title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: A Nominating Committee (NomCom) of ten randomly chosen volunteers who participate regularly at meetings is vested with the power to appoint, reappoint, and remove members of the IESG, IAB, IASA, and the IAOC. To date, no one has been removed by a NomCom, although several people have resigned their positions, requiring replacements.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In 1993 the IETF changed from an activity supported by the US Federal Government to an independent, international activity associated with the Internet Society, a US-based 501(c)(3) organization. Because the IETF itself does not have members, nor is it an organization "per se", the Internet Society provides the financial and legal framework for the activities of the IETF and its sister bodies (IAB, IRTF). IETF activities are funded by meeting fees, meeting sponsors and by the Internet Society via its organizational membership and the proceeds of the Public Interest Registry.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In December 2005 the IETF Trust was established to manage the copyrighted materials produced by the IETF.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) is a body composed of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) chair and area directors.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: It provides the final technical review of Internet standards and is responsible for day-to-day management of the IETF. It receives appeals of the decisions of the working groups, and the IESG makes the decision to progress documents in the standards track.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The chair of the IESG is the director of the General Area, who also serves as the overall IETF Chair. Members of the IESG include the two directors of each of the following areas:


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The Gateway Algorithms and Data Structures (GADS) Task Force was the precursor to the IETF. Its chairman was David L. Mills of the University of Delaware.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In January 1986, the Internet Activities Board (IAB; now called the Internet Architecture Board) decided to divide GADS into two entities: an Internet Architecture (INARC) Task Force chaired by Mills to pursue research goals, and the IETF to handle nearer-term engineering and technology transfer issues. The first IETF chair was Mike Corrigan, who was then the technical program manager for the Defense Data Network (DDN). Also in 1986, after leaving DARPA, Robert E. Kahn founded the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI), which began providing administrative support to the IETF.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: Effective March 1, 1989, but providing support dating back to late 1988, CNRI and NSF entered into a Cooperative Agreement No. NCR-8820945, wherein CNRI agreed to create and provide a "secretariat" for the "overall coordination, management and support of the work of the IAB, its various task forces and, particularly, the IETF."


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In 1992, CNRI supported the formation and early funding of the Internet Society, which took on the IETF as a fiscally sponsored project, along with the IAB, the IRTF, and the organization of annual INET meetings. Phill Gross continued to serve as IETF chair throughout this transition. Cerf, Kahn, and Lyman Chapin announced the formation of ISOC as "a professional society to facilitate, support, and promote the evolution and growth of the Internet as a global research communications infrastructure". At the first board meeting of the Internet Society, Vint Cerf, representing CNRI, offered, "In the event a deficit occurs, CNRI has agreed to contribute up to USD102000 to offset it." In 1993, Cerf continued to support the formation of ISOC while working for CNRI, and the role of ISOC in "the official procedures for creating and documenting Internet Standards" was codified in the IETF's .


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In 1995, IETF's describes ISOC's role in the IETF as being purely administrative, and ISOC as having "no influence whatsoever on the Internet Standards process, the Internet Standards or their technical content".


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In 1998, CNRI established Foretec Seminars, Inc. (Foretec), a for-profit subsidiary to take over providing Secretariat services to the IETF. Foretec provided these services until at least 2004. By 2013, Foretec was dissolved.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In 2018, ISOC established The IETF Administration LLC, a separate LLC to handle the administration of the IETF. In 2019, the LLC issued a call for proposals to provide secretariat services to the IETF.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The first IETF meeting was attended by 21 US Federal Government-funded researchers on 16 January 1986. It was a continuation of the work of the earlier GADS Task Force. Representatives from non-governmental entities (such as gateway vendors) were invited to attend starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. Since that time all IETF meetings have been open to the public.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: Initially, the IETF met quarterly, but from 1991, it has been meeting three times a year. The initial meetings were very small, with fewer than 35 people in attendance at each of the first five meetings. The maximum attendance during the first 13 meetings was only 120 attendees. This occurred at the 12th meeting held during January 1989. These meetings have grown in both participation and scope a great deal since the early 1990s; it had a maximum attendance of 2,810 at the December 2000 IETF held in San Diego, California. Attendance declined with industry restructuring during the early 2000s, and is currently around 1,200.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The location for IETF meetings vary greatly. A list of past and future meeting locations can be found on the IETF meetings page. The IETF strives to hold its meetings near where most of the IETF volunteers are located. For many years, the goal was three meetings a year, with two in North America and one in either Europe or Asia, alternating between them every other year. The current goal is to hold three meetings in North America, two in Europe and one in Asia during a two-year period. However, corporate sponsorship of the meetings is also an important factor and the schedule has been modified from time to time in order to decrease operational costs.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The IETF also organizes hackathons during the IETF meetings. The focus is on implementing code that will improve standards in terms of quality and interoperability.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The details of IETF operations have changed considerably as the organization has grown, but the basic mechanism remains publication of proposed specifications, development based on the proposals, review and independent testing by participants, and republication as a revised proposal, a draft proposal, or eventually as an Internet Standard. IETF standards are developed in an open, all-inclusive process in which any interested individual can participate. All IETF documents are freely available over the Internet and can be reproduced at will. Multiple, working, useful, interoperable implementations are the chief requirement before an IETF proposed specification can become a standard. Most specifications are focused on single protocols rather than tightly interlocked systems. This has allowed the protocols to be used in many different systems, and its standards are routinely re-used by bodies which create full-fledged architectures (e.g. 3GPP IMS).


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: Because it relies on volunteers and uses "rough consensus and running code" as its touchstone, results can be slow whenever the number of volunteers is either too small to make progress, or so large as to make consensus difficult, or when volunteers lack the necessary expertise. For protocols like SMTP, which is used to transport e-mail for a user community in the many hundreds of millions, there is also considerable resistance to any change that is not fully backward compatible, except for IPv6. Work within the IETF on ways to improve the speed of the standards-making process is ongoing but, because the number of volunteers with opinions on it is very great, consensus on improvements has been slow to develop.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: Statistics are available that show who the top contributors by RFC publication are. While the IETF only allows for participation by individuals, and not by corporations or governments, sponsorship information is available from these statistics.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The IETF Chairperson is selected by the Nominating Committee (NomCom) process for a 2-year renewable term. Before 1993, the IETF Chair was selected by the IAB.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: The IETF works on a broad range of networking technologies which provide foundation for the Internet's growth and evolution.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: It aims to improve the efficiency in management of networks as they grow in size and complexity. The IETF is also standardizing protocols for autonomic networking that enables networks to be self managing.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: It is a network of physical objects or things that are embedded with electronics, sensors, software and also enables objects to exchange data with operator, manufacturer and other connected devices. Several IETF working groups are developing protocols that are directly relevant to IoT.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: Its development provides the ability of internet applications to send data over the Internet. There are some well-established transport protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) which are continuously getting extended and refined to meet the needs of the global Internet.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: It divides its work into a number of areas that have Working groups that have a relation to an area's focus. Area Directors handle the primary task of area management. Area Directors may be advised by one or more Directorates. The area structure is defined by the Internet Engineering Steering Group. The Nominations Committee can be used to add new members.


title: Internet Engineering Task Force

text: In October 2018, Microsoft and Google engineers introduced a plan to create the Token Binding Protocol in order to stop replay attacks on OAuth tokens.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Hashim Mahomed Amla OIS (born 31 March 1983) is a South African former international cricketer who played for South Africa in all three formats of the game. Amla holds the record for being the fastest ever to score 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000 and 7000 ODI runs. He also became the fastest cricketer to reach 10 ODI centuries. Amla is an occasional off break bowler, and was South Africa's Test captain from June 2014 to January 2016.


title: Hashim Amla

text: He is a right-handed batsman and holds the record for the highest individual Test score of any South African batsman of 311 not out, scored against England at The Oval, London in July 2012.


title: Hashim Amla

text: He became the fastest cricketer to score 15, 16, 17, 18 and 20 centuries in One Day International (ODI) Cricket, doing so in 86, 94, 98, 102 and 108 innings respectively.


title: Hashim Amla

text: He has scored ODI centuries against all Test playing countries and is only the fourth person to do so. He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 2013. In 2017, he scored 2 centuries in the Indian Premier League, playing for Kings XI Punjab. He became the fastest player to score 7,000 runs in ODIs. On 3 June 2017, he became the fastest cricketer to reach 25 ODI centuries. On 19 January 2018, Amla broke Virat Kohli’s record for being the fastest cricketer to reach 27 centuries in ODI cricket. Amla has reached the milestone in 167 innings, surpassing Kohli’s 169.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Born in Durban, Amla is a devout Muslim. He was raised in a middle-class home and sent to the highly regarded Durban High School, which is also the alma mater of Lance Klusener and Barry Richards. His elder brother, Ahmed Amla, was also a professional cricketer. Ahmed made his debut two years earlier than Hashim and they played together for a time at the KwaZulu-Natal Dolphins. Amla married Sumaiyah and they have two children.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Upon graduating from Durban High School and impressing on the youth circuit, Amla made his debut for his provincial team, the KwaZulu-Natal Dolphins, soon captaining South Africa at the 2002 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in New Zealand, leading his team to the final. During his formative years, former Western Province captain and coach Hylton Ackerman had been influential in Amla's development, first spotting his talent and honing his skills during his coaching career. His promise led him to being appointed captain of KwaZulu-Natal at the young age of 21. Amla was cited as a future captain of South Africa ever since his first-class years. Amla moved from the Dolphins to Cape Cobras in 2013.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Amla played for the Trinbago Knight Riders in the Caribbean Premier League (CPL). He has scored 410 runs in 11 matches with a strike rate of 126.54.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Amla was picked for the 2016 Indian Premier League (IPL) by the Kings XI Punjab as a replacement for Shaun Marsh, after the latter's injury. Since then, he has proved to be an integral part of the team's batting lineup. He has scored 577 runs in 16 matches, which included two centuries and three half-centuries. He was named in the Cricbuzz IPL XI of the tournament. In the 2018 IPL auction, Amla went unsold despite making 577 runs with 2 centuries at an average of 44.38.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In October 2018, he was named in Durban Heat's squad for the first edition of the Mzansi Super League Twenty20 tournament. Just before the 2020 Pakistan Super League season, Hashim Amla replaced Younus Khan as batting mentor for Peshawar Zalmi.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In April 2021, he was named in Western Province's squad, ahead of the 2021–22 cricket season in South Africa.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Upon being appointed captain of the Dolphins, Amla began the 2004–2005 South African domestic season by scoring four centuries during his first eight innings. His success at the domestic level and consistent performances for the South Africa A squad led to him being chosen for the winter 2004 tour of Africa at the age of 21, thereby becoming the first South African of Indian descent to represent South Africa in international cricket.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Making his debut at Eden Gardens, Kolkata, on 28 November 2004, he initially made a slow start to his career, with his technique having been criticized after scoring 36 runs in the 2004 series against England. After honing his technique and working on his skills with the Dolphins, for whom he regularly top-scored in the South African domestic circuit, he proved his critics wrong in 2006 as he scored a comeback 149 against New Zealand at Newlands, Cape Town, helping guide South Africa to a match-saving draw. He subsequently continued this success, earning a national contract and scoring 1599 runs at an average of 57.10 in his next 19 Tests, solidifying his position as South Africa's regular number 3 batsman.


title: Hashim Amla

text: On 27 March 2008, he scored an unbeaten 159 against India in Chennai amidst searing conditions. His success throughout the 2008 year, in which he scored 1012 runs, consisted of numerous centuries and solid performances against India, England and Australia. During South Africa's 2009 tour of Australia, Amla helped South Africa win a historic Test and one day series victory over Australia, scoring 259 runs at an average of 51.80 during the Tests and contributing crucial scores in the one day series, including a match-winning 80 in the series clincher.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Amla has had four spells playing county cricket in England, for Essex in 2009, Nottinghamshire in 2010, Surrey in 2013 and Derbyshire in 2015. In April 2009, he was signed by Essex as their overseas player for a portion of the 2009 English county season, as a short-term replacement for Danish Kaneria. During his stay at the club, he scored two centuries in two Championship matches, including a match-saving 181 on his debut, the highest score by an Essex debutant, as well as 111 runs off 107 in his first Pro40 match, against Sussex. Essex fans had warmed to him throughout his stay, affectionately calling him "W. G." in reference to W. G. Grace.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During England's 2009–2010 tour of South Africa, Amla was an integral member of the side throughout the series, scoring a crucial century in the first Test at Centurion and contributing important innings during the rest of the series. His performances saw him move up the ICC Test batting rankings.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Amla started 2010 in February with a two-match Test series against India in India. In the first Test he scored 253* as South Africa reached 558. After this a superb bowling performance from Dale Steyn meant that India were bowled out for 233 with Steyn bagging seven wickets. India were bowled out for 319 after being forced to follow-on as South Africa won by an innings and six runs. In the second Test match Amla made 114 before being caught by MS Dhoni. Despite Amla's century the remaining South African batting order could only manage 296. India batted and scored 643 with centuries from Virender Sehwag, Sachin Tendulkar, VVS Laxman and MS Dhoni. The South African chase collapsed poorly but Amla still managed another century scoring 123* as South Africa were bowled out for 290 and crashed to an innings defeat. After this Amla toured the West Indies for 5 ODIs and three Test matches. Amla top-scored in the first ODI with 102 as South Africa coasted to a comfortable victory. He followed this up with 92 in the second ODI as South Africa again sealed a 17 run victory. In the third ODI, Amla scored 30, but in the fourth ODI he returned with a century by scoring 129 off 115 balls. He made 45 in the fifth and final ODI before he was run-out by Kieron Pollard as South Africa won narrowly by one wicket.


title: Hashim Amla

text: The three-match Test series was one where Amla performed consistently but didn't register any centuries, he top scored with 44. The first Test was a poor one for Amla scoring 2 and 5 as South Africa still won comfortably. In the following Test he scored 44 and 41 as the match was drawn, he scored 5 and 25 in the final Test match as South Africa won by seven wickets.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In the three-match ODI series against Zimbabwe, Amla scored 110 as South Africa gave Zimbabwe 351 to win and South Africa won the match by 64 runs. The second ODI saw Amla score 110 as South Africa cruised to an 8 wicket victory and sealed the three match series with one game to spare. Amla had a quiet final ODI scoring 24 as South Africa won by 264 runs.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Amla went into a five-match ODI series against Pakistan on the back of good form and in the first ODI managed 35 as South Africa won by 8 wickets. Amla scored a quickfire half century in the second ODI before being given out lbw to a Shahid Afridi leg break, despite this good knock from Amla and 286 from South Africa, they couldn't win the match courtesy of a superb century by Abdul Razzaq scoring 109 off just 73 balls. In the third ODI Amla scored 119* as the rest of the South African order collapsed around him and the team only managed 228, however South Africa won the match by just two runs courtesy of some superb death bowling yorkers from Rusty Theron.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Following these excellent performances in the ODI format Amla was selected in the 12-man Twenty20 squad against India, at the Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban. He was selected in place of opener Loots Bosman. The most significant thing about the match before it started or ended was that it was the final match for iconic fast bowler Makhaya Ntini, known for being one of the greatest personalities in modern cricket.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During the Proteas tour of England, he scored the highest ever Test score by a South African and the country's first triple century while playing in the 1st Test at The Oval. He scored 311 not out in a man of the match performance, as South Africa defeated England by an innings and 12 runs. He then scored his 16th Test century in the 2nd innings of the 3rd Test at Lord's, as South Africa beat England by 51 runs to clinch the series by 2–0 and ascended to the top of the ICC Test rankings. He was South Africa's man of the series and during the ODI series that followed, he scored a career-best 150 (from 124 balls) in the 2nd match against England in Southampton.


title: Hashim Amla

text: They then toured to Australia, where Amla scored 104 and shared a 165 run 3rd wicket partnership with Jacques Kallis in the 1st Test at the Gabba, Amla and Kallis are the most prolific partnership in South Africa's Test match history. In the 3rd Test at the WACA, Amla scored 196 in the 2nd innings in a match-winning, series-clinching effort. Together with Graeme Smith, their 2nd wicket stand of 178 in 2 while his century came up in 87 balls.


title: Hashim Amla

text: For his performances in 2012, he was named in the World Test XI by the ICC and Cricinfo. He was also named in the ODI XI of the year by Cricinfo.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During bilateral series against New Zealand in January 2013, Amla was requested to lead the team due to suspension of regular captain AB de Villiers for 2 matches due to slow overrate, that Amla declined requesting to be left to "concentrate on his batting".


title: Hashim Amla

text: In August 2013, it was announced that Amla had signed for Surrey, for whom he made a limited number of appearances in domestic matches.


title: Hashim Amla

text: For his performances in 2013, he was named both in the World Test XI and ODI XI by the ICC. He was also named in the Test XI for 2013 by Cricinfo.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In June 2014, Amla became South Africa's first permanent non-white Test captain (although Ashwell Prince had it temporarily), ahead of the Sri Lanka tour following Graeme Smith's retirement. Amla captained his side to a historic victory against Sri Lanka in his first Test series as captain. He continued to make domestic appearances for Surrey when other commitments allowed.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In January 2015, he was named man of the series in a bilateral series against the West Indies. In August 2015, he was named man of the match against New Zealand for his match winning century. He was included in the Boland cricket team squad for the 2015 Africa T20 Cup.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In January 2016, Amla stepped down as South Africa captain following a drawn Test against England at Newlands. This was preceded by his poor run of form and his team's poor performance against India in November 2015. His team lost the first Test against England in the home series. The second Test, the one after which Amla announced his resignation, ended in a draw after a double hundred from the South African captain.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During the first Test against Sri Lanka at St George's Park, Amla was dismissed lbw to Nuwan Pradeep in the second innings, becoming the 10,000th lbw victim in Test cricket history.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During the third Test against Sri Lanka on 12 January 2017, Amla played his 100th Test, becoming the 8th South African to play 100 Test matches. By ending 9 innings without a fifty in recent Test tours, Amla finally scored his 26th century in his 100th match and regained his Test average over 50 as well.


title: Hashim Amla

text: With that century, Amla became the 8th Test player overall and 2nd South African after Graeme Smith to score a century in their 100th Test. After playing 100 Test matches he got the title (#Mighty hash).


title: Hashim Amla

text: In August 2017, he was named in a World XI side to play three Twenty20 International matches against Pakistan in the 2017 Independence Cup in Lahore.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In April 2019, he was named in South Africa's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup. On 19 June 2019, in the match against New Zealand, Amla became the second-fastest batsman, in terms of innings, to score 8,000 runs in ODIs, doing so in his 176th innings.


title: Hashim Amla

text: On 8 August 2019, Amla announced his playing retirement from all forms of international cricket. After retiring from international cricket, he joined Cape Town Blitz franchise team as a batting consultant for the 2019 Mzansi Super League tournament.


title: Hashim Amla

text: Later in December, Amla headed one of the teams of Qatar T10 League, Falcon Hunters, as the leading international batsmen.


title: Hashim Amla

text: In January 2020, Pakistan Super League franchise Peshawar Zalmi signed Amla as team's batting mentor for the 2020 season.


title: Hashim Amla

text: During a Test match between South Africa and Sri Lanka on 7 August 2006, Australian TEN Sports commentator Dean Jones referred to Amla as a "terrorist" after he had taken a catch; after incorrectly assuming that broadcasting switched to a commercial break, he said, "The terrorist gets another wicket". The broadcast was aired around the world, including South Africa, and Jones was widely condemned by South African fans, players and several former cricketers and commentators, leading to the channel terminating its contract with Jones. After the incident, Jones reportedly apologized to Amla, stating that his comments were never "supposed to be heard over the air", which he accepted.


title: Papadam

text: A papad is an Indian deep fried dough of black gram bean flour, either fried or cooked with dry heat (flipped over an open flame) until crunchy. Other flours made from lentils, chickpeas, rice, tapioca, millet or potato are also used. "Papad" is typically served as an accompaniment to a meal in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Caribbean or as an appetizer, often with a dip such as chutneys or toppings, such as chopped onions and chili peppers, or they may be used as an ingredient in currys.


title: Papadam

text: "Papad" is likely derived from the Sanskrit word "parpaṭa" (पर्पट), meaning a flattened disc described in early Jain and Buddhist literature. Papad are known by several names in the various languages of India, e.g. "appalam" in Tamil; "happala" in Kannada; "papadam" (පපඩම්) in Sinhala; "pappadam" in Malayalam; "appadam" in Telugu; "papad" in Marathi, Punjabi and Gujarati; and "pampada" in Odia.


title: Papadam

text: Some divergence of transliteration may be noted in the third consonant in the Hindi/Urdu word "pāpaṛ ("Hindi: पापड़, Urdu: ). The sound is the retroflex flap , which is written in Hindi with the Devanagari letter ड़, and in Urdu script with the Perso-Arabic letter ڑ. Although in ISO 15919 the Hindi letter is transliterated as <ṛ>, popular or nonstandard transliterations of Hindi use <d> for this sound. The occurrence of this consonant in the word has given rise to two alternative spellings in English: "papar" (anglicized as "popper"), which reflects its phonology, and "papad", which reflects its etymology.


title: Papadam

text: "Papad" recipes vary from region to region and from households to households. They are typically made from a flour or paste derived from lentils, chickpeas, black gram, rice, or potatoes.


title: Papadam

text: Salt and peanut oil are added to make a dough, which can be flavored with seasonings such as chili, cumin, garlic, or black pepper. Sometimes, baking soda or slaked lime are also added. The dough is shaped into thin, round flatbreads, dried, (traditionally in the sun), and can be cooked by deep frying, roasting over an open flame, toasting, or microwaving, depending on the desired texture.


title: Papadam

text: Bikaner is the hub of chickpea and green gram "papad" manufacturing. Potato "papad" is made in Varanasi. Most sweet- and snack-selling national companies are also involved in this business. In the north, papads made in the city of Amritsar and its surrounds (Amritsari Papar Warian) are especially famous. The Lijjat Papad company, headquartered in Mumbai, is a major manufacturer, and is often cited as an exemplar of the women's empowerment movement in India, as it is run entirely by women.


title: Papadam

text: In most Indian restaurants around the world, they are served as an appetizer with dips, which often include mango chutney, lime pickle, onion chutney, and "raita". Masala papar with sev, onion, tomato and coriander leaves is one of India's most popular appetizers.


title: Papadam

text: "Papadam" can be prepared from different ingredients and methods. Arguably, the most popular recipe uses flour ground from hulled split black gram mixed with black pepper, salt, and a small amount of vegetable oil and a food-grade alkali, and the mixture is kneaded. A well-kneaded dough is then flattened into very thin rounds and then dried and stored for later preparation and consumption. It may also contain rice, jackfruit, sago, etc., as main ingredients.


title: Papadam

text: Cracked black pepper, red chili powder, asafoetida, or cumin or sesame seeds are often used as flavoring agents. Papar (also called Happala in South India) is also made from rice flakes, ragi or horsegram.


title: Career

text: The career is an individual's metaphorical "journey" through learning, work and other aspects of life. There are a number of ways to define career and the term is used in a variety of ways.


title: Career

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines the word "career" as a person's "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion of life)". This definition relates "career" to a range of aspects of an individual's life, learning, and work. "Career" is also frequently understood to relate to the working aspects of an individual's life - as in "career woman", for example. A third way in which the term "career" is used describes an occupation or a profession that usually involves special training or formal education, considered to be a person's lifework. In this case "a career" is seen as a sequence of related jobs, usually pursued within a single industry or sector: one can speak for example of "a career in education", of "a criminal career" or of "a career in the building trade". A career has been defined by organizational behavior researchers as "an individual's work-related and other relevant experiences, both inside and outside of organizations, that form a unique pattern over the individual's life span."


title: Career

text: The Online Etymology Dictionary claims the semantic extension whereby "career" came to mean "course of one's public or professional life" appears from 1803. It is used in dozens of books published in the year 1800, in reference to Goethe's "literary career," other biographical figures' "business career" and "professional career," so the phrase likely was in regular use by the year 1800.


title: Career

text: By the late 20th century, a wide range of variations (especially in the range of potential professions) and more widespread education had allowed it to become possible to plan (or design) a career: In this respect the careers of the career counselor and of the career advisor have grown up. It is also not uncommon for adults in the late 20th/early 21st centuries to have dual or multiple careers, either sequentially or concurrently. Thus, professional identities have become hyphenated or hybridized to reflect this shift in work ethic. Economist Richard Florida notes this trend generally and more specifically among the "creative class".


title: Career

text: Career management or career development describes the active and purposeful management of a career by an individual. Ideas of what comprise "career management skills" are described by the Blueprint model (in the United States, Canada, Australia, Scotland, and England) and the Seven C's of Digital Career Literacy (specifically relating to the Internet skills).


title: Career

text: Key skills include the ability to reflect on one's current career, research the labour market, determine whether education is necessary, find openings, and make career changes.


title: Career

text: According to Behling and others, an individual's decision to join a firm may depend on any of the three factors viz. objective factor, subjective factor and critical contact.


title: Career

text: These theories assume that candidates have a free choice of employers and careers. In reality, the scarcity of jobs and strong competition for desirable jobs severely skews the decision-making process. In many markets, employees work particular careers simply because they were forced to accept whatever work was available to them. Additionally, Ott-Holland and colleagues found that culture can have a major influence on career choice, depending on the type of culture.


title: Career

text: When choosing a career that's best for you, according to US News, there are multiple things to consider. Some of those include: natural talents, work style, social interaction, work–life balance, whether or not you are looking to give back, whether you are comfortable in the public eye, dealing with stress or not, and finally, how much money you want to make. If choosing a career feels like too much pressure, here's another option: pick a path that feels right today by making the best decision you can, and know that you can change your mind in the future. In today's workplace, choosing a career doesn't necessarily mean you have to stick with that line of work for your entire life. Make a smart decision, and plan to re-evaluate down the line based on your long-term objectives.


title: Career

text: Changing occupation is an important aspect of career and career management. Over a lifetime, both the individual and the labour market will change; it is to be expected that many people will change occupations during their lives. Data collected by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics through the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth in 1979 showed that individuals between the ages of 18 and 38 will hold more than 10 jobs.


title: Career

text: There are various reasons why people might want to change their careers. Sometimes career change can come as the result of a long-anticipated layoff, while other times it can occur unexpectedly and without warning.


title: Career

text: According to an article on Time.com, one out of three people currently employed (as of 2008) spends about an hour per day searching for another position.


title: Career

text: Career success is a term used frequently in academic and popular writing about career. It refers to the extent and ways in which an individual can be described as successful in his or her working life so far.


title: Career

text: During the 1950s and 1960s, individuals typically worked for one or two firms during their career and success was defined by the organization and measured by promotions, increases in salary, and/or status. Such traditional careers were exemplified by Donald Super's career stage model. Super's linear career stage model suggested that careers take place within the context of stable, organizational structures. Individuals moved up the organization's hierarchy seeking greater extrinsic rewards.


title: Career

text: Early career success may breed disappointment later, especially when a person's self-worth is tied up in their career or achievements. Professional success tends to come early in some fields, such as scientific research, and later in other fields, such as teaching.


title: Career

text: Earnings can be expressed either in absolute terms (e.g. the amount a person earns) or in relative terms (e.g. the amount a person earns compared with their starting salary). Earnings and status are examples of objective criteria of success, where "objective" means that they can be factually verified, and are not purely a matter of opinion.


title: Career

text: Many observers argue that careers are less predictable than they once were, due to the fast pace of economic and technological change. This means that career management is more obviously the responsibility of the individual rather than his or her employing organisation, because a "job for life" is a thing of the past. This has put more emphasis on subjective criteria of career success. These include job satisfaction, career satisfaction, work-life balance, a sense of personal achievement, and attaining work that is consistent with one's personal values. A person's assessment of his or her career success is likely to be influenced by social comparisons, such as how well family members, friends, or contemporaries at school or college have done.


title: Career

text: The amount and type of career success a person achieves is affected by several forms of career capital. These include social capital (the extent and depth of personal contacts a person can draw upon), human capital (demonstrable abilities, experiences and qualifications), economic capital (money and other material resources which permit access to career-related resources), and cultural capital (having skills, attitudes or general know-how to operate effectively in a particular social context).


title: Career

text: There are a range of different educational, counseling, and human resource management interventions that can support individuals to develop and manage their careers. Career support is commonly offered while people are in education, when they are transitioning to the labour market, when they are changing career, during periods of unemployment, and during transition to retirement. Support may be offered by career professionals, other professionals or by non-professionals such as family and friends. Professional career support is sometimes known as "career guidance" as in the OECD definition of career guidance:


title: Career

text: However this use of the term "career guidance" can be confusing as the term is also commonly used to describe the activities of career counselors.


title: Career

text: Career support is offered by a range of different mechanisms. Much career support is informal and provided through personal networks or existing relationships such as management. There is a market for private career support however the bulk of career support that exists as a professionalised activity is provided by the public sector.


title: Career

text: Some research shows adding one year of schooling beyond high school creates an increase of wages 17.8% per worker. However, additional years of schooling, beyond 9 or 10 years, have little effect on worker's wages. In summary, better educated, bigger benefits. In 2010, 90% of the U.S. Workforce had a high school diploma, 64% had some college, and 34% had at least a bachelor's degree.


title: Career

text: The common problem that people may encounter when trying to achieve an education for a career is the cost. The career that comes with the education must pay well enough to be able to pay off the schooling. The benefits of schooling can differ greatly depending on the degree (or certification) obtained, the programs the school may offer, and the ranking of the school. Sometimes, colleges provide students more with just education to prepare for careers. It is not uncommon for colleges to provide pathways and support straight into the workforce the students may desire.


title: Career

text: Much career support is delivered face-to-face, but an increasing amount of career support is delivered online.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: Secret Diary of a Call Girl is a British drama television series that aired from 27 September 2007 to 22 March 2011 on ITV2, based on the blog and books by the pseudonymous Belle de Jour. It stars Billie Piper as Belle, a high-end London call girl.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The series was written by Lucy Prebble, who is also the author of the plays "The Sugar Syndrome" and "Enron". The series has been compared to "Sex and the City" by many critics, mainly due to its humorous approach to sex.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The series, set in London, revolves around the life of Hannah Baxter (Billie Piper), a young woman who lives a secret life as a call girl, under the pseudonym Belle. The series focuses on her professional and private lives and on complications that arise when these collide. She receives help and advice from her best friend Ben (Iddo Goldberg). In the second series premiere, a new call girl is introduced: Bambi (Ashley Madekwe). Hannah becomes close friends with Bambi and often advises her.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: Hannah, as the main character, also narrates the series, sometimes through voiceovers but more frequently by breaking the fourth wall. During the first series, the episodes are held together by a light story arc. Series 2 and 3 rely heavily on story arcs, mainly in the form of Hannah's romances, with Alex and Duncan respectively.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The rights to the blog were bought by Silverapples Media (Avril MacRory and Paul Duane), who co-produced the series with Tiger Aspect Productions. The series was initially developed with Channel 4 and when Channel 4 passed on the project, ITV took over. The series aired in a late-night 10pm slot, as part of ITV2's "XXL Thursday" programming block.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The theme song is an excerpt of "You Know I'm No Good" by Amy Winehouse. The song runs whilst the intertitle plays, showing Belle applying make-up and getting dressed, interspersed with shots of urban London.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: Both series 1 and 2 consisted of eight episodes: the series was commissioned for a third series, even before the second series was aired. Series 2 became complicated to film due to Piper's pregnancy and body doubles were hired.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The filming of series 3 began at the start of 2009, once Piper had recovered after the birth of her son, Winston, in October 2008. Piper also stated she would be taking on the role of executive producer of the upcoming series as well. Ahead of the series 3 premiere ITV2 aired a one-off interview between Piper and Brooke Magnanti, who had written under the Belle de Jour pseudonym, entitled, "Billie and the Real Belle Bare All".


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The series was first broadcast on 27 September 2007 on ITV2 in the United Kingdom. It was watched by 1.9 million, a record (which has since been beaten by "Bionic Woman") for ITV2.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: In Canada, the first series began on Showcase on 22 November 2007. The second series debuted on The Movie Network on 19 January 2009.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: In the United States, Showtime aired the first series of eight half-hour episodes beginning in June 2008, with a commitment for an additional 12 episodes. Robert Greenblatt, Showtime's president of entertainment, initially considered buying format rights and recasting it with American actors, but he ultimately decided that the original was "fantastic"; Greenblatt also noted that "it's very hard to find American actresses who are comfortable doing nudity." The second series aired on 18 January 2009. On 6 November 2009, Showtime announced that the show's third series would return on 25 January 2010 at 10:00pm. Showtime scheduled the fourth series to premiere 7 April 2011, at 10:30pm.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The first series was released on 7 January 2008 on Region 2 DVD. Series 2 was released in the United Kingdom on 2 March 2009 and like the first series classified 18. On the same day, a four disc box set edition consisting of both series 1 and 2 was released. On both sets, much of the popular music was replaced due to high licensing costs.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The entire series is also available to download on iTunes and to stream on Netflix UK, Lovefilm UK and Tubi.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: In the United States the Region 1 version of series 1 was released on 6 January 2009. Series 2 was released soon afterwards, in June. Again, much of the music was replaced due to high licensing costs.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The series was mainly well received by critics, with Tim Goodman of The "San Francisco Chronicle" saying, "there's surprise at how much you've underestimated its quality." It was graded A− by "Entertainment Weekly", which said, "you will find a rather fascinating drama." "Entertainment Weekly" also commented on Billie Piper's portrayal of Belle, saying, "Piper is extraordinary, intermittently talking right to the camera in a straightforward, conspiratorial manner, the way a prostitute who's really good at her job would talk to a client." It was less well received, however, by "The New York Times", which said, ""Secret Diary" has amusing touches, but not enough to sustain an entire series."


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: Whilst reviewing Series 3 of "Secret Diary of a Call Girl", Gerard O'Donovan of "The Telegraph" opined that the show focuses too much on Piper's character, saying "All the characters, apart from Belle (Piper), are about as two-dimensional as cardboard cut-outs – and no more engaging."


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: Piper hit back at the claims saying, "We've only been exposed to the drug-fuelled, sex traffic side – but the fact is, there are middle-class, cultured, well-read women who take part in this job."


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The first series averaged 1,242,125 viewers in the UK. The following weekly viewership statistics are from the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board.


title: Secret Diary of a Call Girl

text: The series premiered in the United States on Showtime to the highest ratings the cable channel had seen in four years for a television premiere. The series debut reached almost one million viewers, its closest rival, "Dexter", premiered to 604,000. The showing held on to an impressive 70% of its lead-in audience that tuned in for the fourth-series premiere of "Weeds".


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Lois June Nettleton (August 16, 1927 – January 18, 2008) was an American film, stage, radio, and television actress. She received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations and won two Daytime Emmy Awards.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Lois Nettleton was born on August 16, 1927 in Oak Park, Illinois to Virginia and Edward L. Nettleton. She was also raised by her maternal aunt's family. She attended Senn High School, where she was a classmate of Lee Stern, and Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University). She was Miss Chicago of 1948 and a semifinalist at the Miss America 1948 Pageant. After performing to favorable reviews with Geraldine Page in repertory theatre at the New Lake Zurich Playhouse (Lake Zurich, Illinois) in 1946 and with the Woodstock Players (Woodstock, Illinois) the following year, her professional acting career began in 1949. She understudied Barbara Bel Geddes in the original Broadway production of Tennessee Williams' "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" and appeared on television in a production of "Flowers from a Stranger" on Westinghouse Studio One on the CBS network in 1949.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: She performed in dozens of guest-starring roles on television shows. Early roles included "The Twilight Zone" (episode "The Midnight Sun", 1961); "Naked City"; "Route 66"; "Mr. Novak"; "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour" (episode "The Dark Pool", 1963); "The Eleventh Hour"; "Hawaii Five-O"; "Dr. Kildare"; "Twelve O'Clock High"; "The Fugitive"; "The F.B.I."; "Cannon"; "Bonanza"; "Gunsmoke" (starring in 1961 as the title character in season 7, episode 12’s "Nina’s Revenge," where she played an abused wife driven to murder after finally finding love); "The Virginian"; and "Daniel Boone". In 1973, she appeared on "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" as Lou Grant's new boss, Barbara Coleman.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: She appeared in the pilot episode of "The Eddie Capra Mysteries" in 1978, as well as hit TV miniseries, such as "" and "Centennial", as the murderous Maude Wendell.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: In 1987, she portrayed the role of Penny Vanderhof Sycamore on the TV series version of the Kaufman and Hart comedy play "You Can't Take It with You" with Harry Morgan and Richard Sanders. She was a regular celebrity guest on various versions of the game show "Pyramid" from the 1970s through 1991.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Nettleton won two Emmy Awards during her career. She won one for her role as Susan B. Anthony in the television film "The American Woman: Profiles in Courage" (1977), and for "A Gun for Mandy" (1983), which was an episode of the religious anthology "Insight". She received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for the "Golden Girls" episode "Isn't It Romantic?." She also received Emmy nominations for her work in the TV movie "Fear on Trial" (1975) (Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Special) and for a recurring role on the series "In the Heat of the Night" in 1989 (Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series). Nettleton appeared in a 2006 Christmas TV movie special titled "The Christmas Card".


title: Lois Nettleton

text: A life member of the Actors Studio, Nettleton made her Broadway debut in the 1949 production of Dalton Trumbo's play, "The Biggest Thief in Town". She appeared in a short-lived off-Broadway production of "Look Charlie", which was written by her future husband, humorist Jean Shepherd. It opened for three performances in late December 1958 and closed after several more the following February.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: She received critical praise for her performance as Blanche DuBois in a 1973 revival of "A Streetcar Named Desire". Nettleton was nominated for a Tony Award for her performance as Amy in a 1976 revival of "They Knew What They Wanted". Other stage credits include Broadway productions of "Darkness at Noon" and "Silent Night, Lonely Night". She continued to act onstage into her 70s. Her final stage performance was in 2004, in an off-Broadway play, "How to Build a Better Tulip".


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Nettleton appeared in episodes of the "CBS Radio Mystery Theater". In her later years, she did several voice roles for Disney, such as "Disney's House of Mouse," "Mickey's House of Villains" (as Maleficent), and "Herc's Adventures".


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Nettleton was the first caller to Jean Shepherd's late-night radio program on WOR, later becoming his third wife. She became a regular guest, known to listeners as "the Listener." They appeared together in Shepherd's off-Broadway theater piece "Look, Charlie!", which opened in December 1958. They married on December 3, 1960, in Tarrytown, New York. It has been reported that they divorced in 1967. She never remarried or had children.


title: Lois Nettleton

text: Nettleton made her last public appearance in August 2007 at the "Twilight Zone" Convention in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey. Five months later, in January 2008, she died in Woodland Hills, California, at the age of 80 from a brain tumor. She was interred in New York City's Saint Raymond's Cemetery.


title: Manam (film)

text: Manam () is a 2014 Indian Telugu-language fantasy drama film written and directed by Vikram Kumar, and produced by the Akkineni Family under the Annapurna Studios banner. The film stars Akkineni Nageswara Rao, Nagarjuna, Naga Chaitanya, Shriya Saran and Samantha Ruth Prabhu. The film is set in various time periods, over the course of a hundred years up until 2013, and deals with the concepts of rebirth and eternal love. The plot features a wealthy businessman, Nageswara Rao (Nagarjuna), attempting to bring a young couple together resembling his deceased parents and the elderly Chaitanya's (Nageswara Rao) attempts to bring the businessman and a doctor together. They resemble Chaitanya's deceased parents, who died because of a mistake committed by him in his childhood.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film was made with a budget of 28 crore ($4.6 million). Harsha Vardhan wrote the film's dialogues, while Anup Rubens composed the film's music. P. S. Vinod handled the film's cinematography and Prawin Pudi edited the film. Production began on 3 June 2013. Principal photography began on 7 June 2013 and was shot in and around Hyderabad, Coorg and Mysore till mid April 2014.


title: Manam (film)

text: "Manam" was the last film of Nageswara Rao, who died on 22 January 2014 during the film's production phase and was promoted as a "befitting send off" and a tribute from his son, Nagarjuna. The film released worldwide on 23 May 2014 to positive reviews from critics and was commercially successful, collecting 62 crore ($10.2 million) in its lifetime. It was screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India in the "Homage to ANR" section on 29 November 2014. The film garnered several accolades. It won five Filmfare Awards South including the Best Film and Best Director in Telugu films category.


title: Manam (film)

text: Radha Mohan and Krishna Veni are a couple who were initially in love with each other but later on lead a difficult marital life due to several misunderstandings and decide to file for divorce, against their six-year-old son's wishes. However, they die in a car accident on 14 February 1983 at 10:20  am near a clock tower on their way to the lawyer's office. 30 years later, their son, Nageswara Rao, becomes a rich and influential businessman. He happens to come across his parents' lookalikes, Nagarjuna and Priya. After befriending them, Rao decides to re-establish them as a couple but is shocked when Nagarjuna introduces his lover, Prema. Rao manages to dissolve the relationship with the help of his adviser, Girish Karnad. Unaware of this, Nagarjuna swears not to fall in love with anyone. At the same clock tower, Rao meets Dr. Anjali and falls in love with her at first sight. He helps her in admitting an injured old man to a nearby hospital and donates his blood. The injured man, Chaitanya, is shocked upon seeing the pair as they resemble his deceased parents, Seetharamudu and Ramalakshmi.


title: Manam (film)

text: Seetharamudu was a barrister who returned from London upon his father's death to manage his family businesses. He was a zamindar and fond of cars. While looking through photos of potential brides, Seetharamudu selects a poor farmer, Ramalakshmi. Asked by a mediator, she accepts the proposal, without meeting Seetharamudu, but asks him for six months delay as she has to buy new clothes for the bridegroom, following the village's tradition. Seetharamudu learns about this and meets Ramalakshmi in disguise as a reformed thief. With his help, Ramalakshmi can cultivate enough grain in three months and buy new clothes with that money. On the day of her marriage, she is pleasantly surprised to know that Seetharamudu is her chosen groom and they marry. On 14 February 1924, the couple goes out, but eight-year-old Chaitanya, suffering from a fever, fakes a stomach ache so that his parents return. The plan works and the couple rushes home at high speed but dies in an accident at 10:20  am near the same clock tower where Radha Mohan and Krishna Veni would die nearly 60 years later. Now, Chaitanya aims to reunite them without letting them recollect their past as they cannot bear the pain of losing him.


title: Manam (film)

text: Chaitanya stays in Rao's house for further treatment while Nagarjuna joins them as he was expelled from his hostel due to his mischievous trait- Nagarjuna drinks the whole day in the hostel talking about his broken love & when the principal inquiries about his health, he argues with him & in the meantime begins to experience nausea & as the argument proceeds, Nagarjuna starts to vomit on the principal & out of fury principal throws him out of the hostel. One night, Priya, remembering her past life, visits Rao's house only to see Nagarjuna sleeping beside him. She leaves the house in tears. While Rao attempts to court Anjali, Nagarjuna and Priya join Salsa dance classes where Priya constantly expresses her anger towards Nagarjuna. On Rao's birthday, 13 February 2014, Anjali proposes to him which he accepts. This makes Chaitanya very happy. Priya meets Nagarjuna there who is dressed as Radha Mohan, who reveals that he too recollected memories of his past life on the night she left the house in shock. He apologizes for his wrong deeds and proposes to her. She accepts his proposal and Rao is relieved.


title: Manam (film)

text: The next day, Nagarjuna goes to a temple with Priya in a car that has no brakes and Rao chases them along with Anjali. Both the couples are nearing the same clock tower where they died in their past lives. A worried Chaitanya is offered a lift by a young biker who follows them. At 10:20  am when all the four are safe near the clock tower, a lorry driven by a drunk driver is shown rushing towards them. The biker and Chaitanya jump from the bike, which goes on to hit the lorry tire, distracting the lorry's path. The four thank Chaitanya, who urges them to thank the random-biker Akhil, who saved them in the nick of time by offering Chaitanya a lift.


title: Manam (film)

text: After the release of "100% Love" (2011), Nagarjuna decided to act and produce in an all-star film along with his father, actor Akkineni Nageswara Rao and elder son Naga Chaitanya. Nageswara Rao suggested Nagarjuna to begin the film as early as possible, because of his age. After examining and rejecting many scripts due to a perceived lack of novelty, Nagarjuna was advised by actor Nithin's father and distributor Sudhakar Reddy to listen to a script by Vikram Kumar, who was directing Nithin and Nithya Menen in "Ishq" (2012). Although he liked the script after the first narration, he agreed to act in the film only after watching "Ishq" before its theatrical release.


title: Manam (film)

text: Kumar requested Nagarjuna a year's time to complete and provide the finishing touches to the script. The latter read the script to director K. Raghavendra Rao, who suggested Kumar develop a simpler version, as the original was too complicated. The rewritten version was read to Nagarjuna in two and a half hours and to Nageswara Rao over six hours, as the latter wanted every detail to be clear. Due to the complex nature of the second half, the latter suggested Kumar to add a comedy plotline between grandfather and grandson. After its incorporation into the script, and after considering the titles "Hum" and "Trayam", "Manam" was chosen as the film's title on Nageswara Rao's suggestion.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film was officially launched on 3 June 2013 at Annapurna Studios office by conducting a small pooja ceremony. Nageswara Rao died in late January 2014, making this film his last project as an actor. The promotion material featured the "Akkineni Family" as the film's producer. Nagarjuna revealed in an interview that he did so because Nageswara Rao taught his family the importance of it in his last days. Reliance Entertainment co-produced and distributed the film.


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna engaged Samantha Ruth Prabhu as the second female lead, to be paired with Chaitanya in the film. This was her third collaboration with Chaitanya after "Ye Maaya Chesave" (2010) and "Autonagar Surya" (2014). Her inclusion was confirmed in mid-October 2012 by Nagarjuna in an interview with "The Times of India".


title: Manam (film)

text: Ileana D'Cruz was approached for the main female lead role to be paired with Nagarjuna in early February 2013. She was impressed with her role and the film's script and quoted a fee of 20 million, which was denied by sources close to her. However, Shriya Saran was signed as the main female lead as her fourth collaboration with Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna announced in mid September 2013 that Kaushal Sharma, Srikar Chittarbu and Krishna Yadav, who graduated from the Annapurna International School of Film and Media, would make their debut with this film.


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna's younger son Akhil Akkineni was rumoured to be making a cameo appearance following Nageswara Rao's request. Sources close to the film's unit initially denied those reports. Samantha later tweeted that Akhil appeared for shooting his portions in the film. When his health conditions worsened, Nageswara Rao asked Nagarjuna to bring the dubbing equipment to dub for his role fifteen days before his surgery as he did not want any other artist to do it if his voice worsened. He completed those activities just before he died on 22 January 2014. Only an appearance in a song remained incomplete.


title: Manam (film)

text: Neetu Chandra, who worked with Kumar on "Yavarum Nalam" (2009), made a cameo appearance in the film. Nagarjuna's sister Supriya told the media that a few other actors also made cameo appearances in the film. Rashi Khanna confirmed in early April 2014 that she too would make such an appearance. Kumar convinced Nagarjuna to let Akhil make a cameo appearance towards the end of the film or in a special song. However an official confirmation was originally unavailable. Amitabh Bachchan posted in his official blogging site on 27 April 2014 that he would make a quick cameo appearance in the film which would be his debut in Telugu cinema. Lavanya Tripathi also made a cameo appearance on Kumar's request. Akhil made a cameo towards the film's end, as he did not want to miss a chance of sharing the screen with his grandfather.


title: Manam (film)

text: Anup Rubens was selected to compose the film's music and background score in mid March 2013 marking his second collaboration with both Kumar and Chaitanya after "Ishq" (2012) and "Autonagar Surya" (2014) respectively. Kumar read the script to Rubens without revealing the film's cast. After Rubens accepted a role in the film, both met Nagarjuna. Rubens said in an interview that he worked for fewer days when compared to his previous works and added that Kumar had a small story to tell within every song in the film. Due to Nageswara Rao's death, a song's tune was replaced with another tune and a few lines of the song "Nenu Puttanu" from the film "Prem Nagar" (1971).


title: Manam (film)

text: Harsha Vardhan was selected in late April 2013 to write the film's dialogues, in consideration of his work in "Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde" (2013). Since the film was a period drama, Nagarjuna wanted an experienced veteran cinematographer, and approached P. C. Sreeram. As Sreeram was busy with "I" (2015), P. S. Vinod was finalised as the cinematographer, marking his return to Telugu cinema after "Panjaa" (2011). Chennai-based costume designer Nalini Sriram, who worked for "Ye Maaya Chesave", was selected as the film's costume designer. While all the artists had to give their inputs for the costumes, Nageswara Rao gave her full freedom to design the film's costumes.


title: Manam (film)

text: Rajeevan, also a part of the technical team of "Ye Maaya Chesave", was chosen as the film's art director. In a press interview during the first look launch, executive producer Supriya announced the remaining key technicians. Prawin Pudi was confirmed as the film's editor. Brinda was signed in on to choreograph the song sequences. FEFSI Vijayan was chosen as the stunt choreographer. Vanamali and Chandrabose were chosen to write the lyrics for the songs.


title: Manam (film)

text: Nageswara Rao played the role of a 90-year-old man. His character enters the film just before the interval and remains until the very end of the film. All the members of the principal cast except Nageswara Rao played dual roles in the film. Nagarjuna said in an interview that he would be seen in the 1920s, 1980s and 2013 and would play a zamindar in 1920. Saran revealed that every character in the film would have a specific aspect; Nagarjuna's character loves cars. Regarding her role, Saran said that she would be seen as a poor but content farmer in the flashback sequences and a doctor in the present day. She added "My character goes back to 1930s and comes back in the present era. I can't tell how it happens though. It's a fun character and you will find me stammering a lot. Suddenly, I'm talking normally and suddenly I start stammering, that's how you understand my character." She added that apart from Nagarjuna, she has more scenes with Nageswara Rao and only a couple of scenes with Chaitanya in the film.


title: Manam (film)

text: Chaitanya is seen as the father of a six-year-old in 1980s and a happy-go-lucky college student in 2013. He described the former role as a challenging one. He also said that both the roles would have multiple layers and added, "The film as you all would know by now, is spread across three generations, and all the characters go back and forth in time. I play a happy-go-lucky college guy in the present era. It's a typically fun character and has nothing in common with my character from the flashback. So acting wise, it was a big challenge". He described the drunk scenes shared with Nagarjuna, Nageswara Rao and his confrontation scene with Samantha towards the end of the film as the toughest scenes to act.


title: Manam (film)

text: Samantha revealed that she too would be seen in a dual role – a mature mother named Krishna Veni in the past and a bubbly girl named Priya in the present. She added that she would not be overshadowed in the film despite the presence of three male leads. Similar to "Ye Maaya Chesave", Chaitanya and Samantha had a kissing scene in this film as a part of the script. A clip of one of Samantha's looks in the film was leaked in late July 2013. She was seen sporting an urban look and opted for a complete makeover. Nagarjuna's look in the film was leaked in mid August 2013 and he was seen sporting corrective eyeglasses and a conventional clean shave and moustache for which he removed the goatee he grew for his previous works "Greeku Veerudu" (2013) and "Bhai" (2013). Saran's look in the film's flashback sequences was leaked in late February 2014.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film had two particular wedding scenes, one filmed on Chaitanya and Samantha and the other on Nagarjuna and Saran. The first pair greet each other with "Hi" during the wedding. When Kumar wrote those scenes, they were surprised and felt that such scenes were unrealistic. But it was retained as Nageswara Rao liked it. For the other wedding scene, Kumar wanted to heighten the emotions between the two characters in that scene and it was Nagarjuna who came up with the idea of not revealing his identity to the bride till the last moment.


title: Manam (film)

text: Principal photography began on 7 June 2013. Scenes focusing on Chaitanya and Samantha were shot at Narayanguda in mid June 2013. The latter completed her part in the schedule and left for Switzerland on 18 June 2013 to work on "Attarintiki Daredi" (2013). The first schedule was wrapped up by late June 2013 and the second schedule was scheduled to begin in mid-July 2013. Some important scenes were planned to be shot in that schedule. Shriya Saran joined the film's sets in late July 2013. Samantha tweeted on 31 July 2013 that the film's second schedule had been wrapped up. The film was shot in Hyderabad Campus of Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani in late August 2013 and Samantha rejoined the film's sets on 1 September 2013 after completing "Ramayya Vasthavayya" (2013).


title: Manam (film)

text: Scenes featuring Nageswara Rao, Nagarjuna and Chaitanya were shot from 9 September 2013 in Hyderabad. Executive producer Supriya announced in mid September 2013 that the filming would be completed by November 2013. Nageswara Rao had chronic stomach ache, and doctors found out on 8 October 2013 that he is suffering from cancer. He announced this to the press on 19 October 2013 while on set. Recovering from surgery, Nageswara Rao rejoined the film's sets in mid November 2013. A 15-day schedule in Coorg starting from 1 December 2013 was announced in late November 2013 and key scenes on all the members of the principal cast except Nageswara Rao were planned to be shot. The next schedule began in mid December 2013 at Mysore.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film's team continued filming at Melukote, Lalitha Mahal and in the backwaters of the Krishna Raja Sagara among others. Samantha completed filming her portions on 22 February 2014. By late March 2014, the entire filming, except for a song sequence, was completed; the song was planned to be shot in April 2014 Featuring Nagarjuna and Naga Chaitanya, it was shot at Annapurna Studios in mid-April 2014. Amitabh Bachchan shot the scenes for his cameo at the Filmistan Studio in Mumbai on 27 April 2014.


title: Manam (film)

text: Saran later revealed in an interview that during the shoot at Coorg, the team's day began at 4:30 am every day. She visited coffee plantation and black pepper farms to observe the farmers' work for her part. For a few particular scenes, where Saran teaches Nagarjuna some farm chores, the team made a few takes, as Nagajuna, being a quick learner, completed the tasks better than Saran.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film was initially rumoured to be inspired by the American science fiction comedy film "Back to the Future". It was also compared with an older Hindi film "Kal Aaj Aur Kal" (1971) for its casting.


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna revealed that the film is set over a period of a hundred years, up until 2013, and involves reincarnation. He said in an interview that the film's script is not particularly intense, but has a light narration. The film's basic theme, established by Kumar and his assistant directors, was "that things have changed and our sorrows and joys have been exchanged; Night and day, morning and evening, a movement of souls united in being, cosmic beings rearranged. Some things may go wrong in one's life but they are corrected in the other life. The universe and nature correct the mistakes made in one life, in the other." He said that this statement would seem complex but would be fully explained by the film.


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna added that the film's characters would reborn with no special purpose unlike other reincarnation films like "Janaki Ramudu" (1988), "Arundhati" (2009) and "Magadheera" (2009). Saran said in an interview that the film basically has a family-oriented theme and is about falling in love with "small, little things that you sort of don't see every day, but are really, really important". Unlike other reincarnation based films, the film's story develops two separate themes – the relationship between reborn lovers, but also the relationship between reborn "parents" and their children. Naga Chaitanya acknowledged in an interview with "The Hindu" that the film's script might seem to have a few overly-convenient coincidences, but felt that Kumar's detailing in every scene made the script believable.


title: Manam (film)

text: The soundtrack features five songs as well as a theme musical piece all composed by Anoop Rubens. Chandrabose wrote lyrics for three songs and the remaining two were written by Vanamali and Rubens himself. Aditya Music acquired the audio rights and released the soundtrack on 9 May 2014 on YouTube. The soundtrack received positive response, especially for the songs "Kanulanu Thaake" and "Chinni Chinni Aasalu".


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna planned to release the film on 31 March 2014, on the eve of Ugadi, confirmed on a visit to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple with Akhil in early March 2014. However, he later postponed the film's release, planning to release the film after the 2014 general elections. The film's trailer confirmed the release date as 23 May 2014. The film was confirmed to feature in both Dolby Atmos and 5.1 surround sound systems. On 14 May 2014, the Central Board of Film Certification passed the film with a U/A certificate instead of a U certificate that the makers expected because of a few drinking scenes. The British Board of Film Classification passed the film with a PG rating due to "brief images of injury, mild bad language".


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna arranged a special premiere show on 22 May 2014 at Prasads IMAX for Nageswara Rao's fans. He succumbed to the huge demand from the admirers of Nageswara Rao and changed the single screen premiere into a five-multiplex screen red carpet show at Prasads IMAX, playing host to thousands of celebrity invitees. CineGalaxy Inc. stated that the film would release in more than 100 screens in the United States alone with advance ticketing commencing at few locations. The film's release however clashed with "Vikrama Simha", the Telugu dubbed version of "Kochadaiiyaan" (2014).


title: Manam (film)

text: Nagarjuna planned to release the film in more than 1000 screens in India as well as international markets. In India, 171 theatres in Nizam, 95 theatres in Ceded, 50 theatres in Vishakhapatnam, 85 theatres in East and West Godavari districts, 40 theatres in Krishna, 45 theatres in Guntur, 25 theatres in Nellore, 12 screens in Chennai, 20 screens in Bangalore and 25 screens in Maharashtra were booked. In overseas, 108 screens in the United States, 9 screens in Toronto, 6 screens in Germany, 2 screens in Switzerland and 3 screens in Netherlands were booked. The advance ticket booking was made available both online as well as in theatres five days before the film's release. It registered nearly 50% advance booking by 22 May 2014 and was expected to register more than 75% before its theatrical release. It was also dubbed and released in Tamil and Hindi under the same title.


title: Manam (film)

text: Sudhakar Reddy acquired the distribution rights of the film in Nizam Region. CineGalaxy Inc. acquired the entire overseas theatrical screening rights of the film. Lorgan Entertainments acquired the film's distribution rights for Australia and New Zealand. DBB Films later acquired the theatrical screening rights of the film in all European countries except the United Kingdom, where Errabus Films was the distributor.


title: Manam (film)

text: The first look poster of the film was unveiled by Nagarjuna on 19 September 2013 on the eve of Nageswara Rao's 90th birthday. The poster featured Nagarjuna dressed in a black suit, Chaitanya sitting in a throne as an elder in traditional costume and Nageswara Rao sitting on the floor posing as a child. The poster received praise for its offbeat theme. The theatrical trailer of the film was planned to be released on 11 April 2014. The second poster was released on 31 March 2014 on the eve of Ugadi. A special video named "Candid Moments" was released along with the theatrical trailer as a tribute to Nageswara Rao on 8 April 2014 on the eve of Sri Rama Navami. The trailer began with a voiceover of Rao and ends with the message "ANR Lives On".


title: Manam (film)

text: Upon release, the trailer went viral, praised as "refreshing". IndiaGlitz stated "The trailer looks very refreshing and promising. In overall, the trailer looks very delightful, colourful and loaded with entertainment. Hope the movie will be a befitting farewell for the great actor Akkineni Nageswara Rao" and gave it the verdict "Refreshing, Vibrant and Vivid". Oneindia Entertainment stated "The trailer of Manam shows that the movie has amazing background score, stunning camera work, breath-taking exotic locales, wonderful performances by the lead actors". The trailer was also screened in theatres screening "Race Gurram" (2014) on 11 April 2014. The trailer received 1 million views of YouTube. Nagarjuna released the promo of the song "Piyo Piyo Re" on 26 April 2014. It featured Nagarjuna and Chaitanya dancing in a pub. It became a viral video post its release.


title: Manam (film)

text: After the audio launch, the positive reception of the song "Chinni Chinni Aasalu" prompted the makers to release a video featuring the making of the song. Shot in the backdrop of a village, the song featured Nagarjuna dressed as a farmer while Shriya Saran was dressed as an innocent villager. On the other hand, the video showcased the recording of the song by Shreya Ghoshal. The video too received positive response. A still featuring Chaitanya and Samantha in an intimate sequence from the flashback was re-tweeted many times by the fans and Telugu film websites. A short teaser, 31 seconds long, was unveiled on 13 May 2014, in which Samantha was seen speaking about Nageshwar continuously at a doctors' check up and the montage of the film's male leads being played side by side.


title: Manam (film)

text: A behind-the-scenes video of the making of the song "Kanulanu Thaake" was released on 14 May 2014. The song featured Chaitanya and Samantha as a newly married couple and their onscreen romance with Lavanya Tripathi making a brief glimpse towards the end. It also showcased the recording of the song by Arijit Singh. The video received a positive response, with praises directed towards the on-screen chemistry between Chaitanya and Samantha. The audio launch event, entitled "Manam Sangeetham", was aired on 18 May 2014 in Gemini TV at 5:00 pm, with the Akkineni family in attendance.


title: Manam (film)

text: Tata DoCoMo & Brooke Bond Red Label were involved with the film, advertising on hoardings, television, radio, in print, and on buses, among other venues. Tata DoCoMo came up with the tagline "Be a part of the Manam family" and offered a chance to the meet the film's star cast by recharging with a certain amount. Brooke Bond used the slogan "Red Label celebrates the taste of togetherness with Manam" and offered a chance to meet Nagarjuna. First Show Digital handled the film's online promotions. The film's 100-day celebration was held along with the platinum disc function of "Oka Laila Kosam" (2014) on 22 September 2014 at the Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad.


title: Manam (film)

text: In early March 2014, the film was leaked into the Internet. Two people related to the film leakage were arrested on 8 March 2014. They were identified as Mubashir Sheik and Sheik Abid Basha hailing from Guntur. Basha illegally accessed the feed of the film and handed it over to Sheik who then uploaded it on YouTube. Post release, the film became one of the most downloaded titles in recent times and the Anti-Video Piracy team worked for a week since the film's release to reduce the effect of this leak on the film's gross.


title: Manam (film)

text: The television broadcast rights were sold to Gemini TV for 80 million. The film was planned for a television premiere on 20 September 2014 on the eve of Nageswara Rao's birthday. The film registered a TRP rating of 15.62 making it one of the highest TRPs ever registered for a film in 2014. Reliance Home Video released the film's DVDs and Blu-ray discs in December 2014.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film received positive reviews from critics who called it a beautiful film and a complete entertainer, according to "International Business Times India". Prabalika M. Borah of "The Hindu" praised the performances of the film's cast, the work of the technical crew, and Kumar's execution of the film's script in narrating a complex story without confusion. She summarised, "The smile and laughter will not leave you while it still manage to moisten your eyes here and there". Sandhya Rao of Sify stated, "Manam`s story is something new within Telugu films context, but the way the film showcases romance and emotion, it is far from a regular fare. Go watch Manam, a complete entertainer, which will surely enthrall!". She recognised Nageswara Rao as the pillar of the film and termed his performance as an "outstanding" one.


title: Manam (film)

text: Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, stating "Manam is a perfect family entertainer and it is director Vikram Kumar's unique script that makes the movie a brilliant experiment. The movie is high on entertainment quotient and it is treat to see ANR, Nagarjuna and Naga Chaitanya together on screen". Rajasekhar S of Cinemalead also gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and called it "classy and brilliant", stating "Vikram K Kumar has packed the movie in such a way that the audience never get bored. Especially the last 20 minutes of the movie, towards the climax brings us to the edge of the seat". IndiaGlitz gave the film 4 out of 5 stars as well, and called the film a "complete entertainer that is more than a love story" and stated, "The film packs everything that the trailer promised, plus the not-quite-unknown formula of Past Life Regression. Although we have seen many PLR stories in the past, 'Manam' is special because of its sublime and intriguing nature."


title: Manam (film)

text: Karthik Pasupulate of "The Times of India" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "You cannot appreciate the smarts in the script has been written, and how humorously it all gets translated onscreen without getting unduly melodramatic. Since this is ANR's last film, the cumulative nostalgia and feel goodness of the movie might just paper over the structural issues. It's definitely worth a watch". Suresh Kavirayani of "Deccan Chronicle" also gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "Vikram Kumar has come out with a nice story and screenplay and created a classic masterpiece. Though there are past life regressions and rebirths, the director's intelligent screenplay makes you to see more comfortably without any confusion. Manam is a good film to watch and a fitting tribute to Akkineni Nageswara Rao."


title: Manam (film)

text: The film achieved an average 95% occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes during the morning and matinee shows on its opening day, increasing during the evening and night shows. The film collected 3.21 crore worldwide on its first day according to trade analyst Taran Adarsh. It collected more than 11.26 crore net worldwide in three days and topped the Tollywood business chart, beating "Vikrama Simha". In four days, the film collected 14.9 crore worldwide. By the end of its first week, the film collected 19 crore worldwide. The film collected 26.71 crore net in 10 days worldwide.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film collected 32.75 crore net worldwide by the end of the 19th day of its theatrical run. By mid June 2014, the film crossed the 35 crore mark worldwide, and was expected to reach the 40 crore mark. The film crossed $1.5 million gross at the US box office by the end of its fourth weekend. By late July 2014, after completing its 50-day run, it had amassed a 48 crore revenue, including satellite rights and audio rights. The film collected 36.5 crore share worldwide during its lifetime, becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2014. The film's success was attributed to Nagarjuna's strategy of releasing the film on a limited number of screens, and utilising a low budget according to IANS.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film collected a share of 2.23 crore on its first day at AP/Nizam box office. The film collected its highest share of 91 lakh in the Nizam region, followed by the Ceded region with 39 lakh and 22 lakh in Vishakhapatnam. It collected 1.6 crore and 3 lakh in Karnataka and the rest of India respectively. The film collected 4.02 crore at the Indian box office in two days. The film collected 6.22 crore at the AP/Nizam box office and 80 lakh in the rest of India by the end of its first weekend. The film again collected its highest share of 2.67 crore in the Nizam region, followed by the Ceded region with 1.06 crore and Vishakhapatnam with 62 lakh. Adarsh reported that the film collected a share of 8.92 crore in four days at the Indian box office.


title: Manam (film)

text: It collected 12.22 crore at the AP/Nizam box office, 1.48 crore at the Karnataka box office, and 30 lakh in the rest of India by the end of its first week. The film collected 3.94 crore net at the AP/Nizam box office and 58 lakh in the rest of India by the end of its second weekend. It collected 21.87 crore in AP/Nizam and 2.11 crore in the rest of India by the end of its 19-day run. The film company held celebrations after the completion of its 50-day run on 14 July 2014. The film completed a 100-day run on 30 August 2014.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film collected 53 lakh from 69 screens at its premiere in the United States. The premiere was held on Thursday, 22 May 2014. According to Taran Adarsh, the collections made by the film from its premiere show was a "phenomenal" start. The film collected 3.33 crore in three days in the United States with many screens still yet to report as of 25 May 2014. The film collected 4.96 crore on 108 screens as of 27 May 2014, in the United States. With this, "Manam" became the film with the highest grossing opening weekend for Nagarjuna and Chaitanya in the United States, and also became the third-highest grosser for an opening weekend in the country in 2014, after "" and "Race Gurram". The film crossed the US$1 million mark by the end of its first four-day weekend.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film collected 62.6 million in six days, thus surpassing the 5.93 crore nine-day extended first week collections of "Race Gurram" in the United States. According to Adarsh, the film continued to do good business in the United States by collecting 6.45 crore by the end of its first week. The film continued its successful run in the United States through early June 2014 and collected 8.2 crore . With this, the film broke the record set by "Race Gurram" and became the second highest grosser in 2014 after "". The film surpassed the lifetime collections of "1: Nenokkadine" at the United States box office in 14 days by collecting 8.33 crore.


title: Manam (film)

text: The film collected 8.77 crore in the United States in 19 days. By mid June 2014, the film collected 9.11 crore in the United States, and by the end of its 25-day run and crossed the US$1.5 million mark, becoming one of the biggest commercially successful Tollywood films in the country.


title: Manam (film)

text: Celebrities like S. S. Rajamouli, Shobu Yarlagadda, Nani, K. Dasaradh, Manchu Manoj, Pooja Hegde, Allu Sirish, Deva Katta, Adivi Sesh, Rakul Preet Singh, Rana Daggubati, Gopimohan, Prakash Raj, Allu Arjun, and Mahesh Babu praised the film. Director Ram Gopal Varma called "Manam" an "avant garde product but deeply rooted in earth" and "the first constructive demonstration that Tollywood actually can go into a new age of cinema". He added that both Nagarjuna and Vikram deserved multiple salutes for making a film like "Manam", and the only tragedy was that Nageswara Rao was not alive to see this film, which Varma termed an "astounding celebration of human emotions". Ram Charan called "Manam" a film that induces "Love, joy, passion, hatred, excitement and almost every feeling you can imagine and more". Kamal Haasan watched the film on 29 May 2014, at a special screening in Chennai. Haasan became emotional and could not control his tears. Regarding this, he said "I have always been a fan of ANR and this film has brought back very fond memories. I turned emotional when I saw ANR on the big screen. I wholeheartedly appreciate the Akkineni family for paying tribute to ANR in this manner."


title: Manam (film)

text: IndiaGlitz called "Manam", along with "" and "Drushyam", the best experimental films in recent times. "Manam", along with "Minugurulu" (2014), was nominated by the Telugu Film Producers Council to the Film Federation of India to be included on the list of 30 Indian films for the 87th Academy Awards, in the category of Best Foreign Language Film. In late September 2014, the United States postal department released a stamp in honour of Nageswara Rao, making him the first Indian actor in whose name a postal stamp had been released. That stamp featured a still of Nageswara Rao from the film. The film was screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India on 29 November 2014, as a Homage to Nageswara Rao. In February 2015, the makers of "Bandipotu" (2015) released a poster featuring Sampoornesh Babu, Allari Naresh and Saptagiri, whose theme resembled the first look of "Manam". During the promotions of "Theeran Adhigaram Ondru" (2017), Karthi, speaking about the adaptation of the film in Tamil, said that "it is a fascinating idea to work with my father (Sivakumar) and brother (Suriya)", but he felt that "a lot of things needed to fall in place in order to materialise".


title: White Brazilians

text: White Brazilians ( ) refers to Brazilian citizens who are considered or self-identify as "white", typically because of European or Levantine descent.


title: White Brazilians

text: The main ancestry of current white Brazilians is Portuguese. Historically, the Portuguese were the Europeans who mostly immigrated to Brazil: it is estimated that, between 1500 and 1808, 500,000 of them went to live in Brazil, and the Portuguese were practically the only European group to have definitively settled in colonial Brazil.


title: White Brazilians

text: Furthermore, even after independence, the Portuguese were among the nationalities that mostly immigrated to Brazil. Between 1884 and 1959, 4,734,494 immigrants entered Brazil, mostly from Portugal and Italy, but also from Spain, Germany, Poland and other countries and nowadays millions of Brazilians are also descended from these immigrants.


title: White Brazilians

text: The white Brazilian population is spread throughout Brazil's territory, but its highest percentage is found in the three southernmost states, where 79.8% of the population claims to be White in the censuses, whereas the Southeast region has the largest absolute numbers.


title: White Brazilians

text: According to the 2010 Census, the states with the highest percentage of white citizens are: Santa Catarina (88.1%), Rio Grande do Sul (82.3%), Paraná (70.06%), and São Paulo (63.65%). Other states with significant rates are: Rio de Janeiro (54.7%), Mato Grosso do Sul (51.78%) and Espírito Santo (50.45%). São Paulo has the largest population in absolute numbers with 29 million whites.


title: White Brazilians

text: The conception of "white" in Brazil is similar to other countries yet different to the United States, where historically only people of entirely European ancestry have been considered white, due to the one drop rule. In Brazil and in Latin America in general, this conception does not exist. A 2000 survey conducted in Rio de Janeiro concluded that "racial-purity" is not important for a person to be classified as white in Brazil. The survey asked respondents if they had any ancestors who were European, African or Amerindian. As much as 52% of those whites reported they have some non-European ancestry: 25% reported to have some African ancestry and 14% reported Amerindian ancestry (15% of them reported to have both). Only 48% of those whites did not report any non-white ancestry. Thus, in Brazil, one can self-identify as white and still have African or Amerindian ancestry, and such a person has no problem admitting to having non-white ancestors.


title: White Brazilians

text: In colonial Brazil, the formation of a white population of exclusive European ancestry was impossible. In the first centuries of colonization, almost only Portuguese men immigrated to Brazil, since Portuguese women were often prevented from migrating. Given such gender imbalance, Portuguese male settlers often had relationships with indigenous or African women, what led to an extremely mixed population.


title: White Brazilians

text: At the end of the 19th century, when eugenic ideas arrived in Brazil, a severe racial segregation, similar to that of the United States or South Africa, that separated "whites" from "non-whites", was regarded as impractical in Brazil, since this would even exclude many members of the Brazilian elite. Thus, in Brazil, racial classifications are more flexible and based primarily on a person's physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair type and other physical traits, tending to identify as "white" a person with lighter skin color.


title: White Brazilians

text: In Brazil, social prejudice connected to certain details in the physical appearance of individual is widespread. Those details are related to the concept of "cor". "Cor", Portuguese for "color", denotes the Brazilian rough equivalent of the term "race" in English, but is based on a complex phenotypic evaluation that takes into account skin pigmentation, hair type, nose shape, and lip shape. This concept, unlike the English notion of "race", captures the continuous aspects of phenotypes. Thus, it seems there is no racial descent rule operational in Brazil; it is even possible for two siblings to belong to completely diverse "racial" categories.


title: White Brazilians

text: An important factor about whiteness in Brazil is the racial stigma of being Amerindian or black, which is undesirable and avoided for a large part of the population. Scientific racism largely influenced race relations in Brazil since the late 19th century. The predominant non-white, mostly Afro-Brazilian population was seen as a problem for Brazil in the eyes of the predominantly white elite of the country. In contrast to some countries, like the United States or South Africa, which tried to avoid miscegenation, even imposing anti-miscegenation laws, in Brazil miscegenation was always legal. What was expected was that miscegenation would eventually turn all Brazilians into whites. However, the most recent census in 2010 showed a shift in mentality, with a growing number of Brazilians identifying themselves as brown or black, accompanied by a decrease in the percentage of whites, with affirmative action and identity valorisation being factors.


title: White Brazilians

text: As a result of that desire of whitening its own population, the Brazilian ruling classes encouraged the arrival of massive European immigration to the country. In the 1890s 1.2 million European immigrants were added to the country's 5 million whites. Today the Brazilian areas with larger proportions of whites tend to have been destinations of massive European immigration between 1880 and 1930.


title: White Brazilians

text: Brazil received more European settlers during its colonial era than any other country in the Americas. Between 1500 and 1760, about 700,000 Europeans immigrated to Brazil.


title: White Brazilians

text: In the first two centuries of colonization (16th and 17th centuries), it is estimated that no more than 100,000 Portuguese people migrated to Brazil. They were more affluent immigrants, who settled mainly in the captaincies of Pernambuco and Bahia, to explore sugar production, which was the most profitable activity in the colony at that time. At the end of the 16th century, the white population (the vast majority Portuguese) was of over 30,000 people, mainly concentrated in the captaincies of Pernambuco, Bahia and São Vicente. The colonization process continued throughout the 17th century and by the end of the century, the white population was of nearly 100,000 people.


title: White Brazilians

text: It is notable that most Portuguese settlers arrived in Brazil in the 18th century: 600,000 in a period of only sixty years. Initially unattractive during the first two centuries of colonization, as it concentrated sugar production, which required high investments, by the end of the 17th and in the beginning of the 18th centuries, due to the retreat of the Portuguese Empire in Asia and the discoveries of gold in the Brazilian region of Minas Gerais, there were more favorable conditions for the arrival of Portuguese immigrants in Brazil. There was no need for major investments for mining activity. Mining in these regions was a crucial factor in the arrival of this contingent of Portuguese immigrants.


title: White Brazilians

text: A characteristic of the Portuguese colonization is that it was predominantly male. Portuguese immigration to Brazil in the 16th and 17th centuries was made up almost exclusively of men. The typical Portuguese settler in Brazil was a young man in his late teens or in his early twenties, coming from the provinces of Northern Portugal, most notably Minho and Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, or from the Atlantic islands. White women of marriageable age were rare throughout the Portuguese maritime Empire. The few Portuguese families that immigrated to Brazil tended to stay on the coast, rarely penetrating the interior. The situation changed slightly in the 18th century, when the migration of families and women from the Azores and Madeira islands increased.


title: White Brazilians

text: In addition to the fact that marriageable Portuguese women who arrived in Brazil were rare, the few remaining white women often remained celibate, as it was a tradition among aristocratic or richer white families to send their daughters to Catholic convents, where they would follow a religious life. Given this absence of white women available for marriage, it was inevitable for Portuguese colonists to take as a lover a woman of African or indigenous origin. The Portuguese Crown's concern about the scarcity of marriages among whites in the colony became evident in 1732, when John V of Portugal prohibited women from leaving Brazil, with some exceptions. In order to curb miscegenation, in a royal decree of 1726, the king demanded that all candidates for positions in the municipal councils of Minas Gerais had to be whites and husbands or widowers of white women. Restrictive measures like this, however, would not be able to restrict the natural tendency to miscegenation in colonial Brazil.


title: White Brazilians

text: Thus, the "white" population of colonial Brazil was not formed by the multiplication of European families in the colony, as occurred, for example, in the United States, but often by the miscegenation between European men and African or indigenous women, giving rise to a population defined as "white", but which was, to a greater or lesser degree, of mixed-race heritage. This population, speaking Portuguese and completely integrated with the "neo-Brazilian" culture, has assisted the Portuguese colonizers to impose their dominant characteristics in Brazil.