title: The Southern Vampire Mysteries

text: Telepaths are rarely encountered in the supernatural community. It is revealed in "Dead Reckoning" that Sookie's power of telepathy was granted to her family by the half-demon Desmond Cataliades. He was great friends with Sookie's half-fairy grandfather Fintan, and so he became a sponsor to Fintan's descendants and was required to give them a gift. He had the power of telepathy and thought it a great gift to Fintan's family, as it would give them an edge over their fellow humans to know what other people were thinking and planning. Fintan and Adele drank Cataliades' blood (although Adele was tricked into it, as Cataliades mixed it with her wine), and from then on Fintan and Adele passed on to most of their descendants the power of telepathy. However, Cataliades revealed, only the descendants who, like Sookie's grandmother Adele, had the essential spark would inherit the telepathy. When asked what the essential spark was, Cataliades responded, "It isn't easy to pin down in terms of your DNA. It's an openness to the other world. Some humans literally can't believe there are creatures in another world besides ours, creatures who have feelings and rights and beliefs and deserve to live their own lives. Humans who are born with the essential spark are born to experience or perform something wonderful, something amazing." Although Adele had the essential spark Fintan did not want her to have the gift. When each Stackhouse child was born Cataliades came and inspected them to see if they had the gift.


title: The Southern Vampire Mysteries

text: In The Southern Vampire Mysteries canon, a witch practices magic rituals, drawing from a power most people never tap into that can be focused for various effects through the use of rituals and spells. A Wiccan, on the other hand, practices a pagan religion that follows the ways of the Mother. Practitioners can be both Wiccan and a witch, or more one or the other. Witches and Wiccans first appear in the fourth book, "Dead to the World." Sookie's colleague and fellow barmaid at Merlotte's, Holly, is a Wiccan practitioner, but not a witch. In later books, Sookie learns more about witchcraft and befriends Amelia Broadway, a true witch, in New Orleans.


title: The Southern Vampire Mysteries

text: The HBO series "True Blood" is loosely based on the Sookie Stackhouse novels. Sookie is portrayed by Academy Award–winning actress Anna Paquin.


title: Argument from authority

text: An argument from authority ("argumentum ab auctoritate"), also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument. Some consider that it is used in a cogent form if all sides of a discussion agree on the reliability of the authority in the given context, and others consider it to be a fallacy to cite the views of an authority on the discussed topic as a means of supporting an argument.


title: Argument from authority

text: Historically, opinion on the appeal to authority has been divided: it is listed as a non-fallacious argument as often as a fallacious argument in various sources, as some hold that it can be a strong or at least valid defeasible argument and others that it is weak or an outright fallacy.


title: Argument from authority

text: Scientific knowledge is best established by evidence and experiment rather than argued through authority as authority has no place in science. Carl Sagan wrote of arguments from authority: "One of the great commandments of science is, 'Mistrust arguments from authority.' ... Too many such arguments have proved too painfully wrong. Authorities must prove their contentions like everybody else." However, countering this it has been argued that science is fundamentally dependent on arguments from authority to progress because "they allow science to avoid forever revisiting the same ground".


title: Argument from authority

text: One example of the use of the appeal to authority in science dates to 1923, when leading American zoologist Theophilus Painter declared, based on poor data and conflicting observations he had made, that humans had 24 pairs of chromosomes. From the 1920s until 1956, scientists propagated this "fact" based on Painter's authority, despite subsequent counts totaling the correct number of 23. Even textbooks with photos showing 23 pairs incorrectly declared the number to be 24 based on the authority of the then-consensus of 24 pairs.


title: Argument from authority

text: This seemingly established number generated confirmation bias among researchers, and "most cytologists, expecting to detect Painter's number, virtually always did so". Painter's "influence was so great that many scientists preferred to believe his count over the actual evidence", and scientists who obtained the accurate number modified or discarded their data to agree with Painter's count.


title: Argument from authority

text: This fallacy is used when a person appeals to a false authority as evidence for a claim. These fallacious arguments from authority are the result of citing a non-authority as an authority. The philosophers Irving Copi and Carl Cohen characterized it as a fallacy "when the appeal is made to parties having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter at hand". Copi stated: "In attempting to make up one's mind on a difficult and complicated question, one may seek to be guided by the judgment of an acknowledged expert who has studied the matter thoroughly. [. . .] This method of argument is in many cases perfectly legitimate. [ . . . ] But when an authority is appealed to for testimony in matters outside the province of that authority's special field, the appeal commits the fallacy of "argumentum ad verecundiam" ".


title: Argument from authority

text: In other words, one could say that the premise of the argument does not hold in such a case, rendering the reasoning fallacious. An example of the fallacy of appealing to an authority in an unrelated field would be citing Albert Einstein as an authority for a determination on religion when his primary expertise was in physics.


title: Argument from authority

text: It is also a fallacious "ad hominem" argument to argue that a person presenting statements lacks authority and thus their arguments do not need to be considered. As appeals to a perceived lack of authority, these types of argument are fallacious for much the same reasons as an appeal to authority.


title: Argument from authority

text: Other related fallacious arguments assume that a person without status or authority is inherently reliable. For instance, the appeal to poverty is the fallacy of thinking that someone is more likely to be correct because they are poor. When an argument holds that a conclusion is likely to be true precisely because the one who holds or is presenting it lacks authority, it is a fallacious "appeal to the common man".


title: Argument from authority

text: Arguments from authority that are based on the idea that a person should conform to the opinion of a perceived authority or authoritative group are rooted in psychological cognitive biases such as the Asch effect. In repeated and modified instances of the Asch conformity experiments, it was found that high-status individuals create a stronger likelihood of a subject agreeing with an obviously false conclusion, despite the subject normally being able to clearly see that the answer was incorrect.


title: Argument from authority

text: Further, humans have been shown to feel strong emotional pressure to conform to authorities and majority positions. A repeat of the experiments by another group of researchers found that "Participants reported considerable distress under the group pressure", with 59% conforming at least once and agreeing with the clearly incorrect answer, whereas the incorrect answer was much more rarely given when no such pressures were present.


title: Argument from authority

text: Another study shining light on the psychological basis of the fallacy as it relates to perceived authorities are the Milgram experiments, which demonstrated that people are more likely to go along with something when it is presented by an authority. In a variation of a study where the researchers did not wear lab coats, thus reducing the perceived authority of the tasker, the obedience level dropped to 20% from the original rate, which had been higher than 50%. Obedience is encouraged by reminding the individual of what a perceived authority states and by showing them that their opinion goes against this authority.


title: Argument from authority

text: Scholars have noted that certain environments can produce an ideal situation for these processes to take hold, giving rise to groupthink. In groupthink, individuals in a group feel inclined to minimize conflict and encourage conformity. Through an appeal to authority, a group member might present that opinion as a consensus and encourage the other group members to engage in groupthink by not disagreeing with this perceived consensus or authority. One paper about the philosophy of mathematics states that, within academia, If...a person accepts our discipline, and goes through two or three years of graduate study in mathematics, he absorbs our way of thinking, and is no longer the critical outsider he once was...If the student is unable to absorb our way of thinking, we flunk him out, of course. If he gets through our obstacle course and then decides that our arguments are unclear or incorrect, we dismiss him as a crank, crackpot, or misfit.


title: Argument from authority

text: Corporate environments are similarly vulnerable to appeals to perceived authorities and experts leading to groupthink, as are governments and militaries.


title: Ice hockey at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Men's tournament

text: The men's tournament in ice hockey at the 2022 Winter Olympics took place in Beijing, China between 9 and 20 February 2022. Twelve countries qualified for the tournament; eight of them did so automatically by virtue of their ranking by the International Ice Hockey Federation, one, China, automatically qualified as hosts, while the three others took part in a qualification tournament.


text: The Olympic Athletes from Russia team won in 2018. The Russian Olympic Committee, representing Russia at the 2022 Games, were the defending champions.


text: For the first time in history, the Czech Republic did not qualify for the quarter-finals and finished in ninth place, their lowest placement in history.


text: Finland won their first ever ice hockey Olympic gold medal after going undefeated and beating the Russian Olympic Committee in the final.


text: Slovakia claimed their first ever ice hockey medal at the Olympics after defeating Sweden 4–0 and finishing third.


text: The twelve teams were split into three groups of four teams each, in which they will play against each team once. The top team of each group and the best second-ranked team will advance to the quarterfinals, while all other teams play a qualification round. A knockout system will be used after the group stage.


text: Due to the lack of ice hockey talent in China, players had to be recruited from abroad. The men's hockey team is composed of eleven Canadians, nine Chinese, three Americans, and a Russian. Neither the Chinese Olympic Committee, International Ice Hockey Federation nor the IOC commented on how it was possible for foreign players to compete for China, as the Olympic Charter requires competitors to be citizens of the country they represent. According to the nationality law of China, anyone who were naturalized as Chinese citizens, or those who resumed their Chinese nationality, must renounce all the other nationalities, as China does not recognize dual-nationality. The IOC Executive Board has the authority to make certain exceptions of a "general or individual nature", though it is unclear whether this was the case. When asked whether he had naturalized as a Chinese citizen, athlete Jake Chelios refused to comment, though he confirmed that he still has his American passport.


text: On 10 July 2020, the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) and National Hockey League agreed to a renewed collective bargaining agreement, which includes a provision opening the possibility for the NHL to explore participation at the 2022 and 2026 Winter Olympics. On 22 July 2021, the NHL released a 2021–22 schedule that included an Olympic break, but the league also announced that a final agreement had not yet been reached regarding Olympic participation of NHL players in 2022. On 3 September 2021, an agreement was made to allow NHL players to compete. In December 2021, many NHL players started contracting COVID-19 and several teams temporarily suspended operations while their players were in quarantine. This forced the NHL to postpone some regular season games and due to the rise in cases of COVID-19 worldwide; on 22 December 2021, the NHL announced that NHL players would not be released for participation in the Olympics.


text: Following the completion of the preliminary round, all teams were ranked 1D through 12D. The semifinals were then reseeded according to this ranking. To determine this ranking, the following criteria were used in the order presented:


text: The places five to twelve are ranked by their preliminary round group placement and then points and goal difference.


text: The list shows the top five goaltenders, based on save percentage, who have played at least 40% of their team's minutes.


title: Matt Barr

text: Matthew Jerome Barr (born February 14, 1984) is an American actor, best-known as Danny McNamara in the CBS/Paramount+ action–adventure television series "Blood & Treasure"


title: Matt Barr

text: Barr also played Mike Fleming in "Commander in Chief", Ian Banks in "One Tree Hill", Christopher Sullivan in the mystery-horror limited series "Harper's Island", and Dan Patch in The CW series "Hellcats".


title: Matt Barr

text: Matthew Jerome Barr was born on February 14, 1984, in Allen, Texas, a suburb of Dallas, to Mike Barr, a former football coach at Purdue University and Southern Methodist University, who is now in the real estate business, and DeDe Barr, a portrait artist. Barr has a younger brother, Luke, and sister, Sara. When Barr was in fourth grade, his family moved to Fairview, Texas, another Dallas suburb.


title: Matt Barr

text: Barr was active in the Allen High School theater program, and had major roles in many school plays and musical theater productions. This included the role of Tommy in Meredith Willson's "The Music Man", and a court jester in the school's madrigal dinner.


title: Matt Barr

text: While a high school senior, Barr learned that Richard Linklater was planning a film about football in Austin, "Friday Night Lights". He auditioned for a role. Although this movie ended up being put on hold for another two years and Linklater was replaced by Peter Berg as director, Barr made some favorable impressions. Producer Ann Walker Mclay, Linklater, and collaborator and director Clark Lee Walker offered him the lead role in their film "Levelland" that was being shot in Austin in the late spring and early summer of 2002.


title: Matt Barr

text: Half a year after the filming of "Levelland" ended, in January 2003, Barr moved to Los Angeles, where his first acting job was a scene on the television show "ER".


title: Matt Barr

text: Some of Barr's roles include playing Ian Banks, Peyton Sawyer's (played by Hilarie Burton) stalker on "One Tree Hill". Barr has also portrayed guest and recurring roles on popular television series "ER", "Bones", "The O.C." and "Commander in Chief". He starred as David Stanley in the direct to DVD film "Protecting the King" as Elvis Presley's youngest step-brother. Barr appeared in the 2008 film "The House Bunny" as Tyler, one of the university students.


title: Matt Barr

text: He portrayed David "Puck" Rainey, one of the alumni of "", in "Pedro", Nick Oceano's 2008 biographical film on the life of AIDS educator Pedro Zamora. In 2009, Barr co-starred in the mystery/horror miniseries "Harper's Island" as Christopher "Sully" Sullivan. Between 2009 and 2010 he guest starred in many TV series, such as "Castle", "Trauma", "Friday Night Lights", and "".


title: Matt Barr

text: Barr was cast as a series regular in the CW series "Hellcats", playing Dan Patch, in 2010. The series premiered on September 8, 2010. However, after one season the series was cancelled. He had a role as Billy "The Kid" Rhodes on the USA Network series "Necessary Roughness" in 2011. In 2012, Barr assumed a leading role, starring in the Kevin Costner miniseries "Hatfields & McCoys" for the History Channel. He portrayed Johnson "Johnse" Hatfield, who fell in love with Roseanna McCoy. In 2013, he portrayed Christopher Porco in the TV movie ""Romeo Killer: The Chris Porco Story"".


title: History of bras

text: The history of bras (brassières; variously pronounced) is inextricably intertwined with the social history of the status of women, including the evolution of fashion and changing views of the female body.


title: History of bras

text: Women throughout history have used a variety of garments and devices to support, cover, restrain, reveal, or modify the appearance of their breasts. Bra- or bikini-like garments are depicted in art of female athletes of the Minoan civilization, ca. 14th century BC and there is some evidence to suggest that even from the Greco-Roman period women had developed specialized bra-like garments used for the purpose of supporting the breast. By the 14th century AD the proto-bra was in development in Europe and from approximately the 16th century AD onward, the undergarments of wealthier women in the Western world were dominated by the corset. Corsets varied in length from short ones, which only supported the bust, to longer ones which were also used to shape the waist. In the latter part of the 19th century, women experimented with various alternatives such as splitting the corset into a girdle-like shaping device for the lower torso and transferring the upper part to devices suspended from the shoulder.


title: History of bras

text: By the early 20th century, garments more closely resembling contemporary bras had emerged, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930s. Since then bras have replaced corsets (although some women prefer camisoles) and some, as well, go without. The metal shortages of World War I encouraged the end of the corset. By the time the war ended, most fashion-conscious women in Europe and North America were wearing bras. From there the bra was adopted by women in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.


title: History of bras

text: There is some evidence to suggest that a specialized garment meant to support and contain women's breasts may date back to Ancient Greece, though most of this evidence is literary rather than visual or textile. In Book 14 of Homer's "Iliad", written in the archaic period of Classical Antiquity, the poet refers to Aphrodite's "embroidered girdle" (, ) as being "loosed from her breasts," perhaps indicating that this may be a reference to a decorated breast-band rather than a girdle or belt, as is often interpreted. There is at least one example of late-Hellenic sculpture that seems to confirm this, depicting the goddess wrapping a "stróphion" (from "stróphos" "twisted band" + the diminutive suffix "-ion") around her chest.


title: History of bras

text: The stróphion is also mentioned in Aristophanes' plays "Lysistrata" and "Women at the Thesmophoria". However, it is currently impossible to tell whether the stróphion was an everyday garment worn by the average woman or an item of clothing reserved for certain situations or specific types of women. Some sources suggest that it may have been in use as a common undergarment while others are doubtful. Most early Grecian sculpture and vase paintings that depict women in states of undress show no indication of any kind of breast-band, instead revealing the shape of the breast through draped clothing, or even the nipple itself, with no sign of an intervening item of clothing between chiton and skin.


title: History of bras

text: There is considerably more evidence for the use of Roman "strophium", their adaptation of the stróphion, which was also referred to as the "fascia", "fasciola", "taenia", or "mamillare". This garment, which apparently could be made from a variety of materials, was mentioned in writings by Martial, Ovid, and in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae.


title: History of bras

text: Dates are uncertain, but it is believed that by the High Middle Ages, bra-like garments meant to support and restrain the breasts were already in use by at least some women in western Europe. Both Henri de Mondeville, surgeon to King Phillip the Fair of France and , writing over a hundred years apart (c. 1315 and c. 1480 respectively) mention "breast bags" or "shirts with bags" that women used to contain their breasts. Stolle calls these inventions "indecent" and another, anonymous, writer of 15th century Germany talks of how many women would make these garments and then wear them, and says of one woman: "all the young men that look at her, can see her beautiful breasts..." Unlike the Greek stróphion, there is quite a bit of visual evidence of these garments' existence, mostly from the 15th century in the form of playing cards, illustrated manuscripts, and more. The fashion worn by women of status in this period probably necessitated the wearing of specialized undergarments because of the lifted, separated position of the breasts, which could only be achieved by the presence of separated cups.


title: History of bras

text: Until 2008, however, no physical evidence of this sort of undergarment had ever been found, but that year four lace-decorated fragments of underclothing were discovered among 3,000 textile fragments during a renovation project in Lengberg Castle, Austria. All four garments were carbon-dated to the 15th century, and illustrate three different styles: the first and second are high-necked, with fabric stretching above the cups to cover the décolletage, and are sleeveless and cut just below the bust; the third has two broad shoulder straps and a possible back strap; and the fourth garment most resembles a modern longline bra, with linen cups joined vertically at the center of the breast and a linen extension cut at about to the level of the ribcage and fastened with a row of eyelets on the front left side of the body. Though none of these fragments have attached skirts like the garments depicted in the visual evidence do, there is reason to believe that, originally, this wasn't the case, and that sometime before the fragmented garments were discarded the skirts were removed, perhaps in order to reuse the fabric they were made of.


title: History of bras

text: No one knows who invented the corset, but it probably came into being sometime around the turn of the 16th century. During this period, the lifted, separated "apple breasts" look, so popular in the Middle Ages, began to go out of style and the mono-boob returned with a vengeance. The corset (called "a pair of bodies" in English or "paire de corps" in French at this time) formed the chest and torso into a smooth, conical shape that worked with the farthingale to create the illusion of a tiny waist.


title: History of bras

text: This look remained relatively unchanged throughout most of the 18th century, when the pair of bodies came to be called "stays," but in the 1780s and 1790s the shape of stays changed radically to suit the changing fashions of the times. It was around this time that stays started to be called corsets in France, but many of these "shortened stays" or "short stays," as they were sometimes called in Britain, resembled earlier support garments as much as they resembled stays, with fitted cups that held the breasts apart.


title: History of bras

text: The evolution of the bra from the corset was driven by two parallel movements: health professionals' concerns about the cruel, constraining effects of the corset, and the clothing reform movement of feminists who saw that greater participation of women in society would require emancipation from corsetry. Prominent among these were the Rational Dress Society, the National Dress Reform Association, and the Reform Dress Association.


title: History of bras

text: In practice, early bras made little market penetration. They were expensive, and only educated wealthy reformers wore them to any extent.


title: History of bras

text: American women who made important contributions included Amelia Bloomer (1818–1894) ("When you find a burden in belief or apparel, cast it off") and Dr. Mary Edwards Walker (1832–1919).


title: History of bras

text: There are considerable differences of opinion about who invented the modern brassière. Patent dates indicate some of the landmark developments; a large number of patents for bra-like devices were granted in the 19th century:


title: History of bras

text: A bra-like device that gave a "symmetrical rotundity" to the wearer's breasts was patented in 1859 by Henry S. Lesher of Brooklyn, New York. In 1863, a "corset substitute" was patented by Luman L. Chapman of Camden, New Jersey. Historians refer to it as a "proto-bra."


title: History of bras

text: In 1876, dressmaker Olivia Flynt was granted four patents covering the "true Corset" or "Flynt Waist." It was aimed at larger-breasted women. Reformers stimulated demand for and probably purchased these early garments on "hygienic" grounds because of their concerns about the corset. Initially Flynt's garments were only available by mail order, but they eventually appeared in department and clothing stores and catalogues. Her designs won a bronze medal at the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanics Association in 1878, at the Cotton Centennial Exposition in Atlanta in 1884–5, and at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.


title: History of bras

text: It appeared in a corset catalogue as a two-piece undergarment, which she originally called the "corselet gorge", and later "le bien-être" (or "the well-being"). Her garment effectively cut the traditional corset in two: The lower part was a corset for the waist and the upper part supported the breasts with shoulder straps. Her description reads "designed to sustain the bosom and supported by the shoulders." She patented her invention and showed it at the Great Exhibition of 1889. The company, still family-owned, claims today that Herminie "freed women by inventing the first Bra."


title: History of bras

text: By 1905, the upper half was sold separately as a "soutien-gorge", the name by which bras are still known in France. She also introduced the use of "rubber thread" or elastic.


title: History of bras

text: In 1893, Marie Tucek received a U.S. patent for a device that consisted of separate pockets for each breast above a metal supporting plate and shoulder straps fastened by hook-and-eye. This invention more closely resembled the modern bra known today, and was a precursor to the underwire bra.


title: History of bras

text: Home-sewn garments competed with factory-made, ready-to-wear garments. The bra was at first an alternative to the corset, as a negligée or at-home wear, or worn by women with medical issues stemming from corsets. After the straight-fronted corset became fashionable in the early 20th century, a bra or "bust supporter" became a necessity for full-busted women because the straight-fronted corset did not offer as much support and containment as the Victorian styles. Early bras were either wrap-around bodices or boned, close-fitting camisoles (both worn over the corset). They were designed to hold the bust in and down against the corset, which provided upward support.


title: History of bras

text: Advertising of the times, typically in periodicals, stressed the advantages of bras in health and comfort over corsets and portrayed garments with shoulder supports in a mono-bosom style and with limited adaptability. Their major appeal was to those for whom lung function and mobility were priorities, rather than outer appearance.


title: History of bras

text: Sigmund Lindauer from Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, Germany developed a bra for mass production in 1912 and patented it in 1913. It was mass-produced by Mechanischen Trikotweberei Ludwig Maier und Cie. in Böblingen, Germany. With metal shortages, World War I encouraged the end of the corset. By the time the war ended, most fashion-conscious women in Europe and North America were wearing bras. From there the bra was adopted by women in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.


title: History of bras

text: In 1910, Mary Phelps Jacob (known later in life as Caresse Crosby), a 19-year-old New York socialite, purchased a sheer evening gown for a debutante ball. At that time, the only acceptable undergarment was a corset stiffened with whalebone. Mary had large breasts and found that the whalebone visibly poked out around her plunging neckline and from under the sheer fabric. Dissatisfied with this arrangement, she worked with her maid to fashion two silk handkerchiefs together with some pink ribbon and cord.


title: History of bras

text: On 3 November 1914, the U.S. Patent Office issued the first U.S. patent for the "Backless Bra." Crosby's patent was for a device that was lightweight, soft, comfortable to wear, and naturally separated the breasts, unlike the corset, which was heavy, stiff, uncomfortable, and had the effect of creating a "monobosom."


title: History of bras

text: Crosby managed to secure a few orders from department stores, but her business never took off. Her husband Harry Crosby discouraged her from pursuing the business and persuaded her to close it. She later sold the bra patent to the Warners Brothers Corset Company in Bridgeport, Connecticut, for $1,500 (roughly equivalent to $ in current dollars). Warner manufactured the "Crosby" bra for a while, but it did not become a popular style and eventually was discontinued. Warner went on to earn more than $15 million from the bra patent over the next 30 years.


title: History of bras

text: Bras became more common and widely promoted over the course of the 1910s, aided by the continuing trend towards lighter, shorter corsets that offered increasingly less bust support and containment. In 1917 at the beginning of the U.S. involvement in World War I, the U.S. War Industries Board asked women to stop buying corsets to free up metal for war production. This was said to have saved some 28,000 tons of metal, enough to build two battleships.


title: History of bras

text: It has been said that the bra took off the way it did in large part because of World War I, which shook up gender roles by putting many women to work in factories and uniforms for the first time. The war also influenced social attitudes toward women and helped to liberate them from corsets. But women were already moving into the retail and clerical sectors. Thus the bra emerged from something that was once discreetly tucked into the back pages of women's magazines in the 1890s, to prominent display in department stores such as Sears, Roebuck, and Montgomery Ward by 1918. Advertising was now promoting the shaping of the bust to contemporary fashion demands, and sales reflected this.


title: History of bras

text: This culminated in the "boyish" silhouette of the Flapper era of the 1920s, with little bust definition. The term (which in the mid-1910s referred to preteen and early-teenage girls) was adopted by the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in the 1920s for their younger adult customers. The androgynous figure then in style downplayed women's natural curves through the use of a bandeau bra, which flattened breasts. It was relatively easy for small-busted women to conform to the flat-chested look of the Flapper era. Women with larger breasts tried products like the popular Symington Side Lacer that, when laced at the sides, pulled and helped to flatten women's chests. Yet some "bras" of the early 1920s were little more than camisoles.


title: History of bras

text: In 1922, Russian immigrant Ida Rosenthal was a seamstress at the small New York City dress shop Enid Frocks. She and her husband William Rosenthal, along with shop owner Enid Bissett, changed the look of women's fashion. They noticed that a bra that fit one woman did not fit another woman with the same bra size. With $4,500 invested in their new business, they developed bras for all ages. Their innovation was designed to make their dresses look better on the wearer by increasing the shaping of the bandeau bra to enhance and support women's breasts. They named the company Maiden Form, a deliberate contrast with the name of a competitor, "Boyishform Company." Maiden Form routed Boyishform by 1924, accenting and lifting rather than flattening the bust. In 1927, William Rosenthal, the president of Maiden Form, filed patents for nursing, full-figured, and the first seamed uplift bra.


title: History of bras

text: These fashion changes coincided with health professionals beginning to link breast care and comfort to motherhood and lactation, and campaigned against breast flattening. The emphasis shifted from minimizing the breasts to uplifting and accenting them. Women, especially the younger set, welcomed the bra as a modern garment.


title: History of bras

text: While manufacturing was beginning to become more organized, homemade bras and bandeaux were still quite popular, usually made of white cotton, but they were little more than bust bodices with some separation.


title: History of bras

text: The word "brassiere" was gradually shortened to "bra" in the 1930s. According to a 1934 survey by "Harper's Bazaar", "bra" was the most commonly used expression for the garment among college women. In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company correlated the size and pendulousness of a woman's breasts to letters of the alphabet, A through D. Camp's advertising featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts in the February 1933 issue of "Corset and Underwear Review". In 1937, Warner began to feature cup sizing in its products. Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss, began to offer A, B, C and D cups in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s. Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple eye and hook positions in the 1930s.


title: History of bras

text: As with other women's products, consumer adoption was encouraged by successful advertising and marketing campaigns. Saleswomen played a key role, helping clients find the right garment, as did the changing role of women in society. Much of this marketing was aimed at young women.


title: History of bras

text: Bras rapidly became a major industry over the 1930s, with improvements in fiber technology, fabrics, colours, patterns, and options, and did much better than the retail industry in general. Innovations included Warners' use of elastic, the adjustable strap, the sized cup, and padded bras for smaller-breasted women. In the US production moved outside of New York and Chicago, and advertising started to exploit Hollywood glamour and become more specialised. Department stores developed fitting areas, and customers, stores and manufacturers all benefited. Manufacturers even arranged fitting training courses for saleswomen. International sales started to form an increasing part of the U.S. bra manufacturer's market. Prices started to make bras available to a wider market, and home-made competition dwindled. Other major manufacturers of the 1930s included Triumph, Maidenform, Gossard, (Courtaulds), Spirella, Spencer, Twilfit, and Symington.


title: History of bras

text: The culturally preferred silhouette among Western women during the 1930s was a pointy bust, which further increased demand for a forming garment.


title: History of bras

text: The Second World War had a major impact on clothing. In the United States, military women were enlisted for the first time in the lower ranks and were fitted with uniform underwear. Willson Goggles, a Pennsylvania firm that manufactured safety equipment for manual workers, is believed to have introduced the plastic "SAF-T-BRA", designed to protect women on the factory floor. Advertising appealed to both patriotism and the concept that bras and girdles were somehow "protection". Dress codes appearedfor example, Lockheed informed their workers that bras must be worn because of "good taste, anatomical support, and morale".


title: History of bras

text: Military terminology crept into product marketing, as represented by the highly structured, conically pointed Torpedo or Bullet bra, designed for "maximum projection". The bullet bra was worn by the Sweater Girl, a busty and wholesome "girl next door" whose tight-fitting outer garments accentuated her artificially enhanced curves. Underwire began to be used in bra construction.


title: History of bras

text: For the movie, "The Outlaw", which features actress Jane Russell, the producer and airplane designer Howard Hughes constructed the Cantilever bra for Russell to wear in the movie. Hughes constructed the bra on the principles of bridge building, with the goal of fitting and supporting Russell's breasts. This innovative new design caused a stir, and many women sought to recreate the look in their own wardrobe.


title: History of bras

text: The war presented unique challenges for industry. Women's occupations shifted dramatically, with far more employed outside the home, and severe material shortages limited design choices. Advertising, promotion, and consumerism were limited but started to appear directed at minorities (e.g., "Ebony" in 1945) and teens. Many manufacturers only survived by making tents and parachutes in addition to bras. However, the war also freed the American industry from European influences, particularly French, and it became more distinctive. As in World War I, there was concern about the use of badly needed steel in corsets; in 1941 the British Government carried out a survey of women's usage of underwear that showed that "on average, women owned 1.2 bras (housewives 0.8 and agricultural workers 1.9)".


title: History of bras

text: Following the Second World War, new kinds of material were increasingly available, and production and marketing increased, creating a demand for a greater variety of consumer goods, including bras. The baby boom specifically created a demand for maternity and nursing bras and television provided new promotional opportunities. Manufacturers responded with new fabrics, colors, patterns, styles, padding, and elasticity.


title: History of bras

text: Hollywood fashion and glamour influenced women's choices more than ever, leading to the popularity of bras like the cone-shaped, spiral-stitched bullet bra that was worn by actresses like Patti Page, Marilyn Monroe, and Lana Turner, who was nicknamed the "Sweater Girl". Bullet bras allowed women to add a cup size to their bust.


title: History of bras

text: Bras for pre-teen and girls entering puberty were first marketed during the 1950s. Prior to the introduction of training bras, young girls in Western countries usually wore a one-piece "waist" or camisole without cups or darts.


title: History of bras

text: The 1960s reflected increasing interest in quality and fashion. Maternity and mastectomy bras began to find a new respectability, and the increasing use of washing machines created a need for products that were more durable. While girdles gave way to pantyhose, the bra continued to evolve. Marketing campaigns like those for the "Snoozable" and "Sweet Dreams" promoted wearing a bra 24 hours a day.


title: History of bras

text: In October 1964, Rudy Gernreich released the "No Bra", a soft-cup, light-weight, seamless, sheer nylon and elastic tricot bra in sizes 32 to 36, A and B cups, manufactured by Exquisite Form. His minimalist bra was a revolutionary departure from the heavy, torpedo-shaped bras of the 1950s, initiating a trend toward more natural shapes and soft, sheer fabrics. He also designed an "All-in-None" design with a deep, plunging front, and a "No-Back" long-line version, which featured a contoured stretch-waistband that allowed a woman to wear a backless dress.


title: History of bras

text: The Wonderbra was created in 1964 by Louise Poirier for Canadelle, a Canadian lingerie company. It has 54 design elements that lift and support the bustline while creating a deep plunge and push-together effect. First-year sales for the Wonderbra were approximated at US$120 million. They repositioned Wonderbra as a romantic, fashionable and sexy brand.


title: History of bras

text: With the growing popularity of jogging and other forms of exercise, it became apparent that there was a need for an athletic garment for women's breasts. The first commercially available sports bra was the "Free Swing Tennis Bra" introduced by Glamorise Foundations, Inc. in 1975. The first general exercise bra, initially called a "jockbra", was invented in 1977 by Lisa Lindahl and theater costume designer Polly Smith with the help of Smith's assistant, Hinda Schreiber. Both Lindahl and her sister, Victoria Woodrow, complained about their bad experience exercising in ordinary bras, having experienced runaway straps, chafing and sore breasts. During the course of Lindahl and Smith's exploration for a better alternative, it was suggested that what they needed was a jockstrap for women's breasts. In the costume shop of Royall Tyler Theatre at the University of Vermont, Lindahl and Smith actually sewed two jockstraps together and nicknamed it a "jockbra". It was later renamed a "jogbra". One of their original Jogbras is bronzed and on display near the costume shop of the theatre. Two others are housed by the Smithsonian and another by the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.


title: History of bras

text: Throughout the 1980s fashion led the way in the look and feel of bras. Western TV shows featured classy, powerful, and well-formed ladies, usually donning low-cut tops to show an enhanced chest with an equally classy matching bra.


title: History of bras

text: The onset of classy and stylish Teddy suits also encompassed this decade and sales of silicone increased the need for bigger and more supportive bras.


title: History of bras

text: Models and celebrities all donned fashionable and extravagant bras, showing these off at red carpets events become the norm.


title: History of bras

text: Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort and function. Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional bras that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.


title: History of bras

text: Two design challenges that bra manufacturers face at present seem paradoxical. On the one hand, there is a demand for minimal bras that allow plunging necklines and reduce interference with the lines of outer garments, such as the shelf bra. On the other hand, body mass and bust size is increasing, leading to a higher demand for larger sizes. Over a 10-year period, the most common size purchased in the UK went from 34B to 36C. In 2001, 27% of UK sales were D or larger.


title: History of bras

text: The 2000s brought two large design changes to the bra. The molded one-piece, seamless bra cup became ubiquitous. They are heat-molded around round forms of synthetic fibers or foam that keeps their rounded shape. This construction can include padded bras, contour bras and so-called T-shirt bras. Also new and ubiquitous in the 2000s was the popularity of printed designs such as floral or patterned prints.


title: History of bras

text: Bras are a billion-dollar industry ($15 billion in the US in 2001, £1 billion in UK.) that continues to grow. Large corporations such as HanesBrands Inc. control most bra manufacturing, Gossard, Berlei and Courtaulds with 34% of the UK market. Victoria's Secret is an exception.


title: History of bras

text: In the late 2010s and early 2020, bralettes and soft bras started gaining in popularity, to the detriment of underwired and padded bras. At the same time popularity of brands like Victoria's Secret decreased significantly. In 2017, the sales of cleavage-boosting bras fell by 45% while at Marks & Spencer, sales of wireless bras grew by 40%. Some have attributed the rising popularity of bralettes to a new focus on the "athletic body, health and wellbeing," rather than "the male gaze," while others suggest a connection to the #MeToo movement.


title: History of bras

text: Bralettes have also become popular during the COVID-19 lockdowns due to a focus on comfort while working from home.


title: History of bras

text: In 1968, at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can". These included bras, which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture" and accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity. Individuals who were present said that no one burned a bra nor did anyone take off her bra.


title: History of bras

text: However, respected author Joseph Campbell found a local news story that contradicted the feminists' statements, reporting that lingerie was in fact burned at least briefly that day. An article on page 4 of the Atlantic City "Press" reported, "Bra-burners blitz boardwalk". It stated, "As the bras, girdles, falsies, curlers, and copies of popular women’s magazines burned in the "Freedom Trash Can", the demonstration reached the pinnacle of ridicule when the participants paraded a small lamb wearing a gold banner worded "Miss America"." A second story in the same newspaper written by Jon Katz did not mention burning lingerie, but Campbell interviewed Katz. Katz, who was present that day, confirmed that bras and other items had been set on fire: "...the fire was small, and quickly was extinguished." The feminists insisted afterward that the newspaper report was wrong.


title: History of bras

text: Female reporter Lindsy Van Gelder who covered the protest drew an analogy between the feminist protesters and Vietnam War protesters who burned their draft cards, and the parallel between protesters burning their draft cards and women burning their bras was encouraged by some organizers including Robin Morgan. "The media picked up on the bra part," Carol Hanisch said later. "I often say that if they had called us 'girdle burners,' every woman in America would have run to join us."


title: History of bras

text: Feminism and "bra-burning" became linked in popular culture. The analogous term "jockstrap-burning" has since been coined as a reference to masculism. While feminist women state they did not literally burn bras that day, some stopped wearing them in protest. Author and feminist Bonnie J. Dow has suggested that the association between feminism and bra-burning was encouraged by individuals who opposed the feminist movement. "Bra-burning" created an image that women weren't really seeking freedom from sexism, but were attempting to assert themselves as sexual beings. This might lead individuals to believe, as she wrote in her 2003 article "Feminism, Miss America, and Media Mythology," that the women were merely trying to be "trendy, and to attract men." Women associated with an act like symbolically burning their bra may be seen by some as law-breaking radicals, eager to shock the public. This view may have supported the efforts of opponents to feminism and their desire to invalidate the movement. Some feminist activists believe that anti-feminists use the bra burning myth and the subject of going braless to trivialize what the protesters were trying to accomplish at the feminist 1968 Miss America protest and the feminist movement in general.


title: History of bras

text: Germaine Greer's book "The Female Eunuch" (1970) became associated with the anti-bra movement because she pointed out how restrictive and uncomfortable a bra could be. "Bras are a ludicrous invention", she wrote, "but if you make bralessness a rule, you're just subjecting yourself to yet another repression."


title: History of bras

text: In 1984, feminist Susan Brownmiller took the position in her book "Femininity" that women without bras shock and anger men because men "implicitly think that they own breasts and that only they should remove bras."


title: History of bras

text: Feminist author Iris Marion Young wrote in 2005 that the bra "serves as a barrier to touch" and that a braless woman is "deobjectified", eliminating the "hard, pointy look that phallic culture posits as the norm." Without a bra, in her view, women's breasts are not consistently shaped objects but change as the woman moves, reflecting the natural body. Other feminist anti-bra arguments from Young in 2005 include that training bras are used to indoctrinate girls into thinking about their breasts as sexual objects and to accentuate their sexuality. Young also wrote in 2007 that, in American culture, breasts are subject to "[c]apitalist, patriarchal American media-dominated culture [that] objectifies breasts before such a distancing glance that freezes and masters." Academic Wendy Burns-Ardolino wrote in 2007 that women's decision to wear bras is mediated by the "male gaze".


title: History of bras

text: While the modern bra has evolved, almost directly, from the proto-bra of the Middle Ages, other cultures across the world and across history have invented garments that serve similar purposes. This is only a short list; for a more in-depth view, please see each garment's separate page.


title: History of bras

text: Over the course of its long history, China has produced many different types of women's undergarments that serve congruent purposes to those of the European bra and corset. The most well-known example is the "dudou" (Chinese: 肚兜, 兜肚, or 兜兜; also known by other names), a diamond-shaped garment used to flatten the breasts and preserve the stomach "qi," which was developed in the Qing dynasty. Other similar items of clothing include the "baofu" (抱腹) from the Han dynasty; the "liangdang" (裲襠) from the Wei Jin period; the "hezi" (诃子) from the Tang dynasty; the "moxiong" (抹胸) from the Song dynasty; the hehuan jin (合欢襟) from the Yuan dynasty; and the "zhuyao" (主腰) from the Ming dynasty.


title: History of bras

text: The first historical reference to breast-support garments in India is found during the rule of King Harshavardhana (1st century AD). Sewn bras and blouses were very much in vogue during the Vijayanagara empire and the cities brimmed with tailors who specialized in tight fitting of these garments. The half-sleeved tight bodice or "kanchuka" figures prominently in the literature of the period, especially "Basavapurana" (1237 AD), which says "kanchukas" were worn by young girls as well.


title: History of bras

text: The yếm is a traditional Vietnamese garment that evolved from the Chinese dudou, which was brought to Vietnam during the Ming Qing dynasty. It was worn by women from all classes with a skirt called "váy đụp". Although the yếm's popularity died out in the 20th century due to Westernization, it has recently seen a revitalization with the invention of the modern "áo yếm", which is slightly different in style.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: "9 to 5" is a song written and recorded by American entertainer Dolly Parton for the 1980 comedy film of the same name. In addition to appearing on the film soundtrack, the song was the centerpiece of Parton's album "9 to 5 and Odd Jobs", released in late 1980. The song was released as a single in November 1980.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: The song garnered Parton an Academy Award nomination and four Grammy Award nominations, winning her the awards for Best Country Song and Best Country Vocal Performance, Female. For a time, the song became something of an anthem for office workers in the US, and in 2004, Parton's song ranked at number 78 on the American Film Institute's '100 Years, 100 Songs'.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: The song was accompanied by a music video that featured footage of Parton and her band performing, intercut with scenes from the film.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: The song was written for the comedy film "9 to 5", starring Jane Fonda, Lily Tomlin, and Parton in her film debut. The song—and film—owe their titles to 9to5, an organization founded in 1973 with the aim of bringing about fair pay and equal treatment for women in the workplace.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: The song is also featured in a musical theater adaptation of the film, featuring a book by the film's original writer, Patricia Resnick, and 20 additional songs written by Dolly Parton. "9 to 5" began showing previews in Los Angeles on September 9, 2008, and played on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre from April until September 2009 before touring.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: A few months before Parton's song and the film, Scottish singer Sheena Easton released a single called "9 to 5" in the UK. When Easton's song was released in the U.S. the following year it was renamed "Morning Train (Nine to Five)" to avoid confusion. Easton's single reached the number one spot on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart three months after Parton's song left that spot. Despite similar titles, the two songs are different in lyrical themes. While Parton's song is about a working woman, Easton's song is about a woman waiting at home for her lover to return from work.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: Although the Parton recording only reached No. 47 in the UK, it remains a popular song on radio and in nightclubs through Britain and was spliced between "Independent Women Part 1" by Destiny's Child and "Eple" by Röyksopp for the Soulwax album "As Heard on Radio Soulwax Pt. 2".


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: "9 to 5" reached number one on the "Billboard" Country chart in January 1981. In February 1981, it went to number one on both the "Billboard" Hot 100 and the Adult Contemporary charts, respectively. It became Parton's first and only solo number one entry on the former. (Parton would later team up with Kenny Rogers on their number one duet "Islands in the Stream".) The song was certified gold on February 19, 1981, indicating shipment 1,000,000 of physical copies. It was certified platinum on September 25, 2017. The song has accrued 500,000 digital downloads in the United States after it was made available for download in the 21st century.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: The song peaked at number 47 on the UK Singles Chart in 1981. It has sold 303,511 digital copies in the UK . , it is Parton's biggest download in the UK, totaling 340,800, while it has also been streamed 8.46 million times.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: This song is one of the few "Billboard" chart songs to feature the clacking of a typewriter. Parton has stated in a number of interviews that when she wrote the song, she devised the clacking typewriter rhythm by running her acrylic fingernails back and forth against one another.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: With "9 to 5", Parton became only the second woman to top both the U.S. country singles chart and the "Billboard" Hot 100 with the same single (the first being Jeannie C. Riley, who had done so with "Harper Valley PTA" in 1968).


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: "9 to 5" served at the theme song for the mid-1980s sitcom "9 to 5" which derived from the film. Phoebe Snow sang the theme for the four-episode premiere season, which aired in March and April 1982; however, Dolly Parton would be heard singing the theme for the sitcom's 1982–1983 run and for its 1986–1988 revival.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: Songwriters Neil and Jan Goldberg filed a lawsuit against Parton, claiming that "9 to 5" was a copy of their 1976 song "Money World". In December 1985 the court ruled in Parton's favor.


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: U.S. Senator Elizabeth Warren frequently used the song at campaign appearances during her 2020 presidential campaign, with it often playing when she took the stage. Reacting to the song's use, Parton's manager Danny Nozell said, "We did not approve the request, and we do not approve requests like this of (a) political nature."


title: 9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)

text: In early 2021, Parton recorded a new version of the song titled "5 to 9" for a Squarespace advert in the Super Bowl LV.


title: Thoracotomy

text: A thoracotomy is a surgical procedure to gain access into the pleural space of the chest. It is performed by surgeons (emergency physicians or paramedics under certain circumstances) to gain access to the thoracic organs, most commonly the heart, the lungs, or the esophagus, or for access to the thoracic aorta or the anterior spine (the latter may be necessary to access tumors in the spine). A thoracotomy is the first step in thoracic surgeries including lobectomy or pneumonectomy for lung cancer or to gain thoracic access in major trauma.


title: Thoracotomy

text: There are many different surgical approaches to performing a thoracotomy. Some common forms of thoracotomies include:


title: Thoracotomy

text: Upon completion of the surgical procedure, the chest is closed. One or more chest tubes—with one end inside the opened pleural cavity and the other submerged under saline solution inside a sealed container, forming an airtight drainage system—are necessary to remove air and fluid from the pleural cavity, preventing the development of pneumothorax or hemothorax.


title: Thoracotomy

text: In addition to pneumothorax, complications from thoracotomy include air leaks, infection, bleeding and respiratory failure. Postoperative pain is universal and intense, generally requiring the use of opioid analgesics for moderation, as well as interfering with the recovery of respiratory function. Paraplegia complicating thoracotomy is rare but catastrophic.


title: Thoracotomy

text: In nearly all cases one or more chest tubes are placed. These tubes are used to drain air and fluid until the patient heals enough to take them out (usually a few days). Complications such as pneumothorax, tension pneumothorax, or subcutaneous emphysema can occur if these chest tubes become clogged. Furthermore, complications such as pleural effusion or hemothorax can occur if the chest tubes fail to drain the fluid around the lung in the pleural space after a thoracotomy. Clinicians should be on the look out for chest tube clogging as these tubes have a tendency to become occluded with fibrinous material or clot in the post operative period, and when this happens, complications ensue.


title: Thoracotomy

text: Pain following a thoracotomy may be treated by the use of a nerve block known as a rhomboid intercostal block. In the long term, post-operative chronic pain can develop, known as thoracotomy pain syndrome, and may last from a few years to a lifetime. Treatment to aid pain relief for this condition includes intra-thoracic nerve blocks/opiates and epidurals, although results vary from person to person and are dependent on numerous factors. A recent Cochrane review concluded that there is moderate-quality evidence that regional anaesthesia may reduce the risk of developing persistent postoperative pain three to 18 months after thoracotomy.


title: Thoracotomy

text: Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) is a less invasive alternative to thoracotomy in selected cases, much like laparoscopic surgery.


title: Thoracotomy

text: Thoracic epidural analgesia or paravertebral blockade have shown to be the most effective methods for post-thoracotomy pain control. However, contraindications to neuraxial anesthesia include hypovolemia, shock, increase in ICP, coagulopathy or thrombocytopenia, sepsis, or infection at puncture site. Comparing thoracic epidural analgesia and paravertebral blockade, paravertebral blockade reduced the risks of developing minor complications, however paravertebral blockade was as effective as thoracic epidural blockade in controlling acute pain. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation has also shown to be useful in the management of post-thoracotomy pain. Specifically, it has been found to be a good adjunct in the management of moderate to severe post-thoracotomy pain and effective as a lone modality in mild post-thoracotomy pain (e.g. after video-assisted thoracoscopy).


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates are cartilaginous fish belonging to the family Rajidae in the superorder Batoidea of rays. More than 150 species have been described, in 17 genera. Softnose skates and pygmy skates were previously treated as subfamilies of Rajidae (Arhynchobatinae and Gurgesiellinae), but are now considered as distinct families. Alternatively, the name "skate" is used to refer to the entire order of Rajiformes (families Anacanthobatidae, Arhynchobatidae, Gurgesiellidae and Rajidae).


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates belong to the ancient lineage of cartilaginous fishes. Fossil denticles (tooth-like scales in the skin) resembling those of today's chondrichthyans date at least as far back as the Ordovician, with the oldest unambiguous fossils of cartilaginous fish dating from the middle Devonian. A clade within this diverse family, the Neoselachii, emerged by the Triassic, with the best-understood neoselachian fossils dating from the Jurassic. This clade is represented today by sharks, sawfish, rays and skates.


title: Skate (fish)

text: The skate belongs to the class Chondrichthyes. This class consists of all the cartilaginous fishes, including sharks and stingrays. Chondrichthyes is divided into two subclasses; of which Elasmobranchii includes skates, rays, and sharks. Skates are the most diverse elasmobranch group, comprising over 20% of the known species. The number of species is likely to increase as taxonomic issues are resolved and new species are identified. There are 17 genera recognized in the family Rajidae:


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates have more valid species (574) than any other group of cartilaginous fishes. Since 1950, 126 new species of skates have been discovered. Five scientists take credit for the rapid increase of findings. The Rajidae are considered monophyletic because of their similarity in appearance. There are 13 genera and about 245 valid species. However, there is little information about the diets of about 24% of these species. There are at least 45 dubious species of skates worldwide.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates are cartilaginous fishes like other Chondrichthyes, however, skates, like rays and other Rajiformes, have a flat body shape with flat pectoral fins that extend the length of their body. A large portion of the skate's dorsal body is covered by rough skin made of placoid scales. Placoid scales have a pointed tip that is oriented caudally and are homologous to teeth. Their mouths are located on the underside of the body, with a jaw suspension common to Batoids known as euhyostyly. Skate's gill slits are located ventrally as well, but dorsal spiracles allow the skate to be partially buried in floor sediment and still complete respiratory exchange. Also located on the dorsal side of the skate are their two eyes which allow for predator awareness. In addition to their pectoral fins, skates have a first and second dorsal fin, caudal fin and paired pelvic fins. Distinct from their rhomboidal shape is a long fleshy slender tail. While skate anatomy is similar to other Batoidea, features such as their electric organ and mermaid's purse create clear distinctions.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates produce their young in an egg case called a mermaid's purse. These egg cases have distinct characteristics that are individualized to each species. This makes a great tool for identifying different species of skates. One of these identifiable structures is the keel. The keel is a flexible ridge that runs along the outside of the structure. Another characteristic is the number of embryos in the egg case. Some species contain only one embryo while others can have up to seven. The size of the fibrous shell around the case is another characteristic. Some species have thick layers on the exterior.


title: Skate (fish)

text: The electric organ (EO) is a characteristic exclusive to aquatic species. Among the Chondrichthyes, the only species to possess electric organs are the electric ray and the skate. Unlike many other electrogenic fishes, the skate is unique in that it has two paired electric organs, which run longitudinal through the tail in the lateral musculature of the notochord. The impulses put out by the electric organs of the skate are considered to be weak, asynchronous, long-lasting signals. Although the anatomy of the skate EO is now commonly studied and well understood, there is not enough strong evidence to suggest what the actual function of the EO is. Some research suggests the electric impulses are too weak to be a mechanism used for defense or hunting. It is also too irregular to be useful for electrolocation purposes. The most reasonable explanation in the literature suggests that the electric organ discharges may be used as a form of communication used for reproduction purposes.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates are primarily found from the intertidal down to depths greater than . They are most commonly found along outer continental shelves and upper slopes. They are typically more diverse at higher latitudes and in deep-water. In fact, skates are the only cartilaginous fish taxon to exhibit more diversity of species at higher latitudes. A cool, temperate to polar water in the deep sea can be a favorable environment for skates. As the water becomes more shallow and warmer, skates are seen to be replaced by stingrays. Skates are absent from brackish and freshwater environments. However, there is a single estuarine species that has been found in Tasmania, Australia. Also, the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection has caught and studied skates within the Long Island Sound estuary. Some skate fauna have been found inhabiting areas of rock cobble and high rocky relief.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates mate at the same nursery ground each year. In order to fertilize the egg, males use claspers, a structure attached to the pelvic fins. The claspers allow them to direct the flow of semen into the female's cloaca. Skates are oviparous, meaning they lay eggs with very little development in the mother. This is one major difference from rays, which are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young. When a female skate is fertilized, a protected case forms around the embryo called an egg case, or more commonly mermaid's purse. This egg case is then deposited out of the mother's body onto the ocean floor where the skates develop for up to 15 months before they enter the external environment.


title: Skate (fish)

text: The majority of skates feed on bottom dwelling animals, such as shrimp, crab, oyster, clams, and other invertebrates. To feed on these animals they have grinding plates in their mouths. Filter feeding rays that eat plankton have gill rakers. Skates are an influential part of the food webs of demersal marine communities. They utilize similar resources to those of other upper trophic-level marine predators, such as seabirds, marine mammals, and sharks. The flattened body shape, ventral eyes and well developed spiracles of the skate allows them to live benthically, buried in the sediment or using a longitudinal undulation of the pectoral fins known as Rajiform locomotion to glide along the water floor. Current research suggests that some species of skates, in addition to their Rajiform locomotion, use their pelvic fins to perform ambulatory locomotion. This form of locomotion performed by the skate is being explored as a possible origin for our own development of walking by looking for similar neural pathways used for movement between skates and animals walking on land.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates are like stingrays in that they have five pairs of gill slits that are located ventrally, which means on the underside of their body (unlike sharks that have their gills located on their sides). Skates and rays both have pectoral fins that are flat and expanded, which are typically fused to the head. Both skates and stingrays typically have their eyes on top of their head. Skates also share similar feeding habits with rays.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates are different from rays in that they lack a whip-like tail and stinging spines. However, some skates have electric organs located in their tail. The main difference between skates and rays is that skates lay eggs, whereas rays give birth to live young.


title: Skate (fish)

text: Skates have slow growth rates and, since they mature late, low reproductive rates. As a result, skates are vulnerable to overfishing and appear to have been overfished and are suffering reduced population levels in many parts of the world.


title: Skate (fish)

text: In 2010, Greenpeace International added the barndoor skate, bottlenose skate, and maltese skate to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Dolores Clara Fernández Huerta (born April 10, 1930) is an American labor leader and civil rights activist who, with Cesar Chavez, is a co-founder of the National Farmworkers Association, which later merged with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee to become the United Farm Workers (UFW). Huerta helped organize the Delano grape strike in 1965 in California and was the lead negotiator in the workers' contract that was created after the strike.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta has received numerous awards for her community service and advocacy for workers', immigrants', and women's rights, including the Eugene V. Debs Foundation Outstanding American Award, the United States Presidential Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. She was the first Latina inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame, in 1993.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta is the originator of the phrase "Sí, se puede". As a role model to many in the Latino community, Huerta is the subject of many "corridos" (Mexican or Mexican-American ballads) and murals.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Dolores Huerta was born on April 10, 1930, in the mining town of Dawson, New Mexico. She is the second child and only daughter of Juan Fernández and Alicia Chávez. Juan Fernández was born in Dawson to a Mexican immigrant family and worked as a coal miner. Later, he joined the migrant labor force, and harvested beets in Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming. When Huerta was young, she would hear her father tell stories about union organizing. After her parents divorced when she was three years old, she seldom saw her father. He stayed in New Mexico and served in the state legislature in 1938.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Chávez raised Huerta and her two brothers in the central California farmworker community of Stockton, California. Huerta's mother was known for her kindness and compassion towards others and was active in community affairs, numerous civic organizations, and the church. She encouraged the cultural diversity that was a natural part of Huerta's upbringing in Stockton. Alicia Chávez was a businesswoman who owned a restaurant and a 70-room hotel, where she welcomed low-wage workers and farmworker families at affordable prices and sometimes gave them free housing. Huerta was inspired by her mother to advocate for farmworkers later on in her life. In an interview, Huerta stated that "The dominant person in my life is my mother. She was a very intelligent woman and a very gentle woman". This prompted Huerta to think about civil rights. Her mother's generous actions during Dolores's childhood provided the foundation for her own non-violent, strongly spiritual stance. In the same interview she said, "When we talk about spiritual forces, I think that Hispanic women are more familiar with spiritual forces. We know what fasting is, and that it is part of the culture. We know what relationships are, and we know what sacrifice is".


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta's community activism began when she was a student at Stockton High School. Huerta was active in numerous school clubs and was a majorette and dedicated member of the Girl Scouts until the age of 18.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Dolores Huerta says a school teacher accusing her of stealing another student's work and, as a result, giving her an unfair grade, an act she considers to be rooted in racial bias. Having experienced marginalization during childhood because she was Hispanic, Huerta grew up with the belief that society needed to be changed. She attended college at the University of the Pacific's Stockton College (later to become San Joaquin Delta Community College), where she earned a provisional teaching credential. After teaching elementary school, Huerta left her job and began her lifelong crusade to correct economic injustice:


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In 1955, Huerta along with Fred Ross co-founded and organized the Stockton Chapter of the Community Service Organization (CSO), which fought for economic improvements for Latino/Mexican/Chicano migrant Farm workers. Due to her dedication and willingness to serve, Ross often delegated huge responsibilities to her. He knew she was capable of delivering the organization's message in Spanish and English and promoted the agenda from door to door field organizing. "As she assumed responsibilities and stance that were traditionally held by white males, Huerta encountered criticism based on both gender and ethnic stereotypes".


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In 1960, Huerta co-founded the Agricultural Workers Association, which set up voter registration drives and pressed local governments for barrio improvements. In 1962, she co-founded, with César Chávez, the National Farm Workers Association, which would later become the United Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee. Huerta was the only woman to ever sit on the board of the UFW, until 2018. In 1966, she negotiated a contract between the UFWOC and Schenley Wine Company, marking the first time that farm workers were able to effectively bargain with an agricultural enterprise.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: But Chavez and Huerta quickly realized that they shared a common goal of helping improve the lives and wages of farmworkers, so they co-founded the National Farm Workers Association. In 1962, after the CSO turned down Chávez's request, as their president, to organize farmworkers, Chávez and Huerta resigned from the CSO. She went to work for the National Farm Workers Association, which would later merge with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee. "Dolores's organizing skills were essential to the growth of this budding organization." The Original UFW house is located in the city of Los Angeles.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: At the age of only 25, Huerta was a lobbyist in Sacramento for the Stockton Community Service Organization and trained people to do grassroots organizing.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: The foundation was later changed to an affiliated agricultural workers’ organization. In an interview, Huerta explained that she decided to join the organization after getting an inside look at the poverty farm workers lived in. She cited that they were being paid little to nothing, had no rights, slept on the floors, had wooden boxes as furniture and unclean water, lacked access to bathrooms, and worked from sunrise to sundown without breaks. Many of these workers would migrate to where the crops were in season, meaning their children did not have a proper education and would often work in the fields alongside their parents. She explained that many women were often sexually assaulted by the landowners but were in fear to speak up because their family needed a job. She accused landowners of expecting free labor and justifying it as “doing the farmworkers and the public a favor by giving these people a job."


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In 1965, Huerta directed the UFW's national boycott during the Delano grape strike, taking the plight of the farm workers to the consumers. She led the organization of boycotts advocating for consumer rights. The boycott resulted in the entire California table grape industry signing a three-year collective bargaining agreement with the United Farm Workers in 1970.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In addition to organizing, Huerta has been active in lobbying for laws to improve the lives of farm workers. The laws that she supported included the following:


title: Dolores Huerta

text: As an advocate for farmworkers' rights, Huerta has been arrested twenty-two times for participating in non-violent civil disobedience activities and strikes. She remains active in progressive causes, and serves on the boards of People for the American Way, Consumer Federation of California, and Feminist Majority Foundation.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: On June 5, 1968, Huerta stood beside Robert F. Kennedy on the speaker's platform at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles as he delivered a victory statement to his political supporters shortly after winning the California Democratic presidential primary election. Only moments after the candidate finished his speech, Kennedy and five other people were wounded by gunfire inside the hotel's kitchen pantry. Kennedy died from his gunshot wounds on June 6.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In September 1988, in front of the St. Francis Hotel in Union Square, Huerta was severely beaten by San Francisco Police officer Frank Achim during a peaceful and lawful protest of the policies/platform of then-candidate for president George H. W. Bush. The baton-beating caused significant internal injuries to her torso, resulting in several broken ribs and requiring the removal of her spleen in emergency surgery. The beating was caught on videotape and broadcast widely on local television news. Later, Huerta won a large judgment against the SFPD and the City of San Francisco for the attack, the proceeds of which she used for the benefit of farm workers. As a result of this assault and the suit, the SFPD was pressured to change its crowd control policies and its process of officer discipline.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Following a lengthy recovery, Huerta took a leave of absence from the union to focus on women's rights. She traversed the country for two years on behalf of the Feminist Majority's "Feminization of Power: 50/50 by the year 2000 Campaign" encouraging Latinas to run for office. The campaign resulted in a significant increase in the number of women representatives elected at the local, state and federal levels. She also served as National Chair of the 21st Century Party, founded in 1992 on the principles that women make up 52% of the party's candidates and that officers must reflect the ethnic diversity of the nation.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta is president of the Dolores Huerta Foundation, which she founded in 2002. It is a 501(c)(3) "community benefit organization that organizes at the grassroots level, engaging and developing natural leaders. DHF creates leadership opportunities for community organizing, leadership development, civic engagement, and policy advocacy in the following priority areas: health & environment, education & youth development, and economic development."


title: Dolores Huerta

text: The foundation first got started when Huerta received the $100,000 Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship in 2002, which she then used to create the DHF. Her youngest daughter, Camila Chavez, is the Executive Director at the foundation. The primary purpose of the foundation is to weave in movements such as “women’s rights, LGBTQ rights, immigrant rights, labor rights, and civil rights” into an individual thread.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: The DHF has several programs. The civic engagement program focuses on the voting rights of the people. They have protested, with petitions and signatures, to revise property tax loopholes in Proposition 13. Another part of their campaigns was to encourage voters to vote at the California primary elections, and to educate voters on federal issues such as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 and the White House Budget. They also created a Youth VOTE Campaign, where they were able to reach 1,055 contacts and 809 young voters. The organization has “secured millions of dollars for local infrastructures such as new sewer connections, street lights, sidewalks, and gutters in Lamont and Weedpatch from 2007-2015.” The DHF was one of the plaintiffs in a suit against Kern High School District, alleging that African-American and Latino students were unfairly targeted for disciplinary actions; as part of the settlement, the district provides Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports training to staff members.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: On November 17, 2015, Dolores Huerta was bestowed the highest decoration a foreign national can receive from the country of Mexico for her years of service helping the Mexican community in the United States fighting for equal pay, dignity in the workplace, and fair employment practices in the farms of Northern California like Stockton, Salinas, and Delano.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta was named one of the three most important women of the year in 1997 by "Ms." magazine. She was an inaugural recipient of the Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights from President Bill Clinton in 1998. That same year, "Ladies' Home Journal" recognized her as one of the '100 Most Important Women of the 20th Century', along with such women leaders as Mother Teresa, Margaret Thatcher, Rosa Parks, and Indira Gandhi.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: She was awarded the Puffin/Nation Prize for Creative Citizenship in 2002. She was conferred an honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from California State University, Northridge on May 29, 2002. On September 30, 2005, she became an honorary sister of Kappa Delta Chi sorority (Alpha Alpha chapter – Wichita State University). She received an honorary degree from Princeton University in recognition of her numerous achievements May 2006. She was lauded in the ceremony: "Through her insatiable hunger of justice—"La Causa"—and her tireless advocacy, she has devoted her life to creative, compassionate, and committed citizenship." She was co-recipient (along with Virgilio Elizondo) of the 2007 Community of Christ International Peace Award .


title: Dolores Huerta

text: On May 18, 2007, she announced her endorsement of Hillary Clinton for president, and at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Huerta formally placed Clinton's name into nomination. Also in 2008, Huerta received the "Maggie" Award, highest honor of the Planned Parenthood Federation, in tribute to their founder, Margaret Sanger.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: She was recognized in 2008 by United Neighborhood Centers of America with its highest individual honor, the Jane Addams Distinguished Leadership Award at its National Policy Summit in Washington, D.C. She was awarded the UCLA Medal, UCLA's highest honor, during the UCLA College of Letters and Science commencement ceremony on June 12, 2009.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In October 2010, Huerta was awarded an honorary degree by Mills College, who lauded her as "a lifetime champion of social justice whose courageous leadership garnered unprecedented national support from farmworkers, women, and underserved communities in a landmark quest for human and civil rights". The same month, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by University of the Pacific, which unveiled an official portrait of her for the Architects of Peace Project by artist Michael Collopy.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta was awarded an honorary doctorate of humane letters by Mount Holyoke College, where she delivered the commencement address, on May 21, 2017.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta was honored by California State University, Los Angeles in October 2017 with its highest honor, the Presidential Medallion.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Four elementary schools in California and one in Tulsa, Oklahoma; one school in Fort Worth, Texas; and a high school in Pueblo, Colorado, are named after Huerta. Pitzer College, in Claremont, California has a mural in front of Holden Hall dedicated to her. A middle school in the major agricultural city of Salinas, California, which has a dense population of farm workers, was named in 2014 after her. She was a speaker at the first and tenth César Chávez Convocation. In 2013, Huerta received the annual Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, given by Jefferson Awards.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In July 2018, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law AB 2455, by Assemblymember Eloise Gómez Reyes, designating April 10 each year as Dolores Huerta Day. In March 2019, Washington Governor Jay Inslee signed a measure also designating April 10 each year as Dolores Huerta Day.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: The intersection of East 1st and Chicago streets in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Boyle Heights is named Dolores Huerta Square. In Fort Worth, Texas, a portion of State Highway 183 is named in honor of Huerta.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Asteroid 6849 Doloreshuerta, discovered by American astronomers Eleanor Helin and Schelte Bus at Palomar Observatory in 1979, was named in her honor. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on August 27, 2019 ().


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta received the Ripple of Hope Award from the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights in 2020.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In March 2021, the Governing Board of the Burbank Unified School District in Burbank voted to rename its David Starr Jordan Middle School as the Dolores Huerta Middle School. Yale University awarded Huerta an Honorary Doctor of Laws in May, 2021. In August 2021, a brand new middle school in San Jose was dedicated in Huerta's honor.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta championed women's rights in feminist campaigns during her time off from union work. She also fought for ethnic diversity in her campaigns.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta was an honorary co-chair of the Women's March on Washington on January 21, 2017, the day after the inauguration of Donald Trump as president.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: "Dolores", a new documentary about Huerta, talks a lot about her feminist approach to activism. She defines a feminist person as someone "who supports a woman's reproductive rights, who supports a woman's right to an abortion, who supports LGBT rights, who supports workers and labor unions, somebody who cares about the environment, who cares about civil rights and equality and equity in terms of our economic system." Huerta goes on, in the documentary, to explain how she understands why many people think "feminism is for white women" and that is because middle-class women initially organized it. However, her stance is to show that women of color can be at the front of civil rights, labor, and feminist movements. When looking to the future of activism, Huerta believes that education is the way to go, stating: "We've got to include, from pre-K, the contributions of people of color in our schools today." She says this is the only way to erase the ignorance we have in the world right now.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Dolores Huerta and Gloria Steinem championed intersectionality in activism. In the 60's, when Huerta traveled to New York City for the Boycott of California Table Grapes, she was focused on bringing women to the fight. Said Huerta: “My mind was focused on getting those women at those conventions to support the farmworkers,". At the convention, Gloria Steinem voiced her support for Huerta's cause, which prompted Huerta to lend her support for the feminist movement. Huerta believes herself to be a “born again feminist”. By consciously incorporating feminism into her fight for workers’ rights, Huerta had more of an impact on how female workers were treated. Additionally, Steinem expanded the feminist movement to include issues surrounding race and feminism to show it was no longer a movement just for white women.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: In 2014, Dolores Huerta organized people in Colorado to vote against Amendment 67, which would have extended the definition of “person” and “child” in the Colorado Criminal Code and the Colorado Wrongful Death Act to include "unborn human beings", which could have restricted reproductive rights.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta spent three decades advocating for safer working conditions with the UFW. A key part of her platform was reducing harmful pesticides. As her movement grew more feminist in nature, this became more important as such pesticides cause pregnancy complications such as: decreased fertilitity, spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and developmental abnormalities.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Huerta married Ralph Head in college after her graduation in 1948. During their marriage, they had two daughters, Celeste and Lori.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: After divorcing Head, she married Ventura Huerta, with whom she bore five children. Their son Emilio Jesus Huerta entered politics and ran for Congress. Her second marriage ended in divorce as well, in part because of the significant amount of time that she spent away from the family while campaigning and organizing.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: Later, Huerta had a romantic relationship with Richard Chavez, the brother of César Chávez. Huerta and Chávez never married, but the couple had four children during their relationship. Richard Chávez died on July 27, 2011.


title: Dolores Huerta

text: The Dolores Huerta Papers are a part of the United Farm Workers Collections at the Walter P. Reuther Library. There is also significant material related to Huerta in the Cesar Chávez Papers at the Reuther Library.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: Desperado is the second studio album by the American band the Eagles. It was released on April 17, 1973, by Asylum Records. The album was produced by Glyn Johns and was recorded at Island Studios in London, England. The songs on "Desperado" are based on the themes of the Old West. The band members are featured on the album's cover dressed like an outlaw gang; "Desperado" remains the only Eagles album where the band members appear on the front cover.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: Although the title track is one of the Eagles' signature songs, it was never released as a single. The song "Desperado" was ranked number 494 on "Rolling Stone" 2004 list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". The album did yield two singles, "Tequila Sunrise" and "Outlaw Man", which reached number 64 and number 59 respectively. The album reached number 41 on the Billboard album chart and was certified gold by the RIAA on September 23, 1974, and double platinum on March 20, 2001.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: "Desperado" was the last Asylum Records album to be distributed in North America by Atlantic Records (catalog no. SD 5068), prior to Asylum's mid-1973 merger with Elektra Records by Asylum's, Elektra's and Atlantic's parent company, Warner Communications.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: After a commercially successful first album, Frey wanted the second album to be one with which they could be taken seriously as artists, and became interested in making a concept album. The original concept was for songs about anti-heroes; according to Glenn Frey, he was jamming together with Don Henley, Jackson Browne, and J. D. Souther after a Tim Hardin concert when they had the idea of doing an album about anti-heroes. One inspiration was a book on gunfighters of the Wild West given to Browne by Ned Doheny for his 21st birthday, and Browne showed them the book and suggested the theme. The book includes stories about Bill Dalton and Bill Doolin; from this came the song "Doolin-Dalton" about the Doolin-Dalton Gang. However, they ran out of ideas after writing "Doolin-Dalton" and "James Dean" about the eponymous actor. The idea for anti-heroes then became the Western-themed "Desperado", and the song "James Dean" would be used for the next album "On the Border" instead.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: Jackson Browne himself credited the song "Desperado" written by Frey and Henley, as the origin of the outlaw theme of the album. Bernie Leadon said that Frey liked the idea of an analogy between outlaw gangs and rock-and-roll: "Glenn sat everybody down and mapped out which characters in the gang could have songs written about them, or encouraged us to write songs about this concept." As Frey said of the album in an interview in 1973: "It has its moments where it definitely draws some parallels between rock-and-roll and being an outlaw. Outside the laws of normality, I guess. I mean, I feel like I'm breaking a law all the time. What we live and what we do is kind of a fantasy." Henley also said that the album was to be their "big artistic commentary on the evils of fame and success, with a cowboy metaphor." However, he admitted: "The metaphor was probably a little bullshit. We were in L.A. staying up all night, smoking dope, living the California life, and I suppose we thought it was as radical as cowboys in the old West. We were really rebelling against the music business, not society." Part of the reasons for their dissatisfaction and cynicism with the music business was due to David Geffen selling his independent Asylum label to Warner Communications which then merged it with Elektra, and the band attributed this as the reason for the lack of interest in promoting the band internationally by EMI.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: Frey and Henley decided that they should write songs together after they recorded their first album "Eagles" in London in 1972, and the first songs they wrote together days after they returned to Los Angeles were "Desperado" and "Tequila Sunrise", both written within the first week of their collaboration. The other songs in the album quickly came together after they had decided on the Western theme. While "Desperado" does not have a specific narrative, and the songs do not all necessarily fit in with the theme explicitly, the album has been described as being "suffused with the atmosphere of the open plains and a tough, peculiarly male kind of loneliness" that can "trick the listener into believing they are" tied to the theme.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: This album is the beginning of the songwriting partnership of Frey and Henley; in all Frey and Henley were involved in writing 8 of the 11 songs in the album. Henley noted: "That’s when we became a team." The songwriting prowess of Frey and Henley in "Desperado" also marks the beginning of their dominance in the band. Henley said in retrospect: "That was a real crucial time for us. When we formed the band, it was supposed to be one of those 'everybody's equal' affairs. We'd all sing and all write and so forth. But the fact is people aren't all going to be able to do everything the same. It's just like on a football team . . . . Some people quarterback and some people block. So we went through a lot of hassles for a while."


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: Leadon wrote two songs – "Twenty-One" and "Bitter Creek" – while Randy Meisner co-wrote "Certain Kind of Fool" and "Saturday Night". "Twenty-One" refers to the age of Emmett Dalton, the youngest of the Dalton gang, when he was shot 23 times but survived during the raid on Coffeyville, Kansas, in October 1892. Meisner came up with the idea for how someone became an outlaw in "Certain Kind of Fool", wrote most of it, and said of his contribution: "I kinda started it. And that's what usually happened – I'd get a verse or two, and I'm done, and they would help fill in the blanks" The only song on the album not written by the band members of Eagles is "Outlaw Man", which was written by David Blue and chosen because it fit the theme.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: The album was recorded at the Island Studios in London, which took four weeks at a cost of £30,000. The producer Glyn Johns wanted to produce the album quickly and economically, each track was therefore limited to four or five takes, and requests to record more were refused. Henley would later state that his greatest regret was that he did not sing as well as he could on the title track "Desperado", and would have liked to redo the song. According to the producer Johns, he and Leadon tried to come up with a few musical links in an attempt to tie up the story for an outlaw concept in the album; however, the concept itself dissipated. The band was very happy with the finished result; after Johns had played the album back to them as an entity for the first time, they carried him on their shoulders out of the control room.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: However, the finished recording was received poorly by Jerry Greenberg, the president of Atlantic Records, who said: "Jeez, they've made a fucking cowboy album!"


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: The film director Sam Peckinpah had planned to use the album as the basis for a film, but the plan did not come to fruition.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: The artwork for the album was done by artist Gary Burden with photos by Henry Diltz, both of whom were also responsible for Eagles' first album. To illustrate the theme for the music in the album, the original concept was for a gatefold double album with the band dressed as outlaws on the front cover with images of gunfight and the Wild West inside. The centerfold idea, however, was scrapped by David Geffen.


title: Desperado (Eagles album)

text: On the back of the album is an image of all four members of the band together with Jackson Browne and J. D. Souther lying dead and bound on the ground. A posse stands over them, including the producer Glyn Johns (far right in a white hat), manager John Hartmann, road manager Tommy Nixon, artist Boyd Elder (who would be responsible for the skull artwork of Eagles' later albums), roadies, and Gary Burden (far left). The photo is meant to be a reenactment of the historical image of the capture and death of the Dalton Gang. Jackson Browne said that the image on the back cover with the musicians lying dead is when the "whole thing really comes together".