title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortes is believed to have been the only leader at the time to wield authority so effectively among both the natives and the Spaniards. Therefore, Cortés decided to take Monteczuma hostage in an effort to ensure his cooperation. According to all eyewitness accounts, Monteczuma initially refused to leave his palace but after a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish captains, and assurances from Doña Marina, he agreed to move with his retinue to the Axayáctal palace. The first captain assigned to guard him was Pedro de Alvarado. Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish, when they started questioning the authority of their captive tlatoani. The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers in order to prevent any attempt at rescue.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated so readily with the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power; however, one of the effective threats wielded by Cortés was the destruction of his beautiful city in the case of fighting between Spaniards and Aztecs (which ultimately came to pass). This Moctezuma at all costs wanted to avoid, vacillating and deferring the rupture until this policy claimed his life. It was clear from the beginning that he was ambivalent about who Cortés and his men really were, whether they be gods, descendants of a god, ambassadors from a greater king, or just barbaric invaders. From the perspective of the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on the Spaniards, or to wait for the end of the agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not carry out either of these actions even though high-ranking military leaders such as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to do so.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: With Moctezuma captive, Cortés did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked, although some of his captains had such concerns. He also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not all-powerful as Cortés imagined. Being appointed to and maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the ability to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders issued by Cortés, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to the Spaniards, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 1400 soldiers with twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Velázquez felt that Cortés had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortés's misconduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable winds, though, and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narváez's troops landed at San Juan de Ulúa on the Gulf of Mexico coast around April 20, 1520.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After Cortés became aware of their arrival, he left Pedro de Alvarado in charge in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers, and brought all his forces (about two hundred and forty men) by quick marches to Narváez's camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Several negotiations between the two Spaniards took place on the way, in which Cortés was able to persuade many persons of weight in Narváez's camp to incline to his side. Cortés attacked Narváez's camp late at night; his men, much superior in experience and organization, wounded Narváez in the eye and took him as a hostage quickly; also taken were his principal adherents, de Salvatierra and Diego Velasquez (the nephew of the Governor of Cuba). Evidence suggests that the two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narváez was not expecting an attack. Cortés then completed winning over Narváez's captains with promises of the vast wealth in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortés's forces.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: At this time, the Mexica (Aztecs) began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca, otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipotent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the dry season so that the god would fill dry streambeds and cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the consent of Cortés to hold the festival, and again confirmed permission with Alvarado.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Alvarado was commissioned by Cortés to take over his post and to foresee everything related to interactions among Spaniards and the Mexica, right at the time when the Toxcatl festival was to occur. Cortés expressly instructed Alvarado to not perform any military action, during his absence. Alvarado however had an unstable temperament and engaged in inquiring where the gold of the nobility was stored.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: He tortured priests and nobles and discovered that the Aztecs were planning a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he sequestered Moctezuma and increased the guards around the tlatoani.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: By the day of the festival, the Aztecs had gathered on the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The euphoric dancing as well as the accompanying flute and drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors and priests.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Alvarado, the conquistadors and the Tlaxcalans retreated to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their cannons, crossbows, and arquebuses into the gathering crowd. The result either preempted or triggered the Aztec revolt, which was, however, inevitable from the moment of Moctezuma's capture and was accelerated by the split of the Spanish forces. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The massacre had the result of resolutely turning all the Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining Moctezuma's authority.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Alvarado sent word to Cortés of the events, and Cortés hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers. Cortés also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the journey. Cortés entered the palace unscathed, as the hostilities had not started yet, although the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent people were slaughtered because they were suspected of helping them. A few days after the great forces of Cortés got into Tenochtitlan, the roads were shut and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier that was not killed was wounded.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. The military gains of the attack therefore had a serious political cost for Cortés. His new followers were greatly disturbed at the power of the Aztecs, and held Cortés to be a liar since nobody revered them and brought them food and gifts as Cortés had promised.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés attempted to parlay with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However, the Aztecs refused. The Spanish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his own people as he attempted to speak with them. Three stones hit him, one of them on the head, so cerebral hematoma is possible. Moctezuma refused all medical help as well as food, and died soon after the attack. The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma had been murdered by the Spanish. Two other local rulers were found strangled as well. Moctezuma's younger brother Cuitláhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then, was chosen as the Tlatoani.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The flight of the Spanish from Tenochtitlan was a crushing defeat for Cortés that was just short of annihilation. It is still remembered as "La Noche Triste," The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say Cortés wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his troops at the hands of the Aztecs.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Initially, Cortés resolved to fight the Aztec troops opposed to him and win the city in direct conflict. This stemmed from three errors of judgment:


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: 1. Underestimation of the Aztecs. Cortés fought the Tabascans, the Cempoalans, the Tlaxcalans and found them strong opponents, but always prevailed. He had never fought an Aztec army before and did not expect such resolve and martial skill as he encountered – although all his previous foes warned that the Mexicans were the greatest warriors they had ever seen and could not be withstood within their city.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: 2. Overrating his forces. Since Cortés won all his battles in Mexico before this while at the head of much inferior forces, being in charge of a nearly full Spanish tercio must have made him feel invincible. In fact, the only serviceable portion of his army were his old followers with great experience of Mexican warfare, who were by this time severely whittled down by wounds and disease. The newly arrived Narvaéz's men did not have experience in local fighting and were worth much less in combat - and eventually perished in much greater numbers than the veterans.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: 3. Unprepared for enemy tactics. The Aztecs had fought for the lake cities many times before and their tactics were excellent - the use of canoes, the use of flat roofs with prepared missiles, dropping down into the lake when cornered, and destroying bridges. Cavalry could not operate in these conditions and control of the water was crucial, which Cortés did not realize at first.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: With this mindset, Cortés launched an attack directly at the chief temple of the city, the Cue of Huichilopotzli. In spite of determined opposition, the Spanish push got them to the top of the temple's 114 steps, but at a great loss. Cortés aimed at routing the Aztecs and by holding both Moctezuma and the great temple - being able to offer peace once again. However, the Spanish attack encountered such fierce resistance and numerous fatalities among his men, that the plan fell apart. The retreat to Spanish quarters was as hard as the attack, and part of their quarters were plundered in the meantime. The direct loss of nearly a hundred men dead and the fierce spirit of the Aztecs who refused to be cowed by his ascent of the temple convinced Cortés that a night escape was now his only option for survival.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Though a flight from the city would make Cortés appear weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortés and his men were in the center of the city, and would most likely have to fight their way out no matter what direction they took. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, so a path directly east would have been most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortés's people and supplies, which he was unable to procure in his position.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés therefore had to choose among three land routes: north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Iztapalapa, two towns that would not welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortés decided on the west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish. On that "Sad Night," July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace first with their indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Spanish forces were able to pass through the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish off. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and arquebuses, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous "leap of Alvarado" using a spear to get to the other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards succeeded in reaching the mainland, while the remaining ones died in battle or were captured and later sacrificed on Aztec altars - these were reported to be mostly the followers of Narváez, less experienced and more weighted down with gold, which was handed out freely before the escape.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After crossing over the bridge, the surviving Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spaniards had been killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows and other weapons were lost. In all battles with main Aztec forces after that, Spaniards noted their lost arms being used against them. The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the entire trip, because Cortés took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortés's forces were not very heavy. As Cortés arrived in more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were more forceful.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan and annihilate them. Here, the Aztecs made their own errors of judgement by underestimating the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because all they had seen was the horses traveling gingerly on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains. By marshalling on an open plain, they also allowed experienced Spanish commanders to bring to bear their own tactics, weaponry, and the know-how of European warfare.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat. He spotted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful feather tlahuiztli and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander and most other leaders as they were clearly marked by their golden plumage and an easy target for a charge. The many Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish are mentioned as playing an important role in the battle, armed with Spanish swords and shields. The Spanish suffered some losses, but were victorious over the Aztecs, who then retreated and were pursued by cavalry.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narváez's troops. Cortés claimed only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1,150 Spaniards dead, though this figure was likely too high and might encompass the total loss from entering Mexico to arriving into Tlaxcala. Cortés' chaplain back in Spain, Francisco López de Gómara, estimated that 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The women survivors included Cortés's translator and lover La Malinche, María Estrada, Beatriz de Palacios, and two of Moctezuma's daughters who had been given to Cortés, including the emperor's favorite and reportedly most beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doña Isabel Moctezuma). A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second "María" named in his will.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cuitláhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately following Moctezuma's death. It was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitláhuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for many tributaries. The Aztec Empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based either on their own interests or fear of punishment.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: It was necessary for Cortés to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards at this point or turned them over to the Aztecs. In fact, the Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if they would do just that. The Tlaxcalan leaders rebuffed the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to continue their friendship with Cortés.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortés for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlaxcalans after the fall of Tenochtitlan.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés needed to gain other new allies as well. If the Spaniards were able to prove they could protect their new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, changing sides would not be too difficult for other tributaries. After Cortés' forces managed to defeat the smaller armies of some Aztec tributary states, Tepeyac, and later, Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac were easily won over. Cortés also used political maneuvering to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. In addition, Cortés replaced kings with those who he knew would be loyal to him. Cortés now controlled many major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortés's forces while weakening the Aztecs.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Though the largest group of indigenous allies were Tlaxcalans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua, and Tepanecs were all important allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated by the Aztecs.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Even the former Triple Alliance member city of Tetzcoco (or Texcoco) became a Spanish ally. As the rebellion attempt led by the Tetzcocan Tlatoani, Cacamatzin, in times of Moctezuma's reclusion was conjured by the Spanish, Cortés named one of Cacamatzin's brothers as new tlatoani. He was Ixtlilxóchitl II, who had disagreed with his brother and always proved friendly to the Spanish. Later, Cortés also occupied the city as base for the construction of brigantines. However, one faction of Tetzcocan warriors remained loyal to the Aztecs.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés had to put down internal struggles among the Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than to go home, or at the very least to return to Vera Cruz and wait for reinforcements. Cortés hurriedly quashed this faction, determined to finish what he had started. Not only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself by defying his superior Velázquez. He knew that in defeat he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in success he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied, and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the siege of Mexico. In this Cortés showed skill at exploiting the divisions within and between the Aztec states while hiding those of his own troops.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: While Cortés was rebuilding his alliances and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The disease was probably carried by a Spanish slave from Narváez's forces, who had been abandoned in the capital during the Spanish flight. Smallpox played a crucial role in the Spanish success during the Siege of Tenochtitlan from 1519 to 1521, a fact not mentioned in some historical accounts. The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late October 1520. The epidemic lasted sixty days, ending by early December.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: It was at this event where firsthand accounts were recorded in the Florentine Codex concerning the adverse effects of the smallpox epidemic of the Aztecs, which stated, "many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was well established that nothing could halt it". The smallpox epidemic caused not only infection to the Mexica peoples, but it weakened able bodied people who could no longer grow and harvest their crops, which in turn led to mass famine and death from malnutrition. While the population of Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco that was formerly controlled by the Aztecs but now occupied by the Spanish.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Reproduction and population growth declined since people of child-bearing age either had to fight off the Spanish invasion or died due to famine, malnutrition or other diseases. Diseases like smallpox could travel great distances and spread throughout large populations, which was the case with the Aztecs having lost approximately 50% of its population from smallpox and other diseases. The disease killed an estimated forty percent of the native population in the area within a year. The Aztecs codices give ample depictions of the disease's progression. It was known to them as the "huey ahuizotl" (great rash).


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling for eighty days. Though the disease also affected the Spanish-aligned forces somewhat, it had more dire consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs, as they were much harder hit by the smallpox than the Spanish leaders, who were largely resistant to the disease.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action against the Spanish and their allies after they fled the city. One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state of disorder: the smallpox disease ravaged the population, killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new king, Cuauhtémoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on the throne in February 1521. The people were in the process of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged city. It is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the Spanish were gone for good. In addition, Cortés astutely directed his forces in multiple directions in preparing his encirclement of the Aztec capital, and knew how to use the military initiative that he gained after the battle of Otumba.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would allow them the largest possible army that would be close to its supplies, while affording them the mobility provided by the surrounding lake. Any Spanish assault would have to come through the causeways, where the Aztecs could easily attack them. As the only Aztec victory against the Spanish was won in the city using their peculiar urban warfare tactics, and as they counted on retaining control over the water, it seems natural that they wanted to risk their main army only to defend their capital. However, it would not be correct to infer that the Aztecs were passive observers of their fate - they did send numerous expeditions to aid their allies against Cortés at every point, with 10 to 20 thousand forces risked in every engagement, such as in Chalco and Chapultepec. They were driven back every time, and some of the native allies won their own victories over the Aztecs, as their dread of their invincible overlords faded with every success of Cortés.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés's overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs within their capital. Cortés intended to do that primarily by increasing his power and mobility on the lake, while protecting "his flanks while they marched up the causeway", previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered the construction of thirteen sloops (brigantines) in Tlaxcala, by his master shipbuilder, Martín López. Cortés continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from ships arriving at Veracruz, one ship from Spain loaded with "arms and powder", and two ships intended for Narváez. Cortés also received one hundred and fifty soldiers and twenty horses from the abandoned Panuco River settlement. A large source of succour for Cortés were the misguided expeditions by Francisco de Garay, the Governor of Jamaica, who kept sending ship after ship to aid his original Panuco venture long after it had been destroyed and abandoned; all of these ships and forces ended up reinforcing Cortés before the siege.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés then decided to move his army to Texcoco, where he could assemble and launch the sloops in the creeks flowing into Lake Texcoco. With his main headquarters in Texcoco, he could stop his forces from being spread too thin around the lake, and there he could contact them where they needed. Xicotencatl the Elder provided Cortés with over ten thousand Tlaxcalan warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle. Cortés departed Tlaxcala on the day after Christmas 1520. When his force arrived at the outskirts of Texcoco, he was met by seven chieftains stating their leader Coanacotzin begs "for your friendship". Cortés quickly replaced that leader with the son of Nezahualpilli, baptized as Don Hernán Cortés.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortés sent eight Mexican prisoners to Cuauhtemoc stating, "all the towns in the neighborhood were now on our side, as well as the Tlaxcalans". Cortés intended to blockade Mexico and then destroy it. Once Martin López and Chichimecatecle brought the logs and planks to Texcoco, the sloops were built quickly. Cuauhtemoc's forces were defeated four times in March 1521, around Chalco and Huaxtepec, and Cortés received another ship load of arms and men from the Emperor.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: On 6 April 1521, Cortés met with the "caciques" around Chalco, and announced he would "bring peace" and blockade Mexico. He wanted all of their warriors ready the next day when he put thirteen sloops into the lake (misleadingly called "launches" in some translations). He was then joined at Chimaluacan by twenty thousand warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huejotzingo, and Tlaxcala. Cortés fought a major engagement with seventeen thousand of Cuauhtemoc's warriors at Xochimilco, before continuing his march northwestward. Cortés found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco, and Cuauhitlan deserted.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by his Captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés was joined by many more men from Castile. Cortés then discovered a plot aimed at his murder, for which he had the main conspirator, Antonio de Villafana, hanged. Thereafter, Cortés had a personal guard of six soldiers, under the command of Antonio de Quiñones. The Spaniards also held their third auctioning of branded slaves, Mexican allies captured by Cortés, "who had revolted after giving their obedience to His Majesty."


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés had 84 horsemen, 194 arbalesters and arquebusiers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He stationed 25 men on every sloop, 12 oarsmen, 12 crossbowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each sloop had rigging, sails, oars, and spare oars. Additionally, Cortés had 20,000 warriors from Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco, and Cholula. The Tlaxcalans were led by Xicotencatl II and Chichimecatecle. Cortés was ready to start the blockade of Mexico after Corpus Christi (feast).


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés put Alvarado in command of 30 horsemen, 18 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, and sent him, accompanied by his brother Jorge de Alvarado, Gutierrez de Badajoz, and Andrés de Monjaraz, to secure Tacuba. Cristóbal de Olid took 30 horsemen, 20 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 175 foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, accompanied by Andrés de Tapia, Francisco Verdugo, and Francisco de Lugo, and secured Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval took 24 horsemen, 14 arquebusiers and arbalesters, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco and Huexotzinco, accompanied by Luis Marin and Pedro de Ircio, to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortés commanded the 13 sloops. Cortés' forces took up these positions on May 22.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched first towards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their water supply. There were springs there that supplied much of the city's water by aqueduct; the rest of the city's water was brought in by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan. The Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish and halt this assault on the capital with a determined and hard-fought land and naval counterattack.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés faced "more than a thousand canoes" after he launched his thirteen sloops from Texcoco. Yet a "favorable breeze sprang up", enabling him to overturn many canoes and kill or capture many. After winning the First Battle on the Lake, Cortés camped with Olid's forces.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Aztec canoe fleets worked well for attacking the Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortés decided to make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines could help defend his forces from both sides. He then distributed the sloops amongst his attacking forces, four to Alvarado, six for Olid, and two to Sandoval on the Tepeaquilla causeway. After this move, the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish brigantines, and "the fighting went very much in our favour", according to Díaz.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: With his brigantines, Cortés could also send forces and supplies to areas he previously could not, which put a kink in Cuauhtémoc's plan. To make it more difficult for the Spanish ships to aid the Spanish soldier's advance along the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas of the lakes, into which they hoped the Spaniards would stumble, and fixed concealed stakes into the lake bottom to impale the launches. The Spanish horses were also ineffective on the causeways.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés was forced to adapt his plans again, as his initial land campaigns were ineffective. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to occupy the abandoned bridges and barricades as soon as the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Cortés had his forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their positions. Cortés also sent orders to "never on any account to leave a gap unblocked, and that all the horsemen were to sleep on the causeway with their horses saddled and bridled all night long." This allowed the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the city.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Spaniards prevented food and water from reaching Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited the supplies reaching the city from the nine surrounding towns via canoe, by sending out two of their launches on nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs were successful in setting an ambush with thirty of their pirogues in an area in which they had placed impaling stakes. They captured two Spanish launches, killing Captains Juan de la Portilla and Pedro Barba.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After capturing two chieftains, Cortés learned of another Aztec plot to ambush his launches with forty pirogues. Cortés then organized a counter-ambush with six of his launches, which was successful, "killing many warriors and taking many prisoners." Afterwards, the Aztec "did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in food and water as openly as before." Lakeside towns, including Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic made peace with the Spaniards. The fighting in Tenochtitlan was described by the American historian Charles Robinson as "desperate" as both sides battled one another in the streets in a ferocious battle where no quarter was given nor asked for.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cuauhtemoc then attacked all three Spanish camps simultaneously with his entire army on the feast day of St. John. On the Tacuba Causeway across Lake Texcoco connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland along a street now known as "Puente de Alvarado" (Alvarado's Bridge) in Mexico City, Pedro de Alvarado made a mad cavalry charge across a gap in the Causeway. As Alvarado and his cavalry emerged on the other side of the gap with the infantry behind, Aztec canoes filled the gap. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded along with eight men in his camp. Alvarado escaped from the ambush, but five of his men were captured and taken off to the Great Temple to be sacrificed. Much to their horror, the Spanish from their positions could see their captured comrades being sacrificed on the Great Pyramid, which increased their hatred of the Aztecs. At the end of each day, the Spanish gave a prayer: "Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed."


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés then decided to push forward a simultaneous attack towards the Mexican market square, resulting in what is now known as the Battle of Colhuacatonco. However, he neglected to fill in a channel as he advanced, and when the Aztec counter-attacked, Cortés was wounded and almost captured. Cristóbal de Olea and Cristóbal de Guzmán gave their lives for Cortés, and sixty-five Spanish soldiers were captured alive. Cuauhtemoc then had five of their heads thrown at Alvarado's camp, four thrown at Cortés' camp, six thrown at Sandoval's camp, while ten more were sacrificed to the Huitzilopochtli and Texcatlipoca idols.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Díaz relates, "...the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded again...we saw our comrades who had been captured in Cortés' defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacrificed...cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating hearts which they offered to the idols...the Indian butchers...cut off their arms and legs...then they ate their flesh with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes...throwing their trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents and snakes." Cuauhtemoc then "sent the hands and feet of our soldiers, and the skin of their faces...to all the towns of our allies..." The Aztec sacrificed a batch of Spanish prisoners each night for ten nights. The Aztec cast off the cooked limbs of their prisoners to the Tlaxcalans, shouting: "Eat the flesh of these "teules" ["Gods"-a reference to the early belief that Spanish were gods] and of your brothers because we are sated with it".


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Aztec continued to attack the Spaniards on the causeways, "day and night". The Spanish allies in the cities surrounding the lake lost many lives or "went home wounded", and "half their canoes were destroyed". Yet, "they did not help the Aztec any more, for they loathed them." Yet, of the 24,000 allies, only 200 remained in the three Spanish camps, the rest deciding to return home.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Ahuaxpitzactzin (later baptized as Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don Fernando, remained in Cortés' camp with forty relatives and friends. The Huejotzinco Cacique remained in Sandoval's camp with fifty men. Alvarado's camp had Chichimecatecle, the two sons of Lorenzo de Vargas, and eighty Tlaxcalans. To maintain the advance, Cortés razed every neighborhood he captured, using the rubble to fill up canals and gaps in the causeways to allow his infantry and cavalry to advance in formation, a fighting tactic that favored the Spanish instead of engaging in hand-to-hand street fighting, which favored the Aztec.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés then concentrated on letting the Aztec "eat up all the provisions they have" and drink brackish water. The Spaniards gradually advanced along the causeways, though without allies. Their launches had freedom of the lake, after devising a method for breaking the impaling stakes the Aztec had placed for them. After twelve days of this, the Spanish allies realized the prophecy by the Aztec idols, that the Spaniards would be dead in ten days, was false. Two thousand warriors returned from Texcoco, as did many Tlaxcan warriors under Tepaneca from Topeyanco, and those from Huejotzingo and Cholula.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cuauhtemoc then enlisted his allies in Matlazingo, Malinalco, and Tulapa, in attacking the Spaniards from the rear. However, Cortés sent Andrés de Tapia, with 20 horsemen and 100 soldiers, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, with 20 horsemen and 80 soldiers, to help his allies attack this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo chieftains as prisoners.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their stranglehold on Tenochtitlan tightened, and famine began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because of the occupied causeways. Cortés also had the advantage of fighting a mostly defensive battle. Though Cuauhtémoc organized a large-scale attack on Alvarado's forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had little aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal tributaries had difficulty sending forces, because it would leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a "snowball effect": if one tributary left, others might follow. Therefore, they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were intercepted, and even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked. The situation inside the city was desperate: because of the famine and the smallpox there were already thousands of victims, women offered to the gods even their children's clothes, so most children were stark naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, brackish water because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery. The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did, preventing Cortés's forces from being entirely victorious. However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz, and, somewhat renewed, finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlan.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cortés then ordered a simultaneous advance of all three camps towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. Alvarado's company made it there first, and Gutierrez de Badajoz advanced to the top of the Huichilopotzli "cu", setting it afire and planting their Spanish banners. Cortés' and Sandoval's men were able to join them there after four more days of fighting.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Spanish forces and their allies advanced into the city. Despite inflicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could not halt the Spanish advance. While the fighting in the city raged, the Aztecs cut out and ate the hearts of 70 Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli. By August, many of the native inhabitants had fled Tlatelolco. Cortés sent emissaries to negotiate with the Tlatelolcas to join his side, but the Tlatelolcas remained loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans waged a merciless campaign against the Aztecs who had long oppressed them as for a hundred years the Tlaxcalans had been forced to hand over an annual quota of young men and women to be sacrificed and eaten at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and now the Tlaxcalans saw their chance for revenge. The American historian Charles Robinson wrote: "Centuries of hate and the basic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in violence that appalled Cortés himself". In letter to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Cortés wrote: "We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could...I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out [to surrender] they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed [by the Tlaxcalans] that day".


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still practiced their traditional ceremonies and customs. Tlapaltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be outfitted to wear the quetzal owl costume. He was supplied with darts sacred to Huitzilopochtli, which came with wooden tips and flint tops. When he came, the Spanish soldiers appeared scared and intimidated. They chased the owl-warrior, but he was neither captured nor killed. The Aztecs took this as a good sign, but they could fight no more, and after discussions with the nobles, Cuauhtémoc began talks with the Spanish.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: At some point in the final days of the battle, a tornado struck the basin, over Tlatelolco, and then moved out over the lake. This was the first tornado seen by Europeans in the Americas.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After several failed peace overtures to Cuauhtémoc, Cortés ordered Sandoval to attack that part of the city in which Cuauhtémoc had retreated. As hundreds of canoes filled the lake fleeing the doomed city, Cortés sent his brigantines out to intercept them. Cuauhtémoc attempted to flee with his property, gold, jewels, and family in fifty pirogues, but was soon captured by Sandoval's launches, and brought before Cortés.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surrendered on 13 August 1521, Julian Date. Cortés demanded the return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under torture, by burning their feet with oil, Cuauhtémoc and the lord of Tacuba confessed to dumping his gold and jewels into the lake. Yet, little gold remained, as earlier, a fifth had been sent to Spain and another kept by Cortés. "In the end...the remaining gold all fell to the King's officials."


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Cuauhtémoc was taken prisoner the same day, as related above, and remained the titular leader of Tenochtitlan, under the control of Cortés, until he was hanged for treason in 1525 while accompanying a Spanish expedition to Guatemala.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: 100,000 to 240,000 were killed in the campaign overall including warriors and civilians. As many as 40,000 Aztec bodies were floating in the canals or awaiting burial after the siege. Almost all of the Aztec nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children. At least 40,000 Aztec civilians were killed and captured.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: After the Fall of Tenochtitlan the remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish allies, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days. One source claims 6,000 were massacred in the town of Ixtapalapa alone. Due to the wholesale slaughter after the campaign and the destruction of Aztec culture some sources such as Israel Charney, John C. Cox, and Norman Naimark have likened the siege to a genocide.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: Although some reports put the number as low as forty, the Spanish lost over 100 soldiers in the siege, while thousands of Tlaxcalans perished. It is estimated that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during the two-year campaign—from Veracruz to Tenochtitlan. (Thomas, pp. 528–29) The remaining Spanish forces consisted of 800–900 Spaniards, eighty horses, sixteen pieces of artillery, and Cortés' thirteen brigantines. Other sources estimate that around 860 Spanish soldiers and 20,000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed during all the battles in this region from 1519 to 1521.


title: Fall of Tenochtitlan

text: It is well accepted that Cortés' indigenous allies, which may have numbered as many as 200,000 over the three-year period of the conquest, were indispensable to his success.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: 486958 Arrokoth (provisional designation ) is a trans-Neptunian object located in the Kuiper belt. Arrokoth became the farthest and most primitive object in the Solar System visited by a spacecraft when the NASA space probe "New Horizons" conducted a flyby on 1 January 2019. Arrokoth is a contact binary long, composed of two planetesimals and across, that are joined along their major axes. With an orbital period of about 298 years and a low orbital inclination and eccentricity, Arrokoth is classified as a cold classical Kuiper belt object.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth was discovered on 26 June 2014 by astronomer Marc Buie and the New Horizons Search Team using the Hubble Space Telescope as part of a search for a Kuiper belt object for the "New Horizons" mission to target in its first extended mission; it was chosen over two other candidates to become the primary target of the mission.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: When Arrokoth was first observed by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2014, it was designated in the context of the telescope's search for Kuiper belt objects, and was nicknamed "11" for short. Its existence as a potential target of the "New Horizons" probe was announced by NASA in October 2014 and it was unofficially designated as "Potential Target 1", or . Its official provisional designation, , was assigned by the Minor Planet Center in March 2015, after sufficient orbital information had been gathered. The provisional designation indicates that Arrokoth was the 1745th minor planet to be assigned a provisional designation during the second half of June 2014. After further observations refining its orbit, it was given the permanent minor planet number 486958 on 12 March 2017.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Before the flyby on 1 January 2019, NASA invited suggestions from the public on a nickname to be used for the object. One of the choices, "Ultima Thule", was selected on 13 March 2018. (, ) is the northernmost location mentioned in ancient Greek and Roman literature and cartography, while in classical and medieval literature (Latin for 'farthermost Thule') acquired a metaphorical meaning of any distant place located beyond the "borders of the known world". Once it was determined that the body was a bilobate contact binary, the "New Horizons" team nicknamed the larger lobus "Ultima" and the smaller lobus "Thule". They are now formally named "Wenu" and "Weeyo", respectively.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The nickname was criticized by a "Newsweek" columnist because of its use by 19th-century racists as the mythical homeland of the Aryan race. In November 2019, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) announced the object's permanent official name, "Arrokoth".


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth was named for a word in the Powhatan language of the Tidewater region of Virginia and Maryland in the eastern United States. The Powhatan language became extinct in the late 18th century and little was recorded of it. In an old word list, is glossed as 'sky', but it would seem that it actually meant 'cloud'.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The name "Arrokoth" was chosen by the "New Horizons" team to represent the Powhatan people indigenous to the Tidewater region. The Hubble Space Telescope and the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory were both operated in Maryland and were prominently involved in Arrokoth's discovery. With the permission of the elders of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe, the name "Arrokoth" was proposed to the IAU and formally announced by the "New Horizons" team in a ceremony held at the NASA Headquarters in the District of Columbia on 12 November 2019. Prior to the ceremony, the name was accepted by the IAU's Minor Planet Center on 8 November, and the "New Horizons" team's naming citation was published in a Minor Planet Circular on 12 November.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth is a contact binary consisting of two lobes (lobi) attached by a narrow neck or waist, which is encircled by a bright band named Akasa Linea. The lobi were likely once two objects that later merged in a slow collision. The larger lobus, Wenu, is measured at about across its longest axis while the smaller lobus, Weeyo, is measured at across its longest axis. The Wenu is lenticular in shape, being highly flattened and moderately elongated. Based on shape models of Arrokoth constructed from images taken by the "New Horizons" spacecraft, the dimensions of the Wenu are approximately . In contrast, Weeyo is less flattened, with dimensions of . As a whole, Arrokoth is across its longest axis and is about thick, with the centers of the lobi separated from each other by .


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Given the volume equivalent lobus diameters of and , the volume ratio of the Wenu to the smaller Weeyo is approximately 1.9:1.0, meaning that Wenu's volume is nearly twice that of the Weeyo. Overall, the volume of Arrokoth is around , though this estimate is largely uncertain due to weak constraints on the thicknesses of the lobi.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Prior to the "New Horizons" flyby of Arrokoth, stellar occultations by Arrokoth had provided evidence for its bilobate shape. The first detailed image of Arrokoth confirmed its double-lobed appearance and was described as a "snowman" by Alan Stern, as the lobi appeared distinctively spherical. On 8 February 2019, one month after the "New Horizons" flyby, Arrokoth was found to be more flattened than initially thought, based on additional images of Arrokoth taken by "New Horizons" after its closest approach. The flattened lobus Wenu was described as a "pancake", while Weeyo was described as a "walnut" as it appeared less flattened. By observing how the unseen sections of Arrokoth occulted background stars, scientists were able to then outline the shapes of both lobi. The cause of Arrokoth's unexpectedly flattened shape is uncertain, with various explanations including sublimation or centrifugal forces.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The longest axes of the lobi are nearly aligned with the rotational axis, which is situated between them. This near-parallel alignment of the lobi suggests that they were mutually locked to each other, likely due to tidal forces, before merging. The alignment of the lobi supports the idea that the two had individually formed from the coalescence of a cloud of icy particles.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Measurements of Arrokoth's absorption spectrum by "New Horizons" LEISA spectrometer show that Arrokoth's spectrum exhibits a strong red spectral slope extending from red to infrared wavelengths at 1.2–2.5 μm. Spectral measurements from LEISA revealed the presence of methanol, hydrogen cyanide, water ice, and complex organic compounds on the surface of Arrokoth. One particular absorption band in Arrokoth's spectrum at 1.8 μm indicates that these organic compounds are sulfur-rich. Given the abundance of methanol on Arrokoth's surface, it is predicted that formaldehyde-based compounds resulting from irradiation should also be present, albeit in the form of complex macromolecules. Arrokoth's spectrum shares similarities with that of and the centaur 5145 Pholus, which also display strong red spectral slopes along with signs of methanol present on their surfaces.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Preliminary observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2016 revealed that Arrokoth has a red coloration, similar to other Kuiper belt objects and centaurs like Pholus. Arrokoth's color is redder than that of Pluto, thus it belongs to the "ultra red" population of cold classical Kuiper belt objects. The red coloration of Arrokoth is caused by the presence of a mix of complex organic compounds called tholins, which are produced from the photolysis of various simple organic and volatile compounds by cosmic rays and ultraviolet solar radiation. The presence of sulfur-rich tholins on Arrokoth's surface implies that volatiles such as methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide were once present on Arrokoth, but were quickly lost due to Arrokoth's small mass. However, less volatile materials such as methanol, acetylene, ethane, and hydrogen cyanide could be retained over a longer period of time, and may likely account for the reddening and production of tholins on Arrokoth. The photoionization of organic compounds and volatiles on Arrokoth was also thought to produce hydrogen gas that would interact with the solar wind, though "New Horizons" SWAP and PEPSSI instruments did not detect any signature of solar wind interaction around Arrokoth.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: From color and spectral measurements of Arrokoth, the surface displays subtle color variation among its surface features. Spectral images of Arrokoth show that the Akasa (neck) region and lineation features appear less red compared to the central region of the smaller lobe Weeyo. The larger lobe Wenu also displays redder regions, informally known as "thumbprints" by the "New Horizons" team. The thumbprint features are located near Wenu's limb. The surface albedo or reflectivity of Arrokoth varies from 5 percent to 12 percent due to various bright features on its surface. Its overall geometric albedo, the quantity of reflected light in visible spectrum, is measured at 21 percent, typical for most Kuiper belt objects. The overall Bond albedo (the quantity of reflected light of any wavelength) of Arrokoth is measured at 6.3 percent.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The surface of Arrokoth is lightly cratered and smooth in appearance. Arrokoth's surface has few small craters (from in size to the limits of photographic resolution), implying a paucity of impacts throughout its history. The occurrence of impact events in the Kuiper belt is thought to be uncommon, with a very low impact rate over the course of one billion years. Due to the slower orbital speeds of Kuiper belt objects, the speed of objects impacting Arrokoth is expected to be low, with typical impact speeds around . At such slow impact speeds, large craters on Arrokoth are expected to be rare. With a low frequency of impact events along with the slow speeds of impacts, Arrokoth's surface would remain preserved since its formation. The preserved surface of Arrokoth could possibly give hints to its formation process, as well as signs of accreted material.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Numerous small pits on Arrokoth's surface were identified in high resolution images from the "New Horizons" spacecraft. The size of these pits are measured at about across. The exact cause of these pits is unknown; several explanations for these pits include impact events, the collapse of material, the sublimation of volatile materials, or the venting and escape of volatile gases from the interior of Arrokoth.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The surfaces of each lobus of Arrokoth display regions of varying brightness along with various geological features such as troughs and hills. These geological features are thought to have originated from the clumping of smaller planetesimals that come to form the lobi of Arrokoth. The brighter regions of Arrokoth's surface, especially its bright lineation features, are thought to have resulted from the deposition of material that have rolled down from hills on Arrokoth, as surface gravity on Arrokoth is sufficient for this to occur.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The smaller lobus, Weeyo, bears a large depression feature named 'Sky' (previously dubbed 'Maryland' after the home state of the "New Horizons" team). Assuming Sky has a circular shape, its diameter is , with a depth of . Sky is likely an impact crater that was formed by an object across. Two notably bright streaks of similar size are present within Sky, and may be remnants of avalanches where bright material rolled into the depression. Four subparallel troughs are present near the terminator of Weeyo, along with two possible kilometer-sized impact craters on the rim of Sky. The surface of Weeyo exhibits bright mottled regions separated by broad, dark regions ("dm") which may have undergone scarp retreat, in which they were eroded due to the sublimation of volatiles, exposing lag deposits of darker material irradiated by sunlight. Another bright region ("rm"), located at the equatorial end of Weeyo, exhibits rough terrain along with several topographic features that have been identified as possible pits, craters, or mounds. Weeyo does not display distinct units of rolling topography near Sky, likely as a result of resurfacing caused by the impact event that created the crater.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Like on Weeyo, troughs and pit crater chains are also present along the terminator of the larger lobus Wenu. Wenu consists of eight distinctive units or blocks of rolling topography, each similarly sized at around . The units are separated by relatively bright boundary regions. The similar sizes of the units suggests that each was once a small planetesimal, and that they coalesced to form Wenu. The planetesimals are expected to have accreted slowly by astronomical standards (at speeds of several meters per second), though they must have a very low mechanical strength in order to merge and form compact bodies at these speeds. The central unit ('mh') is encircled by a bright annular feature, Kaan Arcus (initially dubbed "The Road to Nowhere"). From stereographic analysis, the central unit appears to be relatively flat compared to the surrounding units. Stereographic analysis of Arrokoth has also shown that one particular unit located at Wenu's limb ('md') appears to have a higher elevation and tilt than the others.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Akasa Linea, the neck region connecting the two lobi, has a brighter and less red appearance than the surfaces of either lobus. The brightness of Akasa Linea is likely due to a composition of a more reflective material than the surfaces of the lobi. One hypothesis suggests the bright material originated in the deposition of small particles that had fallen from the lobi over time. Since Arrokoth's center of gravity lies between the lobi, small particles are likely to roll down the steep slopes toward the center between each lobus. Another proposal suggests the bright material is produced by the deposition of ammonia ice. Ammonia vapor present on the surface of Arrokoth would solidify around Akasa Linea, where gases cannot escape due to the concave shape of the neck. The brightness of Akasa is thought to be maintained by high seasonal axial tilt as Arrokoth orbits around the Sun. Over the course of its orbit, Akasa Linea is shadowed when the lobi are coplanar to the direction of the Sun, at which times the neck region receives no sunlight, cooling and trapping volatiles in the region.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: In May 2020, the IAU's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) formally established a naming theme for all features of Arrokoth, which are to be named after words for "sky" in the languages of the world, past and present. In 2021, the first few names were approved, including Sky Crater on the small lobe, later named Weeyo Lobus. In 2022, Kaʼan Arcus was approved for the circular arc on Wenu Lobus.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Topography variations at the limb of Arrokoth suggest that its interior is likely composed of mechanically strong material consisting of mostly amorphous water ice and rocky material. Trace amounts of methane and other volatile gases in the form of vapors may also be present in Arrokoth's interior, trapped in water ice. Under the assumption that Arrokoth has a low comet-like density of around , its internal structure is expected to be porous, as volatile gases trapped in Arrokoth's interior are thought to escape from the interior to the surface. Assuming that Arrokoth may have an internal heat source caused by the radioactive decay of radionuclides, the trapped volatile gases inside Arrokoth would migrate outward and escape from the surface, similarly to the scenario of outgassing of comets. The escaped gases may subsequently freeze and deposit on Arrokoth's surface, and could possibly account for the presence of ices and tholins on its surface.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth orbits the Sun at an average distance of , taking 297.7 years to complete a full orbit around the Sun. Having a low orbital eccentricity of 0.042, Arrokoth follows a nearly circular orbit around the Sun, only slightly varying in distance from 42.7 AU at perihelion to 46.4 AU at aphelion. Because Arrokoth has a low orbital eccentricity, it does not approach close enough to Neptune for its orbit to become perturbed. (Arrokoth's minimum orbital intersection distance from Neptune is 12.75 AU.) Arrokoth's orbit appears to be stable over the long term; simulations by the Deep Ecliptic Survey show that its orbit will not significantly change over the next 10 million years.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: At the time of the "New Horizons" flyby in January 2019, Arrokoth's distance from the Sun was . At this distance, light from the Sun takes over six hours to reach Arrokoth. Arrokoth has last passed aphelion around 1906 and is currently approaching the Sun at a rate of approximately 0.13 AU per year, or about . Arrokoth will approach perihelion by 2055.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Having an observation arc of 851 days, Arrokoth's orbit is fairly well-determined, with an uncertainty parameter of 2 according to the Minor Planet Center. Hubble Space Telescope observations in May and July 2015 as well as in July and October 2016 have greatly reduced the uncertainties in Arrokoth's orbit, which prompted the Minor Planet Center to assign its permanent minor planet number. In contrast to the orbit calculated by the Minor Planet Center, Arrokoth's observation arc in the JPL Small-Body Database does not include these additional observations and purports the orbit to be highly uncertain, with an uncertainty parameter of 5.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth is generally classified as a distant minor planet or trans-Neptunian object by the Minor Planet Center as it orbits in the outer Solar System beyond Neptune. Having a non-resonant orbit within the Kuiper belt region 39.5–48 AU from the Sun, Arrokoth is formally classified as a classical Kuiper belt object, or cubewano. Arrokoth's orbit is inclined to the ecliptic plane by 2.45 degrees, relatively low compared to other classical Kuiper belt objects such as . Since Arrokoth has a low orbital inclination and eccentricity, it is part of the dynamically cold population of classical Kuiper belt objects, which are unlikely to have undergone significant perturbations by Neptune during its outward migration in the past. The cold classical population of Kuiper belt objects are thought to be remnant planetesimals left over from the accretion of material during the formation of the Solar System.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Results from photometric Hubble Space Telescope observations show that the brightness of Arrokoth varies by around 0.3 magnitudes as it rotates. Though the rotation period and light curve amplitude of Arrokoth could not be determined from Hubble observations, the subtle brightness variations suggested that Arrokoth's rotational axis is either pointed toward the Earth or is being viewed at an equator-on configuration with a nearly spherical shape, with a constrained "a"/"b" best-fit aspect ratio around 1.0–1.15.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Upon the "New Horizons" spacecraft's approach to Arrokoth, no rotational light curve amplitude was detected by the spacecraft despite Arrokoth's irregular shape. To explain the lack of its rotational light curve, scientists surmised that Arrokoth is rotating on its side, with its rotational axis pointing nearly directly at the approaching "New Horizons" spacecraft. Subsequent images of Arrokoth from "New Horizons" upon approach confirmed that its rotation is tilted, with its south pole facing towards the Sun. The rotational axis of Arrokoth is tilted 99 degrees to its orbit. Based on occultation and "New Horizons" imaging data, Arrokoth's rotation period is determined to be 15.938 hours.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Due to the high axial tilt of its rotation, the solar irradiance of the northern and southern hemispheres of Arrokoth varies greatly over the course of its orbit around the Sun. As it orbits around the Sun, one polar region of Arrokoth faces the Sun continuously while the other faces away. The solar irradiance of Arrokoth varies by 17 percent due to the low eccentricity of its orbit. The average temperature of Arrokoth is estimated to be around , with a maximum of around on the illuminated subsolar point of Arrokoth. Radiometric measurements from the "New Horizons" REX instrument indicate that the mean surface temperature of Arrokoth's unilluminated face is about , higher than the modeled range of . The higher temperature of Arrokoth's unilluminated face as measured by REX implies that thermal radiation is emitted from Arrokoth's subsurface, which was predicted to be intrinsically warmer than the exterior surface.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The mass and density of Arrokoth is unknown. A definitive mass and density estimate cannot be given as the lobi are in contact rather than orbiting each other. Although a possible natural satellite orbiting Arrokoth could help determine its mass, no such satellites were found. Under the assumption that both lobi are bound by self-gravity, with the mutual gravity of the two overcoming centrifugal forces that would otherwise separate them, Arrokoth is estimated to have a very low density similar to that of comets, with an estimated minimum density of . In order to maintain the shape of the neck, the density of Arrokoth must be less than the maximum possible density of , otherwise the neck would be excessively compressed by the mutual gravity of the lobi such that the entire object would gravitationally collapse into a spheroid.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth is thought to have formed from two separate progenitor objects that formed over time from a rotating cloud of small, icy bodies since the formation of the Solar System 4.6 billion years ago. Arrokoth had likely formed in a colder environment within a dense, opaque region of the early Kuiper belt where the Sun appeared heavily obscured by dust. Icy particles within the early Kuiper belt experienced streaming instability, in which they slowed down due to drag against the surrounding gas and dust, and gravitationally coalesced into clumps of larger particles.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Because there have been few to no disruptive impacts on Arrokoth since it formed, the details of its formation have been preserved. From the differing present appearances of the lobi, each is thought to have accreted separately while in orbit around each other. Both progenitor objects are believed to have formed from a single source of material as they appear to be homogeneous in albedo, color, and composition. The presence of rolling topography units on the larger object indicates that it had likely formed from the coalescence of smaller planetesimal units prior to merging with the smaller object. The larger lobus Wenu appears to be an aggregate of 8 or so smaller components, each approximately across.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: It is unclear how Arrokoth has attained its present flattened shape, though two leading hypotheses have been postulated to explain the mechanisms leading to its flattened shape during the formation of the Solar System. The "New Horizons" team hypothesizes that the two progenitor objects formed with initially rapid rotations, causing their shapes to become flattened due to centrifugal forces. Over time, the rotation rates of the progenitor objects gradually slowed down as they experienced impacts by small objects and transferred their angular momentum to other orbiting debris left over from their formation. Eventually, loss of momentum, caused by impacts and momentum shifting to other bodies in the cloud, caused the pair to slowly spiral closer until they touched—where over time the joints fused together, forming its present bilobate shape.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: In an alternative hypothesis formulated by researchers of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Max Planck Institute in 2020, the flattening of Arrokoth may have resulted from the process of sublimation-driven mass loss over a timescale of several million years after the merging of the lobi. At the time of formation, Arrokoth's composition had a higher volatile concentration from the accretion of condensed volatiles within the dense and opaque Kuiper belt. After the surrounding dust and nebula subsided, solar radiation was no longer obstructed, allowing for photon-induced sublimation to occur in the Kuiper belt. Due to Arrokoth's high rotational obliquity, one polar region faces the Sun continuously for half of its orbital period, resulting in extensive heating and consequent sublimation and loss of frozen volatiles at Arrokoth's poles.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Regardless of the uncertainty surrounding the mechanisms for the flattening of Arrokoth, the subsequent merging of the bodies ancestral to the lobi appeared to be gentle. The present appearance of Arrokoth does not indicate deformation or compression fractures, suggesting that the two progenitor objects had merged very slowly at a speed of —comparable to the average walking speed of a person. The progenitor objects must have also merged obliquely at angles greater than 75 degrees in order to account for the present shape of Arrokoth's thin neck while keeping the lobi intact. By the time the two progenitor objects merged, both of them had already been tidally locked in synchronous rotation.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The long-term frequency of impact events occurring on Arrokoth was low due to the slower speeds of objects in the Kuiper belt. Over a period of 4.5 billion years, photon-induced sputtering of water ice on Arrokoth's surface would minimally reduce its size by . With the lack of frequent cratering events and perturbations of its orbit, the shape and appearance of Arrokoth would remain virtually pristine since the conjoining of two separate objects that formed its bilobate shape.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth was discovered on 26 June 2014 using the Hubble Space Telescope during a preliminary survey to find a suitable Kuiper belt object for the "New Horizons" spacecraft to fly by. Scientists of the "New Horizons" team were searching for an object in the Kuiper belt that the spacecraft could study after Pluto, and their next target had to be reachable on "New Horizons" remaining fuel. Using large ground-based telescopes on Earth, researchers began looking in 2011 for candidate objects and searched multiple times per year for several years. However, none of the objects found were reachable by the "New Horizons" spacecraft and most Kuiper belt objects that may be suitable were just too distant and faint to be seen through Earth's atmosphere. In order to find these fainter Kuiper belt objects, the "New Horizons" team initiated a search for suitable targets with the Hubble Space Telescope on 16 June 2014.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth was first imaged by Hubble on 26 June 2014, 10 days after the "New Horizons" team began their search for potential targets. While digitally processing images from Hubble, Arrokoth was identified by astronomer Marc Buie, member of the "New Horizons" team. Buie reported his finding to the search team for subsequent analysis and confirmation. Arrokoth was the second object found during the search, after . Three more candidate targets were later discovered with Hubble, though follow-up astrometric observations eventually ruled them out. Of the five potential targets found with Hubble, Arrokoth was deemed to be the most feasible target for the spacecraft as the flyby trajectory required the least amount of fuel compared to that for , the second most feasible target for "New Horizons". On 28 August 2015, Arrokoth was officially selected by NASA as a flyby target for the "New Horizons" spacecraft.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Arrokoth is too small and distant for its shape to be observed directly from Earth, but scientists were able to take advantage of an astronomical event called a stellar occultation, in which the object passes in front of a star from the vantage point of Earth. Since the occultation event is only visible from certain parts of the Earth, the "New Horizons" team combined data from Hubble and the European Space Agency's "Gaia" space observatory to figure out exactly when and where on Earth's surface Arrokoth would cast a shadow. They determined that occultations would occur on 3 June, 10 July, and 17 July in 2017, and set off for places around the world where they could see Arrokoth cover up a different star on each of these dates. Based on this string of three occultations, scientists were able to trace out the object's shape.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: In June and July 2017, Arrokoth occulted three background stars. The team behind "New Horizons" formed a specialized "KBO Chasers" team led by Marc Buie to observe these stellar occultations from South America, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean. On 3 June 2017, two teams of NASA scientists tried to detect the shadow of Arrokoth from Argentina and South Africa. When they found that none of their telescopes had observed the object's shadow, it was initially speculated that Arrokoth might be neither as large nor as dark as previously expected, and that it might be highly reflective or even a swarm. Additional data taken with the Hubble Space Telescope in June and July 2017 revealed that the telescopes had been placed in the wrong location, and that these estimations were incorrect.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: On 10 July 2017, the airborne telescope SOFIA was successfully placed close to the predicted centerline for the second occultation while flying over the Pacific Ocean from Christchurch, New Zealand. The main purpose of those observations was the search for hazardous material like rings or dust near Arrokoth that could threaten the "New Horizons" spacecraft during its flyby in 2019. Data collection was successful. A preliminary analysis suggested that the central shadow was missed; only in January 2018 was it realized that SOFIA had indeed observed a very brief dip from the central shadow. The data collected by SOFIA will also be valuable to put constraints on dust near Arrokoth. Detailed results of the search for hazardous material were presented on the 49th Meeting of the AAS Division for Planetary Sciences, on 20 October 2017.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around Arrokoth, setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of Arrokoth at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based "fence line" of 24 mobile telescopes along the predicted ground track of the occultation shadow in southern Argentina (Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) to better constrain the size of Arrokoth. The average spacing between these telescopes was around . Using the latest observations from Hubble, the position of Arrokoth was known with much better precision than for the 3 June occultation, and this time the shadow of Arrokoth was successfully observed by at least five of the mobile telescopes. Combined with the SOFIA observations, this put constraints on possible debris near Arrokoth.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Results from the occultation on 17 July showed that Arrokoth could have had a very oblong, irregular shape or be a close or contact binary. According to the duration of the observed chords, Arrokoth was shown to have two "lobes", with diameters of approximately and , respectively. A preliminary analysis of all collected data suggested that Arrokoth was accompanied by an orbiting moonlet about away from the primary. It was later realized, however, that an error with the data processing software resulted in a shift in the apparent location of the target. After accounting for the bug, the short dip observed on 10 July was considered to be a detection of the primary body.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: By combining data about its light curve, spectra (e.g. color), and stellar occultation data, illustrations could rely on known data to create a concept of what it might look like prior to spacecraft flyby.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: There were two potentially useful Arrokoth occultations predicted for 2018: one on 16 July and one on 4 August. Neither of these were as good as the three 2017 events. No attempts were made to observe the 16 July 2018 occultation, which took place over the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. For the 4 August 2018 event, two teams, consisting of about 50 researchers in total, went to locations in Senegal and Colombia. The event gathered media attention in Senegal, where it was used as an opportunity for science outreach. Despite some stations being affected by bad weather, the event was successfully observed, as reported by the "New Horizons" team. Initially, it was unclear whether a chord on the target had been recorded. On 6 September 2018, NASA confirmed that the star had indeed been seen to dip by at least one observer, providing important information about the size and shape of Arrokoth.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Hubble observations were carried out on 4 August 2018, to support the occultation campaign. Hubble could not be placed in the narrow path of the occultation, but due to the favourable location of Hubble at the time of the event, the space telescope was able to probe the region down to from Arrokoth. This is much closer than the region that could be observed during the 17 July 2017 occultation. No brightness changes of the target star have been seen by Hubble, ruling out any optically thick rings or debris down to from Arrokoth. Results of the 2017 and 2018 occultation campaigns were presented at the 50th meeting of the American Astronomical Society Division for Planetary Sciences on 26 October 2018.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: Having completed its flyby of Pluto in July 2015, the "New Horizons" spacecraft made four course changes in October and November 2015 to place itself on a trajectory towards Arrokoth. It is the first object to be targeted for a flyby that was discovered after the visiting spacecraft was launched, and is the farthest object in the Solar System ever to be visited by a spacecraft. Moving at a speed of "New Horizons" passed by Arrokoth at a distance of , equivalent to a few minutes of travel at the craft's speed, and one third of the distance of the spacecraft's closest encounter with Pluto. Closest approach occurred on 1 January 2019, at 05:33 UTC (Spacecraft Event Time – SCET) at which point it was from the Sun in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. At this distance, the one-way transit time for radio signals between Earth and "New Horizons" was 6 hours.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: The science objectives of the flyby include characterizing the geology and morphology of Arrokoth, and mapping the surface composition (searching for ammonia, carbon monoxide, methane, and water ice). Surveys of the surrounding environment to detect possible orbiting moonlets, a coma, or rings, were conducted. Images with resolutions showing details of to are expected. From Hubble observations, faint, small satellites orbiting Arrokoth at distances greater than have been excluded to a depth of >29th magnitude. The object has no detectable atmosphere, and no large rings or satellites larger than in diameter. Nonetheless, a search for a related moon (or moons) continues, which may help better explain the formation of Arrokoth from two individual orbiting objects.


title: 486958 Arrokoth

text: "New Horizons" made its first detection of Arrokoth on 16 August 2018, from a distance of . At that time, Arrokoth was visible at magnitude 20, in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. Arrokoth was expected to be magnitude 18 by mid-November, and magnitude 15 by mid-December. It reached naked eye brightness (magnitude 6) from the spacecraft's point of view just 3–4 hours before closest approach. If obstacles were detected, the spacecraft had the option of diverting to a more distant rendezvous, though no moons, rings or other hazards were seen. High-resolution images from "New Horizons" were taken on 1 January. The first images of mediocre resolution arrived the next day. The downlink of data collected from the flyby was expected to last 20 months, through September 2020.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Joseph Denis Irwin (born 31 October 1965) is an Irish former professional footballer and sports television presenter.


title: Denis Irwin

text: As a player, he played as a full-back from 1983 to 2004. Irwin is best known for his long and successful stint at Manchester United, where he established himself as one of the most important players in the United team that won a host of domestic and European trophies in his time there between 1990 and 2002. He has been regarded by Alex Ferguson as, pound for pound, his greatest ever signing. Earlier in his career he played for Leeds United and then Oldham Athletic, and finished his career with a two-year spell at Wolverhampton Wanderers, the club he supported as a child.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin was capped by the Republic of Ireland national side 56 times, scoring four goals and featuring in the side that reached the second round (last 16) at the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Irwin is the joint most successful Irish footballer in history, a record he shares with fellow Manchester United stalwart Roy Keane, having won 19 trophies in his career.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin was born and raised in Cork, County Cork and was educated at Togher Boys' National School and Coláiste Chríost Rí. As a schoolboy, he excelled at both Gaelic football and hurling, and played at Croke Park more than once, on one occasion marking future teammate, Niall Quinn.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin began his career with Leeds United in 1983, making 72 appearances in the Second Division, before moving on to Oldham Athletic on a free transfer in 1986. He helped Oldham reach the semi-finals of the FA Cup and the final of the League Cup in 1990 before he was transferred to Manchester United for a fee of £625,000.


title: Denis Irwin

text: In 12 years at Old Trafford, he made 296 Premier League appearances and won seven Premier League title medals, as well as two FA Cup winner's medals (1994 and 1996), a League Cup winner's medal and UEFA Champions League and European Cup Winners' Cup honours. He was comfortable in either of the full back positions and an expert at free kicks and penalties, and even in his mid thirties he was still United's first choice left-back in preference to the much younger Phil Neville.


title: Denis Irwin

text: He scored a total of 22 league goals for Manchester United, including several penalties. The first of these came on 7 September 1991 in a 3–0 home win over Norwich City in the First Division.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Notable goals came on 26 December 1991, when he scored twice in a 6–3 away league win over his old club Oldham Athletic, and his late winner against Southampton in May 1995 which kept the league title race open until the final match.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin was awarded a testimonial match for Manchester United – played on 16 August 2000 against Manchester City at Old Trafford. Despite testimonials being friendly matches, due to the match being between local rivals it was a physical affair. Irwin went off injured in the 37th minute after a bad challenge by City striker George Weah.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin made his last appearance for Manchester United at Old Trafford against Charlton Athletic on the final day of the 2001–02 Premier League season (12 May 2002), which ended in a 0–0 draw. For his final appearance as a Manchester United player, Alex Ferguson awarded him the captain's armband.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin joined Wolverhampton Wanderers on a free transfer after the 2001–02 season, coincidentally joining the Black Country club at the same time as his former Manchester United teammate Paul Ince made the move to the West Midlands club, having previously been at Middlesbrough. Irwin scored twice in his first season at Wolves, against Burnley and Grimsby.


title: Denis Irwin

text: After Wolves won promotion to the Premier League in 2003, Irwin was applauded by the Manchester United supporters when he walked onto the pitch at Old Trafford for an early season league match which United won 1–0.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Wolves were relegated at the end of the 2003–04 season, and the 38-year-old Irwin then announced his retirement.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Irwin played for the Republic of Ireland national under-19 team that qualified for the 1983 UEFA European Under-18 Championship and the 1984 UEFA European Under-18 Championship. He was capped 56 times for the Republic of Ireland between 1990 and 1999, and scored four goals. His first appearance came on 12 September 1990 (just after his move to Manchester United), when he helped them beat Morocco 1–0 in a friendly at Dalymount Park. He made his competitive international debut on 17 October 1990, when the national side began their UEFA Euro 1992 qualifying campaign with a 5–0 win over Turkey at Lansdowne Road. He scored his first international goal on 29 April 1992 in a friendly against the United States at Lansdowne Road. His final international appearance came on 17 November 1999, at the age of 34, when Ireland lost to Turkey in the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying play-off second leg in Bursa. He played for his country at the 1994 World Cup.


title: Denis Irwin

text: Since 2004, Irwin has worked as a presenter on MUTV. Irwin has been involved in coverage of several football tournaments on RTÉ. He is also a columnist with Ireland's "Sunday World" newspaper. He contributed to RTÉ Sport's coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In 2020 he named the best team Manchester United XI that he played with in his years at the club for ManUtd.com.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: Diesel Brothers is an American reality television series. The series premiered on January 4, 2016, on Discovery Channel. The program follows a group of friends in Utah who repair and customize pickup trucks.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: Despite the name and physical resemblance to one another, the Diesel Brothers are not actually brothers. Friends David "Heavy D" Sparks and David "Diesel Dave" Kiley started a fix-it shop for all types of vehicles and brought in two other men as shop helpers. They posted various videos on YouTube, one of which led to an appearance on "The Tonight Show With Jay Leno". Subsequently the Discovery Channel contacted the Diesel Brothers.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: On July 16, 2020, it was announced that a three-hour TV special titled "Diesel Brothers: Monster Jam Breaking World Records" will premiere on August 8, 2020.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: In 2016, a Utah advocacy group called Utah Physicians for a Healthy Environment filed a civil lawsuit against the Diesel Brothers, alleging they engaged in "significant, repeated and ongoing violations of federal law" by modifying vehicles to create black smoke from the exhaust systems, which the group characterizes as "one of the most toxic types of pollution there is". The physicians group bought a modified truck from Sparks Motors, and independent testing confirmed that without required emissions features, the truck produced 36 times the pollutants and 21 times the particulate matter compared to a stock truck.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: In June 2018, after hearing testimony from an emissions inspector based in Davis County, Utah that a Diesel Brothers truck had been illegally modified, a judge issued an injunction prohibiting any similar modifications in the future. Sparks stated he was modifying trucks only for off-road use under the belief it was legal and was working with the Environmental Protection Agency to ensure compliance.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: In March 2020, three of the Diesel Brothers (Sparks, Keaton Hoskins and Joshua Stuart) and their various companies were fined a total of $850,000 after Federal Judge Robert J. Shelby determined they had violated the Clean Air Act on hundreds of occasions and also had violated the earlier injunction. The fine was less than the maximum possible, as Judge Shelby recognized various mitigating factors.


title: Diesel Brothers

text: The Diesel Brothers filed an appeal in April 2020, with their attorney arguing the case fell under a split circuit with contradictory Federal rulings.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: In the Night Garden... is a British Live action pre-school children's television series, aimed at children aged from one to six years old. It is produced by Ragdoll Productions. Andrew Davenport created, wrote and composed the title theme and incidental music for all 100 episodes. It was produced by Davenport and Anne Wood, the team that also co-created "Teletubbies". The programme is narrated by Derek Jacobi. It is filmed mostly in live-action and features a mix of actors in costume, stop-motion, puppetry and CGI animation. The characters include: Igglepiggle, Upsy Daisy, Makka Pakka, the Tombliboos, the Pontipines, the Wottingers, the Haahoos, the Ninky Nonk, the Pinky Ponk, the Ball and the Tittifers.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: Andrew Davenport has stated in an interview from the Guardian that the key inspiration for the series was his own dream world as a child. This started coming into place in 2004, when Davenport created sketches for the characters of Igglepiggle, Upsy Daisy and Makka Pakka. The series would go on to be publicly announced a year later, and filming would eventually start in early 2005.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: Tons of blue screen sets would be constructed for use on the show. Backdrops would be used as well and would come in the form of modified video of an actual forest claimed to be "somewhere outside Stratford upon Avon". Hundreds of props would be built too: the majority were spherical flowers resembling pom-poms as well as several types of oversized oval shaped stones.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: The constant usage of gigantic inflatable structures, hundreds of props, tons of sets, expensive chroma key, heavy costumes and radio controlled vehicles meant for an estimated amount of £145,000 per episode.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: The show features a large cast of colourful characters with unusual names who live in a magical forest scattered with large daisies and brightly CGI coloured flowers. The characters mostly speak short and repetitive phrases and each one has its own special song and dance. The garden is a sunny and colourful environment and the music is jaunty and music box-like. According to Wood:


title: In the Night Garden...

text: Each episode starts with a shot of a night sky with the stars appearing, followed by a shot of a child in bed, while the narrator introduces the programme's episode. The scene then cuts to Igglepiggle, in his boat, getting ready to travel to the Night Garden whilst the theme music plays. The camera pans up to the night sky, followed by brightly coloured flowers. Then we see Igglepiggle going to the gazebo to meet his friends. After that, the title appears on or under a hedge and either the Ninky Nonk or the Pinky Ponk appears.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: The episodes end with the Tittifers singing their song (they also sing in between segments), and then one character gets ready to go to sleep. At the same time, they hear a bedtime story, which is generated by the magical gazebo that sits at the center of the Night Garden. This story is a summary of the plot of the episode. Sometimes the characters all dance together under the Gazebo. Then we see all the characters except for Igglepiggle going to sleep, while Igglepiggle delivers his goodbye sequence. Then the Night Garden turns and retreats into the night sky and Igglepiggle is seen asleep on his boat as the end credits roll over.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: "In the Night Garden..." is intended to help children relax and achieve calming relationships with parents. Producer Anne Wood also states: "We became very aware of the anxiety surrounding the care of young children which manifested itself in all kinds of directions, but the one big subject that came up, again and again, was bedtime. It's the classical time for tension between children who want to stay up and parents who want them to go to bed. So this is a programme about calming things down whereas most children's TV is about getting everything up."


title: In the Night Garden...

text: In 2007 and 2008, the show won the Children's BAFTA for "Pre-school live-action," as well as being nominated in 2009.


title: In the Night Garden...

text: One parent petitioner was quoted by "The Daily Telegraph" commenting: "My four-year-old refused to believe it was bedtime because "In the Night Garden..." hadn't been on and it was daylight outside.", this is because the show was removed from CBeebies's Bedtime Hour for a while in 2008.