title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: November began with the Reds' first Europa League win of the season, coming on 5 November in a 1–0 victory over Rubin Kazan, where Jordon Ibe scored his first ever competitive goal for Liverpool. On 8 November, Klopp lost his first game against Crystal Palace in a 2–1 defeat at Anfield. However, the side bounced back after the international break with a 4–1 away win over Manchester City on 22 November, the club's first league win at the Etihad Stadium since 2008. Following this, his side advanced to the knockout stage of the Europa League following a 2–1 win over Bordeaux on 26 November. Liverpool then climbed to sixth in the Premier League table with a 1–0 win over Swansea City thanks to a penalty from James Milner.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 2 December, Liverpool played Southampton away in the quarter-finals of the League Cup. After going 1–0 down in the first minute of play, they produced a remarkable comeback and won 1–6, with a goal from Jordon Ibe, a brace from Daniel Sturridge and a hat-trick from Divock Origi. Liverpool suffered a 2–0 away defeat at the hands of Newcastle United on 6 December. Liverpool played a goalless draw in the last match of the Europa League group stage against Sion on 10 December, eventually finishing top of the group. On 13 December, Liverpool played a 2–2 draw against West Bromwich Albion at Anfield, with Origi scoring in the sixth minute of injury time total of eight minutes. On 20 December, Liverpool played against Watford at Vicarage Road and lost 0–3, making it Jürgen Klopp's third loss as Liverpool manager. On Boxing Day, Liverpool played Leicester City and went on to win 1–0 to a Christian Benteke goal in the 63rd minutes of play. On 30 December, Liverpool played their last game of 2015 against Sunderland at the Stadium of Light, where the team won by 1–0.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 2 January, Liverpool lost their first game of 2016 at the Boleyn Ground against West Ham, 2–0, West Ham's first league double against Liverpool in 52 years. On 5 January, Liverpool played Stoke away in the first leg of the semi-finals of the League Cup and won 1–0, with Jordon Ibe scoring. On 8 January, Liverpool played Exeter City in the FA Cup away at St. James Park and drew 2–2, with Jerome Sinclair and Brad Smith scoring. On 13 January, Liverpool played Arsenal at Anfield, the match ending in a 3–3 draw in which Roberto Firmino scored a brace and Joe Allen equalised for Liverpool in the 90th minute. On 17 January, Liverpool lost 1–0 at Anfield to rivals Manchester United, with Wayne Rooney scoring the only goal. On 20 January, Liverpool played Exeter City in the FA Cup third round replay at Anfield, winning 3–0 with goals from Joe Allen, Sheyi Ojo and João Carlos Teixeira. On 23 January, Liverpool played Norwich at Carrow Road and won 5–4, with Adam Lallana scoring a winning goal in stoppage time. On 26 January, Liverpool played the second leg of their League Cup semi-final against Stoke, losing 1–0 on the night but winning the penalty shootout 6–5 and advancing to the final at Wembley Stadium. The win was Liverpool's 11th success in 13 penalty shoot-outs in all competitions. On 30 January, Liverpool played West Ham at home and drew 0–0 in the FA Cup; the two clubs will replay the match on 9 February.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 2 February, Liverpool travelled to the King Power Stadium to play Leicester City, losing 2–0 through goals by Jamie Vardy. On 6 February, Liverpool played Sunderland at Anfield and were leading 2–0 with goals from Roberto Firmino and Adam Lallana, however in the 77th minute, more than 10,000 supporters, led by fan group Spirit of Shankly, staged the first walkout in the club's history in reaction to a proposed increase in ticket prices. Sunderland went on to score two late goals and the match ended in a 2–2 draw. The club and executive Ian Ayre reversed their proposal and issued a formal apology in what was seen as a win for the supporters.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 9 February, Liverpool travelled to the Boleyn Ground to play West Ham in the FA Cup fourth round replay, losing 2–1; Philippe Coutinho scored a free kick on his comeback from his injury. On 14 February, Liverpool beat Aston Villa 6–0 at Villa Park, with goals scored by Daniel Sturridge, James Milner, Emre Can, Divock Origi, Nathaniel Clyne and Kolo Touré. It was the first time in the Premier League era that Liverpool scored with six different goalscorers in a single match. Midfielder Kevin Stewart made his Premier League debut as a 66th-minute substitute, replacing Coutinho. On 18 February, Liverpool travelled to the WWK Arena in Augsburg to play FC Augsburg, drawing 0–0 in their first leg Europa League tie. On 25 February, Liverpool played the second leg and won 1–0 with a penalty scored by James Milner in the fifth minute, advancing to the round of 16. On 28 February, Liverpool played the Capital One Cup Final at Wembley against Manchester City, losing 3–1 on penalties after the game finished 1–1 after regular and extra time. Philippe Coutinho had scored the game's equaliser in the 83rd minute to send the match to extra time and ultimately penalties. A win would have been Liverpool's ninth League Cup, having last won it in 2012.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 2 March, Liverpool hosted Manchester City just three days after they lost the League Cup final. The match was played at Anfield and was won 3–0 with goals from Adam Lallana, James Milner and Roberto Firmino. On 6 March, Liverpool played Crystal Palace away at Selhurst Park, winning 2–1 with a goal from Roberto Firmino after a mistake by the Palace goalkeeper Alex McCarthy and an injury time penalty from substitute Christian Benteke. On 10 March, Liverpool played Manchester United at Anfield in the Europa League round of 16, winning 2–0 in the first leg with goals from Daniel Sturridge and Firmino. On 17 March, Liverpool travelled to Old Trafford to play United in the tie's second leg and drew 1–1, progressing to next round by prevailing 3–1 on aggregate.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 10 April, Liverpool beat Stoke City 4–1 at Anfield, making it the biggest win of the Jürgen Klopp era at home for Liverpool, with Alberto Moreno and Daniel Sturridge netting once each in the first half, and Divock Origi scoring a brace in the second. On 14 April, Liverpool played Borussia Dortmund in the Europa League quarter-finals second leg at Anfield after a 1–1 away draw in the first leg on 7 April. The match started horribly for Liverpool with the club trailing 2–0 after nine minutes. Early in the second half, Divock Origi scored to cut down the deficit, but Marco Reus put Borussia Dortmund 3–1 up on 57 minutes. With Liverpool requiring three more goals, Philippe Coutinho curled home from the edge of the area, Mamadou Sakho scored his first goal since December 2013 for the club from a corner on 78 minutes and finally, in the first minute of injury time, Dejan Lovren headed in his first goal of the season off James Milner's cross to send Liverpool through 5–4 on aggregate, with Liverpool winning 4–3 on the night. On 17 April, Liverpool beat AFC Bournemouth 1–2 away at Dean Court. Klopp made ten changes to the team which had defeated Borussia Dortmund 4–3, including giving goalkeeper Danny Ward his debut. Roberto Firmino and Daniel Sturridge netted one goal each before Joshua King scored an exceptional consolation goal in the third minute of second-half stoppage time.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On 20 April, Liverpool defeated Everton 4–0 in the second Merseyside Derby of the season. Divock Origi and Mamadou Sakho scored a goal each late in the first half to give Liverpool a half-time lead. In the 50th minute, Ramiro Funes Mori was given a red card following his tackle on Origi which caused Origi's substitution due to an injury sustained as a result of the tackle. Origi's substitute, Daniel Sturridge, and Philippe Coutinho added goals. Liverpool was exceptionally dominant in the game, with 37 shots as opposed to Everton's 3, as well as having 67% of the possession. This win moved Liverpool to seventh. On 23 April, Liverpool welcomed former manager Rafael Benítez to Anfield with his new team, Newcastle, and drew 2–2. Despite leading 2–0 at half-time through goals by Daniel Sturridge and Adam Lallana, the lead was cancelled out by a Papiss Cissé header when goalkeeper Simon Mignolet failed to clear a cross and a Jack Colback's low strike which took a huge deflection. Mamadou Sakho was not available for selection as UEFA was conducting an investigation into a possible doping violation; he was replaced by Kolo Touré. On 28 April, UEFA had announced the suspension of Sakho for a provisional period of 30 days following a positive drug test. On the same day, Liverpool travelled to El Madrigal to play Villarreal, but were downed by a late goal from substitute Adrián in the 92nd minute to lose 1–0.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: On May Day, Liverpool travelled to Swansea at the Liberty Stadium with a much-changed squad, enduring a horrid start after conceding two goals in the first half, the first from an André Ayew header and the second from a Jack Cork strike. Christian Benteke nodded in to peg one for the visitors but Ayew's second goal ended all hopes for a comeback; the game ended in a 3–1 loss. On 5 May, Liverpool played Villarreal at Anfield in the Europa League and won 3–0 through an own goal by Bruno Soriano and two goals by Daniel Sturridge and Adam Lallana. This ensured qualification to the competition's final after an aggregate scoreline of 3–1. On 8 May, Liverpool played Watford and won 2–0 at home, goals coming from Joe Allen after a knock-down by Benteke, as well as a solo effort by substitute Roberto Firmino. On 11 May, Liverpool played Chelsea and drew 1–1, marking Klopp's 50th game in charge and also the last home game of the season. Chelsea opened the scoring through Eden Hazard's marvelous shot on target, but the match was equalised in the dying moments after a Benteke header, capitalising on an error by goalkeeper Asmir Begović. On 15 May, Liverpool played West Brom away and drew 1–1, marking Liverpool's last game of the Premier League season. Jordan Ibe's strike in the 23rd minute secured a point from the game.


title: 2015–16 Liverpool F.C. season

text: Liverpool ended the season in eighth position and did not qualify for any European competition based on league standings. On 18 May, Liverpool played Sevilla in the Europa League final and lost 1–3 with the lone goal coming from Sturridge in the first half of the game. After the game, Klopp took full responsibility for the loss, saying, "Tonight we couldn't reach the level and it is my job to help the boys use these opportunities. I am responsible for this performance too, so no criticism for my players tonight." Liverpool fans and pundits took to social media to slam Alberto Moreno's performance, and even a request for Klopp to buy a new left back from Liverpool legend Jamie Carragher. Former Liverpool greats Michael Owen and Steve McManaman also hit out at left-back Moreno following his calamitous display.


title: Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1977

text: This is a list of "Billboard" magazine's Top Hot 100 songs of 1977. The Top 100, as revealed in the year-end edition of "Billboard" dated December 24, 1977, is based on Hot 100 charts from the issue dates of November 6, 1976 through October 29, 1977.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Chris Barnes (born December 29, 1967) is an American death metal vocalist. He is noted for his low guttural vocals and explicitly violent lyrics. He was the co-founder, original lead vocalist and songwriter of Cannibal Corpse from 1988 to 1995, later working as part of Six Feet Under, and has appeared on Torture Killer's second album "Swarm!" Barnes designed the original Cannibal Corpse logo, the Six Feet Under logo and also created the artwork for "Warpath", released in 1997.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Barnes started his career at the age of 19. His first band was a death/thrash band called Tirant Sin, which was formed in 1986 in his hometown of Buffalo, New York. Other members of Tirant Sin included Paul Mazurkiewicz (drums), Bob Rusay, Cam V and Joe Morelli (guitars) and Rich Ziegler (bass guitar). In 1986, Barnes left Tirant Sin to join another New York-based death/thrash metal band named Leviathan that recorded the four-track demo "Legions of the Undead" in 1987, re-released on the 2005 Six Feet Under box set "A Decade in the Grave".


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Tirant Sin recorded three demos, all privately released: "Desecration of the Graves" in February 1987, "Chaotic Destruction" in fall 1987 with Dennis John on vocals, and "Mutant Supremacy" in 1988. Barnes appeared only on the third demo, when he re-joined Tirant Sin in January 1988.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Barnes wrote all of the lyrics on the albums "Butchered at Birth", "Tomb of the Mutilated", and "The Bleeding" and wrote the lyrics on "Eaten Back to Life" with the rest of the band helping.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Barnes left Cannibal Corpse in 1995 because of personal differences with the rest of the band. His final vocal recordings with the band were for the "Created to Kill" sessions which were later re-recorded by his replacement George Fisher for the Vile album. The "Created to Kill" demo featuring Barnes was eventually released as part of the 15 Year Killing Spree box set released in 2003.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: He was then able to devote his full attention to the band Six Feet Under, which had been his side project since 1993. Barnes has commented that he is "very proud of what I've done with them".


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: "Being booted out of Cannibal Corpse was pretty memorable but in a good way. I didn't feel I was able to write the way I wanted to so it was a good transition for me."


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: It was speculated that Barnes was returning to Cannibal Corpse, which was denied by Alex Webster: "We have no plans to do anything with Chris Barnes ever again. It's not something any of us are interested in doing." "It's nothing against him, but we prefer to move forward rather than live in the past."


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: In 2005, Six Feet Under released "13", their sixth full-length album, produced by Barnes. In the same year, Six Feet Under released "A Decade in the Grave", a box set highlighting the previous ten years of Six Feet Under.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: With the success of two death metal bands already under his belt (Cannibal Corpse and Six Feet Under), Barnes joined the Finnish death metal band Torture Killer in fall 2005. At the time, Barnes said he was fully committed to the band, and appeared on the band's second album "Swarm!", which was released on February 24, 2006. However, he left the band in January 2008.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Six Feet Under released the album "Commandment" on April 17, 2007, to highly positive views. Barnes has said that "Commandment" is his favorite album, claiming to have received over 5,000 messages in support. Many fans cite it as their favorite Six Feet Under release since "Bringer of Blood" in 2003.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: On November 11, 2008, Six Feet Under released another album, "Death Rituals". It saw the band returning to Morrisound Studios in Tampa, Florida, with Chris Carroll producing and mixing by Toby Wright (Slayer, Korn, In Flames, Fear Factory, etc.) and the return of old friend Bill Metoyer, who recorded the band's CD "Warpath", who helped out with recording of the drums. The album has thirteen songs including a cover version of Mötley Crüe's "Bastard" and the ambient song "Crossroads to Armageddon".


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: On January 16, 2009, a message appeared on Six Feet Under's website saying, "Just wanted to let all of our fans know that we are currently in the studio working on Graveyard Classics 3. We are about 60% finished with tracking. Everything is going great and we are having a lot of fun laying these new songs down. more info and track listing to come!!"


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: In November 2011, Rob Arnold and Matt DeVries posted statements saying they had left Chimaira to play in Six Feet Under full-time. However, in 2012, DeVries moved on to Fear Factory, replacing longtime bass guitarist Byron Stroud. The vacant position was subsequently filled by the ex-Brain Drill 7-string bass guitarist, Jeff Hughell.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: The band's ninth studio album, "Undead", was released on May 22, 2012. It was announced on the same day that Rob Arnold would be replaced by Ola Englund. The band said that Arnold would remain a central writing partner and collaborator on future Six Feet Under releases.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Six Feet Under's tenth album "Unborn" was released on March 19, 2013, and their eleventh record "Crypt of the Devil" was released May 5, 2015.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Since leaving Cannibal Corpse after "The Bleeding", Barnes slightly shifted his lyrical focus towards more socio-political issues, the most prominent of which was the legalization of marijuana. The album "Warpath" contains two songs pertaining to marijuana: "4:20", which praises the effects of the plant and "Caged and Disgraced" which questions the detention of individuals for marijuana possession. Included in the album's liner notes is the website for the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and it is pointed out that the song "4:20" (which is 4 minutes and 20 seconds in length) was recorded on April 20 at 4:20 pm, the national day and traditional time for smoking marijuana.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: "Maximum Violence" contains the song "Victim of the Paranoid". which is another examination of marijuana laws, asserting that marijuana users are victims of a system that is too worried about marijuana users and neglects other more pressing issues.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: There was friction between Barnes and Anal Cunt's former vocalist Seth Putnam. According to Putnam's now-defunct website (due to his death in 2011), Putnam heckled Barnes during a Six Feet Under set, leading to an altercation between the two ending with Six Feet Under's roadies ganging up on Putnam while Barnes fled to his tour bus. Putnam released the song "Chris Barnes Is a Pussy" as retaliation to the incident.


title: Chris Barnes (musician)

text: Despite the feud, Putnam stated that "Murdered in the Basement" was his favorite song by Six Feet Under.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Volodymyr Borysovych Groysman, sometimes transliterated as Volodymyr Borysovych Hroisman (; born 20 January 1978), is a Ukrainian politician who was the Prime Minister of Ukraine from 14 April 2016 to 29 August 2019.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: From March 2006 until February 2014 Groysman was the Mayor of Vinnytsia. From then to November 2014, he held two concurrent positions as the Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine for Regional Policy and the Minister of Regional Development, Construction and Housing and Communal Services of Ukraine. He was elected into parliament on the party lists of the pro-presidential Petro Poroshenko Bloc. Groysman's next post was the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's national parliament), starting late November 2014 until being appointed Prime Minister. In the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election he took part as the party leader of the party Ukrainian Strategy. But this party failed to win any parliamentary seats. Groysman's tenure as Prime Minister ended when Oleksiy Honcharuk was appointed Prime Minister of Ukraine on 29 August 2019.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: In many media sources Groysman is called the first Jewish Prime Minister of Ukraine, although in fact it was Yukhym Zvyahilsky.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Volodymyr Borysovych Groysman was born in Vinnytsia, to Jewish parents. His father, Borys Groysman, is a businessman and a local politician. In 1994, he started his career as a commercial director of his father's small private business company "ОКО" and as a commercial director of the private enterprise "Youth". Groysman studied at Ukraine's Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (known as MAUP).


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: In the 2002 local elections, he was elected as a member of the Vinnytsia City Council from the 29th electoral district. In the city council, he worked as the Deputy Head of the Permanent Committee of the City Council on Human Rights, Lawfulness, Council Members' Activities and Ethics. In 2003, he graduated from the Interregional Academy of Personnel Management with a specialty in Jurisprudence. In 2004 Groysman joined the party Our Ukraine.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: On 25 November 2005, he was elected the head of the city council and the acting mayor. In the 26 March 2006 local elections, he was elected as the city's mayor, becoming the youngest ever mayor of a Ukrainian administrative center ( age 28 years at time of elections ). In the 10 October 2010 local elections, he was re-elected mayor for a second term, as a candidate of the party Conscience of Ukraine, gaining the support of 77.81% of citizens. While mayor, Groysman was the vice-president of the Association of Ukrainian Cities.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: In February 2010, Groysman graduated from the National Academy of State Administration with a specialty in Community Development Management, especially management on the local and regional levels.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: On 27 February 2014, Groysman was concurrently appointed as the Vice Prime Minister for Regional Policy and the Minister of Regional Development, Construction and Housing and Communal Services of Ukraine in the First Yatsenyuk Government. During this period, Groysman was appointed the chair of the Ukrainian Special Government Commission on MH17, investigating the shootdown and crash of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 ("MH17"), during the War in Donbass.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: The parliamentary coalition that supported this government collapsed on 24 July 2014, and on the same day, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk announced that he was immediately resigning from his office. However, Yatsenyuk's resignation was not accepted by parliament. Nevertheless, on 25 July 2014, the Yatsenyuk Government appointed Groysman as its acting Prime Minister. However, on 31 July 2014, the Verkhovna Rada declined Yatsenyuk's resignation because only 16 of the 450 MPs voted for his resignation.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: In the 2014 parliamentary election, Groysman was elected into parliament after being in the top 10 of the Petro Poroshenko Bloc's electoral list.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: On 27 November 2014, at the first session of newly elected parliament, Groysman was elected as the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada. 359 (of the 423 deputies) supported his nomination. He was also the only candidate for the post.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: With public dissatisfaction and allegations of corruption surrounding his government, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk announced on 10 April 2016 that he planned to resign. Following several days of parliamentary debate, on 14 April 2016, Groysman was voted in by MPs 257 to 50 as the 16th Prime Minister of Ukraine. Groysman is the youngest Ukrainian prime minister ever (age 38 at election) and the only one ever to be of Jewish ethnicity and/or religion.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Groysman's selection as PM triggered a constitutional requirement for a new Cabinet, in which new appointments were already forthcoming due to resignations in protest over Ukraine's corruption and reform issues. Some of the posts in the new Groysman government were assigned to people who were perceived as Poroshenko allies.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Groysman indicated in 2016 he would fight corruption and build closer ties with the European Union, which has complained about widespread and pervasive corruption in Ukraine's government and economy.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Groysman left the Petro Poroshenko Bloc "Solidarity" on 23 April 2019. On 20 May 2019, Volodymyr Zelensky, who defeated the incumbent Poroshenko in the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election, was inaugurated as President of Ukraine and Groysman announced he would resign as Prime Minister of Ukraine.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: On 24 May 2019, Groysman announced that he would take part in the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election with the party Ukrainian Strategy. (This party was registered in 2015 as the local party Vinnytsia European Strategy.) On 30 May 2019, the Ukrainian parliament voted to reject Groysman's resignation as Prime Minister of Ukraine and confirmed that he would remain Prime Minister until at least the parliamentary election which was held in July 2019. In this election Ukrainian Strategy failed to win any parliamentary seats gaining 2.41% of the total votes while the election had a 5% election threshold. The party also failed to win a constituency seat.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: Groysman's prime ministership ended when Oleksiy Honcharuk was appointed Prime Minister of Ukraine on 29 August 2019.


title: Volodymyr Groysman

text: For 2019, Groysman declared a salary of UAH 425,503, a 2017 Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class 350D car, and an entire set of luxury wristwatches (Ulysse Nardin, Audemars Piguet, Rolex, Parmigiani, Girard-Perregaux, Breguet, Boucheron).


title: The Chats

text: The Chats are an Australian punk rock band that formed in 2016 in the Sunshine Coast, Queensland. They describe their sound as "shed rock". The current band lineup is composed of guitarist Josh Hardy, drummer Matt Boggis, and bassist and vocalist Eamon Sandwith. Known for their songs about Australian culture, they initially went viral for their song "Smoko" and its accompanying music video in 2017. To date they have released two EPs, "The Chats" (2016) and "Get This in Ya!!" (2017), and two studio albums "High Risk Behaviour" (2020) and "Get Fucked" (2022).


title: The Chats

text: Josh Price, Matt Boggis and Eamon Sandwith met in music class at St. Teresa's Catholic College in Noosaville, Queensland. When they were 17, in September 2016, they formed the Chats, with Price on guitar, Boggis on drums, and Sandwith on bass and vocals. Former member Tremayne McCarthy also played bass and guitar in the original lineup. The band takes its name from the phrase "that's chat" - (Australian slang to describe something gross/disgusting/bad).


title: The Chats

text: Their debut self-titled EP, recorded at another local high school, was released on 7 November 2016. Triple J described the EP as "seven joyous sky-punching tracks that combined 60s garage punk and 70s new wave punk".


title: The Chats

text: Their second EP, "Get This in Ya!!" was released on 31 July 2017, "another thrilling seven-song slice of economic, stripped-down, early Buzzcocks-styles punk tension". It was tracked/recorded at Eleven PM Studios in Nambour, Queensland, Australia, by Finn Wegener and Michael Currie on 24 June 2017. Former member, Tremayne McCarthy, actually played bass on the "Smoko" track and spoke the line "Is it Smoko?". Michael Currie was the producer and decided that the best way to record the band was all in the same room together live. Only very minimal overdubbing was done. It was then mixed and mastered by Michael Currie at his Polished Turd Studios in Brisbane, Australia. The music video for the track "Smoko", filmed with no budget at a building site, was directed by Matisse Langbein, who also did the cover art for the EP, and was released on the 3rd of October, quickly becoming a viral hit and drawing attention from popular rock musicians Dave Grohl, Josh Homme, Iggy Pop, Alex Turner. Triple J argued that the song "was an instant classic of a youth anthem on a par with 'You Really Got Me', 'My Generation' or 'Teenage Kicks'".


title: The Chats

text: On 3 July 2018, the Chats released the single "Do What I Want", announced to be included in their forthcoming studio album.


title: The Chats

text: The band signed a global deal with Universal Music Publishing Australia on 19 March 2019, and founded their own label, Bargain Bin Records. Their distribution is handled by Cooking Vinyl Australia. On 21 March, the Chats released "Pub Feed" alongside an accompanying music video. Throughout July, the band toured the United States. On 26 July, they released the single "Identity Theft" alongside an accompanying music video, which contains references to the video game "Guitar Hero". The band performed at the UK Reading and Leeds Festivals in August. In October, the Chats commenced an Australian national tour. The band performed a headlining tour in the UK during December 2019. When asked about the then-untitled "High Risk Behaviour" during an interview at the Reading Festival, Sandwith revealed that the songs were already recorded: "We're gonna call it done...we're not perfectionists or anything.".


title: The Chats

text: In late-December, Sandwith posted a song criticizing Prime Minister Scott Morrison for his perceived apathy and carelessness towards the 2019-20 bushfire crisis to Instagram, titled "I Hope Scott's House Burns Down"; according to Pedestrian.tv, the song is being used to aid fundraising efforts for numerous volunteer firefighter groups. The band released the single "The Clap" on 17 January 2020 and revealed the name of their debut studio album, "High Risk Behaviour", as well as a release date of 27 March. On 6 March, weeks before its release, the band released the single "Dine & Dash" and its accompanying music video.


title: The Chats

text: On 8 November, the band released the single, "AC/DC CD", a tribute to the Australian band AC/DC. Guitarist Josh Price was not featured in the song’s music video, but Josh Hardy of Australian band the Unknowns was. In December, the band officially confirmed Price's departure and announced Hardy as his replacement.


title: The Chats

text: On 10 September 2021, the band released a cover of Metallica's "Holier Than Thou" for the charity tribute album "The Metallica Blacklist". This was followed in December by another cover version, The Wiggles' "Can You Point Your Fingers (And Do the Twist?)", as part of the Wiggles tribute album "ReWiggled". The Wiggles simultaneously shared a cover of The Chats' "Pub Feed", which would appear on the album's second disc.


title: The Chats

text: In March 2022, the band shared the single "Struck by Lightning". In May, the band announced their second studio album "Get Fucked", released on 19 August 2022. The announcement came with the release of the album's second single, "6L GTR".


title: The Chats

text: The band coined the term "shed rock" to describe their sound, and their self-contained approach has been likened to that of King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard. They cited Australian bands Cosmic Psychos, Dune Rats and Eddy Current Suppression Ring as major influences.


title: The Chats

text: The Australian Independent Record Awards (commonly known informally as AIR Awards) is an annual awards night to recognise, promote and celebrate the success of Australia's Independent Music sector.


title: The Chats

text: The ARIA Music Awards are a set of annual ceremonies presented by Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), which recognise excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of the music of Australia. They commenced in 1987.


title: The Chats

text: The J Awards are an annual series of Australian music awards that were established by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's youth-focused radio station Triple J. They commenced in 2005.


title: The Chats

text: The National Live Music Awards (NLMAs) are a broad recognition of Australia's diverse live industry, celebrating the success of the Australian live scene. The awards commenced in 2016.


title: The Chats

text: The Rolling Stone Australia Awards are awarded annually in January or February by the Australian edition of "Rolling Stone" magazine for outstanding contributions to popular culture in the previous year.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey is a 1968 science fiction novel by British writer Arthur C. Clarke. It was developed concurrently with Stanley Kubrick's and published after the release of the film. Clarke and Kubrick worked on the book together, but eventually only Clarke ended up as the official author. The story is based in part on various short stories by Clarke, including "The Sentinel" (written in 1948 for a BBC competition, but first published in 1951 under the title "Sentinel of Eternity"). By 1992, the novel had sold three million copies worldwide. An elaboration of Clarke and Kubrick's collaborative work on this project was made in the 1972 book "The Lost Worlds of 2001".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The first part of the novel, in which aliens influence the primitive ancestors of humans, is similar to the plot of Clarke's 1953 short story "Encounter in the Dawn".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: A mysterious alien civilization uses a tool with the appearance of a large crystalline monolith to investigate worlds across the galaxy and, if possible, to encourage the development of intelligent life. The book shows one such monolith appearing in prehistoric Africa, 3 million years ago (in the movie, 4 mya), where it inspires a starving group of hominids to develop tools. The hominids use their tools to kill animals and eat meat, ending their starvation. They then use the tools to kill a leopard preying on them; the next day, the main ape character, Moon-Watcher, uses a club to kill the leader of a rival tribe.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In AD 1999, Dr. Heywood Floyd travels to the Moon's Clavius Base, where a scientist explains that they have found an electromagnetic disturbance, designated Tycho Magnetic Anomaly One (or TMA-1), in the crater Tycho. Excavation has revealed a large black slab, precisely fashioned to a ratio of 1:4:9 (or 1:2:3) and therefore believed the work of intelligence. Visiting TMA-1, Floyd and others arrive just as sunlight falls upon it for the first time since it was uncovered; it emits a piercing radio transmission which the scientists determine is directed at one of the moons of Saturn, Japetus (Iapetus).


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: A mission, "Discovery One", is sent to Saturn. En route, Dr. David Bowman and Dr. Frank Poole are the only conscious humans aboard; their three colleagues are in suspended animation, to be awakened near Saturn. The HAL 9000, an artificially intelligent computer, addressed as "Hal", maintains the ship. While Poole is receiving a birthday message from his family on Earth, Hal tells Bowman that the AE-35 communication unit of the ship is going to malfunction. Poole takes one of the extra-vehicular pods and swaps the AE-35 unit; but when Bowman conducts tests on the removed AE-35 unit, he determines that there was never anything wrong with it. Poole and Bowman become suspicious at Hal's refusal to admit that his diagnosis was mistaken; Hal then claims that the replacement AE-35 unit will fail. In communicating with Earth, Poole and Bowman are directed to disconnect Hal for analysis. These instructions are interrupted as the signal is broken, and Hal informs them that the AE-35 unit has malfunctioned.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: As Poole is removing the unit he is killed when his pod accelerates into him, crushing him. Bowman, uncertain of Hal's role therein, decides to wake the other three astronauts, and therefore quarrels with Hal, with Hal refusing to obey his orders. Bowman threatens to disconnect him if his orders are not obeyed, and Hal relents. As Bowman begins to awaken his colleagues, he hears Hal open both airlocks into space, releasing the ship's internal atmosphere. From a sealed emergency shelter, Bowman gains a spacesuit and re-enters the ship, where he shuts down Hal's consciousness, leaving intact only his autonomic functions, and manually re-establishes contact with Earth. He then learns that his mission is to explore Iapetus, in the hope of contacting the society that buried the monolith on the Moon. Bowman learns that Hal had begun to feel guilty at keeping the purpose of the mission from him and Poole, against his stated mission of gathering information and reporting it fully; and when threatened with disconnection, he panicked and defended himself out of a belief that his very existence was at stake, having no concept of sleep.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Bowman spends months on the ship alone, slowly approaching Iapetus. During his approach, he gradually notices a small black spot on the surface of Iapetus, and later finds it identical in shape to TMA-1, only much larger. The scientists on Earth name this monolith "TMA-2", which Bowman identifies as a double misnomer because it is not in the Tycho crater and gives off no magnetic anomaly. When Bowman approaches the monolith, it opens and pulls in Bowman's pod. Before he vanishes, Mission Control hears him proclaim: "The thing's hollow – it goes on forever – and – oh my God! – "it's full of stars!""


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Bowman is transported via the monolith to an unknown star system, through a large interstellar switching station, and sees other species' spaceships going on other routes. Bowman is given a wide variety of sights, from the wreckage of ancient civilizations to what appear to be life-forms, living on the surfaces of a binary star system's planet. He is brought to what appears a pleasant hotel suite, carefully designed to make him feel at ease, and falls asleep, whereupon he becomes an immortal "Star-Child" that can live and travel in space. The Star Child then returns to Earth, where he detonates an orbiting nuclear warhead.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: "2001: A Space Odyssey" explores technological advancement: its promise and its danger. The HAL 9000 computer puts forward the troubles that can crop up when humans build machines, the inner workings of which are not fully comprehended and therefore cannot fully be controlled.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The book explores the perils related to the atomic age. In this novel, the Cold War is apparently still on, and at the end of the book one side has nuclear weapons above the earth on an orbital platform. To test its abilities, the Star Child detonates an orbiting warhead at the end of the novel, creating a false dawn below for the people on Earth. Roger Ebert notes that Kubrick originally intended for the first spaceship seen in the film to be an orbiting bomb platform, but in the end he decided to leave the ship's meaning more ambiguous. Clarke, however, retained and clearly stated this fact in the novel.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The novel takes a panoramic overview of progress, human and otherwise. The story follows the growth of human civilization from primitive hominids. Distinctively, "Space Odyssey" is concerned about not only the evolution that has led to the development of humanity, but also the evolution that humanity might undergo in the future. Hence, we follow Bowman as he is turned into a Star Child. The novel acknowledges that evolutionary theory entails that humanity is not the end, but only a step in the process. One way this process might continue, the book imagines, is that humans will learn to move to robot bodies and eventually rid themselves of a physical form altogether.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: When "2001: A Space Odyssey" was written, humankind had not yet set foot on the Moon. The space exploration programs in the United States and the Soviet Union were only in the early stages. Much room was left to imagine the future of the space program. "Space Odyssey" offers one such vision, offering a glimpse at what space exploration might one day become. Lengthy journeys, such as crewed flights to Saturn, and advanced technologies, such as suspended animation, are described in the novel.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The book raises questions about consciousness, sentience, and human interactions with machines. Hal's helpful disposition contrasts with his malevolent behaviour. Through much of the movie he seems to have malfunctioned. At the end of the novel we learn that Hal's odd behaviour stems from an improper conflict in his orders. Having been instructed not to reveal the nature of the mission to his crew, he reasons that their presence is a threat to the mission, which is his prime concern. Hal's reversion to a childlike state as Dave shuts him down mirrors aspects of human death, and his expressed fear of being shut down causes Dave to hesitate.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The novel is deliberately written so as to give the reader an almost kinesthetic familiarity with the experience of space travel and the technologies encountered. Large sections of the novel are devoted to detailed descriptions of these. The novel discusses orbital mechanics and the manoeuvres associated with space travel with great scientific accuracy. The daily lives of Bowman and Poole on board the "Discovery One" are discussed in detail and give the impression of a busy yet mundane lifestyle with few surprises until the malfunction of Hal. Dr. Floyd's journey to Space Station One is depicted with awareness of fine points such as the experience of a Space Shuttle launch, the adhesive sauces used to keep food firmly in place on one's plate, and even the zero-gravity toilet.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Over the course of the novel, several minor characters either appear very briefly or are named only in passing, including other man-apes, spaceflight staff, lunar station security, and "Discovery" crew members. Among the novel's minor characters, some of the more consequential are listed below (often having direct film equivalents, or else being recurring characters in the "Odyssey" novel series).


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: "", a 1982 sequel to the book, was adapted as a motion picture in 1984. Clarke went on to write two more sequel novels: "" (1987) and "" (1997). the last two novels have yet to be adapted as films.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: James Blish commented that while Clarke's narrative provided essential elements of the story that Kubrick ignored or glossed over, "The novel has very little of the poetry of the picture" and "lacks most of the picture's strengths", but that "it has to be read before one can understand the picture".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Eliot Fremont-Smith reviewed the book positively in the "New York Times", stating that it was "a fantasy by a master who is as deft at generating accelerating, almost painful suspense as he is knowledgeable and accurate (and fascinating) about the technical and human details of space flight and exploration".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Although the novel and film were developed simultaneously, the novel follows early drafts of the film, from which the final version of the film deviated. These changes were often for practical reasons relating to what could be filmed economically, and a few were due to differences of opinion between Kubrick and Clarke. The most notable differences are a change in the destination planet from Saturn to Jupiter, and the nature of the sequence of events leading to HAL's demise. Stylistic differences may be more important than content-differences. Of lesser importance are the appearance of the monolith, the age of HAL, and the novel giving names to various spacecraft, prehistoric apes, and HAL's inventor.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Stylistically, the novel generally fleshes out and makes concrete many events left somewhat enigmatic in the film, as has been noted by many observers. Vincent LoBrutto has noted that the novel has "strong narrative structure" which fleshes out the story, while the film is a mainly visual experience where much remains "symbolic". Randy Rasmussen has noted that the personality of Heywood Floyd is different; in Clarke's novel, he finds space-travel thrilling, acting almost as a "spokesman for Clarke", whereas in the film, he experiences space travel as "routine" and "tedious".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In the film, "Discovery"s mission is to Jupiter, not Saturn. Kubrick used Jupiter because he and special effects supervisor Douglas Trumbull could not decide on what they considered to be a convincing model of Saturn's rings for the film. Clarke went on to replace Saturn with Jupiter in the novel's sequel "". Trumbull later developed a more convincing image of Saturn for his own directorial debut "Silent Running".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The general sequence of the showdown with HAL is different in the film from in the book. HAL's initial assertion that the AE-35 unit will fail comes in the film after an extended conversation with David Bowman about the odd and "melodramatic" "mysteries" and "secrecy" surrounding the mission, motivated officially because HAL is required to draw up and send to Earth a crew psychology report. In the novel it is during the birthday-message to Frank Poole.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In the film, Bowman and Poole decide on their own to disconnect HAL in context of a plan to restore the allegedly failing antenna unit. If it does not fail, HAL will be shown to be malfunctioning. HAL discovers the plan by reading their lips through the EVA pod window. In Clarke's novel, Ground-Control orders Bowman and Poole to disconnect HAL, should he prove to be malfunctioning a second time by predicting that the second unit is going to go bad.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: However, in Clarke's novel, after Poole's death, Bowman tries waking up the other crew members, whereupon HAL opens both the internal and external airlock doors, suffocating these three and almost killing Bowman. The film has Bowman, after Poole's murder, go out to rescue him. HAL denies him reentry and kills the hibernating crew members by turning off their life-support. In the sequel "2010: Odyssey Two", however, the recounting of the "Discovery One" mission is changed to the film version.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The film is generally far more enigmatic about the reason for HAL's failure, while the novel spells out that HAL is caught up in an internal conflict because he is ordered to lie about the purpose of the mission.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Because of what photographed well, the appearance of the monolith that guided Moon-watcher and the other 'man-apes' at the beginning of the story was changed from novel to film. In the novel, this monolith is a transparent crystal; in the film, it is solid black. The TMA1 and TMA2 monoliths were unchanged.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: While it is stated in the book that the ratio of the dimensions of the monolith are supposed to be 1:4:9 (1 : 2 : 3), the shape of the actual monolith seen in the movie does not conform to this ratio. A ratio of 1:4:9 would produce an object that appears thick, wide, and squat. Kubrick wanted something taller and thinner, which he felt would be more imposing. Measurements taken from movie-frames show that the movie-monolith has dimensions approximately in the ratio 0.65:4:9 or 1:6:14.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In the book, HAL became operational on 12 January 1997, but in the movie the year is given as 1992. It has been thought that Kubrick wanted HAL to be the same age as a young bright child, nine years old.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In the book, Heywood took a ground vehicle for the 200-mile-journey from Clavius Base to TMA-1, a mobile lab "rolling across the crater plain at fifty miles an hour" that resembles "an outsized trailer mounted on eight flex-wheels" and is capable of hopping across obstacles "on its four under-jets". The vehicle is referred to as a "bus". In the film, however, Heywood took a wingless shuttle that flies the entire 200-mile journey. Even at moon-gravity, such flying may not be technically or economically feasible.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The name of the Saturnian moon Iapetus is spelled "Japetus" in the book. This is an alternative rendering of the name, which derives from the fact that "consonantal I" often stands for "J" in the Latin language (see modern spelling of Latin).


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: In his detailed 1970 book on the film, "The Making of Kubrick's 2001", author Jerome Agel discusses the point that "Iapetus" is the most common rendering of the name, according to many sources, including the "Oxford English Dictionary". He goes on to say that "Clarke, the perfectionist", spells it "Japetus". Agel then cites the dictionary that defines "jape" as "to jest; to joke; to mock or make fun of". He then asks the reader, "Is Clarke trying to tell us something?".


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: Clarke himself directly addressed the spelling issue in chapter 19 of "The Lost Worlds of 2001", explaining that he simply (and unconsciously) used the spelling he was familiar with from "The Conquest of Space" (1949) by Willy Ley and Chesley Bonestell, presuming that the "J" form is the German rendering of the Greek.


title: 2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)

text: The film "2010" was released in 1984 resulting in movie tie-in editions of both the "2001" and "2010" novels. At the time Signet Books reported that over 2.8 million copies of "2001" were in print and that "2010" was one of 1983's top sellers with 300,000 hardcover copies and 1.75 million first paperback editions printed.


title: Patras

text: Patras ( ; Katharevousa and ; ) is Greece's third-largest city and the regional capital of Western Greece, in the northern Peloponnese, west of Athens. The city is built at the foot of Mount Panachaikon, overlooking the Gulf of Patras.


title: Patras

text: As of the 2011 census, the city of Patras has a population of 167,446 and the municipal unit has 170,896 inhabitants; the municipality has 213,984 inhabitants. The population of its functional urban area was 217,555 in 2011. The core settlement has a history spanning four millennia. In the Roman period, it had become a cosmopolitan center of the eastern Mediterranean whilst, according to the Christian tradition, it was also the place of Saint Andrew's martyrdom.


title: Patras

text: Dubbed as Greece's '"Gate to the West"', Patras is a commercial hub, while its busy port is a nodal point for trade and communication with Italy and the rest of Western Europe. The city has three public universities, hosting a large student population and rendering Patras an important scientific centre with a field of excellence in technological education. The Rio-Antirio Bridge connects Patras' easternmost suburb of Rio to the town of Antirrio, connecting the Peloponnese peninsula with mainland Greece.


title: Patras

text: Every year, in February, the city hosts one of Europe's largest carnivals. Notable features of the Patras Carnival include its mammoth satirical floats and balls and parades, enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of visitors in a Mediterranean climate. Patras is also famous for supporting an indigenous cultural scene active mainly in the performing arts and modern urban literature. It was European Capital of Culture in 2006.


title: Patras

text: Patras is west of Athens by road, northeast of Pyrgos, south of Rio, west of Corinth, northwest of Kalavryta and northwest of Tripoli.


title: Patras

text: A central feature of the urban geography of Patras is its division into upper and lower sections. This is the result of an interplay between natural geography and human settlement patterns; the lower section of the city (Kato Poli), which includes the 19th-century urban core and the port, is adjacent to the sea and stretches between the estuaries of the rivers of Glafkos and Haradros. It is built on what was originally a bed of river soils and dried-up swamps. The older upper section (Ano Poli) covers the area of the pre-modern settlement, around the Fortress, on what is the last elevation of Mount Panachaikon () before the Gulf of Patras.


title: Patras

text: The largest river in the area is the Glafkos, flowing to the south of Patras. Glafkos springs in Mount Panachaikon and its water is, since 1925, collected in a small mountainous reservoir-dam near the village of Souli and subsequently pumped in order to provide energy for the country's first hydroelectric plant. Other smaller streams are "Charadros", "Meilichos", "Kallinaos", "Panagitsa" and the mountain torrent "Diakoniaris".


title: Patras

text: Patras has a Mediterranean climate. It features the typical mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, with spring and autumn being pleasant transitional seasons. Autumn in Patras, however, is wetter than spring.


title: Patras

text: Of great importance for the biological diversity of the area and the preservation of its climate is the swamp of Agyia, a small and coastal aquatic ecosystem of only , north of the city centre. The main features of this wetland are its apparent survival difficulty, being at the heart of a densely populated urban centre that features a relatively arid climate and its admittedly high level of biodiversity, with over 90 species of birds being observed until the early 1990s, according to a study by the Patras Bureau of the "Hellenic Ornithological Society".


title: Patras

text: The first traces of settlement in Patras date to as early as the third millennium BC, in the area of modern Aroi. Patras flourished for the first time in the Post-Helladic or Mycenean period (1580–1100 BC). Ancient Patras was formed by the unification of three Mycenaean villages in modern Aroi, namely ancient Aroe, Antheia (from mythological Antheia) and Mesatis. Mythology has it that after the Dorian invasion, a group of Achaeans from Laconia led by the Patreus established a colony. In antiquity Patras remained a farming city. It was in Roman times that it became an important port.


title: Patras

text: After 280 BC and prior to the Roman occupation of Greece, Patras played a significant role in the foundation of the second "Achaean League" (Achaiki Sympoliteia), along with the cities of Dyme, Tritaea and Pharai. Later on, and following the Roman occupation of Greece in 146 BC, Patras played a key role, and Augustus refounded the city as a Roman colony in the area. In addition, Patras has been a Christian centre since the early days of Christianity, and it is the city where Saint Andrew was crucified.


title: Patras

text: In the Byzantine era, Patras continued to be an important port as well as an industrial centre. One of the most scholarly philosophers and theologians of the time, Arethas of Caesarea was born at Patrae, at around 860. By the 9th century, there are strong signs the city was prosperous: the widow Danielis from Patras had accumulated immense wealth in land ownership, the carpet and textile industry, and offered critical support in the ascent of Basil I the Macedonian to the Byzantine throne.


title: Patras

text: In 1205, the city was captured by William of Champlitte and Villehardouin, and became a part of the principality of Achaea. It became the seat of the Barony of Patras, and its Latin archbishop primate of the principality. In 1408, Patras became Venetian, until it was recaptured in 1430 by the Despotate of Morea and its despot Constantine Palaiologos, who thus succeeded in recovering for the Byzantine Empire the whole of the Morea, apart from Venetian possessions. The administration of Patras was given to George Sphrantzes, while Constantine was immediately contested by the Ottoman Empire and later, in 1449, became emperor of the Byzantine empire.


title: Patras

text: Patras remained a part of the Despotate of Morea until 1458, when it was conquered by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmet II. Under the Ottomans, it was known as "Baliabadra", from the ('Old Patras'), as opposed to ('new Patra'), the town of Ypati in Central Greece. Though Mehmet granted the city special privileges and tax reductions, it never became a major centre of commerce. Venice and Genoa attacked and captured it several times in the 15th and 16th centuries, but never re-established their rule effectively, except for a period of Venetian rule in 1687–1715 after the Morean War.


title: Patras

text: Patras was one of the first cities in which the Greek Revolution began in 1821; the Ottoman garrison, confined to the citadel, held out until 1828. Finally the city was surrendered on 7 October 1828 to the French expeditionary force in the Peloponnese, under the command of General Maison. After the war, most of the city and its buildings were completely destroyed. The new city was planned under the supervision of Stamatis Voulgaris following orders by Ioannis Kapodistrias.


title: Patras

text: Patras developed quickly into the second-largest urban centre in late-19th-century Greece. The city benefited from its role as the main export port for the agricultural produce of the Peloponnese.


title: Patras

text: In the early 20th century, Patras developed fast and became the first Greek city to introduce public streetlights and electrified tramways. The war effort necessitated by the First World War hampered the city's development and also created uncontrollable urban sprawl after the influx of displaced persons from Asia Minor after the 1922 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. In the Second World War, the city was a major target of Italian air raids. In the Axis occupation period, a German military command was established and German and Italian troops stationed in the city. After the liberation in 1944, the city recovered, but in later years was increasingly overshadowed by the urban pole of Athens. Since 2014, the city's mayor is Kostas Peletidis.


title: Patras

text: The city is divided into the upper and the lower section, connected with roads and broad stairs. The upper section ("Ano Poli") is the older and the more picturesque; however, the lower section ("Kato Poli") is laid out according to the 1858 city plan, featuring a variety of squares. The most notable of these are the "Psila Alonia" and the Georgiou I Square. A number of notable neoclassical buildings are to be found, including the Apollon Theatre in Georgiou I Square, the City Hall, the headquarters of the Local Trade Association and the Court of Justice. A replica of Patras Lighthouse, the city's emblematic old lighthouse – which was at the dock of "Ayios Nikolaos" – rises at the end of Trion Navarchon street, near the temple of Saint Andreas.


title: Patras

text: In general, much of Patras' coastline is framed by roads and avenues running alongside; these include Dymaion Coast to the south and Iroon Polytechneiou Street to the north.


title: Patras

text: Patras and its region is home to various Ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine Monuments, including the Roman Odeon, the Fortress of Rio and the Fortress (castle) of Patras. More specifically, the main sights of the city are:


title: Patras

text: As a part of the 2006 European Capital of Culture programme, there was a project for the restoration of the city's architectural heritage.


title: Patras

text: Patras' center is characterised by a composition of architectural currents and trends. During the 19th century many neoclassical buildings were constructed in the city. Α representative example are the façades around the central square of the city (Georgiou I square). The neoclassical Apollo Theatre, a work of Ernst Ziller, is next to the modernist building of the Hall of Literature and Art ().


title: Patras

text: Patra is a relatively newly built city, as its medieval buildings were completely destroyed in the Greek War of Independence. The oldest surviving buildings (apart from ancient monuments and the castle) are the church of Pantocrator in Ano Poli and a residential building (Tzini's house) at the corner of Agiou Nikolaou and Maisonos street, built in 1832. The area on the south of the castle, around the Roman Odeon, the church of Pantokrator, in the Upper Town (Ano Poli), is the most appealing of the city, because of its status as the only area where construction height is limited to two-storey buildings.


title: Patras

text: Ιn Ano Poli is interesting the old school complex "Georgios Glarakis" work of the architect Georgios Petrιtsopoulos in 1931 which is built with stone and recently became a nice bioclimatic school. At the beginning of the 20th century, outside the school complex "Georgios Glarakis", line 2 of the tram ended, starting from Agios Dionysios, going up Dimitriou Gounari Street, passing behind the church of Pantanassa, entering Roman Odeon and finished outside the Glarakis school complex.


title: Patras

text: Historical buildings and mansions of the city, apart Tzini's house, include also the Prapopoulos building, Golfinopoulos mansion ("Alhambra"), Perivolaropoulos mansion, Palamas house, while among the demolished after WWII were Tsiklitiras mansion, Kanellopoulos house, Chaidopoulos building, Frangopoulos house, Green mansion and Mineyko mansion.


title: Patras

text: Nowadays, the municipal units of Rio, Paralia, Messatida and Vrachnaiika have functionally become a part of the wider urban complex of Patras. Apart from the city center, the main districts of Patras are:


title: Patras

text: Patras is the regional capital of Western Greece and the capital of the Achaea regional unit. Since 2011, the city is also the capital of the administrative division, which includes (along with Western Greece) the regions of Peloponnese and the Ionian Islands.


title: Patras

text: The current municipality of Patras was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of 5 municipalities that made up the Patras Urban Area. These former municipalities, which became municipal units, are: (in parenthesis their population, 2011)


title: Patras

text: From 2011 on, can data also reflect the city's urban area population, as all the municipalities that made up the Patras Urban Area were joined to create the new larger Patras municipality, formed at the 2011 local government reform.


title: Patras

text: Heavy infrastructure works performed in the 2000s include the Peiros-Parapeiros dam (to provide water supply for Patras and surrounding towns) and a "small industries" park that will be constructed next to the Glaykos river and provide an easy connection with the new port.


title: Patras

text: The city is one of the main Greek internet and GRNET hubs and is connected with high speed lines to Athens as part of the backbone. A metropolitan optical network will be deployed in the city, with a total length of .


title: Patras

text: Two major state hospitals operate in the city: the Agios Andreas Hospital is the oldest of the two; and General University Hospital of Patras. There also exists two smaller state hospitals, Karamandanio - a children's hospital, and the Center of Chest Diseases of Southwestern Greece. A large range of private hospitals and clinics operate in parallel.


title: Patras

text: Numerous art venues and an ultra-modern archaeological museum were constructed for the needs of European Culture Capital designation. The cultural and educational facilities include the Municipal Library, the university libraries, many theatres, the municipal art gallery, the University of Patras's facilities, the Hellenic Open University and the Technical Institute of Patras. A number of research facilities are also established in the university campus area.


title: Patras

text: The economy of the city largely depends on its service sector. Its main economic activities include retailing, logistics, financial and public sector services. Patras suffered a severe problem of deindustrialization in the late 1980s and 1990s when a number of major productive units shut down in successive order. As a result, a considerable portion of the city's workforce and the city's economic planning in its entirety had to be re-evaluated and restructured by the authorities giving emphasis on the scientific research and technology sector. The University of Patras contributed by working towards this goal, using its service and technology sectors.


title: Patras

text: The area still retains some of its traditional winemaking and foodstuff industries as well as a small agricultural sector. Major businesses in Patras include:


title: Patras

text: In 2010, the new Infocenter of Patras was established, inside the neoclassical building of the former market "Agora Argyri", in Ayiou Andreou street. The building includes a conference hall, along with multi-purpose and exhibitional spaces.


title: Patras

text: The regional unit of Achaea has about 4,800 hotels rooms and in 2006, 286,000 tourists, mainly from Greece, stayed in the area for a total of 634,000 days.


title: Patras

text: The Titan Cement Company operates a large cement factory, with a private port, in Psathopyrgos, a suburb of Patras.


title: Patras

text: Patras hosts several timber manufacturing companies, and a wood distribution center of Shelman. The largest local company is "Abex".


title: Patras

text: The paper sector is also active including a paper factory belonging to Georgia-Pacific ("Delica") and two important Greek companies, "Elite" and "El-pack", headquartered in the city.


title: Patras

text: Patras has several packing and industrial equipment companies. The most important of them are the local "Antzoulatos" and the multinational Frigoglass, a subsidiary of Coca-Cola, headquartered in the suburbs of Patras. Ideal Bikes is the leading bike producer in Greece, with large export activities.


title: Patras

text: The once omnipresent textile industry of the city is now almost defunct after the shut-down of the huge factory of "Peiraiki-Patraiki" (Πειραϊκή-Πατραϊκή), followed by numerous smaller textile industries. This had an important impact on the city's economy and resulted in high levels of unemployment in the 1990s. The remains of the facilities still cover hundreds of acres in the south side of the city.


title: Patras

text: Some of the largest industries in the city belong to the soft drinks and drinks sector. There are factories from Coca-Cola HBC and Athenian Brewery established in area, along with the facilities of the largest local company in soft-drinks production, "Loux" (). The city is also home to many leading Greek wineries and distilleries, among them the venerable Achaia Clauss and Parparoussi located in Rio. In the food sector, Friesland Foods, through the local subsidiary "NoyNoy", operates a new yogurt factory in the city's industrial area. Patras is also home to important fish-farming companies ("Andromeda", "Nireus"). ECOFEED operates in the industrial zone of Patras, the largest fish-feeds factory in the Mediterranean. The city hosts the second-largest flour-mills in Greece, "Kepenou-Mills".


title: Patras

text: Acciona has completed the largest wind park in Greece, on the Panachaiko mountain, overlooking the city of Patras. The Public Electric Company, operates a small hydroelectric plant on river Glafkos.


title: Patras

text: Intracom (Greece's largest multinational provider of telecommunications products) facilities in Patras house the offices of Telecommunications Software Development, Terminal Equipment Design, Development Programmes, and Support Services divisions. Expansion plans have recently been completed. INTRASOFT, another core company of INTRACOM holdings group, has recently (2018) began operations in Patras and it is expected to expand its activities in 2019. The Corallia Innovation Hub, Innohub hosts many companies focusing on Microelectronics. Among them one of the largest is the multinational software company Citrix Systems which operates a R&D centre with more than 100 computer scientists and engineers. Another company that maintains an R&D center in Patras is Dialog Semiconductor, a UK-based manufacturer of semiconductor-based system solutions. Another large Greek IT company, Unisystems announced recently (October 2018) the signing of a cooperation agreement with the Patras-based IT company Knowledge SA, that lays the foundation for the establishment of a Remote Development Center in Patras.


title: Patras

text: Patras Science Park is an incubator for many small but upcoming technology companies. CBL Patras, a global manufacturer of specialty chemicals and active pharmaceutical ingredients, is a startup from a professor of the University of Patras.


title: Patras

text: Vianex, owned by Pavlos Giannakopoulos, has its largest production facilities in the industrial area of the city.


title: Patras

text: Nobacco, a Greek electronic cigarette brand, works mainly with cooperation with the university of Patras.


title: Patras

text: There has been a significant development in the R&D sector, in the last few years, as a result of the many research institutes and the university impact in the area. The Computer Technology Institute and the Industrial Systems Institute of Greece are headquartered in Patras. The city is also a host to the FORTH-ICE-HT (Institute of Chemical Engineering & High Temperature Chemical Processes) and the Institute of Biomedical Technology.


title: Patras

text: The cultural activity of Patras includes the Patras International Festival (with various artistic activities, mainly in the fields of theatre and music), the Patras Carnival and the Poetry Symposium.


title: Patras

text: The city hosts many museums, including the Patras Archaeological Museum the History and Ethnology Museum, the Folk Art Museum, the Press Museum and the Technology Museum, the latter in the campus of Patras University.


title: Patras

text: Other cultural institutes are: the Visual Arts Workshop, the icon painting school, the Carnival Float Workshop, the Municipal Library, the Municipal Gallery, along with many private art galleries. The architectural heritage of the city is dominated by neo-classicism, but also includes structures from other periods. Patras is also a pilot city of the Council of Europe and EU Intercultural cities programme.


title: Patras

text: The Patras Municipal and Regional Theatre was founded in June 1988, having as its main stage the city's landmark, the Apollon Theatre. Throughout its existence it has mounted critically acclaimed performances ranging from ancient dramaturgy and modern Greek, to international repertoire. The theatre cooperates with other theatrical groups, such as the "Viomichaniki" (Industrial) group and the "Michani Technis" (Art Machine).


title: Patras

text: The Roman Odeon hosts ancient dramas in the summer, while the Pantheon theater, the Art Factory, the Lithographeion and the Agora theatres provide additional venues. The International Festival of Patras takes place every summer, with a program consisting mostly of plays—both ancient drama and modern theatre—as well as various musical events.


title: Patras

text: Patras has also a very strong indie rock scene with critically acclaimed bands such as Raining Pleasure, Abbie Gale, Serpentine, Doch an Doris and others.


title: Patras

text: The Patras Carnival ("Patrino Karnavali") is the largest event of its kind in Greece and one of the biggest in Europe, with a heritage reaching back 160 years. The events begin in January 17 each year (St. Anthony's nameday), and last until Clean Monday. Hundreds of thousands of visitors from all over the world gather each year for its festivities, which include large events such as the mammoth sized parades of the last two weeks (up to 50.000 participants each), the Hidden Treasure Hunt (Krymmenos Thisavros), concerts, expositions, theatrical, musical, comedy and other artistic contests and events.


title: Patras

text: Patras Carnival was originally introduced as ball-masquee' events in 1835 by the Italian origin merchant family of Moretti.


title: Patras

text: Patras was chosen by the European Commission to be the European Capital of Culture for the year 2006. The concept of the event revolved around the main theme of "Bridges" and "Dialogues", drawing benefit from the city's rich history and its position as a "Gate to the West", to underline the essence of the productive interaction of culture and civilisations in Europe. The EU Commission found Patras' plans very ambitious and also commented that a successful hosting of the title by a medium-sized city would make it possible to redefine the meaning of the term Cultural Capital.


title: Patras

text: In 2006 various cultural events were held in the context of the European Capital of Culture. Among the artists presenting their work in Patras were: Gary Burton, Maxim Shostakovich, Ian Anderson - with the Patras Municipal Orchestra, Jean Louis Trintignant, Roberto Benigni, Eros Ramazzotti and José Carreras. With the completion of the Capital of Culture programme, a part of the old Ladopoulos factory was renovated to host exhibitions, a small theatre (named the Art Factory), was built and a number of neoclassical buildings around the city were renovated as part of a plan to preserve the city's architectural heritage and link it to its cultural life. The new Archaeological museum was completed in 2009. Its globe-like roof and modern architectural design enhances the town's northern entrance, taking its place among the other city landmarks.


title: Patras

text: Patras has several sports facilities and important teams in almost all the major Greek leagues. Panachaiki Gymnastiki Enosi, Apollon Patras, E.A. Patras and NO Patras are historically the major sports clubs based in the city, specialising in football, basketball, volleyball and water polo. The city's national stadium, Pampeloponnisiako Stadium, was renovated and expanded in 2004. Since 2009, a new event, the Patras International Circuit Kart takes place every September, turning the city streets into a circuit.


title: Patras

text: The city has hosted several international sports events, such as the 1995 Basketball Under-19 World Cup (preliminaries), the 1995 Men's European Volleyball Championship (preliminaries), the 1997 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships, the 2001 World Wrestling Championships, the EuroBasket 2003 Women, the 2003 International Children's Games, a group stage of the football tournament in the 2004 Olympic Games, the 2007 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, the 2008 World Deaf Football Championships and the 2019 Mediterranean Beach Games.


title: Patras

text: The city is the seat of the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Patras. As in the rest of the country, the largest denomination is the Orthodox Church, which represents the majority of the population. There is also a sizeable community of Roman Catholics and an Anglican church, part of the Church of England's Diocese in Europe.


title: Patras

text: The most significant church in the city is the Orthodox Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew, in the south west of the city center. The construction of the church began in 1908 under the supervision of the architect Anastasios Metaxas, followed by Georgios Nomikos. It was inaugurated in 1974. It is the largest church in Greece and the third-largest Byzantine-style church in the Balkans, after the Cathedral of Saint Sava in Belgrade and Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia. It holds relics of Andrew the Apostle, which were returned to the city of Patras from St. Peter's Basilica, Rome in September, 1964, on the orders of Pope Paul VI.


title: Patras

text: The first Jewish presence in the city was dated back to the Hellenistic era (see Romaniotes). After World War II, the community almost disappeared and the last synagogue closed in 1950.


title: Patras

text: The city has a significant political history in modern Greece; famous politicians from Patras include the prime ministers Dimitrios Gounaris, the main leader of the anti-venizelist party in the 1910s, Stylianos Gonatas, a high-ranking officer, politician and one of the leaders of the "1922 Revolution", Andreas Michalakopoulos, a prominent liberal party cadre, foreign minister and prime minister, and Dimitrios Maximos, a distinguished economist, minister and finally prime minister in the civil war era. More recent figures include the Papandreou family, arguably the most influential in post World War II Greece, Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, the last democratically elected head of government before the establishment of the 1967 junta, and Costis Stephanopoulos, the former president of the Hellenic Republic.


title: Patras

text: The city has always been a sea-trade hub because of its strategic position. The port manages more than half of the foreign sea-passenger transportation in Greece, and has excellent car-ferry links with the Ionian islands and the major Adriatic ports of Italy. Additionally, a new port was built in the southern section of the city to accommodate the increased traffic and relieve the city centre from port operations. In 2011, this port went into operation. Ferries to Italy now dock there.


title: Patras

text: The port is connected by a number of daily routes to the Ionian islands Kerkyra, Kefallonia and Zakynthos, to the port of Igoumenitsa and to the Italian cities Ancona, Bari, Brindisi, Trieste and Venice.


title: Patras

text: A newly constructed, ring road (the Bypass of Patras) was first opened in 2002 in order to alleviate heavy traffic throughout the city. A mini ring road (known as the "Mini bypass" of Patras) is now complete (2019), alleviating heavy traffic-related problems in the city centre. The mini-bypass is a two lanes mototway bridging the northern city entrance at the Zavlani neighborhood to the eastern entrance at the Aroi, Synora and Upper town (Ano poli) neighborhoods reducing the city centre crossing time to less than 4 minutes drive.


title: Patras

text: Two large highways were also constructed, connecting the seacoast and the new port with the Bypass of Patras. The first is over the small Diakoniaris river (from Eleftheriou Venizelou street until the Bypass'es exit in Eglykada), while the second consists of two roads, each, that run in parallel with the Glafkos river entering at the city' s New Port. Another project was completed recently, leading to an additional entrance to the downtown area after expanding and widening Kanakari street. This work led to a fast, direct connection of the city's mini bypass road with the city centre.


title: Patras

text: The highway connection with Athens was recently upgraded to a 220km closed highway (Olympia odos), with a speed limit of 130km/hour, reducing the transit time to 1 hour and 45 minutes. The highway was connected to the Large bypass highway and is expected to extend all the way to Pyrgos by the end of 2023. Patras will also be the central hub of the Ionia Odos highway, intended to bridge western Greece from Kalamata to Ioannina and the Kakavia border station. The Rio-Antirio bridge is north of the city and links the Peloponnese to mainland Greece. It was completed in August 2004.


title: Patras

text: Additional work was recently announced to begin in 2023 in order to connect via highway the Rion Antirrion bridge with Nafpaktos, Itea, Amfissa and Lamia. This project is expected to reduce the trip to Lamia to 90 minutes and its completion is expexted in 2025.


title: Patras

text: Patras is bypassed by the Olympia Odos (A8) motorway, which is also part of the E55 route that crosses the Rio-Antirio Bridge, dominating the sealine across the Gulf of Corinth.


title: Patras

text: A rudimentary single, narrow gauge railway track crosses the city and connects it to Rio. In the past regional rail links were provided by the Hellenic Railways Organisation, connecting Patras to Athens and Piraeus as well as to Pyrgos and Kalamata. OSE announced the suspension of all the rail service in the Peloponnese in January 2011 so today (2018) the railway track is in use only by suburban trains that connect Patras with the adjacent villages of Rion and Agios Vasileios. The central passenger train station of Patras which is a small building constructed in 1954, lies to the west of the downtown area, between Othonos-Amalias Avenue and the north port. The main freight station of Aghios Andreas lies further to the south, next to the homonymous church and it is not in use any more. Finally, the old depot of Aghios Dionysios, consisting of about ten tracks, offers basic turntable and roundhouse facilities; it is about long. A new double standard gauge railway line to Korinth and further to Athens is under construction. The construction works are currently (2018) in progress close to the suburbs of Patras, but the remaining few Kilometres till the city centre and the new port are still under study because of various financial and technical problems.


title: Patras

text: Patras is served by buses. There are two transport lines to and from the University of Patras and some nearby lines to city suburbs like Saravali, Glafkos, and Paralia. All the urban bus lines are about 40, with three numbers.


title: Patras

text: Commuter rail services have recently been established by Proastiakos, with one line currently connecting Patras, Rio, and Agios Vasileios.


title: Patras

text: Patras was the first Greek city to introduce public electrified tramways in the past. Before the economic crisis, there were proposals for reestablishment of tram lines.


title: Patras

text: Seasonal civilian air transport is provided by the military Patras Araxos Airport, about from the city's centre.


title: Patras

text: Patras is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission Intercultural cities programme.


title: Patras

text: Patras was selected as main motif for the €10 Greek Patras 2006 commemorative coin, minted in 2006. This coin was designed to commemorate an event signaling an enlightened course for Patras and serving as a reminder of the way in which culture can stimulate the economy and promote development, when Patras was appointed European Capital of Culture. On the obverse is the logo for Patras 2006 around the words "European Capital of Culture".


title: Protein structure

text: Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule. Proteins are polymers specifically polypeptides formed from sequences of amino acids, the monomers of the polymer. A single amino acid monomer may also be called a "residue" indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a peptide bond. By convention, a chain under 30 amino acids is often identified as a peptide, rather than a protein. To be able to perform their biological function, proteins fold into one or more specific spatial conformations driven by a number of non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic packing. To understand the functions of proteins at a molecular level, it is often necessary to determine their three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of structural biology, which employs techniques such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, cryo electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and dual polarisation interferometry to determine the structure of proteins.


title: Protein structure

text: Protein structures range in size from tens to several thousand amino acids. By physical size, proteins are classified as nanoparticles, between 1–100 nm. Very large protein complexes can be formed from protein subunits. For example, many thousands of actin molecules assemble into a microfilament.


title: Protein structure

text: A protein usually undergoes reversible structural changes in performing its biological function. The alternative structures of the same protein are referred to as different conformations, and transitions between them are called conformational changes.


title: Protein structure

text: The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is held together by peptide bonds that are made during the process of protein biosynthesis. The two ends of the polypeptide chain are referred to as the carboxyl terminus (C-terminus) and the amino terminus (N-terminus) based on the nature of the free group on each extremity. Counting of residues always starts at the N-terminal end (NH-group), which is the end where the amino group is not involved in a peptide bond. The primary structure of a protein is determined by the gene corresponding to the protein. A specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is read by the ribosome in a process called translation. The sequence of amino acids in insulin was discovered by Frederick Sanger, establishing that proteins have defining amino acid sequences. The sequence of a protein is unique to that protein, and defines the structure and function of the protein. The sequence of a protein can be determined by methods such as Edman degradation or tandem mass spectrometry. Often, however, it is read directly from the sequence of the gene using the genetic code. It is strictly recommended to use the words "amino acid residues" when discussing proteins because when a peptide bond is formed, a water molecule is lost, and therefore proteins are made up of amino acid residues. Post-translational modifications such as phosphorylations and glycosylations are usually also considered a part of the primary structure, and cannot be read from the gene. For example, insulin is composed of 51 amino acids in 2 chains. One chain has 31 amino acids, and the other has 20 amino acids.


title: Protein structure

text: Secondary structure refers to highly regular local sub-structures on the actual polypeptide backbone chain. Two main types of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand or β-sheets, were suggested in 1951 by Linus Pauling et al. These secondary structures are defined by patterns of hydrogen bonds between the main-chain peptide groups. They have a regular geometry, being constrained to specific values of the dihedral angles ψ and φ on the Ramachandran plot. Both the α-helix and the β-sheet represent a way of saturating all the hydrogen bond donors and acceptors in the peptide backbone. Some parts of the protein are ordered but do not form any regular structures. They should not be confused with random coil, an unfolded polypeptide chain lacking any fixed three-dimensional structure. Several sequential secondary structures may form a "supersecondary unit".


title: Protein structure

text: Tertiary structure refers to the three-dimensional structure created by a single protein molecule (a single polypeptide chain). It may include one or several domains. The α-helices and β-pleated-sheets are folded into a compact globular structure. The folding is driven by the "non-specific" hydrophobic interactions, the burial of hydrophobic residues from water, but the structure is stable only when the parts of a protein domain are locked into place by "specific" tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and the tight packing of side chains and disulfide bonds. The disulfide bonds are extremely rare in cytosolic proteins, since the cytosol (intracellular fluid) is generally a reducing environment.


title: Protein structure

text: Quaternary structure is the three-dimensional structure consisting of the aggregation of two or more individual polypeptide chains (subunits) that operate as a single functional unit (multimer). The resulting multimer is stabilized by the same non-covalent interactions and disulfide bonds as in tertiary structure. There are many possible quaternary structure organisations. Complexes of two or more polypeptides (i.e. multiple subunits) are called multimers. Specifically it would be called a dimer if it contains two subunits, a trimer if it contains three subunits, a tetramer if it contains four subunits, and a pentamer if it contains five subunits. The subunits are frequently related to one another by symmetry operations, such as a 2-fold axis in a dimer. Multimers made up of identical subunits are referred to with a prefix of "homo-" and those made up of different subunits are referred to with a prefix of "hetero-", for example, a heterotetramer, such as the two alpha and two beta chains of hemoglobin.


title: Protein structure

text: Proteins are frequently described as consisting of several structural units. These units include domains, motifs, and folds. Despite the fact that there are about 100,000 different proteins expressed in eukaryotic systems, there are many fewer different domains, structural motifs and folds.


title: Protein structure

text: A structural domain is an element of the protein's overall structure that is self-stabilizing and often folds independently of the rest of the protein chain. Many domains are not unique to the protein products of one gene or one gene family but instead appear in a variety of proteins. Domains often are named and singled out because they figure prominently in the biological function of the protein they belong to; for example, the "calcium-binding domain of calmodulin". Because they are independently stable, domains can be "swapped" by genetic engineering between one protein and another to make chimera proteins. A conservative combination of several domains that occur in different proteins, such as protein tyrosine phosphatase domain and C2 domain pair, was called "a superdomain" that may evolve as a single unit.


title: Protein structure

text: The structural and sequence motifs refer to short segments of protein three-dimensional structure or amino acid sequence that were found in a large number of different proteins


title: Protein structure

text: Tertiary protein structures can have multiple secondary elements on the same polypeptide chain. The supersecondary structure refers to a specific combination of secondary structure elements, such as β-α-β units or a helix-turn-helix motif. Some of them may be also referred to as structural motifs.


title: Protein structure

text: A protein fold refers to the general protein architecture, like a helix bundle, β-barrel, Rossmann fold or different "folds" provided in the Structural Classification of Proteins database. A related concept is protein topology.


title: Protein structure

text: Proteins are not static objects, but rather populate ensembles of conformational states. Transitions between these states typically occur on nanoscales, and have been linked to functionally relevant phenomena such as allosteric signaling and enzyme catalysis. Protein dynamics and conformational changes allow proteins to function as nanoscale biological machines within cells, often in the form of multi-protein complexes. Examples include motor proteins, such as myosin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, kinesin, which moves cargo inside cells away from the nucleus along microtubules, and dynein, which moves cargo inside cells towards the nucleus and produces the axonemal beating of motile cilia and flagella. "[I]n effect, the [motile cilium] is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines...Flexible linkers allow the mobile protein domains connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce long-range allostery via . "


title: Protein structure

text: Proteins are often thought of as relatively stable tertiary structures that experience conformational changes after being affected by interactions with other proteins or as a part of enzymatic activity. However, proteins may have varying degrees of stability, and some of the less stable variants are intrinsically disordered proteins. These proteins exist and function in a relatively 'disordered' state lacking a stable tertiary structure. As a result, they are difficult to describe by a single fixed tertiary structure. Conformational ensembles have been devised as a way to provide a more accurate and 'dynamic' representation of the conformational state of intrinsically disordered proteins.


title: Protein structure

text: Protein ensemble files are a representation of a protein that can be considered to have a flexible structure. Creating these files requires determining which of the various theoretically possible protein conformations actually exist. One approach is to apply computational algorithms to the protein data in order to try to determine the most likely set of conformations for an ensemble file. There are multiple methods for preparing data for the Protein Ensemble Database that fall into two general methodologies – pool and molecular dynamics (MD) approaches (diagrammed in the figure). The pool based approach uses the protein’s amino acid sequence to create a massive pool of random conformations. This pool is then subjected to more computational processing that creates a set of theoretical parameters for each conformation based on the structure. Conformational subsets from this pool whose average theoretical parameters closely match known experimental data for this protein are selected. The alternative molecular dynamics approach takes multiple random conformations at a time and subjects all of them to experimental data. Here the experimental data is serving as limitations to be placed on the conformations (e.g. known distances between atoms). Only conformations that manage to remain within the limits set by the experimental data are accepted. This approach often applies large amounts of experimental data to the conformations which is a very computationally demanding task.


title: Protein structure

text: The conformational ensembles were generated for a number of highly dynamic and partially unfolded proteins, such as Sic1/Cdc4, p15 PAF, MKK7, Beta-synuclein and P27


title: Protein structure

text: As it is translated, polypeptides exit the ribosome mostly as a random coil and folds into its native state. The final structure of the protein chain is generally assumed to be determined by its amino acid sequence (Anfinsen's dogma).


title: Protein structure

text: Thermodynamic stability of proteins represents the free energy difference between the folded and unfolded protein states. This free energy difference is very sensitive to temperature, hence a change in temperature may result in unfolding or denaturation. Protein denaturation may result in loss of function, and loss of native state. The free energy of stabilization of soluble globular proteins typically does not exceed 50 kJ/mol. Taking into consideration the large number of hydrogen bonds that take place for the stabilization of secondary structures, and the stabilization of the inner core through hydrophobic interactions, the free energy of stabilization emerges as small difference between large numbers.


title: Protein structure

text: Around 90% of the protein structures available in the Protein Data Bank have been determined by X-ray crystallography. This method allows one to measure the three-dimensional (3-D) density distribution of electrons in the protein, in the crystallized state, and thereby infer the 3-D coordinates of all the atoms to be determined to a certain resolution. Roughly 7% of the known protein structures have been obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. For larger protein complexes, cryo-electron microscopy can determine protein structures. The resolution is typically lower than that of X-ray crystallography, or NMR, but the maximum resolution is steadily increasing. This technique is still a particularly valuable for very large protein complexes such as virus coat proteins and amyloid fibers.


title: Protein structure

text: General secondary structure composition can be determined via circular dichroism. Vibrational spectroscopy can also be used to characterize the conformation of peptides, polypeptides, and proteins. Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy has become a valuable method to investigate the structures of flexible peptides and proteins that cannot be studied with other methods. A more qualitative picture of protein structure is often obtained by proteolysis, which is also useful to screen for more crystallizable protein samples. Novel implementations of this approach, including fast parallel proteolysis (FASTpp), can probe the structured fraction and its stability without the need for purification. Once a protein's structure has been experimentally determined, further detailed studies can be done computationally, using molecular dynamic simulations of that structure.


title: Protein structure

text: A protein structure database is a database that is modeled around the various experimentally determined protein structures. The aim of most protein structure databases is to organize and annotate the protein structures, providing the biological community access to the experimental data in a useful way. Data included in protein structure databases often includes 3D coordinates as well as experimental information, such as unit cell dimensions and angles for x-ray crystallography determined structures. Though most instances, in this case either proteins or a specific structure determinations of a protein, also contain sequence information and some databases even provide means for performing sequence based queries, the primary attribute of a structure database is structural information, whereas sequence databases focus on sequence information, and contain no structural information for the majority of entries. Protein structure databases are critical for many efforts in computational biology such as structure based drug design, both in developing the computational methods used and in providing a large experimental dataset used by some methods to provide insights about the function of a protein.