a noble wife and mother. When Girolamo died, Caterina's next medal represented loyalty and protection of her family with her new position as a chaste widow. While it was feminine, it was also clearly masculine because it represented her additional powerful position as a regent.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: She had many children, but only the youngest, Captain Giovanni delle Bande Nere, inherited his mother's forceful, militant personality. Caterina's resistance to Cesare Borgia meant she had to face his fury and imprisonment. After she gained her freedom in Rome, she then went on to lead a quiet life in Florence. In the final years of her life, she confided to a monk: "Se io potessi scrivere tutto, farei stupire il mondo" ("If I could write everything that happened, I would shock the world").


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina Sforza was born in Milan in 1463. She was one of the illegitimate children of Galeazzo Maria Sforza and his mistress Lucrezia Landriani who was wife to Count Gian Piero Landriani. The Count was a courtier of the Milanese ducal court and a close friend to Galeazzo. In her early years, Caterina spent her time under the care of her mother’s side of the family. The bond she had with her mother Lucrezia never faltered. She followed Caterina’s growing years and stayed close during crucial moments of her life, even during her final years in Florence.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Following the death of Francesco, Caterina’s paternal grandfather, and the succession of her father Galeazzo Maria Sforza as Duke of Milan in 1466, Caterina and her siblings were brought to court. All four of Lucrezia Landriani's children were entrusted to Bianca Maria Visconti, Caterina’s paternal grandmother. The year of his succession, the Duke had married Dorotea Gonzaga. By 1468, Dorotea had passed away and on May 9 the Duke remarried to Bona of Savoy who adopted all four children. Carlo, born in 1461 would later become Count of Magenta. Alessandro, born in 1465 would later become Lord of Francavilla. Chiara, born in 1467 would become Countess dal Verme di Sanguinetto through her first marriage, and Lady of Novi by her second.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina and her siblings received a humanistic education while exposed to writers and artists at the Sforza court. Being part of an Italian noble family during this time meant she would receive the same education as her brothers. She benefited from learning Latin and reading classic works of the time. From her paternal grandmother, she learned to take pride in her warlike ancestors, to show boldness in the use of arms, and astuteness in the skill of government. From Bona, she received not only maternal warmth and affection, which the adoptive mother poured over all her husband’s children, but also a potential first introduction to the world of botanical pharmaceuticals. Bona entered court with her personal apothecary, Cristoforo de Brugora, a line of work Caterina would explore later in life through her experiments. Her relationship with Bona would continue through correspondence after Caterina left the Milanese court.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina’s father, whose family resided in Milan and Pavia, was a devoted hunter and often stayed either at Galliate or Cusago. It is believed that between these two locations, her own passion for hunting was acquired.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In 1473, Caterina became betrothed to Girolamo Riario, the son of Paolo Riario and Bianca della Rovere, sister of Pope Sixtus IV (in office: 1471–1484). Caterina replaced her cousin, the 11-year-old Costanza Fogliani, as Girolamo's bride because, according to some historians, Costanza's mother Gabriella Gonzaga (illegitimate daughter of Marquis Ludovico III of Mantua) refused to allow the consummation of the marriage until Costanza reached the legal age—then 14—while Caterina, although only ten years old at that time, agreed with the demands of the groom; other sources instead reported that the marriage of Caterina and Girolamo was celebrated on 17 January 1473, but consummated four years later (1477) when Caterina reached the age of fourteen, without giving further details about the broken betrothal with Costanza.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Pope Sixtus IV gave Girolamo the Lordship of Imola, already a Sforza city, but at the time a fief of the Riario family. Caterina was a part of the two richest courts in Italy after marrying Girolamo and being daughter to the Duke of Milan. After a triumphal entrance into Imola in 1477, Caterina went to Rome with her husband, where he lived for many years in the service of his uncle, the Pope. The following year, in March 1478, Caterina gave birth to her first child, a daughter named Bianca after both Girolamo's mother, Bianca della Rovere, and Caterina's paternal grandmother, Bianca Maria Visconti. Caterina subsequently gave birth to five more children in the next nine years.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: At the end of the 15th century, Rome was no longer a medieval city, but not yet the important centre of artistic endeavors it would become a few decades later as one of the most important cities of the Renaissance. Upon her arrival in May 1477, Caterina found a city full of cultural fervour, with a desire for renovation.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The atmosphere was a mix of intrigue and power, which was pursued without scruples, with material interests far exceeding the spiritual. Caterina was banned by her husband from meddling in politics, but she quickly integrated—owing to her extroverted and sociable character—into aristocratic Roman society.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: As evidenced by correspondence from that period, Caterina immediately became admired as one of the most beautiful and elegant among noble Roman women. She was welcomed everywhere, treated with great respect and lavishly praised by all of society including the Pope, and she soon transformed from a simple adolescent into a refined and powerful intermediary between the Roman court and other Italian courts, especially Milan.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Girolamo was given a leading position in the expansion policy of Pope Sixtus IV after the premature death of the Pope's favoured nephew, Cardinal Pietro Riario. His power grew daily, and he soon displayed increasing ruthlessness towards his enemies. In 1480, the Pope, with the objective of attaining a strong domain in the land of Romagna, assigned Girolamo the lordship of Forlì, which had remained vacant after it was sequestered from the Ordelaffi family. The new lord tried to earn the favour of the populace by erecting magnificent public buildings and churches, and by abolishing taxes.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: When Pope Sixtus IV died, Girolamo made many enemies in Rome. Therefore, rebellions and disorder immediately spread through Rome, including looting of his supporters' residences. Girolamo's residence, the Orsini palace in Campo de' Fiori, was stripped of its contents and almost destroyed.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In this time of anarchy, Caterina, who was in her seventh month of pregnancy, crossed the Tiber on horseback to occupy the "rocca" (fortress) of Castel Sant'Angelo on behalf of her husband. From this position and with the obedience of the soldiers, Caterina could monitor the Vatican and dictate the conditions for the new conclave.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Meanwhile, the disorder in the city increased. A militia accompanied the arrival of the cardinals. The latter did not want to attend the funeral of Sixtus IV and refused to enter into conclave, for fear of coming under the fire of Caterina's artillery. The situation was difficult because only the election of a new Pope would put an end to the violence in Rome. Unsuccessful attempts to persuade her to leave the fortress failed, as she was determined to give it only to the new Pope, saying that Pope Sixtus had bestowed its control to her family.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Girolamo and his army occupied a strategic position at that point, yet could not implement an effective solution. The Sacred College asked Girolamo to leave Rome, offering in return the confirmation of his lordship over Imola and Forlì, the military post of captain-general of the Church, and 8,000 ducats in compensation for the damages to his property. Girolamo accepted. When Caterina was informed of the decisions taken by her husband, she increased the quota of her soldiers and made preparations for resistance in order to force the cardinals to parley with her. The cardinals again approached Girolamo, who took up a position against his wife. On 25 October 1484, Caterina surrendered the fortress to the Sacred College and left Rome with her family. The Sacred College were then able to meet in conclave to elect the new Pope.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In Forlì, law and order had been maintained by Caterina's uncle Ludovico il Moro Sforza, Duke of Milan. On their arrival, the Riarios learned of the election of Giovanni Battista Cybo, an old opponent, as Pope Innocent VIII. He confirmed Girolamo in his lordships of Imola and Forlì and his appointment as captain-general. That appointment, however, was only nominal; Girolamo had no real control over the papal army and Innocent VIII refused to pay Girolamo for leaving Rome.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: This situation lasted until the end of 1485, when the city government completely ran out of money. Girolamo, pressed by a member of the Council of Elders, Nicolò Pansecco, was forced to levy taxes. The taxes were deemed excessive by the population and led to Girolamo's increased unpopularity among all citizens of Forlì.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The tax increase, which affected mainly craftsmen and landowners, added to the discontent that had previously been limited to the families who had suffered under Girolamo's persecution of those whom he suspected of treachery. His enemies began to conspire against him with a view to making Franceschetto Cybo, the illegitimate son of Pope Innocent, lord of Imola and Forlì in his stead.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After more than a half dozen failed attempts, Girolamo was killed on 14 April 1488 by a conspiracy led by the Orsis, a noble family of Forlì. The lord's palace was sacked, while Caterina and her six children were made prisoners.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The fortress of Ravaldino, a central part of the defensive system of the city, refused to surrender to the Orsis. Caterina offered to attempt to persuade the castellan, Tommaso Feo, to submit. The Orsis believed Caterina because she left her children as hostages, but once inside she let loose a barrage of vulgar threats and promises of vengeance against her former captors. According to one rumour, when they threatened to kill her children, Caterina, standing in the walls of the fortress exposed her genitals and said: "" ('Do it, if you want to: hang them even in front of me ... here I have what's needed to make others!'). This story, however, is most likely an untrue embellishment. The historical record tells that Caterina, in fact, said she was pregnant. Although her statement that she was pregnant is, by most historians, considered to have been a ruse, it rendered worthless any power the conspirators had in holding her children, Girolamo's legitimate heirs.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Shocked by this response, the Orsis did not dare touch the Riario children. With the assistance of her uncle Ludovico il Moro (very interested in securing some influence in the Romagna, to counter the influence of Venice), Caterina defeated her enemies and regained possession of her dominions.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: On 30 April 1488, Caterina became regent of Forlì for her eldest son Ottaviano, formally recognized by all the members of the Comune and the head of the magistrates as the new Lord of Forlì that day, but too young to exercise power directly. In a patriarchal society, women were considered irrational and vulnerable. Thus, regency was considered problematic because of the masculine role that the widow had to take on as a ruler. Nonetheless, Caterina defied the social and cultural barriers that society put on female regents and became known for her successful role as a regent for twelve years.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina's first act as Regent of Forlì was to avenge the death of her husband, according to the custom of the time. She ordered that all those involved in the Orsi conspiracy were to be imprisoned, along with the Pope's governor, Monsignor Savelli, all the pontifical generals, and the castellan of the fortress of Forlimpopoli, and also all women of the Orsis and other families who had assisted in the conspiracy. Soldiers sought out all who had taken part in the conspiracy. Houses owned by those imprisoned were razed while their valuables were distributed to the poor.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: On 30 July news came that Pope Innocent VIII had given Ottaviano Riario the official investiture of his state "until his line ended". In the meantime, Forlì was visited by Cardinal Raffaele Riario, officially to protect the orphan children of his late cousin Girolamo but actually, to oversee the government of Caterina.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The young Countess personally dealt with all issues concerning the government of her city-state, both public and private. To consolidate her power, she exchanged gifts with the lords of neighbouring states and involved herself in marriage negotiations for her children. She decreased taxes by reducing some and eliminating others, and sharply controlled her realm's spending. Caterina dealt directly with the training of her militia in the use of weapons and horses. It was her intention that her cities and towns be orderly and peaceful, and she expected her subjects to appreciate these efforts.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The states of Forlì and Imola were smaller than the great Italian states but, due to their geographical position, had a considerable strategic importance on the political affairs. In those years there were significant events that changed the geopolitical situation of Italy. Lorenzo il Magnifico, whose shrewd policy had curbed claims and rivalries of the various Italian states, died on 8 April 1492. Pope Innocent VIII also died on 25 July of that year, and was replaced by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, who took the name of Pope Alexander VI. His election seemed to strengthen Caterina's rule. While she and her husband had lived in Rome, the Cardinal had often been a guest at their home, and he was godfather to Ottaviano.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: These events directly threatened the stability and peace in Italy. With the death of Lorenzo there came about friction between the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, leading up to the crisis of September 1494, when, incited by Ludovico il Moro, King Charles VIII of France entered into Italy to claim the Kingdom of Naples as the Anjou heir. At first Pope Alexander VI also gave his support to Charles's claim, leading to four years of war.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: During the conflict between Naples and Milan, Caterina, who knew that she was placed in a strategic position of passage for anyone who wanted to go to the south, tried to remain neutral. She knew Forlì was exposed to invasion, located in a strategic position on the way to Rome. On one side, her uncle Ludovico had allied with Charles VIII; on the other side, Pope Alexander VI now opposed France's ambitions in Italy, and her brother-in-law, Cardinal Raffaele Riario, argued in favour of the incumbent King of Naples.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After a meeting on 23 September 1494, Caterina was persuaded by the Duke of Calabria Ferrandino d'Aragona to support King Alfonso II of Naples and prepared to defend Imola and Forlì.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: To cause the break between the two was then the so-called sack of Mordano, which took place between 20 and 21 October: around the city of Mordano they had gathered between fourteen thousand to sixteen thousand French to encircle it with siege and at the same time to trap Ferrandino, who having a smaller number of men would almost certainly have been defeated. He therefore, understanding the situation, on the advice of his generals decided not to respond to the countess's requests for help. Caterina, very angry, considered herself betrayed by the Neapolitan allies and passed on the side of the French, who had devastated her lands and massacred her subjects, therefore Ferrandino, having learned the news, under a relentless downpour was forced to leave Faenza with his men and move in the direction of Cesena.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Note in this regard the chronicler forlivese Leone Cobelli that, while Ferrandino always behaved honestly, Caterina sent men behind him to rob him, albeit unsuccessfully:


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Charles VIII, however, preferred to avoid the Romagna and cross the Apennines, following the road of the Cisa pass. The Kingdom of Naples was conquered by the French army in only 13 days. This frightened the Italian principalities, and they formed the League of Venice against Charles VIII. Despite the numerical advantage of their opponents, the French won the engagement and Charles was able to march his army out of Italy.The numerical superiority of the Italian coalition served little purpose, the end of the day, due to a lack of organization and the ineffective use of light cavalry and infantry Fornovo and the French Kind was able to withdraw to France.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: This time, Caterina managed to remain neutral. By not participating in the expulsion of the French, she maintained the support of both her uncle Ludovico in Milan (now legitimate Duke of Milan) and also that of the Pope.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Two months after the death of Girolamo, a rumour was spread that Caterina was close to marrying Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had started to court her. This marriage would end the claims of the Ordelaffi family on the city of Forlì. Antonio Maria, feeling confident, wrote to the Duke of Ferrara that the Countess promised to marry him. When Caterina saw how things stood, she imprisoned those who had spread the false news. These promises were addressed by the Senate in Venice, which summoned Antonio Maria to Friuli, where he remained confined for ten years.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Instead, Caterina had fallen in love with Giacomo Feo, the brother of Tommaso Feo, the Girolamo's former courtiers and castellan who had remained faithful to her after the assassination of her husband. However, Giacomo was not educated or a noble. Caterina knew not to make it publicly known that she remarried after Girolamo's death. Therefore, Caterina secretly married Giacomo in 1488 to avoid losing custody of her children and the regency of her dominions.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: All the contemporary chronicles reported that Caterina was madly in love with the young Giacomo. It was feared that she could strip her son Ottaviano of his future lordship, in order to give it to her lover and secret husband.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Giacomo was appointed castellan of the fortress of Ravaldino in place of his brother, and was awarded with an order of chivalry from Ludovico il Moro. In April 1489, Caterina gave birth to Giacomo's son, Bernardino, later called "Carlo" in honour of King Charles VIII, who had made Giacomo a baron of France. Also, she had replaced the castellans of the fortresses of her dominions with her closest relatives: the fortress of Imola was given to Gian Piero Landriani, her stepfather, and the fortress of Forlimpopoli to Piero Landriani, her half-brother, while Tommaso Feo was married to Bianca Landriani, Caterina's half-sister.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: At Tossignano, a conspiracy was formed to seize the fortress in the name of Ottaviano, and murder both Giacomo and Caterina. The Countess discovered the plot and imprisoned or executed those who were involved. Immediately after this conspiracy was foiled, another plot was organized by Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had never become resigned to the loss of Forlí, but this also failed.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Giacomo's power increased, and with his cruelty and insolence he incurred the hatred of all, including Caterina's children. On one occasion, in full view of the public, he slapped Ottaviano (the rightful Lord of Forlì), but nobody had the courage to defend the boy. After this incident, adherents of Ottaviano decided to liberate the city from the domination of Giacomo Feo. In addition, Caterina's people began to resent the wrongful influence and power that Giacomo had on Forlí.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In Renaissance Italy, there was a difference between a “good mother” and a “cruel mother” depending on the life that a widow chose afterwards. A “good mother” would not remarry and would play both roles as a mother and a father figure to her children. A “cruel mother” would put herself and her interests above her children by remarrying. This would be considered abandonment of her children because of the consequences that the children are faced with behind a new family and new father figure from their mother remarrying. Sometimes the widow would take her dowry and actually abandon her children to the paternal kin. Along with Caterina's secret marriage to Giacomo and Giacomo's cruelty towards Caterina's children, Caterina was seemingly taking on the identity as a "cruel mother" in the eyes of Renaissance Italy. Instead of focusing on ruling Forlí, she let her relationship with Giacomo get in the way, which made her people feel uneasy. Caterina’s relationship with Giacomo not only put her children in jeopardy, but also the social order of Forlì.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Gian Antonio Ghetti and some of Caterina's own children formed a conspiracy. On the evening of 27 August 1495, Caterina, Giacomo Feo, and their entourage were returning from a hunt. Caterina, her daughter Bianca Riario and some of her ladies-in-waiting rode in a carriage, followed on horseback by Giacomo, Ottaviano, and his brother Cesare and many "staffieri" and soldiers. Agents of the conspiracy attacked and mortally wounded Giacomo. The same day, Ghetti went to Caterina, thinking that she had secretly given the order to kill Giacomo. Caterina was unaware of the plot, and her revenge was terrible. When her first husband was murdered, she avenged his death according to the justice of the time; now she reacted with vindictive fury. She was not satisfied with mere executions: their deaths had to be among the most cruel and painful. Again, her relationship and strong feelings towards Giacomo got in the way of her thinking clearly. By using the power she had and not thinking about the consequences and what her people would think of her, Catherine even slaughtered the children, infants and pregnant women of the conspirators. Thus Marin Sanudo, who says it is "cruelest":Thirty-eight people were executed for the crime - including Ghetti and his wife and children - and many others imprisoned or exiled. Caterina's fury blinded her to the politics that had inspired the plot. It had involved almost all the supporters of Ottaviano Riario, who were convinced that Caterina had given her tacit consent to the killing of the man who was considered the "usurper" of the state's rightful ruler. They had wanted to uphold the power of the Riario family. As a result of the massacre which followed the assassination of Giacomo Feo, Caterina lost, forever, the good will of her people.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In 1496, the ambassador of the Republic of Florence, Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano, paid a visit to Caterina. The second son of Pierfrancesco il Vecchio, he belonged to a collateral branch of the Medici family. Along with his older brother Lorenzo, he had been sent into exile because of his open hostility toward their cousin Piero, who succeeded his father Lorenzo il Magnifico in the government of Florence. In 1494, when Charles VIII invaded Italy, Piero was forced to sign a treaty which allowed the French army to move freely into the Kingdom of Naples. The people of Florence were liberated, deposed Piero and proclaimed a Republic. Giovanni and his brother were able to return to their homeland. They renounced the Medici surname and took the name of "Popolano". The Florentine government appointed Giovanni as ambassador to Forlì.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Shortly after coming to Forlì, Giovanni and his entourage were housed in the apartments adjacent to Caterina's in the fortress of Ravaldino. The rumours of a possible marriage between Giovanni and Caterina and that Ottaviano Riario had accepted the post of Condottiero from Florence threatened the Venetians, and alarmed the lords of the League and the Duke of Milan.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina could not hide her wedding plans and her own feelings from her uncle Ludovico; she truly fell in love with the handsome, charming, and intelligent Giovanni. The situation differed from the previous one as this time Caterina had the approval of her children and she also obtained the consent of her uncle. The marriage of two people from such powerful families, however, was likely to arouse opposition, so they were wed in secret in September 1497.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In April 1498, Caterina bore Giovanni a son, the last of her children. The child was baptised as Ludovico after his mother's uncle, the Duke of Milan, but later he became known by the name Giovanni delle Bande Nere.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Meanwhile, affairs between Florence and Venice were getting worse and Caterina, who occupied the main route between the two cities, prepared her defenses. She sent a contingent of knights to the aid of Florence, led by Giovanni and her eldest son, Ottaviano Riario, accompanied by men she had trained herself.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Giovanni became seriously ill and was compelled to leave the battlefield and return to Forlì. There, despite treatment, his condition deteriorated and he was transferred to Santa Maria in Bagno, where he hoped for a miraculous recovery. On 14 September 1498, Giovanni died in the presence of Caterina, who had been summoned urgently to attend him. Giovanni's death left Caterina alone to face the Borgias.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After having returned to Forlì in order to make preparations for the defense of her states, Caterina was occupied by military concerns, especially logistics. Training the militia was executed by the Countess in person. To find additional money and troops, she wrote to her uncle Ludovico, the Republic of Florence and the neighbouring states who were her allies. Only the Marquis of Mantua and Ludovico il Moro sent a small contingent of soldiers. The latter sent two very valid leaders: and , but Caterina was not able to manage the grumpy and angry character of the first: she complained about it with her uncle, saying that Fracasso constantly quarreled with his brother and with the other captains, who did what he wanted and spoke badly of her; she even threatened to leave, offended by some of his words. Ludovico invited her to be patient, because, although he said "some bad words", they could not find a better leader than he was.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After an initial attack by the Venetians, which inflicted severe destruction, Caterina's army managed to outmanoeuvre them. Afterwards, the war continued with minor skirmishes until the Venetians were able to circumvent Forlì to reach Florence by another route.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In the meantime, Louis XII had succeeded to the French throne. Louis claimed the rights both to the Duchy of Milan as a grandson of Valentina Visconti, and to the Kingdom of Naples as heir to the House of Anjou. Before starting his campaign in Italy, Louis XII secured an alliance with Savoy, the Republic of Venice, and Pope Alexander VI. In the summer of 1499, he came to Italy with a formidable army; without having to fight a single battle, he occupied Piedmont, as well as Genoa and Cremona. On 6 October, he settled in Milan, which had been abandoned the previous month by Duke Ludovico, who fled to the Tyrol under the protection of his nephew-by-marriage Emperor Maximilian I.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Alexander VI allied himself with Louis XII in return for the King's support in establishing Alexander's son Cesare Borgia, the Duke of Valentinois, as ruler in Romagna. Alexander issued a Papal Bull on 9 March 1499 to invalidate the investiture of the feudal lords, including Caterina.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: When the French army left Milan with Cesare to begin the conquest of Romagna, Ludovico il Moro regained the Duchy with the help of the Austrians.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina sought relief from Florence against the approaching French army, but Florence was threatened by the Pope, so she was left alone to defend herself. She immediately began to recruit and train many soldiers and began to store weapons, ammunition and food. She reinforced the defenses, especially that of Ravaldino where she resided and which was already considered impenetrable. She also sent her children to Florence.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: On 24 November, Cesare Borgia arrived in Imola. The city gates were opened by the inhabitants, and he was able to take possession, after having conquered the fortress where the castellan Dionigi Naldi of Brisighella had resisted for several days. After seeing what had happened there, Caterina asked the people of Forlì if they also wanted to capitulate to Borgia, or if they wanted to be defended and endure the resulting siege. Because the people hesitated in answering, Caterina absolved the citizens of Forlì of their oath of fealty, and sealed herself in Ravaldino.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: On 19 December, the Duke of Valentinois took possession of Forlì and began the siege of the fortress. Caterina repeatedly refused all offers of peace, from Cesare and from Cardinal Riario. In response, Cesare offered 10,000 ducats for her, dead or alive. Caterina tried to capture Cesare when he came near the fortress to talk to her, but the attempt failed.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: For several days the artillery of both factions engaged in a mutual bombardment: Caterina's cannon inflicted heavy losses on the French army, but the French artillery damaged the defences of the main fortress. What was destroyed during the day was rebuilt during the night.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina's solitary resistance was admired throughout all Italy; Niccolò Machiavelli reports that many songs and epigrams were composed in her honour. All were lost except that of Marsilio Compagnon.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: As time passed without decisive results, Cesare changed his tactics. His troops bombarded the walls of the fortress continuously, even at night. After six days, they opened two breaches in the walls. On 12 January 1500, his forces stormed the fortress. The bloody battle was quick and decisive, and Caterina continued to resist, fighting with weapons in hand until she was taken prisoner. Among the gentlemen who were caught together with her, was her secretary, Marcantonio Baldraccani. Immediately she surrendered herself to Antoine Bissey (the "bailli" of Dijon) as a prisoner of the French, as she knew there was a law that prevented French forces from holding women as prisoners of war.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: According to Machiavelli, the defense operations were misdirected by Giovanni da Casale: "The poorly built fortress and the scant prudence of the defender, therefore, brought disgrace to the magnanimous enterprise of the Countess ...".


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Cesare obtained custody of Caterina from the French general, Yves d'Allègre, promising that he would treat her not as a prisoner but as a guest. Caterina and her entourage were therefore forced to go with the army that was preparing to conquer Pesaro. The conquest had to be postponed because on 5 February Ludovico il Moro returned to Milan, forcing French troops to turn back.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Cesare departed alone with the Papal army for Rome, where he took Caterina. In Rome, she was held in the Belvedere Palace. Towards the end of March, Caterina tried to escape but she was discovered and immediately imprisoned at Castel Sant'Angelo.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: To justify Caterina's imprisonment, Pope Alexander VI accused her of trying to kill him in November 1499 with letters impregnated with poison, as a response to the Papal bull which had deprived the countess of her fiefdoms.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Even today it is not known if the accusation was founded or not. Machiavelli believed that Caterina had tried to poison the Pope, while other historians, such as Jacob Burckhardt and Ferdinand Gregorovius, are not certain. An inconclusive and unfinished trial took place, and Caterina remained imprisoned until 30 June 1501, when she was released by Yves d'Allègre, who had come to Rome with the army of Louis XII for the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples. Alexander VI alleged that Caterina signed documents renouncing all of her fiefs, because in the meantime his son Cesare, with the acquisition of Pesaro, Rimini, and Faenza, was appointed Duke of Romagna.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After a brief stay in the residence of Cardinal Riario, Caterina embarked from Livorno to Florence, where her children were waiting for her.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In Florence, Caterina lived in the villas which had belonged to her third husband Giovanni de' Medici, often staying at the Villa Medici di Castello. Soon, she complained of being mistreated and living in a strained financial situation.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: For many years she conducted a legal battle against her brother-in-law Lorenzo de' Medici for the custody of her son Giovanni, who was entrusted to him during her imprisonment. The battle over Giovanni's custody, and inheritance, and loans with Medici continued on for four years. While she had to pay back her loans to Medici, she was able to regain guardianship of Giovani and his inheritance. In 1504, her son was finally returned to her, because the judge recognized that her confinement as a prisoner of war was not comparable to the detention of a criminal.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: With the death of Pope Alexander VI on 18 August 1503, Cesare Borgia lost all his power. This reopened the possibility of restoring to power all the old feudal lords of the Romagna who had been deposed. Caterina lost no time in sending letters to adherents, and pleaded her case to Pope Julius II in her own name and that of her son Ottaviano Riario. The new Pope was favourable to restoring the lordships of Imola and Forlì to the Riarios, but the populace of both cities declared that a majority of the people opposed the return of the Countess, so that the domain passed instead to Antonio Maria Ordelaffi on 22 October 1503.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After having lost her last chance to return to her former political power with Imola and Forlì, Caterina spent the last years of her life dedicated to her children, in particular to her youngest son Giovanni (her favourite and the most like her in personality and character). She also conducted a series of experiments in alchemy, the results of which were recorded in a manuscript titled "Gli Experimenti de la Ex.ma S.r Caterina da Furlj Matre de lo inllux.mo S.r Giouanni de Medici", or "Gli Experimenti". The book, dating back to 1500, contains a total of 454 recipes, roughly 66 of which are cosmetic related, 358 medicinal, and 38 alchemical. Her experimental activities situate her at the origins of a Medici interest that stretched well into the seventeenth century.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In April 1509, Caterina's health declined and was stricken by a severe case of pneumonia. She appeared to have recovered, but had a relapse of the disease, after which she made her will and arranged her burial. At the age of forty-six years, "The Tiger of Forlì", who had "frightened all of Romagna", died on 28 May 1509. Her body was placed in a small tomb in the chapel of Le Murate in Florence, a convent of nuns whom Caterina had befriended during her time in that city, and where she had kept a cell as a spiritual retreat. During the 1830s, the nuns were forced to leave the property, and in 1845 it was redesigned as a prison. Sometime during this renovation, Caterina's bones disappeared.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: ""She was wise, animose, great: complex, beautiful face, she spoke little. She wore a satin robe with two arms of trawl, a black velvet caper on the French, a man's girdle, and scarsella full of golden ducats; a sickle for the use of retort next to it, and among the soldiers at the foot, and on horseback was feared much, because that woman with weapons in hand was proud and cruel. She was the non-legitimate daughter of Count Francesco Sforza, the first captain of his time and to whom she was very similar in soul and daring, and she did not lack, being adorned with singular virtue, of some vice not small nor vulgar"."


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Marin Sanudo called her "female almost virago, cruelest", in relation to the massacre she made of the children and pregnant women of the conspirators, following the death of her second husband Giacomo Feo.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The leader says she is "cunning", ready to change parties on the occasion, but specifies that "to be a woman she is not without fear of her own things".


title: Caterina Sforza

text: The future cardinal Bernardo Dovizi da Bibbiena, in a letter in which he narrates to Piero de' Medici the "strange takeover" of Caterina with the Duke of Calabria Ferrandino d'Aragona (which took place on September 23, 1494), described her ugly in the face, bringing back in this the impressions of Ferrandino himself. In fact, although Caterina had a reputation among posterity as a woman of great beauty, the medals of the time depict a woman with masculine traits and somewhat corpulent.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Around 1502, according to an informant of Isabella d'Este, Caterina was "so fat that I could not make the comparison". Corpulence was, moreover, very common within the Sforza family: Caterina's father Galeazzo Maria himself, to whom Caterina was very similar, did not wear the cuirass that would perhaps have saved him from death - which he went to meet - "so as not to seem too fat".


title: Caterina Sforza

text: He had also inherited from the Sforza the typical important nose, slightly bead, and the protruding chin. Her hair had to be wavy and it seems that she kept it gathered behind her head, but it is not known for sure if she was blonde and clear in natural complexion or if she obtained these results through her own mixtures. This does not alter the fact that the blond was very frequent among members of the Sforza family.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In June 1537, 28 years after Caterina's death, her grandson Cosimo de' Medici, the only son of her own son Giovanni, became the Duke of Florence and in 1569, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Through him, Caterina was the direct ancestress of the later Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the Dukes of Modena and Reggio, and the Kings of Spain and France.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: In her book "The Warrior Queens: Boadicea's Chariot", British historian Antonia Fraser presents Caterina Sforza as a contrasting figure to her contemporary Isabella I of Castile. Fraser points out that whilst the murders ordered by Caterina were no worse than the massacres ordered by Isabella, historians have been much harsher in their judgment of the former. Fraser accounts for this by pointing out that Isabella's actions were sanctioned by the Church, as they were carried out in the name of Catholicism, whilst Caterina's were motivated by the personal, secular desire to preserve her property and rights.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina Sforza had a thirst for knowledge and had interests in alchemy, cosmetics, and medicine. She crafted a manuscript containing 454 recipes, with the recipes and experiments listed in alphabetical order. The recipes within her manuscript can be divided into three categories: “Lisci” (Cosmetics), “Chimica” (Chemistry), and “Medicine” (Medicine). Some of her medicinal recipes include remedies for lice, fever, and to heal wounds. She created cosmetic recipes for perfume, and methods to lighten skin and hair. Many of the experiment's cross categories as the cosmetic and medical recipes relied on the same procedures and ingredients as the chemical recipes.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: When Sforza relocated to Forlì in 1484, she continued her experiments. She had medicinal gardens constructed where she was able to develop the ingredients she needed for her recipes. Along the exterior border of the fortress, an extensive garden was developed where she could grow various fruit trees.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: After her death, her manuscript was passed down to her son, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere. It was then passed down from generation to generation and stayed within the Medici family. The manuscript eventually was lost. In the 19th century, Pier Desiderio Pasolini (1844-1920), a descendant of Caterina Sforza and a historian from Ravenna, spent approximately five years acquiring documents written by Sforza. He then went on to publish the majority of her manuscript titled “Experimenti”.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Caterina is one of the few women discussed by Machiavelli at length. Specifically because of the incident of her having shown her genitalia in regaining the fortress of Ravaldino. This skirt account, although being the best known version of the events, is believed to have been created by Machiavelli and not a historical fact. He tells it in multiple occasions: first in the "Discourses on Livy", and lastly in "Florentine Histories". Machiavelli himself tells the account differently in "Florentine Histories", omitting completely the whole skirt raising situation replaced simply with a reply to her children’s captors that she could create more, and thus they were of no consequence to her.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: When it comes to historical facts, we have a few accounts mentioning the event shortly after it occurred. None of which mention any skirt incident and instead talk about the true wisdom and political astuteness of Caterina reverting a losing situation into one where she was back in control. In all accounts she responds to the threats against her children with words and not actions. She mentions how her eldest son is somewhere safe and that she is at that moment pregnant. The pregnancy is believed to have been a rouse but with the conspirators not having reinforcements, Caterina’s on her way, and the bargaining chip that were her kids effectively rendered mute in addition to her threats of vengeance for the murder of her husband, they had no choice but to retreat. Caterina would later on exact her vengeance on all involved parties.


title: Caterina Sforza

text: Going back to Machiavelli, according to Julia L. Hairston in her journal article Skirting the issue: Machiavelli’s Caterina Sforza, his addition of the skirt situation seems to have been for dramatic appeal, to defeminize her by recounting an atypical behavior of a woman and a mother, and also to separate this action as a response towards the threat to her children and attribute it to a sentiment of indifference. Elizabeth Lev wrote on the matter in her biography of Caterina Sforza, "The Tigress of Forli." Lev took the position that Machiavelli's account on the matter, being quite vulgar, may in fact have been more a reflection of his own dislike of Caterina. Indeed, Machiavelli had met the countess as a young diplomat and had not fared well.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Elizabeth "Betsy" Braddock is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with Captain Britain and the X-Men. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Herb Trimpe in 1976, she first appeared in the Marvel UK series "Captain Britain".


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Betsy Braddock was initially a supporting character in the adventures of her twin brother, Brian Braddock, as the original Captain Britain, before temporarily becoming the superheroine Captain Britain herself and later joining the X-Men in 1986 as Psylocke, a codename coined by the villains Mojo and Spiral. Originally presented as a precognitive in the pages of "Captain Britain" and then as a telepath, she was later established to be a mutant, developing telekinesis as well as martial arts skills, the latter of which derived from a body swap with the Japanese mutant ninja Kwannon lasting nearly 30 years of publication history. She and Kwannon were returned to their original bodies in a 2018 story, after which, Betsy permanently took up the mantle of Captain Britain, while Kwannon adopted the Psylocke identity.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Many alternative versions of the character have also appeared in several comics series of Marvel Multiverse, as well as in various other media and merchandise, notably in numerous video games. The body-swapped iteration of the character has been portrayed by Meiling Melançon in the 2006 film "" and by Olivia Munn in the 2016 film "".


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Created by writer Chris Claremont, Elizabeth "Betsy" Braddock first appeared in "Captain Britain" #8 (December 1976), with "Captain Britain" #10 (December 1976) as her first cover appearance, published by the Marvel Comics' British imprint Marvel UK. The original spelling of the character's name was "Elizabeth", though relettering of the UK versions for American reprints would occasionally misspell it as "Elisabeth". This led to spelling inconsistencies throughout future publications. The inconsistency was resolved by Claremont 32 years later in 2008 in the series "New Exiles", which reasserted the particular spelling of her name as "Elizabeth". In the "Captain Britain" series, Claremont introduced her as a supporting character, the sister of Brian Braddock, the eponymous Captain Britain, and established her career as a charter pilot. He also established that she had psychic abilities, the full extent of which were unknown, though no explanation is given for these powers. In Marvel UK's "Super Spider-Man and Captain Britain" #243 (October 1977), Betsy Braddock is presented as a professional model.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: In Marvel UK's "Daredevils" #3 (March 1983), Alan Moore established that the character has begun to work for the fictional governmental organization S.T.R.I.K.E., who are making use of her psychic abilities. Her lover Tom Lennox is also a S.T.R.I.K.E operative and is later murdered. The story also presents the character as having dyed her hair purple after being originally blonde; this hair color has subsequently become the dominant presentation of the character. The next major change for the character came in the 1986 relaunched "Captain Britain" series, where Betsy Braddock stands in for her brother as Captain Britain, and is rendered blind by the supervillain Slaymaster.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: In "New Mutants Annual" #2 (1986), Claremont integrated Betsy Braddock into the X-Men franchise. The story sees her abducted to the Mojoverse, where she is subjected to brainwashing, fitted with bionic eyes, and referred to as "the Psylocke" for the first time. After being rescued by the New Mutants, she takes up residence at their mutant-training academy, run by Magneto at the time in the absence of Professor Charles Xavier. After aiding the team unofficially, Braddock proves herself by distracting the attentions of the murderous supervillain Sabretooth. Afterward, Braddock is formally invited to join the X-Men and officially adopts the codename "Psylocke", becoming an enduring fixture of the team over the next three decades.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Initially written as a pure non-mutant telepath with few fighting skills, Betsy later adopts body armor. In "The Uncanny X-Men" #251 (November 1989), the X-Men flee from the cybernetic terrorists, the Reavers, through the Siege Perilous, an extra-dimensional teleportation device. The now-amnesiac Betsy is taken in by the Hand, who brainwash and physically alter her to take on an East Asian appearance so that she can blend in in Hong Kong. Braddock now believes herself to be "Lady Mandarin", the Hand's supreme assassin. After she is rescued by the X-Men's Wolverine and overcomes her brainwashing, the character retains the combat skills granted through the Hand's modification techniques as well as the ability to manifest her total focused telepathy in the form of a "psychic knife".


title: Betsy Braddock

text: With the launch of the second volume of "X-Men" (later rebranded "") in 1991, the team splits, with Betsy joining the team led by Cyclops. In Jim Lee-written issues, the character becomes flirtatious with Cyclops, eventually attempting to seduce him. At this point, Kwannon, a new character with the physical appearance of Betsy prior to the Hand's manipulation, claims to be the original Betsy Braddock, accusing the Japanese-featured Betsy of being an impostor. After Jim Lee and six other creators left Marvel Comics to found Image Comics, new scriptwriter Fabian Nicieza established that Kwannon is the impostor and that Braddock's flirtations with Cyclops were part of a genetic and mental splicing in which the Kwannon impostor was first created, a body swap having occurred.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: In 1994, writer Scott Lobdell set up a relationship between Betsy Braddock and her teammate Archangel. The character is severely injured by a crazed Sabretooth in the Lobdell-written "The Uncanny X-Men" #328. Her life is saved by the use of a mystic artifact known as the Crimson Dawn, the aftereffects of which granted Betsy the ability to teleport in and out of shadows. Lobdell also temporarily took her out of the X-Men roster this issue. Braddock returns to the team in "X-Men" (vol. 2) #77–78, where she uses her Crimson Dawn-enhanced telepathy to trap the Shadow King in the astral plane. Any use of her telepathy would result in his release, so she forgoes the use of her telepathic ability. Some time later she would develop telekinesis for the first time instead. Betsy's relationship with Archangel ends in the Claremont written "X-Men" (vol. 2) #109, where the character embarks upon a relationship with new Indian X-Men recruit Neal Shaara, also known as Thunderbird.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: In the Claremont-written "X-Treme X-Men" #2 (2001), the character dies, her comic book death lasting until 2005's "The Uncanny X-Men" #455; Claremont also wrote this issue, later stating he had always intended to revive her. Briefly, the character was depicted in "Exiles", a spin-off comic-book series in the X-Men franchise, set in an alternate universe. With the cancellation of "New Exiles", Betsy Braddock starred in her first solo book, the "X-Men: Sword of The Braddocks" one-shot. Afterwards, the character was brought back to the main Marvel Universe in early 2009 within the pages of "The Uncanny X-Men". Beginning in November 2009, Betsy Braddock was featured in a self-titled four issue miniseries, written by Christopher Yost and drawn by Harvey Tolibao; Matsu'o Tsurayaba and Wolverine are central characters in the story.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: At the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con, Editor-in-Chief C.B. Cebulski and writer Jonathan Hickman revealed that Betsy would become the new Captain Britain, leading a reformed Excalibur consisting of herself, Gambit, Rogue, Jubilee, Rictor and Apocalypse, to protect the Kingdom of Avalon, with her former identity of Psylocke being taken by Kwannon, who would lead the "Fallen Angels" title. Cebulski compared Betsy's adoption of the Captain Britain mantle to Carol Danvers's transition to Captain Marvel, indicating that this new status quo would be permanent.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Elizabeth "Betsy" Braddock was born in England and was raised in the small town of Maldon, Essex. Betsy was Sir James Braddock's second child, born minutes before her twin brother Brian. The twins and their elder brother Jamie, who was nearly a decade older, had a very privileged life. By the time she entered college, Betsy had become a charter pilot. After she and Jamie were taken hostage by the Red Skull's agents and freed by Captain America and Captain Britain, Betsy learned the latter was her brother Brian. At this time Betsy began to develop precognitive powers. She dyed her hair purple and took up modeling. At the age of twenty-one, her psychic powers fully manifested, which grew to include telepathy. Agent Matthew recruited Betsy into S.T.R.I.K.E.'s Psi Division, and she became fellow psi Tom Lennox's lover. As she had inherited membership to the Hellfire Club from her father, Betsy was sent to infiltrate it, but was warned off by Tessa for her own protection. She also met future boyfriend Warren Worthington for the first time during one of the Hellfire Club parties.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: When the crime lord Vixen hired Slaymaster to eliminate the Psi-Division, only Betsy, Tom Lennox, and their friend Alison Double were left when Brian defeated him. When reality warped due to James Jaspers' powers, Tom sacrificed himself to give the Braddocks time to escape from a group of superhero hunters. Betsy was in Tom's mind when he died; feeling his death, she was left traumatized. Following the repair of the reality warp, an evil version of Captain Britain from another universe named Kaptain Briton switched places with Brian. The double tried to rape Betsy. In self-defense, she telepathically killed him. The same night, the twins were informed of their father's Otherworld origins, and a new intelligence agency called R.C.X. asked them to billet Warpies, children transformed by Jasper's warp, at the Manor, which led to an argument between Betsy and Brian.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: When Brian went overseas, Matthew (now codenamed Gabriel) convinced Betsy to become the new Captain Britain, wearing Kaptain Briton's modified costume. Working with Captain UK, the duo became public sensations. After several months, crime boss Vixen lured Betsy into a showdown with Slaymaster. During the battle, Betsy called Vixen a "hag", which angered her. Vixen instructed Slaymaster that she wanted Betsy's eyes, so he brutally beat Betsy, then gouged her eyes out. Brian flew to her rescue and killed Slaymaster as Vixen escaped. Betsy refused R.C.X.'s offer of cybernetic eyes, preferring to rely on her psychic abilities to "see". She and Gabriel went to former S.T.R.I.K.E. Psi co-agent Alison Double's Switzerland chateau for Betsy to recuperate.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Betsy was kidnapped from the Alps by Mojo, brainwashed, given cybernetic eyes, and, as "Psylocke", became the star of his new show "Wildways". Brian and the New Mutants rescued her, after which Betsy moved to the X-Men's mansion to recover, exactly where Roma, Guardian of the Omniverse, needed her to be. When the Marauders attacked the Morlocks, the X-Mansion was used as a temporary infirmary for injured survivors of the massacre. Knowing that the X-Men were away in New York, the Marauder Sabretooth invaded the mansion. Betsy used herself as bait to lead him away from the injured until the X-Men arrived to help her. While Sabretooth and Wolverine fought, Betsy used her telepathy to gather information about the Marauders and their leader, Mr. Sinister, from Sabretooth's mind. Wolverine, though initially reluctant to involve outsiders in the X-Men's affairs, was impressed by her bravery and nominated her to join the team.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: As an X-Man she met Mephisto, Dr. Doom and the Fantastic Four, and the Horde. The X-Men later battled Freedom Force and the Adversary in Dallas, and, in a televised battle, sacrificed themselves to allow Forge to bind the Adversary; Roma secretly restored them to life, and gave Betsy the Siege Perilous, which they could use if they ever wanted to start new lives. The X-Men moved to the Reavers' Australian Outback base, from where they took on the Brood, Genoshan Magistrates, Mister Sinister and the Goblin Queen, M Squad, Mr. Jip and the Serpent Society, Master Mold and Nimrod, Nanny and the Orphan-Maker, and Zaladane and the Savage Land Mutates. As they were about to depart the Savage Land, Betsy had a precognitive flash of the Reavers killing the team. To prevent this, she telepathically "convinces" them to abandon the Outback, and subsequently sends them through the Siege Perilous.


title: Betsy Braddock

text: Betsy reappeared amnesiac on an island near China, where the Hand, a ninja clan, found her. Matsu'o Tsurayaba, their leader, saw a chance to save his brain-dead lover, Kwannon. Spiral informed Matsu'o that Betsy's telepathy could restore Kwannon, and Matsu'o accepted. Unknown to Matsu'o, however, Spiral actually placed the two women's minds into each other's bodies. She also merged their genetic structures, leaving both women with physical and mental traits of the other, and with each possessing half of Betsy's telepathic power. With some physical and mental conditioning, Betsy—inhabiting Kwannon's body—became the Hand's prime assassin, taking the name Lady Mandarin. She gained highly remarkable fighting skills and learned to focus her telepathic power into a "psychic knife". Lady Mandarin's first mission pitted her against Wolverine. Betsy's psychic knife attack revealed Wolverine's memories of who she used to be and allowed her to break free from the Hand's conditioning.