title: Delayed gratification

text: Other psychoanalytic researchers describe a more nuanced, and less universally positive, view of delayed gratification. David C. Funder and Jack Block theorized that a person's tendency to delay, or not delay, gratification is just one element of a broader construct called ego control, defined as a person's ability to modulate or control impulses. Ego control "ranges from ego undercontrol at one end to ego overcontrol at the other", according to Funder. These tendencies are thought to be relatively stable in each individual, such that someone who tends toward undercontrol will "grab whatever rewards are immediately available even at the cost of long-term gain" and someone who tends toward overcontrol will "delay or even forgo pleasures even when they can be had without cost". By this view, delay of gratification may be adaptive in certain settings, but inappropriate or even costly in other settings.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Funder and Block draw a distinction between the ego-control model, in which delayed gratification is seen as a general tendency to contain motivational impulses (whether or not it is adaptive in a specific instance), and the ego-resiliency model (supported by Mischel's research), in which delayed gratification is seen as a skill that arises only when it is adaptive. To tease apart these models, Funder and Block explored the association between ego control, ego resiliency, IQ and delayed gratification in adolescents. The adolescents had the choice between being paid $4 at each of six study sessions or delaying their payment until the last session, in which case they would also earn an additional $4 of "interest".


title: Delayed gratification

text: The results supported both models of delayed gratification. The teens' tendency to delay gratification was indeed associated with IQ and with ego resiliency (e.g., higher delayers were rated as more responsible, consistent, likable, sympathetic, generous; less hostile, moody, self-indulgent, rebellious), but was also independently associated with ego control (e.g., higher delayers were rated as "tends toward over-control of needs and impulses" and "favors conservative values in a number of areas"). The researchers noted that individual differences in ego control (i.e., overall impulsivity) may play a larger role in delayed gratification when the incentives are larger and more motivating.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Writing in 1998, Funder described delayed gratification as a "mixed bag". He concluded: "Participants who exhibited the most delay were not just 'better' at self-control, but in a sense they seemed unable to avoid it. ... Delayers are in general smart and well-adjusted, but they also tend to be somewhat overcontrolled and unnecessarily inhibited."


title: Delayed gratification

text: Factors affecting one's ability to delay gratification depend on whether the delay contingency is self-imposed (delay can be terminated at the will of the person waiting) or externally imposed by another person, institution or circumstance. When the contingency is self-imposed, the physical presence of the reward seems to aid in delaying gratification. On the other hand, when the delay is externally imposed, children are not able to wait as long when the reward is present, suggesting greater frustration under these circumstances.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Engaging in work or an assigned task can generate an effective distraction from a reward and enable a person to wait for a longer delay, as long as the reward is not being flaunted. Having the reward present during work (and easily accessible) creates a negative frustration—akin to teasing—rather than providing motivation. For example, a child who can see other children playing outside while the child is finishing their homework will be less motivated to wait for their turn for recess. Another factor work and task engagement adds to the delay of gratification is that if the work is interesting and has some reinforcing quality inherent to it, then attention to the reward will reduce work productivity since it becomes a distraction to the work rather than a motivation to finish it.


title: Delayed gratification

text: The more positive emotions and behavior that a 12- to 24-month-old toddler displays when coping with separation from a parent, the better they are 3.5 years later at using cooling strategies in order to defer gratification. This suggests that the emotional skills and processes required for coping with social and interpersonal frustrations are similar to those utilized for coping with the aggravation of goal-directed delay of gratification. Maternal attachment also influences the development of a child's ability to delay gratification. An interaction has been found between a mother's level of control and how close a child stays to the mother while exploring the environment.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Children who have controlling mothers and explore their environment at a far distance from her are able to employ more cooling strategies and prefer rewards that come later. Similarly, children who stay close to a non-controlling mothers also use more cool strategies and demonstrate longer delays. This suggests that some children of controlling mothers have better learned how to distract themselves from or effectively avoid intrusive stimuli, although additional effects on their emotional competency are speculated but unknown. A greater capacity to delay gratification by using effective attentional strategies is also seen in preschoolers whose mothers had been responsive and supportive during particularly stressful times of self-regulation when the child was a toddler, indicating that maternal responsiveness during highly demanding times is crucial for the development of self-regulation, self-control and emotional competency.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Researchers have investigated whether the reliability of the reward affects one's ability to delay gratification. Reliability of the reward refers to how well the reward received matches what the person was expecting or promised in terms of quality and quantity. For example, researchers told children that they would receive better art supplies if they waited. After the children successfully waited for the reward, better supplies could not be "found" and so they had to use the crayons and stickers that were in poor shape. Comparing these children to ones who received their promised rewards reliably revealed different results on subsequent Marshmallow tests measuring delayed gratification. Children who had learned that the researcher's promise was unreliable quickly succumbed to eating the marshmallow, waiting only an average of three minutes. Conversely, children who had learned that the researcher was reliable were able to wait an average of 12 minutes, with many of them waiting the full 15 minutes for the researcher to return in order to double the reward to two marshmallows.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Evolutionary theory can argue against the selection of the deferred gratification trait since there are both costs and risks associated with delaying gratification behavior. One such cost is the basic opportunity cost associated with time spent waiting. While waiting, individuals lose time that could be used to find other food. Seeking high calorie food conveys a clear evolutionary advantage. There are also two risks associated with being patient. First, there is a risk that another animal might get to the food first, also known as an interruption risk. Second, there is the risk that the chance to get the reward will be cut short, perhaps by a predator, also known as a termination risk. These costs and risks create situations in which the fitness of the individual is threatened. There are several examples that show how reward delay occurs in the real world. For example, animals that eat fruit have the option of eating unripe fruit right away, or waiting, delaying gratification, until it becomes ripe. The interruption risk plays a part here, because if the individual forgoes the unripe fruit, there is a chance that another individual may come along and get to it first. Also, in extractive foraging, such as with nuts and shellfish, the outer shell creates a delay. However, animals that can store food and defer eating are more likely to survive during harsh conditions, and thus delaying gratification may also incur an evolutionary advantage.


title: Delayed gratification

text: It is likely that there is a strong genetic component to deferred gratification, though no direct link has been established. Since many complex genetic interactions are necessary for neurons to perform the simplest tasks, it is hard to isolate one gene to study this behavior. For this same reason, multiple genes are likely responsible for deferred gratification. Further research is necessary to discover the genetic corollaries to delayed gratification.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Delayed gratification or deferred gratification is an animal behavior that can be linked to delay discounting, ecological factors, individual fitness, and neurobiological mechanisms. Research for this behavior has been conducted with animals such as capuchin monkeys, tamarins, marmosets, rats, and pigeons.


title: Delayed gratification

text: When animals are faced with a choice to either wait for a reward, or receive a reward right away, the discounting of the reward is hyperbolic. As the length of time of waiting for a reward increases, the reward is discounted at a gradual rate. Empirical data have suggested that exponential discounting, rewards discounting at a constant rate per unit of waiting time, only occurs when there are random interruptions in foraging. Discounting can also be related to the risk sensitivity of animals. Rather than relating risk to delay, risk sensitivity acts as a function of delay discounting.


title: Delayed gratification

text: In a study conducted by Haden and Platt, macaque monkeys were given the choice of a medium reward that they knew they would receive, versus a more risky choice. The riskier choice would reward the monkey with a large reward fifty percent of the time, and a small reward the other fifty percent. The ultimate payoff was the same, but the monkeys preferred the riskier choice. They speculated that the monkeys did not see their action as risky, but rather as a large, delayed reward. They reasoned that the monkeys viewed the large reward as certain: if they did not get the large reward the first time around, they would eventually get it, but at a longer delay.


title: Delayed gratification

text: To test for this theory, they gave the same test while varying the time between the opportunities to choose a reward. They found that as the interval increased, the number of times that the monkeys chose the more risky reward decreased. While this occurred in macaque monkeys, the varying interval time did not affect pigeons' choices in another study. This suggests that research looking into varying risk sensitivity of different species is needed. When provided a choice between a small, short delay reward, and a large, long delay reward, there is an impulsive preference for the former. Additionally, as the delay time for the small/short and large/long reward increases, there is a shift in preference toward the larger, delayed reward. This evidence only supports hyperbolic discounting, not exponential.


title: Delayed gratification

text: Although predicting reward preference seems simple when using empirical models, there are a number of ecological factors that seem to affect the delayed gratification behavior of animals. In real world situations, "discounting makes sense because of the inherent uncertainty of future payoffs".


title: Delayed gratification

text: One study looked at how reward discounting is context specific. By differing the time and space between small and large rewards, they were able to test how these factors affected the decision making in tamarins and marmosets. They showed that tamarins will travel longer distances for larger food rewards, but will not wait as long as marmosets. Conversely, marmosets will wait longer, but will not travel as far. They then concluded that this discounting behavior directly correlates to the normal feeding behavior of species. The tamarins feed over large distances, looking for insects. Capturing and eating insects requires a quick and impulsive decision and action. The marmosets, on the other hand, eat tree sap, which takes more time to secrete, but does not require that the marmosets to cover large distances.


title: Delayed gratification

text: The physiological similarities between humans and other animals, especially primates, have led to more comparative research between the two groups. Future research with animal models then can expand our own understanding of how people make decisions about instant versus delayed gratification in the real world.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana is one of 18 "Mahāpurāṇa" texts in Hinduism. It is a part of Vaishnavism literature corpus, primarily centering around Hindu god Vishnu. Composed in Sanskrit and also available in various languages like Gujarati and English. The earliest version of the text may have been composed in the first millennium CE, but it was likely expanded and changed over a long period of time.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana text is known in many versions, contains 15000+ verses. Its chapters encyclopedically deal with a highly diverse collection of topics. The text contains cosmology, mythology, relationship between gods, ethics, good versus evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", ancestral rites and soteriology, rivers and geography, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for gems for their quality, listing of plants and herbs, various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a Hindu temple, rites of passage, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appoint them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics. The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Padma Purana categorizes the Purana, along with itself, Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana, as a Sattva Purana (a purana which represents goodness and purity). The text, like all Mahapuranas, is attributed to sage Veda Vyāsa in the Hindu tradition.


title: Garuda Purana

text: According to Pintchman, the text was composed sometime in the first millennium of the common era, but it was likely compiled and changed over a long period of time. Gietz et al. place the first version of the text only between the fourth century CE and the eleventh century.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Leadbeater states that the text is likely from about 900 CE, given that it includes chapters on Yoga and Tantra techniques that likely developed later. Other scholars suggest that the earliest core of the text may be from the first centuries of the common era, and additional chapters were added thereafter through the sixth century or later.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The version of Garuda Purana that survives into the modern era, states Dalal, is likely from 800 to 1000 CE with sections added in the 2nd-millennium. Pintchman suggests 850 to 1000 CE. Chaudhuri and Banerjee, as well as Hazra, on the other hand, state it cannot be from before about the tenth or eleventh century CE.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text exists in many versions, with varying numbers of chapters, and considerably different content. Some Garuda Purana manuscripts have been known by the title of "Sauparna Purana" (mentioned in Bhagavata Purana section 12.13), "Tarksya Purana" (the Persian scholar Al-Biruni who visited India mentions this name), and "Vainateya Purana" (mentioned in Vayu Purana section 2.42 and 104.8).


title: Garuda Purana

text: In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, a text called "Garudapuranasaroddhara" was published, then translated by Ernest Wood and SV Subrahmanyam. This, states Ludo Rocher, created major confusion because it was mistaken for Garuda Purana, when it is not, a misidentification first discovered by Albrecht Weber. "Garuda-purana-saroddhara" actually is the original bhasya work of Naunidhirama, that cites a section of now non-existent version of Garuda Purana as well as other Indian texts. The earliest translation of one version of Garuda Purana, by Manmatha Nath Dutt, was published in the early twentieth century.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana is a Vaishnava Purana and has, according to the tradition, 19,000 shlokas (verses). However, the manuscripts that have survived into the modern era have preserved about eight thousand verses. These are divided into two parts, a "Purva Khanda" (early section) and an "Uttara Khanda" (later section). The "Purva Khanda" contains about 229 chapters, but in some versions of the text this section has between 240–243 chapters. The "Uttara Khanda" varies between 34 and 49 chapters. The "Uttara Khanda" is more often known as "Pretakhanda" or "Pretakalpa"..The Venkatesvara Edition of the Purana has an additional Khanda named Brahma Khanda.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana was likely fashioned after the Agni Purana, the other major medieval India encyclopedia that has survived. The text's structure is idiosyncratic, in that it is a medley, and does not follow the theoretical structure expected in a historic Puranic genre of Indian literature. It is presented as information that Garuda (the man-bird vehicle of Vishnu) learned from Vishnu, and then narrated by Garuda to sage Kashyapa, which then spread in the mythical forest of Naimisha reaching sage Vyasa.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The largest section (90%) of the text is "Purva Khanda" that discusses a wide range of topics associated with life and living. The remaining is "Pretakhanda", which deals primarily with rituals associated with death and cremation.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The cosmology presented in Garuda Purana revolves around Vishnu and Lakshmi, and it is their union that created the universe. Vishnu is the unchanging reality called Brahman, while Lakshmi is the changing reality called Maya. The goddess is the material cause of the universe, the god acts to begin the process.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The cosmogenesis in Garuda Purana, like other Puranas, weaves the Samkhya theory of two realities, the Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter), the masculine and feminine presented as interdependent, each playing a different but essential role to create the observed universe. Goddess Lakshmi is the creative power of Prakriti, cosmic seed and the source of creation. God Vishnu is the substance of Purusha, the soul and the constant. The masculine and the feminine are presented by the Garuda Purana, states Pintchman, as an inseparable aspect of the same divine, metaphysical truth Brahman.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana, states Madan, elaborates the repeatedly found theme in Hindu religious thought that the living body is a microcosm of the universe, governed by the same laws and made out of the same substances. All the gods are inside the human body, what is outside the body is present within it as well. Body and cosmos, states Madan, are equated in this theme. Vishnu is presented by the text as the supreme soul within the body.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text describes Vishnu, Vaishnava festivals and Puja (worship), and offers "Mahatmya"—a pilgrimage tour guide to Vishnu-related sacred places. However, the Garuda Purana also includes significant sections with reverence for Shaiva, Shakti and Smarta traditions, including the Panchayatana puja of Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Surya (Sun) and Ganesha.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana includes chapters on the architecture and design of a temple. It recommends that a plot of ground should be divided into 64 squares, with the four innermost squares forming the "Chatuskon" (adytum). The core of the temple, states the text, should be reachable through 12 entrances, and the walls of the temple raised touching the 48 of the squares. The height of the temple plinth should be based on the length of the platform, the vault in the inner sanctum should be co-extensive with adytum's length with the indents therein set at a third and a fifth ratio of the inner vault's chord. The arc should be half the height of pinnacle, and the text describes various ratios of the temple's exterior to the adytum, those within adytum and then that of the floor plan to the Vimana (spire).


title: Garuda Purana

text: The second design details presented in the Garuda Purana is for a 16 square grid, with four inner squares ("pada") for the adytum. The text thereafter presents the various ratios for the temple design. The dimensions of the carvings and images on the walls, edifices, pillars and the murti are recommended by the text to be certain harmonic proportions of the layout (length of a "pada"), the adytum and the spire.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Temples, asserts the text, exist in many thematic forms. These include the "Bairaja" (rectangle themed), "Puspakaksa" (quadrilateral themed), "Kailasha" (circular themed), "Malikahvaya" (segments of sphere themed) and the Tripistapam (octagon themed). These five themes, claims Garuda Purana, have created 45 different styles of temples, from the Meru style to Shrivatsa style. Each thematic form of temple architecture permits nine styles of temples, and the Purana lists all 45 styles. The inner edifice of a temple is best in five shapes, in these various styles of temples, and the edifice can be triangle, lotus-shaped, crescent, rectangular and octagonal, asserts the text. The text thereafter describes the design guidelines for the "Mandapa" and the "Garbha Griha".


title: Garuda Purana

text: The temple design, states Jonathan Parry, follows the homology at the foundation of Hindu thought, that the cosmos and body are harmonious correspondence of each other, the temple is a model and reminder of this cosmic homology.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana describes 14 gems, their varieties and how to test their quality. The gems discussed include ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, hessonite, emerald, diamond, cats eye, Blue Sapphire, coral, red garnet, jade, colorless quartz, and bloodstone. The technical discussion of gems in the text is woven with its theories on the mythical creation of each gem, astrological significance and talisman benefits.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text describes the characteristics of the gems, how to clean and make jewelry from them, cautioning that gem experts should be consulted before buying them. For pearl, for example, it describes using "Jamvera" fruit juice (contains lime) mixed with boiled rice starch in order to clean and soften pearls, then pierced to make holes for jewelry. A sequential "Vitanapatti" method of cleaning, states the text, wherein the pearls are cleaned with hot water, wine and milk gives the best results. A pearl, asserts the text, should be examined by friction test which it describes. Similar procedures and tests are described for emerald, jade, diamonds and all 14 gems the text includes.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Chapter 93 of the Garuda Purvakhanda presents sage Yajnavalkya's theory on laws of virtue. The text asserts that knowledge is condensed in the Vedas, in texts of different schools of philosophy such as Nyaya and Mimamsa, the Shastras on Dharma, on making money and temporal sciences written by 14 holy sages. Thereafter, through Yajnavalkya, the text presents its laws of virtue. The first one, it lists, is charity (Dāna), which it defines as follows,


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text similarly discusses the following virtues—right conduct, "damah" (self-restraint), "ahimsa" (non-killing, non-violence in actions, words and thoughts), studying the Vedas, and performing rites of passage. The text presents different set of diet and rites of passage rules based on the varna (social class) of a person. The Brahmin, for example, is advised to forgo killing animals and eating meat, while it is suggested to undertake Upanayana (holy thread ceremony) at the youngest age. No dietary rules are advised for Shudra, nor is the thread ceremony discussed. These chapters on laws of virtue, in one version of the Garuda Purana, are borrowed and a duplicate of nearly 500 verses found in the Yajnavalkya Smriti. The various versions of Garuda Purana show significant variations.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana asserts that the highest and most imperative religious duty is to introspect into one's own soul, seeking self-communion.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The chapter 108 and thereafter, present Garuda Purana's theories on "Nityaachaar" (नित्याचार, ethics and right conduct) towards others.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Save money for times of distress, asserts Garuda Purana, but be willing to give it up all to save your wife. It is prudent to sacrifice oneself to save a family, and it is prudent to sacrifice one family to save a village. It is prudent to save a country if left with a choice to save the country or a village. Yet, in verses that follow, it says a man should renounce that country whose inhabitants champion prejudice, and forgo the friend who he discovers to be deceitful.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text cautions against application of knowledge which is wedded to meanness, against pursuit of physical beauty without ennobling mind, and against making friends with those who abandon their dear ones in adversity. It is the nature of all living beings to pursue one's own self-interest. Yet, do not acquire wealth through vicious means or by bowing down to your enemies.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Men of excellence live with honest means, are true to their wives, pass their time in intellectual pursuits and are hospitable to newcomers. Eternal are the rewards when one weds one's knowledge with noble nature, deep is the friendship roused by connection of the soul. The discussion on ethics is mixed in other chapters.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Governance is part of the Neeti Shaastra section of the Garuda Purana, and this section influenced later Indian texts on politics and economy.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Purvakhanda, from chapter 111 onwards describes the characteristics of a good king and good government. Dharma should guide the king, the rule should be based on truth and justice, and he must protect the country from foreign invaders. Taxation should be bearable, never cause hardship on the merchants or taxpayers, and should be similar in style to one used by the florist who harvests a few flowers without uprooting the plants and while sustaining the future crops. A good government advances order and prosperity for all.


title: Garuda Purana

text: A stable king is one whose kingdom is prosperous, whose treasury is full, and who never chastises his ministers or servants. He secures services from the qualified, honest and virtuous, rejects the incapable, wicked and malicious, states chapter 113. A good government collects taxes like a bee collecting honey from all the flowers when ready and without draining any flower.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Chapters 146 to 218 of the Garuda Purana's Purvakhanda present the Dhanvantari Samhita, its treatise on medicine. The opening verses assert that the text will now describe pathology, pathogeny and symptoms of all diseases studied by ancient sages, in terms of its causes, incubative stage, manifestation in full form, amelioration, location, diagnosis and treatment.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Parts of the pathology and medicine-related chapters of Garuda Purana, states Ludo Rocher, are similar to "Nidanasthana" of Vagbhata's "Astangahridaya", and these two may be different manuscript recensions of the same underlying but now lost text. Other chapters of Garuda Purana, such as those on nutrition and diet to prevent diseases, states Susmita Pande, are similar to those found in the more ancient Hindu text Sushruta Samhita.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text includes various lists of diseases, agricultural products, herbs, formulations with claims to medicinal value and such information. In chapters 202 and 227 of the Purvakhanda, for example, Sanskrit names of over 450 plants and herbs are listed with claims to nutritional or medicinal value.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The chapter 226 of the text presents veterinary diseases of horses and their treatment. The verses describe various types of ulcers and cutaneous infections in horses, and 42 herbs for veterinary care formulations.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The last ten chapters of the Purvakhanda is dedicated to Yoga, and is sometimes referred to as the Brahma Gita. This section is notable for references to Hindu deity Dattatreya as the Guru of Ashtang (eight limbed) Yoga.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The text describes a variety of Asanas (postures), then adds that the postures are means, not the goal. The goal of yoga is meditation, samadhi and self-knowledge.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Garuda Purana in chapter 229, states Ian Whicher, recommends using "saguna" Vishnu (with form like a murti) in the early stages of Yoga meditation to help concentration and draw in one's attention with the help of the gross form of the object. After this has been mastered, states the text, the meditation should shift from "saguna" to "nirguna", unto the subtle, abstract formless Vishnu within, with the help of a guru (teacher). These ideas of Garuda Purana were influential, and were cited by later texts such as in verse 3.3 of the 17th-century "Arthabodhini".


title: Garuda Purana

text: The second section of the text, also known as "Uttara Khanda" and "Pretakalpa", includes chapters on funeral rites and life after death. This section was commented upon by Navanidhirama in his publication "Garuda Purana Saroddhara" and translated by Wood and Subramanyam in 1911.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Pretakhanda is the second and minor part of Garuda Purana. It is, states Rocher, "entirely unsystematic work" presented with motley confusion and many repetitions in the Purana, dealing with "death, the dead and beyond". Monier Monier-Williams wrote in 1891, that portions of verses recited at cremation funerals are perhaps based on this relatively modern section of the Garuda Purana, but added that Hindu funeral practices do not always agree with guidance in the Garuda Purana. Three quite different versions of "Pretakhanda" of Garuda Purana are known, and the variation between the chapters, states Jonathan Parry, is enormous.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The Pretakhanda also talks in details about the various types of hell and the sins that can lead one into them. It gives a detailed description of what a soul goes through after death, having met the yamaduta and the journey to naraka in the year following the death.


title: Garuda Purana

text: Available only in the Venkateswara Edition of the Garuda Purana,it has 29 chapters in the form of an interlocution between Krishna and Garuda, on the supremacy of Vishnu, the nature and form of other Gods, description of the shrine of Venkateshwara at Tirupati and other Tirthas there. While speaking about the supremacy of Vishnu and the nature of other gods, it criticises some of the Advaitic doctrines (like Upadhi, Maya,Avidya) and upholds the doctrine of Madhvacharya's school; a distinctive feature which is scarecely observed in any other purana.


title: Garuda Purana

text: The form and the contents of this section prove it's later origin ,a fact further substantiated by the absence of any reference to this section in other Puranas such as The Narada Purana.


title: Wydad AC

text: Wydad Athletic Club (, ) commonly referred to as Wydad AC and known as Wydad, or simply as WAC, is a Moroccan sports club based in Casablanca. Wydad AC is best known for its professional football team that competes in Botola, the top tier of the Moroccan football league system, they are one of three clubs to have never been relegated from the top flight.


title: Wydad AC

text: Founded on 8 May 1937 by seven Moroccans belonging the national movement for independence, led by Mohamed Benjelloun Touimi. They initially focused on water polo to give indigenous Moroccans the right to access swimming pools before Mohamed Ben Lahcen Affani – also known by the nickname of "Père Jégo" ("Father Jégo") – created the football section in 1939, he was the first manager of the team. The club has traditionally worn a red home kit since inception.


title: Wydad AC

text: Domestically, Wydad has won a record of 22 Moroccan league titles and 9 Moroccan Throne Cups, becoming the most titled club in Morocco. In continental and international competitions, the club has won three CAF Champions Leagues, one African Cup Winners' Cup, one CAF Super Cup, one Afro-Asian Club Championship, one Mohammed V Trophy, one Arab Club Champions Cup, one Arab Super Cup, three North African Championships and one North African Cup.


title: Wydad AC

text: The Reds shares rivalry with Raja CA, named the Casablanca derby. Wydad also holds rivalry with AS FAR.


title: Wydad AC

text: The origin of the establishment of Wydad Athletic Club on resistance the colonialism that was imposed by the French authorities during the era of protectorate in Morocco, since before the independence of Morocco, the port of Casablanca was surrounded by a large number of swimming pools that were dedicated to clubs and sports associations only, and the Europeans were the ones who can supervising them. In beginning of the year 1935, many Moroccan Muslims and Jews joined several clubs to take advantage of the private swimming pools, but they were soon expelled by the colonizer because of their fear of an increase in their numbers later, and from here came the idea of establishing a Moroccan club by Moroccans only, so that the club can benefit of the swimming pools and participate in water polo competitions.


title: Wydad AC

text: The idea of establishing Wydad Athletic Club was not as easy as it could be imagined, as all the members of the original core, including Hajj Mohamed Benjelloun Touimi and Hajj Dr. Abdellatif Benjelloun Touimi, suffered from the continued rejection and intransigence of the French authorities to the idea of establishing a “full Moroccan club”, which prompted them to resort to the Franco-Moroccan Association, in order to amend the matters related to registering the club's name, after which the General Resident in Morocco at the time, Maurice Nogues, personally intervened to allow the establishment of Wydad Athletic Club, but with specific conditions.


title: Wydad AC

text: Wydad () is an Arabic word that means "love", "sincere affection.", during the frequent meetings which led to the creation of the club, one of the founding members arrived late after watching the latest film of the legendary Egyptian actress and singer Umm Kulthum with the same name, though latinized as Weddad, as it coincided with this answer that Zaghrouda set out from one of the neighboring houses to the meeting place, the attendees were optimistic about it, and Hajj Mohamed Ben Lahcen Affani expressed his support for choosing this name, but the intervention of some of the attendees led to a postponement for the final decision on the name of the club, except after the presence of a large number of managers and players, as the name was approved after holding a general gathering, the result was the suggestion and choice of the name "Wydad Athletic Club", as a name for the club without the inclusion of the word “Casablanca” because the club represents all Moroccans, not just the residents of the city of Casablanca.


title: Wydad AC

text: Wydad played its first game against defending champion USM Casablanca as part of the first day of the championship in what is a criterion of war in September 1939. This meeting was the first of Wydad ended in defeat with a score of two goals to one. The first scorer was Abdelkader Lakhmiri. During this first season Wydad it was not a championship that was played but a true test of war called cutting war because of the Second World War. The first edition of this competition was played so in the context of the 1939–40 season and ended with a victory for the USM Casablanca facing the new team what Wydad. One who had played his first match against USM and had also faced rematch is still faced in the final after an incredible journey that has to qualify. The meeting was ended with a score of 1–0 at Stade Philippe to Casablanca. 1939–40: Champion of Chaouia League 1940: Winner of Moroccan Super Cup 1940: Runner-up of Moroccan Cup


title: Wydad AC

text: The following season was also a criterion of war except that this time Wydad fails the same course as in the previous season. The Reds began the competition in a group comprising a total of nine groups or they managed to skilled in the finals. The final phase started from the quarter-finals where finally, the WAC is beaten by the Olympic Khouribga to score a 1–0. And finally.


title: Wydad AC

text: After playing two seasons in cutting the war, the French authorities under the orders of the Vichy regime decided to play the championship again at war. Despite the very good performance of Wydad, the French authorities decided to Wydad play in the second division and not first. One of the main reasons is the fact that the federation at the time was managed by teams of 1st Division. Despite these injustices, Wydad managed to be the first in their pool and in the context of a game between the dam at Ittihad Ribati, he succeeds in beating up the latter by a goal to nil. For fear that Wydad up in the first division, the federation decided to play another game the opponent this time in the Athletic Union of Meknes. This encounter was played behind closed doors in Meknes and during the month of Ramadan. The team was composed meknassis majority of non-Muslims opposed to Wydad. But finally Wydad thanks to a goal from Ben Messaoud to 12 minute first successful rising after receiving a letter from the federation confirming the rise in 1st division.


title: Wydad AC

text: The next season after winning the championship promotion honor is the 2nd level football league in Morocco and after winning his matches dams, Wydad newly promoted division plays of honor is 'equivalent of first division football league in Morocco. During this season, Wydad had a good run, finishing in the top three of their group to play the final round, which begins from the second round. And after a very good run, Wydad reached the final of the chicken and confronts the USM Casablanca club already encountered in regional chickens. Wydad fails to win his first title in this competition and was beaten on the score of 2–0.


title: Wydad AC

text: During the season 1943–44, the red and white ends the year with a balance of the quarter-finals after several victories, the club face Fedala score on the river 2–0. Also noteworthy during this season package of USM Casablanca. In 1944–45, the club managed the final qualification in the pool but was eliminated by the Association Sportive Marrakech Marrakech often called SAM despite a victory in the second round against the ASM score of 3–0.


title: Wydad AC

text: The 1945–46 season is one of the best in the club since its inception as Wydad won the regional championship with a total of more than 62 points or 19 wins, 2 losses and 1 draw. After winning the title, Wydad qualifies for final round where he was defeated by the USM Casablanca final score of 3–1. Despite this defeat, the balance of the season is rather positive. During the 1946–47 season, the club honors its first participation in the North African Cup but failed to move beyond sixteenth-finals following a defeat club Fedala the most minimal scores a 1–0. In the league, the WAC failed to win the title.


title: Wydad AC

text: It will take more than nine years for Wydad to finally win its first championship. In a group of eight clubs, Wydad played fourteen matches, won six, lost two and drawn six. Moroccan Iyad El Baz helped win Wydad's first ever trophy. During the same season Wydad participates in the North African Championship with the title won and even managed to win by beating the US Athletic score of 4–2. Wydad also took part in the 1948–49 season of the North African Championship, which is a competition organized by the Union of North African Football that it is made up of five leagues is that of the Morocco, Tunisia, Algiers, Oran and Constantine. The competition began for Wydad in the knockout final against Red Star of Algiers. The match ended in a victory for Wydad AC score of 3–1. Then, in the quarter-finals, he must face the USM Bone or he managed to climb in the semi-finals with a victory on the score of 2–1. Continuing his journey, he must then face the Olympic Hussein Dey, club league Algiers. This meeting was a massacre ending with a victory on the score of 3–0 while the club qualified for the finals is a club and even Casablanca Moroccan who managed to beat the Sports Club Hammam Lif on the modest score of 1–0. this club is in fact the US Athletic. The final was held in Casablanca in 1949, is opposed both clubs are Wydad AC that and the US Athletic and after 90 minutes of play, Wydad won the competition for the first time in its history with a victory on the score of 2–1. During the same season they also managed to win a Championship North African football when editing played as mini-league since it was the team with the most points wins the championship, they also won another championship, so it is the first club which has tripled something which nobody has done throughout history. During the following season Wydad fails to succeed on a hat-trick but doubled. It won the Moroccan championship for the third time in its history and a row with a total of more than 57 points, and won the championship of North African football by beating the Athletic Union Muslim Oran on the score 4–0 in Algiers on 28 May 1950.


title: Wydad AC

text: During the 1950–51 season, Wydad continues its momentum by winning the national championship but was beaten in the final of the African Cup North face SC Bel-Abbes on the score 1–0. During the last season played before independence, Wydad won his fifth and last championship title before Moroccan independence. Participating teams in this championship was twelve in number counting Wydad. During the same season, the Reds were beaten in the final of the championship of North Africa to Casablanca in the face of Esperance Sportive de Guelma score of 2–1.


title: Wydad AC

text: Morocco becomes independent, and the WAC receives the honorary Resistance Card with the number 1 by his royal majesty Mohammed V. Before launching the first Moroccan championship for the 1956/57 season, the committee decides to organize a first competition called Independence Cup, and classify the teams in the divisions. This cup is won by Wydad AC which has become the number 1 club in Morocco. The 38th edition of the championship (the first after independence) is won by the WAC (title holder) with the Kawkab of Marrakech as its runner-up. The same season in the cup, Wydad qualified for the final against the Mouloudia Club of Oujda. The match ends with a score of 1–1, King Mohammed V, Crown Prince Hassan II and WAC founder Mohamed Benjelloun Touimi who are present in this final, decide to give the cup to Mouloudia Oujda. because he scored the first goal.


title: Wydad AC

text: During the following season, the WAC finished vice-champion of Morocco with 69 points, one less than the champion, the Kawkab of Marrakech. The Wydad who was first loses all his points won against the USM Casablanca following the general forfeit of it and also loses in the final of the Morocco Cup against the same opponent of last season on the score of 2 goals to 1.


title: Wydad AC

text: During the following season, Wydad is still vice-champion behind the Casablanca star while in the Throne Cup, the WAC is eliminated in the round of 16 against the FAR of Rabat, winners of this competition. WAC forward Mustapha Khalfi finished top scorer in Botola with 21 goals.


title: Wydad AC

text: The following season, Wydad reached fourth place with only one point less than the top three. In the Cup, and after defeating Essaouira with a score of one goal to zero, the WAC was eliminated in the quarterfinals against Mouloudia d'Ouejda.


title: Wydad AC

text: The first 1960/61 season ended badly with a 7th place in the league, in the cup the WAC was able to climb into the final by defeating the future champion of this season, the FAR of Rabat, on the score of two goals to one. But Wydad has always missed its finals since 1956 and faces last season's champion Kenitra Athletic Club. The Wydad was beaten with the score of a goal to zero on April 24, 1960, at the Stade d'honneur in Casablanca. The following season, the WAC finished 6th in the Botola classification, and was beaten in the eighth finals of the Morocco Cup against Mouloudia d'Ouejda with the score of 2 goals to 0. In the 1962 season / 63, the WAC again finished 6th in Botola, and reached the semi-final of the Morocco Cup eliminated by KAC Marrakech. The following season, WAC was again 6th in Botola, and was a finalist in the Morocco Cup against KAC Marrakech. In the 1964/65 season, the WAC finished in the championship in 5th place, and was eliminated in the quarter-finals of the Cup.


title: Wydad AC

text: It was not until the 1965/66 season to see the WAC champion of Morocco for the 7th time, with a total of 57 points. As the team was eliminated in the eighth finals of the Morocco Cup against MAS Fez, it took fifteen years to return to the Moroccan Super Cup against COD Meknès (winner of the Cup). The WAC participated for the first time in its history in the Mohammed V Cup where it finished 4th, after elimination against Real Madrid in the semi-final with the score of 2 goals to 0.


title: Wydad AC

text: The 1966–67 season ended with a 4th place in the championship, and an elimination in the quarter-final of the Morocco Cup against the sports association of the royal armed forces. The following season the WAC will finish 8th in Botola, and eliminated in the round of 16 of the Cup against the same opponent, the sports association of the royal armed forces.


title: Wydad AC

text: During the 1968–69 season, the WAC returned to the Botola podium, winning its 8th title of Champion of Morocco with a total of 73 points, including 16 victories, 11 draws and 3 lost matches. But unfortunately, he was eliminated in the second round of the Cup. In June, facing RS Settat (winner of the Morocco Cup), the WAC won its 6th Moroccan Super Cup solved by captain Mohammed Sahraoui.


title: Wydad AC

text: We had to wait thirty-one years to see the WAC winner of the Morocco Cup, and it was against RS Settat that the reds won the title with the score of a goal to zero. Compared to the 1960s, the emperor of Moroccan football won three times the Botola and three times the Cup as well as the Mohammed V Cup thanks to legendary players such as Larbi Aherdane, Ezzaki Badou, Aziz Bouderbala, Petchou or Abdelmajid Shaita. In the 1969–70 season, Wydad finished 5th at Botola, winner of the Cup. 1970–71: 7th at Botola, 2nd round of the Cup. 1971–72: vice-champion of Botola, 1/8 final of the Cup. 1972–73: 9th at Botola, 2nd round of the Cup. 1973–74: 5th in Botola, 1/4 final of the cup. 1974–75: 9th at Botola, 2nd round of the Cup, winner of the Green Market Cup. 1975–76: Moroccan champion, 9th coronation, 1/8 Cup final. 1976–77: Champion of Morocco, 10th coronation, 1/8 final of the Cup, 3rd of the Mohammed V Cup. 1977–78: Champion of Morocco, 11th coronation, winner of the 2nd coronation Cup. 1978–79: 3rd at Botola, Cup winner, 3rd coronation, Mohammed V Cup winner.


title: Wydad AC

text: In the first season, the WAC finished runner-up in Morocco with only 1 point difference from the winner, and won the Cup for the second time in its history, and regained the Botola podium for the 12th time in 1986, and participates for the first time in the CAF Champions League, since it is the first Moroccan club to win the Arab Cup of Champions Clubs in 1989 and a 3rd Cup of Morocco in the same year. In the 1979–80: vice-champion of Morocco, 1/8 Cup final, winner of the Meknes International Tournament. 1980–81: 4th at Botola, Winner of the 2nd coronation Cup, winner of the Mohamed Benjelloun Trophy. 1981–82: vice-champion of Morocco, 1/8 final of the Cup.1982–83: 3rd at Botola, 1/8 Cup final, winner of the Independence Tournament. 1983–84: 5th at Botola, 2nd round of the Cup. 1984–85: 4th at Botola, 1/8 Cup final. 1985–86: Moroccan champion 12th coronation, 2nd round of the Cup. 1986–87: 4th at Botola, 2nd round of the Cup, 2nd round of the Champions League. 1987–88: 4th at Botola, semi-finalist of the Cup, winner of the Pescara International Cup. 1988–89: 5th at Botola, winner of the 3rd coronation Cup, winner of the Arab Cup of Champions Clubs.


title: Wydad AC

text: During this decade, the WAC won all possible competitions, with two consecutive victories in Botola, the CAF Champions League, the Arab Super Cup, the 15th coronation of champion of Morocco, the Afro-Asian Super Cup, the 8th Cup of Morocco in its history, twice the Moroccan Supercup in 1995 and 1999: 1989–90: Moroccan champion, 13th coronation, 2nd round of the Cup. 1990–91: Moroccan champion, 14th coronation, 1/4 final of the Cup, semi-finalist of the CAF Champions League. 1991–92: 3rd at Botola, 1/8 final of the Cup, winner of the CAF Champions League, winner of the Arab Super Cup. 1992–93: finalist of the CAF Supercup, champion of Morocco, 15th coronation, 1/4 Cup final, winner of the Afro-Asian Cup. 1993–94: vice-champion of Morocco, winner of the Cup, 6th coronation, finalist of the African-European Cup, 2nd round of the Champions League. 1994–95: winner of the Moroccan Supercup, 7th coronation, 5th at Botola, 1/8 Cup final. 1995–96: 3rd at Botola, 1/4 Cup final, winner of the Dallas International Cup. 1996–97: vice-champion of Morocco, winner of the Cup, 7th coronation. 1997–98: 3rd at Botola, Cup winner, 8th coronation, Supercup finalist, semi-finalist of the CAF Cup Cup. 1998–99: winner of the Moroccan Supercup, 8th coronation, 5th at Botola, 1/16 Cup final, CAF Cup finalist.


title: Wydad AC

text: During this decade, the Red Devils have won fewer titles than before. It was a bad chapter in the history of the club: 1999–00: vice-champion of Morocco, 1/16 Cup final, 1/8 CAF Cup final. 2000–01: 7th at Botola, winner of the 9th coronation Cup, 1/4 final CAF Cup. 2001–02: vice-champion of Morocco, 1/16 final of the Cup, winner of the CAF Cup Cup after defeating Asante Kotoko S.C. 2002–03: 3rd at Botola, Cup finalist, semi-finalist of the CAF Cup Cup. 2003–04: 3rd at Botola, Cup finalist after a 3–1 loss to Zamalek SC, intermediate round Confederation Cup. 2004–05: 3rd at Botola, 1/16 Cup final, 1/4 final of the Arab Cup. 2005–06: Moroccan champion 16th coronation, 1/8 final of the Cup, 1/4 final of the Arab Cup. 2006–07: 4th at Botola, semi-finalist of the Cup, 2nd round of the CAF Champions League. 2007–08: 7th at Botola, 1/8 Cup final, Arab Cup finalist after a 2–0 loss to ES Sétif. 2008–09: 4th at Botola, 1/4 Cup final, Arab Cup finalist after a 2–1 loss to Espérance Sportive de Tunis. : 2009–10: Moroccan champion 17th coronation, 1/16 final of the Cup.


title: Wydad AC

text: From the start of the second decade of the 20th century, the WAC returned to the Botola podium by winning its 17th title, then in 2015, 2017 and 2019, as well as the CAF Champions League in 2017, and the Super Cup of CAF in 2018. 2014–15: Moroccan champion 18th coronation, 1/8 Cup final.2016–17: Moroccan champion 19th coronation, 1/8 final of the Cup, winner of the CAF Champions League. 2017–18: vice-champion of Morocco, semi-finalist of the Cup, 1/4 final of the CAF Champions League, 1/8 final of the Arab Cup, winner of the 2018 CAF Super Cup.


title: Wydad AC

text: 2018–19: Moroccan champion 20th coronation, finalist of the CAF Champions League 2018–19 after a devastating Var problem that gifted Espérance Sportive de Tunis the win. 2019–20: vice-champion of Morocco, semi-finalist of the CAF Champions League 2019–20. On 14 July 2021, Wydad defeated Mouloudia Oujda 0–2 at the Honneur Stadium to clinch their 21st league title, with three games left in the season, semi-finalist of the CAF Champions League 2019–20.


title: Wydad AC

text: One day after the club's 85th anniversary, Wydad defeated Atlético Petróleos de Luanda 4–2 on aggregate (3–1 away and 1–1 at home) to advance to their 5th Champions League final and the 3rd one in 6 years. On 30 May 2022, in a rematch of 2017 final, Wydad AC beat defending champions Al Ahly in the final to be crowned champions of Africa for the third time in its history, thanks to a brace from the Man of the Match, Zouhair El Moutaraji. During this campaign under Walid Regrgui role, the Red Castle has achieved many national records in the CAF Champions League: First Moroccan team to win an away semi-final match, most wins for a Moroccan team in a single season (9 wins), most goals scored in a single season (28 goals), and first Moroccan team to go undefeated for 9 straight games in a single season. With this win, Wydad will play in the first-ever all-Moroccan CAF Super Cup against 2021–22 CAF Confederation Cup winners, RS Berkane. On 21 July 2022, Wydad was elected as the best Club of the year in the 2022 CAF Awards.


title: Wydad AC

text: Stade Mohammed V is the home stadium of both Wydad and Raja. It was called the "Stade Marcel Cerdan" from 1955 to 1956 and the "Stade d'Honneur" from 1956 to 1981. It was inaugurated on 6 March 1955 and renovated three times in 1981, 2000 and 2007. It is part of a large sports complex in the heart of Casablanca, specifically in the up-scale neighbourhood of Maârif.


title: Wydad AC

text: It has a capacity of 67,000 spectators (reduced to more than 80,000 in 2000), not counting the North and South stands that have no seats. In 1997, 110,000 spectators showed up to the stadium in a match of the Moroccan national team against Ghana. In 2007, the stadium was equipped with a semi-artificial turf which meets international standards.


title: Wydad AC

text: Wydad is one of the most popular teams in Morocco, with a fan base counted in millions all around the world. Wydad's ultras group is called "Winners 2005" and is renowned all over the world for its spectacular displays at each game. The "Winners 2005" was voted "the world's best ultras group in 2015 and 2019 by Ultras World magazine.


title: Wydad AC

text: This list includes players that have appeared in at least 100 league games and/or have reached international status.


title: Wydad AC

text: • Largest number of top scorers in the Championship, 14 times with 10 scorers: Chtouki in 1948 and 1955, Abdesslam in 1949, Driss in 1950, Khalfi in 1951 and 1959, Chrif in 1978, Mjidou in 1984, Nader in 1986, 1987 and 1989, Fertout in 1993, Evona in 2015, Jebor in 2017 and Kaabi in 2021.


title: Wydad AC

text: • Nader has finished three times top scorer in the Moroccan championship, he is the recordman with Laghrissi and Anaflous of the FAR, as well as Boussati of the KAC


title: Wydad AC

text: Wydad has embodied the struggle of Moroccan people against the French occupation, so much so that in all the soccer fields of Morocco where Wydad played was encouraged by thousands of fans. Unlike other clubs like the Racing Casablanca or the Union Sportive Marocaine (USM), the Wydad was composed mostly of Moroccan footballers (10 Moroccan players out of 11 was the maximum allowed by the regulations) and in some way was considered by the supporters Moroccans, a Moroccan national: through sport and Wydad, the Moroccans could symbolically defeat the occupier. This quality was specific to Wydad and no other Moroccan club can boast this status before independence. The Wydad was the "standard-bearer" of Morocco wherever he played. In a North African Cup game in Algeria, the Moroccan Wydad players refused to play the race because the Moroccan flag was not hoisted next to the French one: the game did not start until the organizers decided to raise the flag of Morocco next to the French tricolor. An anecdote that shows how the sense of the homeland was an important value for Wydad players goes back to those years: a player of Wydad, Abdeslam, during the pre-game match urinated in the direction of the musicians who played the Marseillaise.


title: Wydad AC

text: The great victories of the Wydad in front of the teams owned by the French protectorate like the USM were experienced as a national holiday by all Moroccans. No coincidence that the crown prince to the throne of the Kingdom of Morocco, Hassan II was the main supporter of the team and did not hesitate, during the end of the first times of the games, to go down in the locker room to encourage the players of Wydad, who were considered by him and called "Moroccan troops".


title: Arc welding

text: Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a metal stick ("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the point of contact. Arc welders can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.


title: Arc welding

text: The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas (e.g. an inert gas), vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.


title: Arc welding

text: To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance. Under normal arc length conditions, a constant current power supply with a stick electrode operates at about 20 volts.


title: Arc welding

text: The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In general, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration (around 60%). "Note that for stick welding in general, DC+ polarity is most commonly used. It produces a good bead profile with a higher level of penetration. DC- polarity results in less penetration and a higher electrode melt-off rate. It is sometimes used, for example, on thin sheet metal in an attempt to prevent burn-through." "With few exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper penetration. Electrode-negative (straight polarity) results in faster melt-off of the electrode and, therefore, faster deposition rate." Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.


title: Arc welding

text: Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a 10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of continuous welding. Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.


title: Arc welding

text: One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or "stick". The electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and construction.


title: Arc welding

text: Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called "MIG" (for "metal/inert-gas"), is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well. With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the automobile industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.


title: Arc welding

text: Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.


title: Arc welding

text: Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products. As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.


title: Arc welding

text: Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or "tungsten/inert-gas" (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and marine applications.


title: Arc welding

text: A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.


title: Arc welding

text: Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.


title: Arc welding

text: Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminum, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at ) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.


title: Arc welding

text: Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion. When subjected to temperatures around for too long a time, chromium reacts with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.


title: Arc welding

text: Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about , when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important.


title: Arc welding

text: Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically joined.


title: Arc welding

text: Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however, with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly reduced.


title: Arc welding

text: Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.


title: Arc welding

text: Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens electronically. To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.


title: Arc welding

text: Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.


title: Arc welding

text: While the open-circuit voltage of an arc welding machine may be only a few tens of volts up to about 120 volts, even these low voltages can present a hazard of electric shock for the operators. Locations such as ship's hulls, storage tanks, metal structural steel, or in wet areas are usually at earth ground potential and operators may be standing or resting on these surfaces during operating of the electric arc. Welding machines operating off AC power distribution systems must isolate the arc circuit from earth ground to prevent insulation faults in the machine from exposing operators to high voltage. The return clamp of the welding machine is located near to the work area, to reduce the risk of stray current traveling a long way to create heating hazards or electric shock exposure, or to cause damage to sensitive electronic devices. Welding operators are careful to install return clamps so that welding current cannot pass through the bearings of electric motors, conveyor rollers, or other rotating components, which would cause damage to bearings. Welding on electrical buswork connected to transformers presents a danger of the low welding voltage being "stepped up" to much higher voltages, so extra grounding cables may be required.


title: Arc welding

text: Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site.


title: Arc welding

text: While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc welding did not come into practice until much later.


title: Arc welding

text: In 1800 Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs. Independently a Russian physicist Vasily Petrov discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802 and subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. Arc welding was first developed when Nikolai Benardos presented arc welding of metals using a carbon electrode at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris in 1881, which was patented together with Stanisław Olszewski in 1887. In the same year, French electrical inventor Auguste de Méritens also invented a carbon arc welding method, patented in 1881, which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead–acid batteries. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th century by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.


title: Arc welding

text: Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were developed during this time as well; but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.


title: Arc welding

text: During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in place of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the New York Harbor at the beginning of the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this process. In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started construction of a merchant ship, the "Fullagar", with an entirely welded hull; she was launched in 1921.


title: Arc welding

text: During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920 introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.


title: Arc welding

text: During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged arc welding was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The Indo-European migrations were hypothesized migrations of Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) speakers, and subsequent migrations of people speaking derived Indo-European languages, which took place approx. 4000 to 1000 BCE, potentially explaining how these languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia, from India and Iran, to Europe.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: While there can be no direct evidence of prehistoric languages, a synthesis of linguistics, archaeology, anthropology and genetics establish both the existence of Proto-Indo-European and the spread of its daughter dialects through migrations of large populations of its speakers, as well as the recruitment of new speakers through emulation of conquering elites. Comparative linguistics describes the similarities between various languages and the laws of systematic change, which allow the reconstruction of ancestral speech (see Indo-European studies). Archaeology traces the spread of artifacts, habitations, and burial sites presumed to be created by speakers of Proto-Indo-European in several stages: from the hypothesized locations of the Proto-Indo-European homeland, into their later locations of Western Europe, Central, South and Eastern Asia. These changes occurred by migrations and by language shift through elite-recruitment as described by anthropological research. Recent genetic research has increasingly contributed to understanding the kinship relations among prehistoric cultures.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to the widely held Kurgan hypothesis, or renewed Steppe hypothesis, the oldest migration branch produced the Anatolian languages (Hittite language and Luwian language) which split from the earliest proto-Indo-European speech community (archaic PIE) inhabiting the Volga basin. The second-oldest branch language group, Tocharian, was spoken in the Tarim Basin (now western China), after splitting from early PIE spoken on the eastern Pontic steppe. The bulk of the Indo-European languages developed from late PIE, which was spoken within the Yamnaya horizon on the Pontic–Caspian steppe around 3000 BCE.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic may have developed from Indo-European languages coming from Central Europe to Western Europe after the 3rd millennium BCE Yamnaya migrations into the Danube Valley, while Proto-Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic may have developed east of the Carpathian mountains, in present-day Ukraine, moving north and spreading with the Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE).


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The Proto-Indo-Iranian language and culture probably emerged within the Sintashta culture (circa 2100–1800 BCE), at the eastern border of the Abashevo culture, which in turn developed from the Corded Ware-related Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture. The Sintashta culture grew into the Andronovo culture (ca. 1900–800 BCE), the two first phases being the Fedorovo Andronovo culture (ca. 1900–1400 BCE) and Alakul Andronovo culture (ca. 1800–1500 BCE). Indo-Aryans moved into the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (ca. 2400–1600 BCE) and spread to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, ca. 1500 BCE). The Iranian languages spread back throughout the steppes with the Scyths, and into Ancient Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from ca. 800 BCE.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: A number of alternative theories have been proposed, most notably the Anatolian hypothesis and the Armenian hypothesis. Renfrew's Anatolian hypothesis suggests a much earlier date for the Indo-European languages, proposing an origin in Anatolia and an initial spread with the earliest farmers who migrated to Europe. It has been the only serious alternative for the steppe-theory, but suffers from a lack of explanatory power. The Anatolian hypothesis also led to some support for the Armenian hypothesis, which proposes that the Urheimat of the Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus. While the Armenian hypothesis has been criticized on archeological and chronological grounds, recent genetic research has revived debate.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The Dutch scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn (1612–1653) noted similarities between various European languages, Sanskrit, and Persian. Over a century later, after learning Sanskrit in India, Sir William Jones detected equivalent correspondences; he described them in his "Third Anniversary Discourse" to the Asiatic Society in 1786, concluding that all these languages originated from the same source. From his initial intuitions there developed the hypothesis of an Indo-European language family consisting of several hundred related languages and dialects. The 2009 "Ethnologue" estimates a total of about 439 Indo-European languages and dialects, about half of these (221) belonging to the Indo-Aryan subbranch based in South Asia. The Indo-European family includes most of the major current languages of Europe, of the Iranian plateau, of the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, and of Sri Lanka, with kindred languages also formerly spoken in parts of ancient Anatolia and of Central Asia. With written attestations appearing from the Bronze Age in the form of the Anatolian languages and Mycenaean Greek, the Indo-European family is significant in historical linguistics as possessing the second-longest recorded history, after the Afroasiatic family.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Almost 3 billion native speakers use Indo-European languages, making them by far the largest recognised language family. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to "Ethnologue", twelve are Indo-European – Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Punjabi, Marathi, French, Urdu, and Italian – accounting for over 1.7 billion native speakers.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The (late) Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of a common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, as spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans after the split-off of Anatolian and Tocharian. PIE was the first proposed proto-language to be widely accepted by linguists. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language and it is by far the most well-understood of all proto-languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its daughter proto-languages such as Proto-Germanic, and most of the current techniques of historical linguistics (e. g. the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction) were developed as a result.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language (before divergence began) around 3500 BCE, though estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, which postulates an origin in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements). The largest developments of the 20th century have been the discovery of Anatolian and Tocharian languages and the acceptance of the laryngeal theory. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: PIE is thought to have had a complex system of morphology that included inflections (suffixing of roots, as in "who, whom, whose"), and ablaut (vowel alterations, as in "sing, sang, sung"). Nouns used a sophisticated system of declension and verbs used a similarly sophisticated system of conjugation.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Relationships to other language families, including the Uralic languages, have been proposed but remain controversial. There is no written evidence of Proto-Indo-European, so all knowledge of the language is derived by reconstruction from later languages using linguistic techniques such as the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction. Most linguists recognize there is a limit to linguistic reconstruction, and that reconstructing an ancestral language to Proto-Indo-European might not be possible.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The Indo-Hittite hypothesis postulates a common predecessor which both the Anatolian languages and the other Indo-European languages came from, called Proto-Indo-Hittite. Although PIE logically had predecessors, the Indo-Hittite hypothesis is not widely accepted, and there is little to suggest that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Indo-Hittite stage that differs substantially from what is already reconstructed for PIE.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Frederik Kortlandt postulates a shared common ancestor of Indo-European and Uralic, Proto-Indo-Uralic, as a possible pre-PIE. According to Kortlandt, "Indo-European is a branch of Indo-Uralic which was radically transformed under the influence of a North Caucasian substratum when its speakers moved from the area north of the Caspian Sea to the area north of the Black Sea."


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Proto-Finno-Ugric and PIE have a lexicon in common, generally related to trade, such as words for "price" and "draw, lead". Similarly, "sell" and "wash" were borrowed in Proto-Ugric. Although some have proposed a common ancestor (the hypothetical Nostratic macrofamily), this is generally regarded as the result of intensive borrowing, which suggests that their homelands were located near each other. Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from Caucasian languages, particularly Proto-Northwest Caucasian and Proto-Kartvelian, which suggests a location close to the Caucasus.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Gramkelidze and Ivanov, using the now largely unsupported glottalic theory of Indo-European phonology, also proposed Semitic borrowings into Proto-Indo-European, suggesting a more southern homeland to explain these borrowings. According to Mallory and Adams, some of these borrowings may be too speculative or from a later date, but they consider the proposed Semitic loans "*táwros" 'bull' and "*wéyh₁on-" 'wine; vine' to be more likely. Anthony notes that those Semitic borrowings may also have occurred through the advancement of Anatolian farmer cultures via the Danube valley into the steppe zone.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The Anatolian languages are the first Indo-European language family to have split off from the main group. Due to the archaic elements preserved in the now extinct Anatolian languages, they may be a "cousin" of Proto-Indo-European, instead of a "daughter", but Anatolian is generally regarded as an early offshoot of the Indo-European language group.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, but basing their work on comparative vocabulary, a number of researchers have attempted to estimate the dates of the splitting up of the various Indo-European languages. According to the latest study by Kassian et al. (2021), Hittite was the earliest language to split off from the rest, around 4139–3450 BC, followed by Tocharian around 3727–2262 BC. Subsequently Indo-European split into four branches ca. 3357–2162 BC: (1) Greek-Armenian, (2) Albanian, (3) Italic-Germanic-Celtic, (4) Balto-Slavic–Indo-Iranian. Balto-Slavic split from Indo-Iranian around 2723–1790 BC, Italic-Germanic-Celtic broke up around 2655–1537 BC, and Indo-Iranian split up around 2044–1458 BC. The position of Albanian is not completely clear, from an insufficiency of evidence.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The authors point out that these dates, which are only approximate, are not inconsistent with the dates established by other methods for the various archaeological cultures which are thought to be associated with Indo-European languages. For example, the date for the Tocharian break-off corresponds to the migration that gave rise to the Afanasievo culture; the date for the Balto-Slavic–Indo-Iranian break-up may be correlated with the end of Corded Ware culture around 2100 or 2000 BC; and the date for Indo-Iranian corresponds to that of the Sintashta archaeological culture, frequently associated with Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Archaeological research has unearthed a broad range of historical cultures that can be related to the spread of the Indo-European languages. Various steppe-cultures show strong similarities with the Yamna-horizon at the Pontic steppe, while the time-range of several Asian cultures also coincides with the proposed trajectory and time-range of the Indo-European migrations.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to the widely accepted Kurgan hypothesis or "Steppe theory", the Indo-European language and culture spread in several stages from the Proto-Indo-European Urheimat in the Eurasian Pontic steppes into Western Europe, Central and South Asia, through folk migrations and so-called elite recruitment. This process started with the introduction of cattle at the Eurasian steppes around 5200 BCE, and the mobilisation of the steppe herder cultures with the introduction of wheeled wagons and horse-back riding, which led to a new kind of culture. Between 4500 and 2500 BCE, this "horizon", which includes several distinctive cultures culminating in the Yamnaya culture, spread out over the Pontic steppes, and outside into Europe and Asia. Anthony regards the Khvalynsk culture as the culture that established the roots of Early Proto-Indo-European around 4500 BCE in the lower and middle Volga.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Early migrations at ca. 4200 BCE brought steppe herders into the lower Danube valley, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. According to Anthony, the Anatolian branch, to which the Hittites belong, probably arrived in Anatolia from the Danube valley.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Migrations eastward from the Repin culture founded the Afanasevo culture which developed into the Tocharians. The Tarim mummies were thought to represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture into the Tarim Basin. yet a 2021 study demonstrates that the mummies are remains of locals descending from Ancient North Eurasians and ancient Northeast Asians; meanwhile, the study suggests instead that Afanasevo migrants might have introduced Proto-Tocharian into Dzungaria during the Early Bronze Age before Tocharian languages were recorded in Buddhist texts dating to 500-1000 CE in the Tarim basin. Migrations southward may have founded the Maykop culture, but the Maykop origins could also have been in the Caucasus.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Late PIE is related to the Yamnaya culture. Proposals for its origins point to both the eastern Khvalynsk and the western Sredny Stog culture; according to Anthony it originated in the Don-Volga area at ca. 3400 BCE.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The western Indo-European languages (Germanic, Celtic, Italic) probably spread into Europe from the Balkan-Danubian complex, a set of cultures in Southeastern Europe. At ca. 3000 BCE a migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west along the Danube river, Slavic and Baltic developed a little later at the middle Dniepr (present-day Ukraine), moving north toward the Baltic coast. The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE), which arose in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains, materialized with a massive migration from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe, probably played a central role in the spread of the pre-Germanic and pre-Balto-Slavic dialects.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: The eastern part of the Corded Ware culture contributed to the Sintashta culture (c. 2100–1800 BCE), where the Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged, and where the chariot was invented. The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 1800–800 BCE), and influenced by the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2400–1600 BCE). The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter Indo-Aryan groups moved to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, c. 1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). The Iranian languages spread throughout the steppes with the Scyths and into Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from ca. 800 BCE.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to Marija Gimbutas, the process of ""Indo-Europeanization"" of Europe was essentially a cultural, not a physical transformation. It is understood as a migration of Yamnaya people to Europe, as military victors, successfully imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups, who are referred to by Gimbutas as "Old Europeans". The Yamnaya people's social organization, especially a patrilinear and patriarchal structure, greatly facilitated their effectiveness in war. According to Gimbutas, the social structure of "Old Europe" "contrasted with the Indo-European Kurgans who were mobile and non-egalitarian" and who had a hierarchically organised tripartite social structure; the IE were warlike, lived in smaller villages at times, and had an ideology that centered on the virile male, reflected also in their pantheon. In contrast, the indigenous groups of "Old Europe" had neither a warrior class nor horses.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts. Small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: It is thought that when Indo-Europeans expanded into Europe from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, they encountered existing populations that spoke dissimilar, unrelated languages. Based on evidence from presumably non-Indo-European lexicon in the European branches of Indo-European, Iversen and Kroonen (2017) postulate a group of "Early European Neolithic" languages that is associated with the Neolithic spread of agriculturalists into Europe. Early European Neolithic languages were supplanted with the arrival of Indo-Europeans, but according to Iversen and Kroonen left their trace in a layer of mostly agricultural vocabulary in the Indo-European languages of Europe.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to Edgar Polomé, 30% of modern German derives from a non-Indo-European sub-stratum language spoken by people of the Funnelbeaker culture indigenous to southern Scandinavia. When Yamnaya Indo-European speakers came into contact with the indigenous peoples during the third millennium BCE, they came to dominate the local populations, yet parts of the indigenous lexicon persisted in the formation of Proto-Germanic, thus lending to the Germanic languages the status of "Indo-Europeanized" languages. Similarly, according to Marija Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture, after migrating to Scandinavia, synthesized with the Funnelbeaker culture, giving birth to the Proto-Germanic language.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis", conjectures that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls "elite recruitment".


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European-speaking migrants. These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages. These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation" of language communities, in which the elite is taken over. He observes that this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure", in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Since the 2000s genetic studies are assuming a prominent role in the research on Indo-European migrations. Whole-genome studies reveal relations between the people associated with various cultures and the time-range in which those relations were established. Research by Haak et al. (2015) showed that ~75% of the ancestry of Corded Ware-related people came from Yamna-related populations, while Allentoft et al. (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.


title: Indo-European migrations

text: Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India.