title: George Foreman Grill

text: The concept for the grill was created by Michael Boehm of Batavia, Illinois. The original intention was to create an indoor grill that would provide a unique benefit of cooking on both sides at once. A second key benefit was to reduce the fat content of hamburgers and other meats by draining away the fat into a separate reservoir. Boehm designed the product with a floating hinge and slanted grilling surface to accommodate foods of differing thicknesses and drain fat away from the food. Engineering work was performed by Bob Johnson. Boehm and Johnson brought a JVC camcorder and a sample of the product in bright yellow to the office of Barbara Westfield at Salton, Inc. The video was played, showing fat dripping from the grill into the collection tray. They presented the product as "The Fajita Express". The fajita grill had been promoted at industry trade shows in the early 1990s, but garnered little interest.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The slanted grill concept was pitched by Tsann Kuen to Salton, Inc. After one year, and several trade shows, Salton sent samples of the grill to George Foreman's colleagues, who then sent the grill to Foreman to test. Boehm was not involved in teaming up the grill and Foreman. Salton made several changes to the technical function of the product, removing the four risers meant for the user to lift up the grill, slide in one of the two included trays, and fill taco shells. One tray was for grease of fajita meat, and the second tray was to hold a taco shell, as was shown in the demonstration to Westfield in the original presentation at the Salton office in Mount Prospect, Illinois.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The Lean Mean Fat-Reducing Grilling Machine, as it became known, was introduced in 1994 and promoted with distinctive infomercials which featured Foreman. A combination of his affable personality and the unique features of the product made it a huge success. Such was the popularity of these infomercials that Foreman's tagline, "It's so good I put my name on it!", is now part of popular culture. In Asia, the grill is endorsed and promoted by both George Foreman and Jackie Chan.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The product has a clamshell design that simultaneously heats the top and bottom surfaces of the food, eliminating the need to flip it. Each heating surface is grooved to reduce contact area, and covered in a non-stick coating. The lower heating surface is angled to allow hot, liquid fat and other fluids to drain through the grooves into a removable drip tray, which shows the amount removed from the food. This arrangement has been marketed as a way to "knock out the fat", suggesting a healthier way to cook.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The grill is offered in various sizes for cooking individual or multiple servings. In 2006, the George Foreman "Next Grilleration" Health Grill was launched, featuring detachable grilling plates for easier cleaning. It has gone through several other versions, differing in their control interfaces and design.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: In 2014, an updated Foreman Grill was released called the "Evolve Grill". The Evolve grill features interchangeable PTFE-free ceramic plates. The plates available are the traditional grill plates, waffle plates, a bake dish, mini burgers, a flat griddle, and a muffin pan.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The worldwide popularity of the George Foreman grill has resulted in sales of over 100 million units since it was first launched, a feat that was achieved in a little over 15 years. Although Foreman has never confirmed exactly how much he has earned from the endorsement, Salton, Inc. paid him $138 million in 1999 in order to buy out the right to use his name. Previous to that he was being paid about 40 percent of the profits on each grill sold, earning him $4.5 million a month in payouts at its peak, so it is estimated he has made a total of over $200 million from the endorsement, a sum that is substantially more than he earned as a boxer.


title: George Foreman Grill

text: The success of the George Foreman Grill spawned a variety of similar celebrity-endorsed products, such as the Evander Holyfield Real Deal Grill, for which Holyfield starred in a 2007 infomercial, and the Carl Lewis Health Grill. None of these imitators, however, achieved the level of success of the Foreman Grill. The Jackie Chan Grill is the same grill as the George Foreman grill, but targets the Asian market, and is marketed by both Jackie Chan and George Foreman.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Richard Allen Grenell (born September 18, 1966) is an American political operative, diplomat, TV personality, and public relations consultant who served as Acting Director of National Intelligence in President Donald Trump’s Cabinet in 2020. A member of the Republican Party, Grenell served as the United States Ambassador to Germany from 2018 to 2020 and as the Special Presidential Envoy for Serbia and Kosovo Peace Negotiations from 2019 to 2021.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell was a U.S. State Department spokesperson to the United Nations during the George W. Bush administration. Following his State Department tenure, he formed Capitol Media Partners, a political consultancy; he also was a Fox News contributor. Grenell was a foreign policy spokesperson for Mitt Romney during his 2012 presidential campaign.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In September 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Grenell as the U.S. Ambassador to Germany. On April 26, 2018, he was confirmed by the United States Senate by a vote of 56 to 42. Grenell presented his credentials to the President of Germany, Frank-Walter Steinmeier, on May 8, 2018.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell was named as Acting Director of National Intelligence by President Trump in February 2020, making him the first openly gay person to serve in the Cabinet of the United States, albeit in an acting capacity. He relinquished the role in May 2020.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell expressed interest in running in the 2021 California gubernatorial recall election but on July 15, 2021 – the day before the filing deadline – he appeared on "The Sean Hannity Show" to announce that he would not run as a replacement candidate.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell graduated with a bachelor's degree in Government and Public Administration from Evangel University in Springfield, Missouri. He received a master's degree in Public Administration from Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Prior to his service at the State Department, Grenell was a political adviser to a number of prominent Republicans, including George Pataki and Dave Camp.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In 2001, Grenell was appointed by President George W. Bush as Director of Communications and Public Diplomacy for the United States Permanent Representative to the United Nations in New York (formally, his title was Minister Counselor). Serving in that role until 2008, Grenell advised four different U.S. Ambassadors. During his tenure, Grenell promulgated U.S. official position and strategy on such issues as the War on Terror, global peacekeeping operations, nuclear proliferation, and the UN Oil for Food corruption scandal.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In 2009, Grenell founded Capitol Media Partners, an international strategic media and public affairs consultancy with offices in Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, and Washington, D.C. He was also under contract as a Fox News contributor, commenting on foreign affairs and the media. Grenell has written for "The Wall Street Journal", CBS News, CNN, "Politico", "Huffington Post", "The Washington Times", and Al Jazeera. In 2012, CNN ranked Grenell as one of the top five Republican consultants in social media, and "Time" magazine named Grenell as one of the Top 10 Political Twitter Feeds of 2014.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell was a foreign policy spokesperson for Republican candidate Mitt Romney during his 2012 presidential campaign. Grenell is the first openly gay person to work as a spokesperson for a Republican presidential candidate.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell was a signatory to a 2013 "amicus curiae" brief submitted to the Supreme Court in support of same-sex marriage during the "Hollingsworth v. Perry" case.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In 2016, Grenell's consulting firm accepted more than $100,000 from the Magyar Foundation of North America to provide public relations support for the Hungarian government of Viktor Orbán. Grenell did not disclose this payment under the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) prior to his work in the Trump administration.


title: Richard Grenell

text: During the 2016 Republican primaries, Grenell warned his Twitter followers about Donald Trump, described Trump as "unserious" and "dangerous". “Trump is dangerous. Wake up. He’s reckless,” Grenell tweeted. Grenell deleted all of his negative tweets about Trump after Trump became the Republican nominee. Grenell then began praising Trump repeatedly on Fox News and on Twitter.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Days after Grenell's appointment as DNI, CNN reported that his personal website had—until 2018—touted consulting work he had done for clients in Iran, China, Kazakhstan, and other countries.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In September 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Grenell to become the United States Ambassador to Germany. After a significant delay, the United States Senate confirmed Grenell 56–42 on April 26, 2018. Grenell was sworn in by Vice President Mike Pence on May 3, 2018, making him the highest-ranking openly gay U.S. Ambassador. Grenell was also under consideration for the posts of U.S. Ambassador to NATO and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, the latter position being filled by Ambassador Kelly Craft.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell presented his credentials to the President of Germany on May 8, 2018. Within hours of taking office, Grenell offended German diplomats and business leaders when he tweeted that "German companies doing business in Iran should wind down operations immediately". The tweet was widely perceived as a threat, with the Foreign Minister of Luxembourg, Jean Asselborn, commenting that "This man was accredited as ambassador only yesterday. To give German businesses such orders (…) that is just not how you can treat your allies". The leader of Germany's Social Democratic Party said that Grenell "does appear to need some tutoring" in the "fine art of diplomacy", while the Left Party urged the Merkel government to summon Grenell to explain his comments.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell stirred controversy in June 2018 by telling "Breitbart News", "I absolutely want to empower other conservatives throughout Europe, other leaders". This comment was described as a breach of diplomatic protocol and a breach of Article 41 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which stipulates that ambassadors have a "duty not to interfere in the internal affairs of that State". Prominent German politicians called for Grenell's dismissal. Martin Schulz, former leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, said, "What this man is doing is unheard of in international diplomacy. If a German ambassador were to say in Washington that he is there to boost the Democrats, he would have been kicked out immediately."


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell was a regular contributor on Fox News's "Tucker Carlson Tonight" during the first few months of his ambassadorship in Germany. In November 2018, he appeared on the show and repeated his criticism of Angela Merkel's immigration policies. Grenell compared Merkel unfavorably to the recently elected Chancellor of Austria Sebastian Kurz, who (according to Grenell) "won in a very big way" because of his strict stance on immigration. The magazine "Der Spiegel" called these remarks a "thinly veiled call for a change of government in Berlin". Grenell's perceived interference in German politics drew criticism from several high-ranking German politicians. In March 2019, Wolfgang Kubicki, Vice President of the Bundestag and deputy chairman of the Free Democratic Party, charged Grenell with acting "like a high commissioner of an occupying power" and called for Grenell to be expelled from Germany.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In December 2018, during the affair surrounding "Der Spiegel" journalist Claas Relotius, Grenell wrote to the magazine, complained about an anti-American institutional bias, and asked for an independent investigation. In January 2019, Grenell told "Handelsblatt" that European companies participating in the construction of the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline are "always in danger, because sanctions are always possible". U.S. administrations had long opposed the Russian-backed Nord Stream 2, a pipeline for delivering natural gas from Russia to Germany. Grenell also threatened to sanction German companies involved in the construction of the Nord Stream 2.


title: Richard Grenell

text: "Der Spiegel" published a profile of Grenell on January 11, 2019, using interviews with 30 “American and German diplomats, cabinet members, lawmakers, high-ranking officials, lobbyists and think tank experts". The magazine wrote that "almost all of these sources paint an unflattering portrait of the ambassador, one remarkably similar to Donald Trump, the man who sent him to Berlin. A majority of them describe Grenell as a vain, narcissistic person who dishes out aggressively, but can barely handle criticism." The profile claimed that Grenell was politically isolated in Berlin because of his alleged association with the far-right Alternative for Germany Party, causing the leaders of the mainstream German parties—including the Chancellor herself—to avoid contact with him; while Grenell had pressed German parliamentarians to invite him to their districts, most had declined. The sources claimed that Grenell knew little "about Germany and Europe, that he ignores most of the dossiers his colleagues at the embassy write for him, and that his knowledge of the subject matter is superficial".


title: Richard Grenell

text: In the fall of 2018, Grenell played a key diplomatic role in planning the arrest of Julian Assange by providing backchannel assurances to Ecuador that Assange would not face the death penalty in the United States. In February 2019, it was announced that Grenell was leading the Trump administration's newly formed effort to promote the decriminalization of homosexuality in nations in which homosexuality was illegal. In January 2020, Lev Parnas told "The Daily Beast" that he was told to ask Grenell for advance notice if the DOJ were to move to extradite indicted Ukrainian oligarch Dmytro Firtash. Among other actions as ambassador, Grenell pressured Germany to take a tougher stance against Iran and Hezbollah.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Following his appointment as Acting Director of National Intelligence, Grenell has said he would resign as ambassador once a full-time DNI was confirmed. On May 25, 2020, after John Ratcliffe was confirmed, Grenell confirmed he would resign as ambassador in the coming weeks. He formally resigned on June 1, 2020.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In October 2019, Trump named Grenell a special envoy for Serbia and Kosovo peace negotiations. He continued serving part-time as special envoy after his resignation as ambassador, working from the White House. After months of diplomatic talks, on January 20, 2020, Grenell facilitated negotiations between Serbia and Kosovo where the two nations agreed to restore flights between their capitals for the first time in more than two decades. A June 27, 2020 peace summit between the two sides was arranged to take place in Washington D.C., but was canceled due to the potential indictment of Hashim Thaçi on war crimes.


title: Richard Grenell

text: According to a report by NPR, Grenell pressured Kosovo Prime Minister Albin Kurti to accept a deal favorable to Serbia, including dropping tariffs and agreeing to land swaps, and publicly threatened to withdraw U.S. peacekeepers. The analysis says this contributed to Kurti's removal as prime minister, prompting popular protests from his anti-corruption supporters.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell organized a new summit, located at the White House, for September 3 and 4, 2020. Grenell, along with his friend Robert C. O'Brien, cohosted the talks. On September 4, Serbian President Aleksandar Vučić and Kosovo Prime Minister Avdullah Hoti signed the Kosovo and Serbia economic agreements. The signing ceremony took place in the Oval Office at the White House in the presence of US President Donald Trump on September 4, 2020. In September 2020 Grenell traveled to Kosovo to receive the Presidential Medal of Merits from President Thaçi. His tenure ended with the Trump presidency on January 20, 2021.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On February 13, 2020, Shelby Pierson—the intelligence community's top election security official, deputy to Joseph Maguire—advised members of the House Intelligence Committee that Russia was interfering in the 2020 election in an effort to get Trump re-elected. Trump chastised Maguire for allowing the briefing, concerned that Democrats might "weaponize" the information against him.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On February 20, 2020, Trump replaced Maguire as Acting Director of National Intelligence, appointing Grenell to the role. Maguire and his deputy, Andrew Hallman, resigned from the Office of the Director for National Intelligence (ODNI). Kash Patel — a National Security Council official and former aide to congressman Devin Nunes — was named the next day as a senior advisor to Grenell.


title: Richard Grenell

text: As a temporary incumbent, Grenell was not subject to Senate confirmation. Although Trump indicated he would be appointing a new U.S. Ambassador to Germany, Grenell kept this position while also serving in his new role, and Grenell indicated he did not expect to take the Director of National Intelligence job on a permanent basis.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On February 28, 2020, Trump announced the nomination of U.S. Rep. John Ratcliffe to the post of Director of National Intelligence. The nomination allowed Grenell to stay on as Acting Director pending Ratcliffe's confirmation. With Ratcliffe's confirmation and installation, Grenell's tenure as Acting Director ended on May 26, 2020. Trump gave Grenell his Cabinet chair upon his resignation, something unusual for an acting Cabinet member, because of his status as the first openly gay U.S. Cabinet official.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell enacted a hiring freeze at ODNI and ordered a review of the agency's personnel and mission. On May 8, he announced a reorganization of ODNI including a consolidated cyber office, and on May 15, he announced organizational changes to the National Counterterrorism Center. Also on May 15, Grenell announced that ODNI would lead election security threat briefings for 2020 presidential candidates, replacing the FBI.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In April 2020, Grenell said the administration was considering policies to reduce intelligence-sharing with countries that criminalize homosexuality. On April 29, 2020, he ordered each intelligence agency to review their policies on handling and sharing information on U.S. citizens.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On April 2 and 15, 2020, Grenell acted to declassify several footnotes in a report on FISA abuse released by DOJ Inspector General Michael E. Horowitz. He also played a role in the release of 57 transcripts of Russia probe interviews by the House Intelligence Committee. On May 12, 2020, Grenell declassified the names of Obama administration officials who unmasked Michael Flynn. A subsequent Justice Department investigation of Obama administration unmasking concluded in October 2020 with no findings of substantive wrongdoing. On May 19, 2020, Grenell declassified an email that Obama's national security advisor Susan Rice sent to herself. On the day his tenure ended, Grenell declassified several documents related to the Russia probe.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In August 2020, the American Center for Law and Justice announced that Grenell had been named Special Advisor for National Security and Foreign Policy for the organization. That month, Grenell became a senior advisor to the Republican National Committee, focusing on outreach to LGBT voters.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell's selection as a foreign policy adviser to the 2012 Romney campaign stirred up two related controversies. One was due to his "snarky" tweets about various public women, and the other because he is openly gay.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Democratic national security leader Susan E. Rice has described Grenell as "one of the most nasty, dishonest people I’ve ever encountered." Veteran journalist Irwin Arieff, who worked more than 20 years at Reuters, including seven years covering the United Nations described Grenell as "the most dishonest and deceptive press person I ever worked with."


title: Richard Grenell

text: A February 20, 2020, White House press release announcing the appointment of Grenell to the post of acting director of National Intelligence, stated that Grenell had "years of experience working with our Intelligence Community in a number of additional positions"; however, this assertion was disputed by others who asserted Grenell had little background in intelligence matters. Republican Senator Susan Collins, one of four co-authors of the legislation creating the ODNI in 2004, said: "I care deeply about that position and believe the person needs experience in the intelligence community, which regrettably Ambassador Grenell does not have."


title: Richard Grenell

text: On the day his tenure began, it was reported that Grenell had not disclosed payments for advocacy work on behalf of Moldovan politician Vladimir Plahotniuc.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On March 10, 2020, Grenell declined to attend a congressional hearing on election security, "citing apprehension about his preparedness to address sensitive subjects that tend to upset the president."


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell claimed in August 2020 that "President Trump is the most pro-gay president in American history. I can prove it." "The Washington Post" fact-checker gave his claim "Four Pinocchios" and described the claim as absurd. The fact-checker noted, "the only items Grenell can cite in support of his supposedly pro-gay record concern Grenell’s own temporary appointment and a policy announced by Grenell that Trump apparently knew little about... That’s pretty thin gruel on which to claim Trump is the most pro-gay president in history, especially when Trump has worked actively to undermine protections for the LGBT community that were enacted under Obama."


title: Richard Grenell

text: On November 2, 2020, the day before election day, Grenell posted an old photo from 2019 to claim that Joe Biden did not wear a mask on a plane during the COVID-19 pandemic. Grenell called Biden a "Washington, DC phony!", suggesting that Biden only wore a mask in public for appearances' sake while not wearing one in private.


title: Richard Grenell

text: On November 5, 2020, Grenell appeared as a speaker of the Trump campaign press conference in Las Vegas, pushing the local effort to overturn the presidential election Donald Trump had lost and announcing a federal lawsuit against "illegal" votes. He made allegations of fraud, claiming that non-residents and people who were long dead had voted in Nevada and accusing the state of covering up these incidents. When asked by journalists to identify himself and present evidence backing up any of his claims, Grenell refused to answer the questions and told reporters: "You're here to take in information". All the post-election lawsuits related to Nevada were later either dropped or dismissed.


title: Richard Grenell

text: A few days later, "LGBTQ Nation" criticized Grenell after he had been tricked on Veterans Day, November 11, 2020, into tweeting well wishes to William Calley, the former U.S. Army officer convicted for the premeditated killings of 22 unarmed civilians in the 1968 Mỹ Lai massacre during the Vietnam War. "The Nation" journalist Ken Klippenstein had tweeted a picture of Calley to Grenell, pretending it was a photo of his own grandfather and requesting public recognition of the elderly veteran. In response, Grenell tweeted, "Thank you for your service, Bill Calley! #VeteransDay". Upon learning that he'd been the victim of a joke, Grenell tweeted, "Duped. Trying to be helpful to people who reach out on Veteran's Day. It's a shame people would do this on a day like today. DC is a sick city."


title: Richard Grenell

text: In June 2020, Richard Grenell was made a senior fellow at the Carnegie Mellon University's Institute for Politics and Strategy in the Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences. He is to work on two projects, a report on the worldwide decriminalization of homosexuality and various campus-engagement projects about the changing face of Europe. Grenell's position as Senior Fellow is for one year and is a non-teaching position.


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell's appointment was controversial at the university. Dr. Kiron Skinner, the founding director of the Institute for Politics and Strategy, defended the hiring decision on the basis of academic freedom and diversity of thought. The university issued a report on Grenell's hiring, titled "Report on the Appointment of Richard Grenell to the Carnegie Mellon University Institute for Politics and Strategy". The report found that Dr. Skinner had followed hiring mandates by consulting with the three deans of Dietrich College, the College of Engineering, and the School of Computer Science. They also found that there had been no other "senior fellow" in the institute's history, and that no other visiting scholars in the university's history had received the title of senior fellow. It also stated that "there are features of the hiring of Mr. Grenell which, to our knowledge, are unique in Carnegie Mellon’s experience, and for which Carnegie Mellon does not currently have policies. As such, the determination of whether appropriate policies and procedures were used cannot be answered." The report's conclusion also stated that "Prof. Skinner followed the small set of existing policies and procedures in place in the hiring of Richard Grenell, and he began his position on July 1."


title: Richard Grenell

text: Grenell is a registered Republican. He has a longtime partner, Matt Lashey. He identifies as a Christian and attends church.


title: Richard Grenell

text: In June 2013, Grenell revealed that he had been diagnosed with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and started chemotherapy. In September 2013, he announced that he was in remission.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (widely abbreviated and cited as TLP) is a book-length philosophical work by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein which deals with the relationship between language and reality and aims to define the limits of science. Wittgenstein wrote the notes for the "Tractatus" while he was a soldier during World War I and completed it during a military leave in the summer of 1918. It was originally published in German in 1921 as "Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung" (Logical-Philosophical Treatise). In 1922 it was published together with an English translation and a Latin title, which was suggested by G. E. Moore as homage to Baruch Spinoza's "Tractatus Theologico-Politicus" (1670).


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" is written in an austere and succinct literary style, containing almost no arguments as such, but consists of altogether 525 declarative statements, which are hierarchically numbered.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" is recognized by philosophers as a significant philosophical work of the twentieth century and was influential chiefly amongst the logical positivist philosophers of the Vienna Circle, such as Rudolf Carnap and Friedrich Waismann and Bertrand Russell's article "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Wittgenstein's later works, notably the posthumously published "Philosophical Investigations", criticised many of his earlier ideas in the "Tractatus".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (widely abbreviated and cited as TLP) is the only book-length philosophical work by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein which was published during his lifetime. The project had a broad goal: to identify the relationship between language and reality and to define the limits of science. The work was originally published in German in 1921 as "Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung" (Logical-Philosophical Treatise). In 1922 it was published together with an English translation; the English text and that book bear the Latin title, which was suggested by G. E. Moore as homage to Baruch Spinoza's "Tractatus Theologico-Politicus" (1670).


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Wittgenstein wrote the notes for the "Tractatus" while he was a soldier during World War I and completed it during a military leave in the summer of 1918.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" employs an austere and succinct literary style. The work contains almost no arguments as such, but rather consists of declarative statements, or passages, that are meant to be self-evident. The statements are hierarchically numbered, with seven basic propositions at the primary level (numbered 1–7), with each sub-level being a comment on or elaboration of the statement at the next higher level (e.g., 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13). In all, the Tractatus comprises 525 numbered statements.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" is recognized by philosophers as a significant philosophical work of the twentieth century and was influential chiefly amongst the logical positivist philosophers of the Vienna Circle, such as Rudolf Carnap and Friedrich Waismann. Bertrand Russell's article "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism" is presented as a working out of ideas that he had learned from Wittgenstein.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: This along with the beginning of two can be taken to be the relevant parts of Wittgenstein's metaphysical view that he will use to support his picture theory of language.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: These sections concern Wittgenstein's view that the sensible, changing world we perceive does not consist of substance but of facts. Proposition two begins with a discussion of objects, form and substance.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: This epistemic notion is further clarified by a discussion of objects or things as metaphysical substances.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: His use of the word "composite" in 2.021 can be taken to mean a combination of form and matter, in the Platonic sense.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The notion of a static unchanging Form and its identity with Substance represents the metaphysical view that has come to be held as an assumption by the vast majority of the Western philosophical tradition since Plato and Aristotle, as it was something they agreed on. is called a form or a substance is not generated." (Z.8 1033b13)


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The opposing view states that unalterable Form does not exist, or at least if there is such a thing, it contains an ever changing, relative substance in a constant state of flux. Although this view was held by Greeks like Heraclitus, it has existed only on the fringe of the Western tradition since then. It is commonly known now only in "Eastern" metaphysical views where the primary concept of substance is Qi, or something similar, which persists through and beyond any given Form. The former view is shown to be held by Wittgenstein in what follows:


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Although Wittgenstein largely disregarded Aristotle (Ray Monk's biography suggests that he never read Aristotle at all) it seems that they shared some anti-Platonist views on the universal/particular issue regarding primary substances. He attacks universals explicitly in his Blue Book.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: "The idea of a general concept being a common property of its particular instances connects up with other primitive, too simple, ideas of the structure of language. It is comparable to the idea that properties are ingredients of the things which have the properties; e.g. that beauty is an ingredient of all beautiful things as alcohol is of beer and wine, and that we therefore could have pure beauty, unadulterated by anything that is beautiful."


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: And Aristotle agrees: "The universal cannot be a substance in the manner in which an essence is ..." (Z.13 1038b17) as he begins to draw the line and drift away from the concepts of universal Forms held by his teacher Plato.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The concept of Essence, taken alone is a potentiality, and its combination with matter is its actuality. "First, the substance of a thing is peculiar to it and does not belong to any other thing" (Z.13 1038b10), i.e. not universal and we know this is essence. This concept of form/substance/essence, which we've now collapsed into one, being presented as potential is also, apparently, held by Wittgenstein:


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Here ends what Wittgenstein deems to be the relevant points of his metaphysical view and he begins in 2.1 to use said view to support his Picture Theory of Language.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: "The Tractatus's notion of substance is the modal analogue of Immanuel Kant's temporal notion. Whereas for Kant, substance is that which 'persists' (i.e., exists at all times), for Wittgenstein it is that which, figuratively speaking, 'persists' through a 'space' of possible worlds."


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Whether the Aristotelian notions of substance came to Wittgenstein via Kant, or via Bertrand Russell, or even whether Wittgenstein arrived at his notions intuitively, one cannot but see them.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The further thesis of 2. and 3. and their subsidiary propositions is Wittgenstein's "picture theory" of language. This can be summed up as follows:


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The 4s are significant as they contain some of Wittgenstein's most explicit statements concerning the nature of philosophy and the distinction between what can be said and what can only be shown. It is here, for instance, that he first distinguishes between material and grammatical propositions, noting:


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: A philosophical treatise attempts to "say" something where nothing can properly be said. It is predicated upon the idea that philosophy should be pursued in a way analogous to the natural sciences; that philosophers are looking to construct true theories. This sense of philosophy does not coincide with Wittgenstein's conception of philosophy.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Wittgenstein is to be credited with the popularization of truth tables (4.31) and truth conditions (4.431) which now constitute the standard semantic analysis of first-order sentential logic. The philosophical significance of such a method for Wittgenstein was that it alleviated a confusion, namely the idea that logical inferences are justified by rules. If an argument form is valid, the conjunction of the premises will be logically equivalent to the conclusion and this can be clearly seen in a truth table; it is "displayed". The concept of tautology is thus central to Wittgenstein's Tractarian account of logical consequence, which is strictly deductive.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: At the beginning of Proposition 6, Wittgenstein postulates the essential form of all sentences. He uses the notation formula_1, where


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Proposition 6 says that any logical sentence can be derived from a series of NOR operations on the totality of atomic propositions. Wittgenstein drew from Henry M. Sheffer's logical theorem making that statement in the context of the propositional calculus. Wittgenstein's N-operator is a broader infinitary analogue of the Sheffer stroke, which applied to a set of propositions produces a proposition that is equivalent to the denial of every member of that set. Wittgenstein shows that this operator can cope with the whole of predicate logic with identity, defining the quantifiers at 5.52, and showing how identity would then be handled at 5.53-5.532.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The subsidiaries of 6. contain more philosophical reflections on logic, connecting to ideas of knowledge, thought, and the "a priori" and transcendental. The final passages argue that logic and mathematics express only tautologies and are transcendental, i.e. they lie outside of the metaphysical subject's world. In turn, a logically "ideal" language cannot supply meaning, it can only reflect the world, and so, sentences in a logical language cannot remain meaningful if they are not merely reflections of the facts.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: From Propositions 6.4-6.54, the Tractatus shifts its focus from primarily logical considerations to what may be considered more traditionally philosophical foci (God, ethics, meta-ethics, death, the will) and, less traditionally along with these, the mystical. The philosophy of language presented in the Tractatus attempts to demonstrate just what the limits of language are- to delineate precisely what can and cannot be sensically said. Among the sensibly sayable for Wittgenstein are the propositions of natural science, and to the nonsensical, or unsayable, those subjects associated with philosophy traditionally- ethics and metaphysics, for instance. Curiously, on this score, the penultimate proposition of the Tractatus, proposition 6.54, states that once one understands the propositions of the Tractatus, he will recognize that they are senseless, and that they must be thrown away. Proposition 6.54, then, presents a difficult interpretative problem. If the so-called ‘picture theory’ of meaning is correct, and it is impossible to represent logical form, then the theory, by trying to say something about how language and the world must be for there to be meaning, is self-undermining. This is to say that the ‘picture theory’ of meaning itself requires that something be said about the logical form sentences must share with reality for meaning to be possible. This requires doing precisely what the 'picture theory' of meaning precludes. It would appear, then, that the metaphysics and the philosophy of language endorsed by the Tractatus give rise to a paradox: for the Tractatus to be true, it will necessarily have to be nonsense by self-application; but for this self-application to render the propositions of the Tractatus nonsense (in the Tractarian sense), then the Tractatus must be true.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: There are three primarily dialectical approaches to solving this paradox the traditionalist, or Ineffable-Truths View; 2) the resolute, ‘new Wittgenstein’, or Not-All-Nonsense View; 3) the No-Truths-At-All View. The traditionalist approach to resolving this paradox is to hold that Wittgenstein accepted that philosophical statements could not be made, but that nevertheless, by appealing to the distinction between saying and showing, that these truths can be communicated by showing. On the resolute reading, some of the propositions of the Tractatus are withheld from self-application, they are not themselves nonsense, but point out the nonsensical nature of the Tractatus. This view often appeals to the so-called ‘frame’ of the Tractatus, comprising the preface and propositions 6.54. The No-Truths-At-All View states that Wittgenstein held the propositions of the Tractatus to be ambiguously both true and nonsensical, at once. While the propositions could not be, by self-application of the attendant philosophy of the Tractatus, true (or even sensical), it was only the philosophy of the Tractatus itself that could render them so. This is presumably what made Wittgenstein compelled to accept the philosophy of the Tractatus as specially having solved the problems of philosophy. It is the philosophy of the Tractatus, alone, that can solve the problems. Indeed, the philosophy of the Tractatus is for Wittgenstein, on this view, problematic only when applied to itself.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: At the end of the text Wittgenstein uses an analogy from Arthur Schopenhauer and compares the book to a ladder that must be thrown away after it has been climbed.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: As the last line in the book, proposition 7 has no supplementary propositions. It ends the book with the proposition "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent." ("„Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darüber muss man schweigen."")


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: A prominent view set out in the "Tractatus" is the picture theory, sometimes called the picture theory of language. The picture theory is a proposed explanation of the capacity of language and thought to represent the world. Although something need not be a proposition to represent something in the world, Wittgenstein was largely concerned with the way propositions function as representations.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: According to the theory, propositions can "picture" the world as being a certain way, and thus accurately represent it either truly or falsely. If someone thinks the proposition, "There is a tree in the yard," then that proposition accurately pictures the world if and only if there is a tree in the yard. One aspect of pictures which Wittgenstein finds particularly illuminating in comparison with language is the fact that we can directly see in the picture what situation it depicts without knowing if the situation actually obtains. This allows Wittgenstein to explain how false propositions can have meaning (a problem which Russell struggled with for many years): just as we can see directly from the picture the situation which it depicts without knowing if it in fact obtains, analogously, when we understand a proposition we grasp its truth conditions or its sense, that is, we know what the world must be like if it is true, without knowing if it is in fact true (TLP 4.024, 4.431).


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: It is believed that Wittgenstein was inspired for this theory by the way that traffic courts in Paris reenact automobile accidents. A toy car is a representation of a real car, a toy truck is a representation of a real truck, and dolls are representations of people. In order to convey to a judge what happened in an automobile accident, someone in the courtroom might place the toy cars in a position like the position the real cars were in, and move them in the ways that the real cars moved. In this way, the elements of the picture (the toy cars) are in spatial relation to one another, and this relation itself pictures the spatial relation between the real cars in the automobile accident.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Pictures have what Wittgenstein calls "Form der Abbildung" or pictorial form, which they share with what they depict. This means that all the logically possible arrangements of the pictorial elements in the picture correspond to the possibilities of arranging the things which they depict in reality. Thus if the model for car A stands to the left of the model for car B, it depicts that the cars in the world stand in the same way relative to each other. This picturing relation, Wittgenstein believed, was our key to understanding the relationship a proposition holds to the world. Although language differs from pictures in lacking direct pictorial mode of representation (e.g., it doesn't use colors and shapes to represent colors and shapes), still Wittgenstein believed that propositions are "logical pictures" of the world by virtue of sharing logical form with the reality which they represent (TLP 2.18-2.2). And that he thought, explains how we can understand a proposition without its meaning having been explained to us (TLP 4.02), we can directly see in the proposition what it represents as we see in the picture the situation which it depicts just by virtue of knowing its method of depiction: propositions "show" their sense (TLP 4.022).


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: However, Wittgenstein claimed that pictures cannot represent their "own" logical form, they cannot "say" what they have in common with reality but can only "show" it (TLP 4.12-4.121). If representation consist in depicting an arrangement of elements in logical space, then logical space itself can't be depicted since it is itself not an arrangement of "anything"; rather logical form is a feature of an arrangement of objects and thus it can be properly expressed (that is depicted) in language by an analogous arrangement of the relevant signs in sentences (which contain the same possibilities of combination as prescribed by logical syntax), hence logical form can only be shown by presenting the logical relations between different sentences.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Wittgenstein's conception of representation as picturing also allows him to derive two striking claims: that no proposition can be known "a priori" - there are no apriori truths (TLP 3.05), and that there is only "logical" necessity (TLP 6.37). Since all propositions, by virtue of being pictures, have sense independently of anything being the case in reality, we cannot see from the proposition alone whether it is true (as would be the case if it could be known apriori), but we must compare it to reality in order to know that it's true (TLP 4.031 "In the proposition a state of affairs is, as it were, put together for the sake of experiment."). And for similar reasons, no proposition is necessarily true except in the limiting case of tautologies, which Wittgenstein say lack sense (TLP 4.461). If a proposition pictures a state of affairs in virtue of being a picture in logical space, then a non-logical or metaphysical "necessary truth" would be a state of affairs which is satisfied by any possible arrangement of objects (since it is true for any possible state of affairs), but this means that the would-be necessary proposition would not depict anything as "being so" but will be true no matter what the world is actually like; but if that's the case, then the proposition cannot say anything about the world or describe any fact in it - it would not be correlated with any particular state of affairs, just like a tautology (TLP 6.37).


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Although Wittgenstein did not use the term himself, his metaphysical view throughout the "Tractatus" is commonly referred to as logical atomism. While his logical atomism resembles that of Bertrand Russell, the two views are not strictly the same.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Russell's theory of descriptions is a way of logically analyzing sentences containing definite descriptions without presupposing the existence of an object satisfying the description. According to the theory, a statement like "There is a man to my left" should be analyzed into: "There is some "x" such that "x" is a man and "x" is to my left, and for any "y", if "y" is a man and "y" is to my left, "y" is identical to "x"". If the statement is true, "x" refers to the man to my left.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Whereas Russell believed the names (like "x") in his theory should refer to things we can know directly by virtue of acquaintance, Wittgenstein didn't believe that there are any epistemic constraints on logical analyses: the simple objects are whatever is contained in the elementary propositions which can't be logically analyzed any further.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: By "objects", Wittgenstein did not mean physical objects in the world, but the absolute base of logical analysis, that can be combined but not divided (TLP 2.02–2.0201). According to Wittgenstein's logico-atomistic metaphysical system, objects each have a "nature", which is their capacity to combine with other objects. When combined, objects form "states of affairs". A state of affairs that obtains is a "fact". Facts make up the entirety of the world; they are logically independent of one another, as are states of affairs. That is, the existence of one state of affairs (or fact) does not allow us to infer whether another state of affairs (or fact) exists or does not exist.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Within states of affairs, objects are in particular relations to one another. This is analogous to the spatial relations between toy cars discussed above. The structure of states of affairs comes from the arrangement of their constituent objects (TLP 2.032), and such arrangement is essential to their intelligibility, just as the toy cars must be arranged in a certain way in order to picture the automobile accident.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: A fact might be thought of as the obtaining state of affairs that Madison is in Wisconsin, and a possible (but not obtaining) state of affairs might be Madison's being in Utah. These states of affairs are made up of certain arrangements of objects (TLP 2.023). However, Wittgenstein does not specify what objects are. Madison, Wisconsin, and Utah cannot be atomic objects: they are themselves composed of numerous facts. Instead, Wittgenstein believed objects to be the things in the world that would correlate to the smallest parts of a logically analyzed language, such as names like "x". Our language is not sufficiently (i.e., not completely) analyzed for such a correlation, so one cannot "say" what an object is. We can, however, talk about them as "indestructible" and "common to all possible worlds". Wittgenstein believed that the philosopher's job is to discover the structure of language through analysis.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Anthony Kenny provides a useful analogy for understanding Wittgenstein's logical atomism: a slightly modified game of chess. Just like objects in states of affairs, the chess pieces alone do not constitute the gametheir arrangements, together with the pieces (objects) themselves, determine the state of affairs.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Through Kenny's chess analogy, we can see the relationship between Wittgenstein's logical atomism and his picture theory of representation. For the sake of this analogy, the chess pieces are objects, they and their positions constitute states of affairs and therefore facts, and the totality of facts is the entire particular game of chess.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: We can communicate such a game of chess in the exact way that Wittgenstein says a proposition represents the world. We might say "WR/KR1" to communicate a white rook's being on the square commonly labeled as king's rook 1. Or, to be more thorough, we might make such a report for every piece's position.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The logical form of our reports must be the same logical form of the chess pieces and their arrangement on the board in order to be meaningful. Our communication about the chess game must have as many possibilities for constituents and their arrangement as the game itself. Kenny points out that such logical form need not strictly resemble the chess game. The logical form can be had by the bouncing of a ball (for example, twenty bounces might communicate a white rook's being on the king's rook 1 square). One can bounce a ball as many times as one wishes, which means that the ball's bouncing has "logical multiplicity", and can therefore share the logical form of the game. A motionless ball cannot communicate this same information, as it does not have logical multiplicity.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: According to traditional reading of the Tractatus, Wittgenstein's views about logic and language led him to believe that some features of language and reality cannot be expressed in senseful language but only "shown" by the form of certain expressions. Thus for example, according to the picture theory, when a proposition is thought or expressed, the proposition represents reality (truly or falsely) by virtue of sharing some features with that reality in common. However, those features themselves are something Wittgenstein claimed we could not "say" anything about, because we cannot describe the relationship that pictures bear to what they depict, but only "show" it via fact-stating propositions (TLP 4.121). Thus we cannot say "that" there is a correspondence between language and reality; the correspondence itself can only be "shown", since our language is not capable of describing its own logical structure.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: However, on the more recent "resolute" interpretation of the Tractatus (see below), the remarks on "showing" were not in fact an attempt by Wittgenstein to gesture at the existence of some ineffable features of language or reality, but rather, as Cora Diamond and James Conant have argued, the distinction was meant to draw a sharp contrast between logic and descriptive discourse. On their reading, Wittgenstein indeed meant that some things are shown when we reflect on the logic of our language, but "what" is shown is not "that" something is the case, as if we could somehow think it (and thus understand what Wittgenstein tries to show us) but for some reason we just couldn't say it. As Diamond and Conant explain:


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Similarly, Michael Kremer suggested that Wittgenstein's distinction between saying and showing could be compared with Gilbert Ryle's famous distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how". Just as practical knowledge or skill (such as riding a bike) is not reducible to propositional knowledge according to Ryle, Wittgenstein also thought that the mastery of the logic of our language is a unique practical skill that does not involve any sort of propositional "knowing that", but rather is reflected in our ability to operate with senseful sentences and grasping their internal logical relations.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: At the time of its publication in 1921, Wittgenstein concluded that the "Tractatus" had resolved all philosophical problems, leaving one free to focus on what really matters - ethics, faith, music and so on. He would later recant this view, beginning in 1945, leading him to begin work on what would ultimately become the "Philosophical Investigations".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The book was translated into English in 1922 by C. K. Ogden with help from the teenaged Cambridge mathematician and philosopher Frank P. Ramsey. Ramsey later visited Wittgenstein in Austria. Translation issues make the concepts hard to pinpoint, especially given Wittgenstein's usage of terms and difficulty in translating ideas into words.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" caught the attention of the philosophers of the Vienna Circle (1921–1933), especially Rudolf Carnap and Moritz Schlick. The group spent many months working through the text out loud, line by line. Schlick eventually convinced Wittgenstein to meet with members of the circle to discuss the "Tractatus" when he returned to Vienna (he was then working as an architect). Although the Vienna Circle's logical positivists appreciated the "Tractatus", they argued that the last few passages, including Proposition 7, are confused. Carnap hailed the book as containing important insights, but encouraged people to ignore the concluding sentences. Wittgenstein responded to Schlick, commenting: "I cannot imagine that Carnap should have so completely misunderstood the last sentences of the book and hence the fundamental conception of the entire book."


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: A more recent interpretation comes from The New Wittgenstein family of interpretations under development since 2000. This so-called "resolute reading" is controversial and much debated. The main contention of such readings is that Wittgenstein in the "Tractatus" does not provide a theoretical account of language that relegates ethics and philosophy to a mystical realm of the unsayable. Rather, the book has a therapeutic aim. By working through the propositions of the book the reader comes to realize that language is perfectly suited to all our needs, and that philosophy rests on a confused relation to the logic of our language. The confusion that the "Tractatus" seeks to dispel is not a confused theory, such that a correct theory would be a proper way to clear the confusion, rather the need of any such theory is confused. The method of the "Tractatus" is to make the reader aware of the logic of our language as we are already familiar with it, and the effect of thereby dispelling the need for a theoretical account of the logic of our language spreads to all other areas of philosophy. Thereby the confusion involved in putting forward e.g. ethical and metaphysical theories is cleared in the same "coup".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Wittgenstein would not meet the Vienna Circle proper, but only a few of its members, including Schlick, Carnap, and Waissman. Often, though, he refused to discuss philosophy, and would insist on giving the meetings over to reciting the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore with his chair turned to the wall. He largely broke off formal relations even with these members of the circle after coming to believe Carnap had used some of his ideas without permission.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Alfred Korzybski credits Wittgenstein as an influence in his book, "Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: The "Tractatus" was the theme of a 1992 film by the Hungarian filmmaker Péter Forgács. The 32-minute production, named "Wittgenstein Tractatus", features citations from the "Tractatus" and other works by Wittgenstein.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: In 1989 the Finnish artist M. A. Numminen released a black vinyl album, "The Tractatus Suite", consisting of extracts from the "Tractatus" set to music, on the Forward! label (GN-95). The tracks were [T. 1] "The World is...", [T. 2] "In order to tell", [T. 4] "A thought is...", [T. 5] "A proposition is...", [T. 6] "The general form of a truth-function", and [T. 7] "Wovon man nicht sprechen kann". It was recorded at Finnvox Studios, Helsinki between February and June 1989. The "lyrics" were provided in German, English, Esperanto, French, Finnish and Swedish. The music was reissued as a CD in 2003, "M.A. Numminen sings Wittgenstein".


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: Both English translations of the "Tractatus", as well as the first publication in German from 1921, include an introduction by Bertrand Russell. Wittgenstein revised the Ogden translation.


title: Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus

text: A manuscript of an early version of the "Tractatus" was discovered in Vienna in 1965 by Georg Henrik von Wright, who named it the "Prototractatus" and provided a historical introduction to a published facsimile with English translation:


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Delia Juanita Warrick (September 25, 1942 – October 18, 2008), known professionally as Dee Dee Warwick, was an American soul singer. Born in Newark, New Jersey, she was the sister of singer Dionne Warwick, the niece of Cissy Houston, and a first cousin of singers Whitney Houston and Leontyne Price.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Warwick was born in East Orange, New Jersey, to Mancel Warrick (1911–1977), who began his career as a Pullman porter and subsequently became a chef, a gospel record promoter for Chess Records and later a Certified Public Accountant; and Lee Drinkard-Warrick (1920–2005), manager of The Drinkard Singers. Warwick had one sister, Dionne Warwick, and a brother, Mancel Jr, who was killed in an accident in 1968 at the age of 21.. She was of African-American, Native American, Brazilian and Dutch descent. Warwick graduated from East Orange High School in 1960.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Dee Dee Warwick sang with her sister Dionne Warwick and their aunt Cissy Houston in the New Hope Baptist Church Choir in Newark, New Jersey: eventually the three women formed the gospel trio the Gospelaires, who often performed with The Drinkard Singers, Warwick being a member of both groups.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: At a performance by the Gospelaires with the Drinkard Singers at the Apollo Theater in 1959, the Warwick sisters were recruited by a record producer for session work and Dionne and Dee Dee Warwick, along with Doris Troy, subsequently became a prolific New York City area session singing team.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Dee Dee Warwick began to dabble in a solo career in 1963 cutting what is reportedly the earliest version of "You're No Good" for Jubilee Records, produced by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, who later recorded Warwick on their own Tiger label with the 1964 single "Don't Think My Baby's Coming Back". In 1964 Warwick recorded a version of "I (Who Have Nothing)" for a tiny Buffalo, NY label (Hurd) - although the song's lyric was written by Leiber and Stoller, the duo did not participate in Warwick's recording - and Warwick also recorded as a member of Allison Gary and the Burners (as did Cissy Houston) with a release on Royo entitled "Darling".


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Warwick made her network TV debut performing the gospel song "Children, Go Where I Send Thee" with her sister Dionne on NBC's Hullabaloo, which aired on March 30, 1965. Warwick also performed on Shivaree, which aired on July 17, 1965; she sang "We're Doing Fine" and "I Want to Be with You".


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: In 1965, Warwick signed with Mercury Records, where she recorded with producer Ed Townsend for their subsidiary Blue Rock label, reaching the R&B Top 30 with "We're Doing Fine". It was on the Mercury label in 1966, that she had her biggest hit with "I Want to Be with You" from the Broadway show "Golden Boy", a number 9 R&B hit, which just missed the pop Top 40 at number 41 (Nancy Wilson had reached number 54 with her version entitled "I Wanna Be with You" in 1964). The follow-up single was the original version of "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me" which, peaking at number 13 R&B and number 88 Pop, was not Warwick's biggest hit, but became her best known number by virtue of its later success as a duet between Diana Ross and The Supremes and The Temptations.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Warwick continued to record for Mercury through the late 1960s. Although her occasional success in the R&B field—notably the 1969 Ed Townsend production of "Foolish Fool"—was enough for the label to wish to re-sign her in 1970, she signed with Atco at the invitation of Atlantic Records president Jerry Wexler himself, Wexler having admired Warwick's early session work.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Warwick made her first recordings for Atco in February 1970, cutting four tunes with Townsend. In an early indication of the disarray that Warwick's career experienced at Atlantic, these tracks were shelved and she was sent to Criteria Studios in Miami in April to work with producer Dave Crawford and fast-emerging studio band, The Dixie Flyers. The resultant "Turning Around" album yielded a Top Ten R&B hit with "She Didn't Know", but Warwick never had another album release or single in the R&B Top 20.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: In October, she cut 10 tracks at Muscle Shoals, again with Crawford producing (along with Brad Shapiro). Only three singles were released with one, a remake of "Suspicious Minds", becoming Warwick's penultimate R&B hit in 1971. That summer, Crawford and Shapiro produced an eight-track session for Warwick at Pac-Three studios in Detroit. One track, "Everybody's Got to Believe in Something", was issued as a single - Warwick's last release on Atco despite two final sessions for the label in early 1972. Reflecting on her unrewarding Atco tenure, Warwick opined: "The problem was simply, that the company had a lot of other big female acts - like Aretha [Franklin] and Roberta [Flack] - and you get into a situation, where you don't get the right kind of material or production or promotion..."


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Warwick returned to Mercury Records in 1973, but the following year she moved to Private Stock, where the 1975 single "Get Out of My Life" became her final charting song (number 73, R&B). That same year, she recorded for RCA Victor as DeDe Schwartz. After several years away from the recording studio, Warwick made her last recordings in the mid-1980s, releasing two albums: "Dee Dee" (Heritage Records, 1983), and "Call Me" (Sutra Records, 1984). In 1994, After living in Los Angeles for a number of years, she became a resident of Georgia.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Dee Dee Warwick received a Pioneer Award from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation in 1999. Recordings from both her Mercury and Atco years are available on CD. In late 2006, she returned to success singing background for her sister Dionne in concert, and was also part of the "Family First" song in the Tyler Perry film "Daddy's Little Girls" and its soundtrack album.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: In January 2008, Dee Dee was featured in the title song of Dionne's gospel album "Why We Sing". In February 2008, she sang background vocals for Dionne's one-woman show "My Music and Me" in Europe.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: Dee Dee struggled with diabetes for many years, and she was in failing health for some time. Her sister was with her when she died on October 18, 2008, in a nursing home in Essex County, New Jersey, aged 66.


title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: The 2018 documentary film "Whitney," directed by Kevin Macdonald, included allegations that Warwick had sexually molested Whitney Houston and her brother Gary, when Whitney was "at a young age" and Gary was around eight years old, while Warwick was in her mid to late 20s. Warwick's sister Dionne and Whitney Houston's mother Cissy both made statements wherein they expressed doubt regarding the truthfulness of the allegations. According to Whitney's friend, Robyn Crawford, in her book, "A Song for You", she claimed Houston adored Warwick, even calling her "Auntie Dee Dee", although Dee Dee was actually her cousin. She also refuted the allegations made against Warwick saying if she had abused her, she would have heard it from Whitney herself.


title: Karen Duffy

text: Karen "Duff" Duffy (born May 23, 1961) is an American writer, model, television personality, and actress. She is a certified hospital chaplain, a former Coney Island Mermaid Queen, and one of "People" Magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People" in 1993. In 1995, Duffy was diagnosed with a rare form of the disease sarcoidosis called neurosarcoidosis. Since then, she's written two books about her experience living with chronic pain and is a member of the Alliance for the Ethical Treatment of Pain Patients.


title: Karen Duffy

text: Duffy was raised Catholic, and is of Irish descent. She attended Park Ridge High School in Park Ridge, New Jersey, graduating in 1979. She received a bachelor's degree in recreational therapy from the University of Colorado Boulder.


title: Karen Duffy

text: By 1989, Duffy was modeling and appearing in television commercials. She was a VJ for MTV in the early 1990s, under the name "Duff." She had small roles in a handful of films including "Dumb and Dumber" and "Blank Check", and by 1995 was working as a correspondent for documentary filmmaker Michael Moore on his television shows "TV Nation" and "The Awful Truth". She also was a Revlon "Charlie Girl" as well as the face of Almay Cosmetics, and co-hosted the pay-per-view television event, "Elvis: The Tribute" from the Memphis Pyramid in 1994 with Kris Kristofferson.


title: Karen Duffy

text: In 2006, Duffy hosted "House of Tiny Terrors" on TLC. On July 7, 2007, she appeared on the Live Earth telecast on the Bravo Channel as a co-host at Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, New Jersey.


title: Karen Duffy

text: In 2008, Duffy began working with New York City's NYC Media on a series of emergency preparedness videos. The videos, which mimic the style of the network TV show "Secrets of New York", help raise awareness of the perils of natural disasters and preventative actions families should take to prepare for them.


title: Karen Duffy

text: In 1995, Duffy was diagnosed with a rare form of the disease sarcoidosis called neurosarcoidosis. Her brain and spinal cord were affected, leaving her partially paralyzed.


title: Karen Duffy

text: Duffy is the author of the New York Times bestselling memoir "Model Patient: My Life as an Incurable Wise-Ass". In her latest book, "Backbone: Living With Chronic Pain Without Turning Into One", she describes her ongoing incurable disease and constant pain, using humor and acceptance of her condition to cope. She was inspired to write the second book by Lord Byron, who wrote "Always laugh when you can, it is cheap medicine."


title: Karen Duffy

text: Her articles on a wide range of subjects have appeared in numerous media outlets, including "The New York Times" and "Oprah Magazine". She spoke at the 2018 US Pain Foundation annual gala.


title: Karen Duffy

text: She married John Lambros in 1997. They have one son, Jack "Lefty" Lambros, who was born via surrogate in 2003.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. Later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form (e.g. distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage). Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. The development of transistor technology and then the integrated circuit chip led to a series of breakthroughs, starting with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, causing digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) then enabled semiconductor memory and the microprocessor, leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer (PC), in the 1970s. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then mobile computers (smartphones and tablets) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Eswatini and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon's fibula. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example. The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c. 2700–2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included the astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world (c. 150–100 BC). In Roman Egypt, Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart. Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (1094) during the Song dynasty. The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Ismail al-Jazari in 1206, was the first programmable analog computer. Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his 'Napier's bones', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible. Edmund Gunter built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two Gunter rules, held together with the hands. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam. A fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented a mechanical calculator. He built twenty of these machines (called Pascal's calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years. Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums. A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as the "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division. Leibniz once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz also described the binary numeral system, a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including Charles Babbage's machines of the 1822 and even ENIAC of 1945) were based on the decimal system.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer. It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division. It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In 1804, French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards. The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by Basile Bouchon. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In the late 1880s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be read by a machine. To process these punched cards, he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machine. His machines used electromechanical relays and counters. Hollerith's method was used in the 1890 United States Census. That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of IBM.


title: History of computing hardware

text: By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals. Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels. When the United States instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers. Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Leslie Comrie's articles on punched-card methods and W. J. Eckert's publication of "Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation" in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and unit record machines. Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as a vast number of administrative uses. The Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University, performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing.


title: History of computing hardware

text: By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations. By the 1920s, British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson's interest in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on Earth are needed to adequately model its weather using the Navier–Stokes equations.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Companies like Friden, Marchant Calculator and Monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. In 1948, the Curta was introduced by Austrian inventor Curt Herzstark. It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner and Thomas' Arithmometer.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The world's first "all-electronic desktop" calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITA, released in 1961. It used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a CRT, and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN).


title: History of computing hardware

text: Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.


title: History of computing hardware

text: There was to be a store, or memory, capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each (ca. 16.7 kB). An arithmetical unit, called the "mill", would be able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots. Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side. (Later drawings depict a regularized grid layout.) Like the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely on its own internal procedures, roughly equivalent to microcode in modern CPUs, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called "barrels", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The machine was about a century ahead of its time. However, the project was slowed by various problems including disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand—this was a major problem for a machine with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Ada Lovelace translated and added notes to the ""Sketch of the Analytical Engine"" by Luigi Federico Menabrea. This appears to be the first published description of programming, so Ada Lovelace is widely regarded as the first computer programmer.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Following Babbage, although at first unaware of his earlier work, was Percy Ludgate, a clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in 1909. Two other inventors, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Vannevar Bush, also did follow on research based on Babbage's work. In his "Essays on Automatics" (1913) Torres y Quevedo designed a Babbage type of calculating machine that used electromechanical parts which included floating-point number representations and built an early prototype in 1920. Bush's paper "Instrumental Analysis" (1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In the first half of the 20th century, analog computers were considered by many to be the future of computing. These devices used the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved, in contrast to digital computers that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output.


title: History of computing hardware

text: An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first fire-control systems for long range ship gunlaying. When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given the flight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for Coriolis effect, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to the turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer Arthur Pollen developed the first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (called at the time the Argo Clock). It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I. The alternative Dreyer Table fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy of aerial bombing. Drift Sight was the first such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval Air Service; it measured the wind speed from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight, and reached a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV bomb sight (RAF Bomber Command) and the Norden (United States Army Air Forces).


title: History of computing hardware

text: The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, where the ENIAC was built.


title: History of computing hardware

text: A fully electronic analog computer was built by Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at Peenemünde Army Research Center.


title: History of computing hardware

text: By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, "On Computable Numbers". Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the "Entscheidungsproblem" by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.


title: History of computing hardware

text: He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The Z2 was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer, and was created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1940. It was an improvement on his earlier Z1; although it used the same mechanical memory, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical relay circuits.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called bombes were built by British cryptologists to help decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages during World War II. The bombe's initial design was created in 1939 at the UK Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park by Alan Turing, with an important refinement devised in 1940 by Gordon Welchman. The engineering design and construction was the work of Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologist Marian Rejewski, and known as the "cryptologic bomb" (Polish: ""bomba kryptologiczna"").


title: History of computing hardware

text: In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22-bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code and data were stored on punched film. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was proven to have been a Turing-complete machine in 1998 by Raúl Rojas. In two 1936 patent applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the von Neumann architecture, first implemented in 1948 in America in the electromechanical IBM SSEC and in Britain in the fully electronic Manchester Baby.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of Allied bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories. It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to the Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The term digital was first suggested by George Robert Stibitz and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an analog computer), but to encode it. In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which became the first binary adder. Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes three-valued logic is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use binary logic, but many early machines were decimal computers. In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal or BCD, bi-quinary, excess-3, and two-out-of-five code.


title: History of computing hardware

text: The mathematical basis of digital computing is Boolean algebra, developed by the British mathematician George Boole in his work "The Laws of Thought", published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce, and was first presented systematically by Ernst Schröder and A. N. Whitehead. In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In the 1930s and working independently, American electronic engineer Claude Shannon and Soviet logician Victor Shestakov both showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of Boolean logic and certain electrical circuits, now called logic gates, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers. They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of Boolean algebra. This thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design. In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the Z3, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Colossus computers, and the ENIAC were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926. While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.


title: History of computing hardware

text: In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer. This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display). John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first binary electronic digital calculating device. This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers.


title: History of computing hardware

text: Computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers.