title: White Mexicans

text: Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique, as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' final results in regards to race, which assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and only 9.8% as White were then essential to cement the "mestizaje" ideology (that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races) which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays, with extraofficial international publications such as "The World Factbook" and Encyclopædia Britannica using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day.


title: White Mexicans

text: Nonetheless, in recent time the census' results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians, academics and social activists alike, who assert that such drastic alterations on demographic trends with respect to the 1793 census are not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico. It is claimed that the "mestizaje" process sponsored by the state was more "cultural than biological" which resulted on the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races. Controversies aside, this census constituted the last time the Mexican Government conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following (foreigners and people who answered "other" not included):


title: White Mexicans

text: When the 1921 census's results are compared with the results of Mexico's recent censuses as well as with modern genetic research, high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country, with states located in south and south-eastern Mexico having both, the highest percentages of population that self-identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry. However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans, as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census, with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango, where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0.01% of the state's population (33 persons) self-identified as "white" while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on European peoples (with the state's Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either). Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government, which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such.


title: White Mexicans

text: The following table is a compilation of (when possible) official nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexican government who have attempted to quantify different Mexican ethnic groups. Given that for the most part each ethnic group was estimated by different surveys, with different methodologies and years apart rather than on a single comprehensive racial census, some groups could overlap with others and be overestimated or underestimated.


title: White Mexicans

text: Of all the ethnic groups that have been surveyed, Mestizos are notably absent, which is likely due to the label's fluid and subjective definition, which complicates its precise quantification. However, it can be safely assumed that Mestizos make up at least the remaining 30% unassessed percentage of Mexico's population with possibilities of increasing if the methodologies of the extant surveys are considered. As example the 2015 intercensal survey considered as Indigenous Mexicans and Afro-Mexicans altogether individuals who self-identified as "part Indigenous" or "part African" thus, said people technically would be Mestizos. Similarly, White Mexicans were quantified based on physical traits/appearance, thus technically a Mestizo with a percentage of Indigenous ancestry that was low enough to not affect his/her primarily European phenotype was considered to be white. Finally the remaining ethnicities, for being of a rather low number or being faiths have more permissive classification criteria, therefore a Mestizo could claim to belong to one of them by practicing the faith, or by having an ancestor who belonged to said ethnicities.


title: White Mexicans

text: Nonetheless, contemporary sociologists and historians agree that, given that the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society's eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered "white" and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered "Indian," a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to, even if biologically doesn't completely belong to that group.


title: Green beret

text: The green beret was the official headdress of the British Commandos of the Second World War. It is still worn by members of the Royal Marines after passing the Commando Course, and personnel from other units of the Royal Navy, Army and RAF who serve within 3 Commando Brigade and who have passed the All Arms Commando Course.


title: Green beret

text: There are certain other military organizations that also wear the green beret because they have regimental or unit histories that have a connection with the British Commandos of the Second World War. These include the Australian, French and Dutch commandos. It is the norm in the armed forces of the Commonwealth Nations, where most regiments wear headdresses and cap badges which reflect regimental history and traditions.


title: Green beret

text: Initially, those who joined the British Commandos kept their parent regimental headdress and cap badges. In 1941, No. 1 Commando had no fewer than 79 different cap badges and many different forms of headdress. "Thus a motley collection of caps, Tam o' Shanters, bonnets, forage caps, caps 'fore and aft', berets, peaked KD caps, etc., appeared on the Commando parades," says Captain Oakley, "the forest being a veritable RSM’s nightmare!"


title: Green beret

text: No. 2 Commando and No. 9 Commando faced with the same problem had adopted the Tam o' Shanter, but, as a traditional Scottish headdress, this was not considered suitable for what was a British unit. After some discussion it was agreed that if No. 1 Commando was to adopt a uniformed headdress then the beret, which had been worn by the Tank Regiment since the First World War (and had recently been adopted by the Parachute Regiment), would meet the requirements: it had no British regional affinity, it was difficult to wear improperly, and it could be easily stowed away without damage (when for example tin hats were in use).


title: Green beret

text: Having decided on the headdress, the next question to be resolved was the colour. The shoulder insignia of No. 1 Commando had been designed by the Richmond Herald at the College of Arms. It incorporated three colours in its design of a green salamander going through fire: red, yellow and green. Green was chosen as the most suitable. A Scottish firm of tam-o-shanter makers in Irvine (Ayrshire) was chosen to design and manufacture the beret.


title: Green beret

text: Once the design was agreed, Brigadier Robert Laycock was approached by No. 1 Commando to seek his permission to wear it. He had been pondering on what the commandos should use for their headdress, and welcomed the green beret as a chance to introduce it as standard for all commandos formations, with No. 1 Commando being the first to don them.


title: Green beret

text: The proposal that the commandos should start wearing green beret as their official headdress was submitted to the Chief of Combined Operations and forwarded by Lord Mountbatten to the Under-Secretary of State for War. Approval was granted and in October 1942 the first green berets were issued to the Royal Marines.


title: Green beret

text: Australian Commando berets are known as being "Sherwood Green" in colour. The corps badge on the beret is a black background and a gold combat dagger with the motto ""Foras Admonitio"" meaning "Without Warning" across the dagger. The green beret is only awarded to a soldier upon becoming qualified as a Commando in either of the below regiments.


title: Green beret

text: Consisting of two battalions within the light brigade, only the 2nd Commando Battalion inherited the green beret along with other traditions from the 4th Troop of No.10 Commando. These paracommandos are the only "green berets" that are no longer a special operations force, but are considered to be elite. However, the Belgian special forces usually only recruits from paracommandos.


title: Green beret

text: The Special Forces of the Netherlands consist mainly of the KCT (Korps Commando Troepen). Their motto is "Nunc aut Nunquam" which is Latin for "Now or Never". The roots of the KCT go back to World War II. Under the name No. 2 (Dutch) Troop, the first Dutch commandos were trained in Achnacarry, Scotland, as part of No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando. The unit was formed on March 22, 1942, the birthday of the present KCT.


title: Green beret

text: Members of the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps also receive upon completion of the Commando Course a green beret, but with the gold anchor on a red background.


title: Green beret

text: The Finnish Coastal Jaegers primary role is to conduct counter attacks against enemy landings in the Finnish archipelago, an environment known for small islands and skerries. Jaegers can function independently or with the support of artillery units, including light or heavy mortars. A number of Coastal Jaeger troops receive training for unconventional warfare and reconnaissance behind enemy lines.


title: Green beret

text: The Commandos Marine are an elite special operations unit of the French Navy. Formed from Fusiliers Marins during the Second World War in Britain, they wear the same green berets, pulled right, as the British Commandos. They are called "bérets verts" (green berets).


title: Green beret

text: The COMSUBIN are the elite special operations unit of the Italian Navy. The Royal Italian Navy's Naval Assault Divisions is considered to be the precursor of modern Naval Special Forces. They are called "baschi verdi" (green berets).


title: Green beret

text: Green berets are worn by soldiers of most of the Lithuanian Armed Forces with exception of the Military Police, Navy, Air Force, the Volunteer Forces, SOF and the Engineer Battalion.


title: Green beret

text: The Mexican Army Special Forces nicknamed the COIFE, formerly the "GAFE (Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales)", are a special operations unit of the Mexican Army. The COIFE adapted the green beret as their signature headgear, known as the "boina verde" (Spanish for green beret). The COIFE have received training from Israeli and American special forces. The COIFE have also played a key role against Mexican drug cartels during the on-going Mexican drug war. They are the Mexican Army's equivalent to the U.S. Army Special Forces.


title: Green beret

text: The Portuguese Paratroopers (Portuguese: "Tropas Paraquedistas") are an elite infantry assault force, representing the bulk of the airborne forces of Portugal. They were created in 1956 as part of the Portuguese Air Force, being transferred to the Portuguese Army in 1993. Presently, most of the Paratroopers are part of the Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade which comprises all 3 special forces troops.


title: Green beret

text: The unit members wear a moss/dry green beret and are the heir of the Special Hunters: the beret badge includes a hunting horn—a symbol of the Special Hunters; and the unit is known as Rangers because the first instructors of the Special Hunters completed the Ranger Course and adapted the characteristics of that training to the Special Operations Course. This special forces unit has operated in Bosnia and Herzegovina, East-Timor, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.


title: Green beret

text: In the United Kingdom all Royal Marines who have passed the Commando Course wear the green beret. Personnel from the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force volunteering for service with 3 Commando Brigade undertake the All Arms Commando Course, completion of which allows individuals to wear the headdress. Commando-qualified Royal Marines always wear the green beret, with the Globe and Laurel cap badge and commando-qualified personnel from other armed services wear the beret, with their own cap badge, when serving with commando units unless otherwise authorised. The Special Boat Service (SBS) also wear the green Commando beret but with their own cap badge consisting of a sword with two blue waved lines with the words "by strength and guile"


title: Green beret

text: The Commando Badge of a Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife on a triangular patch/badge is worn on the sleeve in perpetuity by all those who have passed the course.


title: Green beret

text: Army (Special Operations Command), Navy (Unidad de Operaciones Especiales) and of Spain have their own special operations units, all wearing green berets with the unit badges.


title: Green beret

text: In the U.S. armed forces, the green beret may be worn only by soldiers awarded the Special Forces Tab, signifying they have been qualified as Special Forces (SF) soldiers. The Special Forces beret is officially designated "beret, man's, wool, rifle green, army shade 297".


title: Green beret

text: U.S. Special Forces wear the green beret as a distinction of excellence and uniqueness within the Army.


title: Green beret

text: The 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) had many OSS World War II veterans in their ranks when it was formed in 1952. They began to unofficially wear a berets of varying colour while training. The color green became favored because it was reminiscent of the World War II British Commando-type beret. The 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) deployed to Bad Tölz, Germany in September 1953. The remaining cadre at Fort Bragg formed the 77th Special Forces Group. Members of the 77th SFG began searching through their collections of berets and settled on the Rifle Green colour of the British Rifle Regiments (as opposed to the Lovat Green of the Commandos) from Captain Mike de la Pena's collection. Captain Frank Dallas had the new beret designed and produced in small numbers for the members of the Special Forces.


title: Green beret

text: Their new headdress was first worn at a retirement parade at Fort Bragg on 12 June 1955 for Lieutenant General Joseph P. Cleland, the now-former commander of the XVIII Airborne Corps. Onlookers thought that the commandos were a foreign delegation from NATO.


title: Green beret

text: In 1956 General Paul D. Adams, the post commander at Fort Bragg, banned its wear, even though it was worn surreptitiously when deployed overseas. This was reversed on 25 September 1961 by "Department of the Army Message 578636," which designated the green beret as the exclusive headdress of the Army Special Forces.


title: Green beret

text: When visiting the Special Forces at Fort Bragg on 12 October 1961, President John F. Kennedy asked Brigadier General William P. Yarborough to make sure that the men under his command wore green berets for the visit. Later that day, Kennedy sent a memorandum which included the line: "I am sure that the green beret will be a mark of distinction in the trying times ahead". By America's entry into the Vietnam War, the green beret had become a symbol of excellence throughout the US Army. On April 11, 1962 in a White House memorandum to the United States Army, President Kennedy reiterated his view: "The green beret is a symbol of excellence, a badge of courage, a mark of distinction in the fight for freedom". To no avail, both Yarborough and Edson Raff had previously petitioned the Pentagon to allow wearing of the green beret. The President, however, did not fail them.


title: Green beret

text: In addition to being the headdress of the United States Army Special Forces, "Green Berets" is also a well known nickname of the organization.


title: Green beret

text: Of historical note, an olive drab green beret was worn by the U.S. Army's 172nd Infantry Brigade stationed in Alaska from 1973 to 1979 when the US Department of the Army's morale-enhancing order was in force and various colored berets began to be worn by numerous units and branches of the US Army.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: The VPK-7829 Bumerang (, Boomerang) is a modular amphibious wheeled infantry fighting vehicle and armored personnel carrier being developed by Russian Military Industrial Company (MIC) for the Russian army. It is not currently in service with the Russian Ground Forces.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: In the early 1990s, the BTR-90 was developed as a replacement for the BTR-80 in the Russian Army. While it was a moderate improvement in armament, protection, mobility, and internal space over its predecessor, it all came at the cost of greatly increased unit price. It wasn't accepted into service (except in small numbers) as the modest increase in performance wasn't seen as enough justification for its cost and complexity. Purchases of the BTR-80 stopped in 2010 and the improved BTR-82 was obtained as a stop-gap measure. In mid-2011, the Russian Ministry of Defense issued a requirement for a new modular wheeled family of armored vehicles instead of buying the BTR-90. Development of a new wheeled APC is being done alongside the new and similarly armed and armored but tracked Kurganets-25 infantry fighting vehicle and heavy T-15 Armata IFV.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: In November 2011, media reports said the new project had been approved. On 21 February 2012, Colonel General Alexander Postnikov said that the Russian Army would be taking the first deliveries of the Bumerang prototype in 2013. Large-scale deliveries are to begin in 2015. At least 2,000 Bumerang vehicles are to replace the BTR-80 and BTR-82/A in Russian service.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: The Bumerang was first seen in public (initially with its turret and cannon shrouded) during rehearsals for the 2015 Moscow Victory Day Parade.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: The vehicle faced several delays, and in 2020 it was stated that tests of the platform will be finished in 2021, with production starting afterwards. The reason for the delay was that after preliminary trials in 2019, it was decided to make changes to the main body, as a result of which the conditions for soldiers in the troop compartment would be improved, as well as the vehicle's buoyancy.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: MIC claims it “will be nothing like any of the modern APCs.” The Bumerang vehicle will be based on Armata Universal Combat Platform. It will be amphibious and be able to negotiate and overcome water obstacles using two waterjets. In a departure with the previous BTR (Like BTR-70) series of vehicles, the engine will be located in the front instead of the rear. Engine location was a significant drawback of BTR vehicles, where soldiers had to exit the vehicles through cramped side doors. The Bumerang has rear doors and roof hatches for troop entry and exit. It will likely have a crew of three consisting of the driver, gunner, and commander and hold seven troops. Protection will come from ceramic armor and technologies to prevent shell splinters. Like BTRs, the Bumerang will be an 8×8 wheeled vehicle, and will be equipped with a 750 hp turbocharged diesel engine.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: Several components and subsystems will be interchangeable between the Bumerang APC and Kurganets-25 IFV, and both vehicles will be powered by the same engine. There are two versions of the Bumerang 8×8 vehicle: the K-16 armored personnel carrier (APC), lightly armed with a 12.7 mm machine gun in a small remote turret; and the K-17 infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), heavily armed with the Bumerang-BM RWS with a 30 mm cannon and Kornet-EM anti-tank missiles or AU-220M with 57 mm BM-57 autocannon and 7.62mm PKMT machine gun.


title: VPK-7829 Bumerang

text: The VPK-7829 Bumerang is referred to as "a combat wheeled vehicle" because it will serve several different roles, similar to America's Strykers. Other vehicle platform variations will fulfill different roles in addition to armored transport, including as an armored ambulance, command post vehicle, reconnaissance vehicle, anti-tank missile carrier, air defense missile launcher, fire support vehicle, and mortar carrier. Further versions could include a light tank (plans to create a version with 57 mm autocannon as well as version with a 125 mm gun for use as a self-propelled anti-tank gun were confirmed in March 2018) and a self-propelled gun.


title: Jack Griffo

text: Jack Davis Griffo (born December 11, 1996) is an American actor. He starred as Max Thunderman on the Nickelodeon series "The Thundermans" (2013–2018). Griffo also had starring roles in the network's original movies "Jinxed" and "Splitting Adam", and the Netflix original series "Alexa & Katie".


title: Jack Griffo

text: Griffo first made appearances as an extra in 2011, on the television series "Kickin' It" and "Bucket & Skinner's Epic Adventures". He followed this up with several guest appearances on television series such as "See Dad Run" and "Jessie".


title: Jack Griffo

text: From 2013 to 2018, Griffo starred in the Nickelodeon series "The Thundermans", where he played Max Thunderman, the twin brother who strived to become a supervillain (his twin sister Phoebe is played by Kira Kosarin). In the same year, Griffo starred alongside Ciara Bravo in the Nickelodeon original film "'Jinxed".


title: Jack Griffo

text: Griffo starred alongside Isabela Moner, Tony Cavalero, and Jace Norman in the Nickelodeon original movie "Splitting Adam", which aired in February 2015. He played the role of Billy, the boyfriend of Fin Shepard (Ian Ziering)'s daughter Claudia Shepard (Ryan Newman), in the Syfy original movie "", which premiered on July 22, 2015. In 2016, Griffo guest-starred in the season 7 finale of "" as a military cadet named McKenna.


title: Jack Griffo

text: In 2017, Griffo played the role of Sebastian in the inspirational family drama film "Apple of My Eye" (originally titled "And Then There Was Light"). That same year, he was cast as Noah in the indie drama film "Those Left Behind". In August 2017 Griffo was added to the cast of the Netflix original series "Alexa & Katie", playing the recurring role of Dylan. He guest starred in "School of Rock, Knight Squad," and "SEAL Team". In 2020, Griffo starred as Sean Davis in the action film "The 2nd" alongside Ryan Phillippe. In 2020, he had a minor role in the Lifetime original movie "The Christmas High Note".


title: Jack Griffo

text: Griffo has a YouTube channel where he posts music covers. As of November 2019, the channel has over 178,000 subscribers and over 8.60 million views. Griffo released a single, "Hold Me", with his friend Kelsey, on October 17, 2011. The music video for "Hold Me" was released on October 29, 2011, and received over 4 million views. He released his solo debut single, "Slingshot", on November 13, 2013, which features Douglas James. The music video for "Slingshot" was released on Griffo's YouTube channel on January 14, 2014, and has received over 1.8 million views.


title: Jack Griffo

text: Griffo has been nominated for five Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite TV Actor, the first in 2014, the second in 2015, the third in 2016, the fourth in 2017, and the fifth in 2018.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: An inertial measurement unit (IMU) is an electronic device that measures and reports a body's specific force, angular rate, and sometimes the orientation of the body, using a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers. When the magnetometer is included, IMUs are referred to as IMMUs. IMUs are typically used to maneuver modern vehicles including motorcycles, missiles, aircraft (an attitude and heading reference system), including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), among many others, and spacecraft, including satellites and landers. Recent developments allow for the production of IMU-enabled GPS devices. An IMU allows a GPS receiver to work when GPS-signals are unavailable, such as in tunnels, inside buildings, or when electronic interference is present.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: An inertial measurement unit works by detecting linear acceleration using one or more accelerometers and rotational rate using one or more gyroscopes. Some also include a magnetometer which is commonly used as a heading reference. Typical configurations contain one accelerometer, gyro, and magnetometer per axis for each of the three principal axes: pitch, roll and yaw.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: IMUs are often incorporated into Inertial Navigation Systems which utilize the raw IMU measurements to calculate attitude, angular rates, linear velocity and position relative to a global reference frame. The IMU equipped INS forms the backbone for the navigation and control of many commercial and military vehicles such as crewed aircraft, missiles, ships, submarines, and satellites. IMUs are also essential components in the guidance and control of uncrewed systems such as UAVs, UGVs, and UUVs. Simpler versions of INSs termed Attitude and Heading Reference Systems utilize IMUs to calculate vehicle attitude with heading relative to magnetic north. The data collected from the IMU's sensors allows a computer to track craft's position, using a method known as dead reckoning.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: In land vehicles, an IMU can be integrated into GPS based automotive navigation systems or vehicle tracking systems, giving the system a dead reckoning capability and the ability to gather as much accurate data as possible about the vehicle's current speed, turn rate, heading, inclination and acceleration, in combination with the vehicle's wheel speed sensor output and, if available, reverse gear signal, for purposes such as better traffic collision analysis.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Besides navigational purposes, IMUs serve as orientation sensors in many consumer products. Almost all smartphones and tablets contain IMUs as orientation sensors. Fitness trackers and other wearables may also include IMUs to measure motion, such as running. IMUs also have the ability to determine developmental levels of individuals when in motion by identifying specificity and sensitivity of specific parameters associated with running. Some gaming systems such as the remote controls for the Nintendo Wii use IMUs to measure motion. Low-cost IMUs have enabled the proliferation of the consumer drone industry. They are also frequently used for sports technology (technique training), and animation applications. They are a competing technology for use in motion capture technology. An IMU is at the heart of the balancing technology used in the Segway Personal Transporter.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: In a navigation system, the data reported by the IMU is fed into a processor which calculates altitude, velocity and position. A typical implementation referred to as a Strap Down Inertial System integrates angular rate from the gyroscope to calculate angular position. This is fused with the gravity vector measured by the accelerometers in a Kalman filter to estimate attitude. The attitude estimate is used to transform acceleration measurements into an inertial reference frame (hence the term inertial navigation) where they are integrated once to get linear velocity, and twice to get linear position.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: For example, if an IMU installed in an aeroplane moving along a certain direction vector were to measure a plane's acceleration as 5 m/s for 1 second, then after that 1 second the guidance computer would deduce that the plane must be traveling at 5 m/s and must be 2.5 m from its initial position (assuming v=0 and known starting position coordinates x, y, z). If combined with a mechanical paper map or a digital map archive (systems whose output is generally known as a moving map display since the guidance system position output is often taken as the reference point, resulting in a moving map), the guidance system could use this method to show a pilot where the plane is located geographically in a certain moment, as with a GPS navigation system — but without the need to communicate with or receive communication from any outside components, such as satellites or land radio transponders, though external sources are still used in order to correct drift errors, and since the position update frequency allowed by inertial navigation systems can be higher than the vehicle motion on the map display can be perceived as smooth. This method of navigation is called dead reckoning.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: One of the earliest units was designed and built by Ford Instrument Company for the USAF to help aircraft navigate in flight without any input from outside the aircraft. Called the Ground-Position Indicator, once the pilot entered in the aircraft longitude and latitude at takeoff, the unit would show the pilot the longitude and latitude of the aircraft in relation to the ground.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Positional tracking systems like GPS can be used to continually correct drift errors (an application of the Kalman filter).


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: A major disadvantage of using IMUs for navigation is that they typically suffer from accumulated error. Because the guidance system is continually integrating acceleration with respect to time to calculate velocity and position "(see dead reckoning)", any measurement errors, however small, are accumulated over time. This leads to 'drift': an ever-increasing difference between where the system thinks it is located and the actual location. Due to integration a constant error in acceleration results in a linear error growth in velocity and a quadratic error growth in position. A constant error in attitude rate (gyro) results in a quadratic error growth in velocity and a cubic error growth in position.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: To get a rough idea, this means that, for a single, uncorrected accelerometer, the cheapest (at 100 mg) loses its ability to give 50-meter accuracy after around 10 seconds, while the best accelerometer (at 10 µg) loses its 50-meter accuracy after around 17 minutes.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: The accuracy of the inertial sensors inside a modern inertial measurement unit (IMU) has a more complex impact on the performance of an inertial navigation system (INS).


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Gyroscope and accelerometer sensor behavior is often represented by a model based on the following errors, assuming they have the proper measurement range and bandwidth:


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: All these errors depend on various physical phenomena specific to each sensor technology. Depending on the targeted applications and to be able to make the proper sensor choice, it is very important to consider the needs regarding stability, repeatability, and environment sensitivity (mainly thermal and mechanical environments), on both short and long terms.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Targeted performance for applications is most of the time better than a sensor's absolute performance. However, sensor performance is repeatable over time, with more or less accuracy, and therefore can be assessed and compensated to enhance its performance.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: This real-time performance enhancement is based on both sensors and IMU models. Complexity for these models will then be chosen according to the needed performance and the type of application considered. Ability to define this model is part of sensors and IMU manufacturers know-how.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Sensors and IMU models are computed in factories through a dedicated calibration sequence using multi-axis turntables and climatic chambers. They can either be computed for each individual product or generic for the whole production. Calibration will typically improve a sensor's raw performance by at least two decades.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: High performance IMUs, or IMUs designed to operate under harsh conditions, are very often suspended by shock absorbers. These shock absorbers are required to master three effects:


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Suspended IMUs can offer very high performance, even when submitted to harsh environments. However, to reach such performance, it is necessary to compensate for three main resulting behaviors:


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: Decreasing these errors tends to push IMU designers to increase processing frequencies, which becomes easier using recent digital technologies. However, developing algorithms able to cancel these errors requires deep inertial knowledge and strong intimacy with sensors/IMU design.


title: Inertial measurement unit

text: On the other hand, if suspension is likely to enable IMU performance increase, it has a side effect on size and mass.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Bernard Alfred "Jack" Nitzsche ( ""; April 22, 1937 – August 25, 2000) was an American musician, arranger, songwriter, composer, and record producer. He first came to prominence in the early 1960s as the right-hand-man of producer Phil Spector and went on to work with the Rolling Stones and Neil Young, among others. He also worked extensively in film scores, notably for films such as "Performance", "The Exorcist" and "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest". In 1983, he won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for co-writing "Up Where We Belong" with Buffy Sainte-Marie.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Born in Chicago, Illinois, United States, and raised on a farm in Newaygo, Michigan, Nitzsche, the son of German immigrants, moved to Los Angeles in 1955 with ambitions of becoming a jazz saxophonist. He was hired by Sonny Bono, who was at the time an A&R executive at Specialty Records, as a music copyist. While there, Nitzsche wrote a novelty hit titled "Bongo Bongo Bongo". Nitzsche wrote with Bono the song "Needles and Pins" for Jackie DeShannon, later recorded by the Searchers. His instrumental composition "The Lonely Surfer" entered the "Cash Box" top 100 on August 3, 1963, and reached No. 37.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: He became arranger and conductor for producer Phil Spector, and orchestrated the Wall of Sound for almost all Spector’s hits, perhaps best exemplified by "River Deep, Mountain High" by Ike and Tina Turner. Nitzsche worked with Earl Palmer, Leon Russell, Roy Caton, Glen Campbell, Carol Kaye and Hal Blaine in The Wrecking Crew, the backing band for many pop acts such as the Beach Boys and the Monkees. Nitzsche arranged the title song of Doris Day's film "Move Over, Darling", which was a successful single on the pop charts of the time.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: While organizing the music for the "T.A.M.I. Show" television special in 1964, he met the Rolling Stones and went on to play keyboards on their albums "The Rolling Stones, Now!" ("The Rolling Stones No. 2" in the UK), "Out of Our Heads", "Aftermath" and "Between the Buttons" as well as on their hit singles "Paint It, Black" and "Let's Spend the Night Together"; he also wrote the choral arrangements for "You Can't Always Get What You Want". In 1968 he introduced the band to slide guitarist Ry Cooder, a seminal influence on the band's 1969–1973 style.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: On several Rolling Stones records, he was credited as player of the "Nitzsche-phone". In an obituary on "Gadfly Online", former Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham explained the credit:


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: I made that up for the credits on those Stones albums—it was just a regular piano (or maybe an organ) mic'd differently. It was all part of this package that was created around the Stones. People believed it existed. The idea was meant to be: "My god, they've had to invent new instruments to capture this new sound they hear in their brains." And they were inventing fresh sounds with old toys—therefore, it deserved to be highlighted—it was the read-up of creation, of imagination—getting credit for a job well done.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: He collaborated with Neil Young, beginning with producing "Expecting to Fly" by Buffalo Springfield. plus the song "On the Way Home". In 1968, Nitzsche and Cooder co-produced Young's eponymous solo debut with David Briggs. As he was moving from baroque to hard rock, Young hired Nitzsche for The Stray Gators, the session musicians behind Young on "Harvest" (1972) and "Time Fades Away" (1973).


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Nitzsche played electric piano with Crazy Horse throughout 1970. Despite frequent clashes with Billy Talbot and Ralph Molina, Nitzsche remained with the band after Young left in 1970. Nitzsche produced the band's 1971 self-titled debut album and sang lead vocal on "Crow Jane Lady". He left Crazy Horse after the album's commercial failure.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: While remaining prolific throughout the 1970s, he began to suffer from depression and problems connected to substance abuse. His relationship with Young began to deteriorate during the 1973 support tour for "Harvest" that yielded "Time Fades Away". During rehearsals, drummer Kenny Buttrey demanded a salary of $100,000 to compensate for lost session work, leading Nitzsche (with support from bassist Tim Drummond) to prevail upon Young to extend this salary to the other band members. Although Young reluctantly agreed, Nitzsche thought Young never got over it. Nitzsche frequently spewed obscenities into his vocal mike (leading Young's sound engineers to disconnect it) and often quarreled with David Crosby, who joined the tour's final dates to assist with vocal harmonies. After he publicly castigated Young in a 1974 interview, the two men became estranged for several years and collaborated only sporadically. Later that year, he was dropped from the Reprise roster after recording a song criticizing executive Mo Ostin. This period culminated in his arrest for allegedly breaking into the home of and then raping ex-girlfriend Carrie Snodgress, formerly Young's companion, with a gun barrel on June 29, 1979. Snodgress was treated at the hospital for a bone fracture, cuts and bruises and had 18 stitches. The charge of rape by instrumentation (which carries a five-year sentence) was dismissed.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: In 1979, Nitzsche produced Graham Parker's album "Squeezing Out Sparks". Nitzsche produced three Willy DeVille albums beginning in the late 1970s: "Cabretta" (1977), "Return to Magenta" (1978) and "Coup de Grâce" (1981). Nitzsche said DeVille was the best singer he had ever worked with.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Nitzsche began to concentrate more on film music rather than pop music in the mid-1970s, becoming one of the more prolific film orchestrators in Hollywood during the period. In 1983, he received the Academy Award for Best Song for co-writing "Up Where We Belong" (from the 1982 film "An Officer and a Gentleman") with Will Jennings and Buffy Sainte-Marie. Nitzsche had also worked on film scores throughout his career, such as his contributions to the Monkees movie "Head", the theme music from "Village of the Giants" (recycling an earlier single, "The Last Race") and the soundtracks for "Performance" (1970), "The Exorcist" (1973), "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" (1975), "Hardcore" (1979), "The Razor's Edge" (1984) and "Starman" (also 1984). He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score and a Grammy for his contributions to "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", his first of many studio projects with Scott Mathews.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: In the mid-1990s, an inebriated Nitzsche was seen being arrested in Hollywood in an episode of the television show "Cops" after brandishing a gun at some youths who had stolen his hat. Attempting to explain himself to the arresting officers, he is heard exclaiming that he was an Academy Award winner. In 1997, he expressed interest in producing a comeback album for Link Wray, although this never materialized due to their mutually declining health.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: In 2000, Nitzsche planned to work with Mercury Rev on "All Is Dream". Nitzsche intended to produce and orchestrate the record, having praised the band's 1998 album "Deserter's Songs", but he died before pre-production.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Nitzsche met his first wife, singer Gracia Ann May, while he was working for Capitol Records. His second wife was Buffy Sainte-Marie, with whom he co-wrote the Academy Award winning song for 1982, "Up Where We Belong."


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: He also had a relationship with actress Carrie Snodgress, who was previously in a relationship with Neil Young. In 1979, Nitzsche was charged with threatening to kill her after he barged into her home and beat her with a handgun. He pleaded guilty to threatening her, was fined, and placed on three years' probation.


title: Jack Nitzsche

text: Nitzsche suffered a stroke in 1998 which ended his career. He died in Hollywood's Queen of Angels - Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center in 2000 of cardiac arrest brought on by a recurring bronchial infection. His interment was at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. He was survived by one son.


title: Substance dependence

text: Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A "drug addiction", a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An "addictive drug" is a drug which is both rewarding and reinforcing. ΔFosB, a gene transcription factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions, but not dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: The International Classification of Diseases classifies substance dependence as a mental and behavioural disorder.


title: Substance dependence

text: Within the framework of the 4th edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" ("DSM-IV"), substance dependence is redefined as a drug addiction, and can be diagnosed without the occurrence of a withdrawal syndrome. It was described accordingly: "When an individual persists in use of alcohol or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may be diagnosed. Compulsive and repetitive use may result in tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is reduced or stopped. This, along with Substance Abuse are considered Substance Use Disorders." In the DSM-5 (released in 2013), substance abuse and substance dependence have been merged into the category of substance use disorders and they no longer exist as individual diagnoses.


title: Substance dependence

text: Withdrawal is the body's reaction to abstaining from a substance upon which a person has developed a dependence syndrome. When dependence has developed, cessation of substance-use produces an unpleasant state, which promotes continued drug use through negative reinforcement; i.e., the drug is used to escape or avoid re-entering the associated withdrawal state. The withdrawal state may include physical-somatic symptoms (physical dependence), emotional-motivational symptoms (psychological dependence), or both. Chemical and hormonal imbalances may arise if the substance is not re-introduced. Psychological stress may also result if the substance is not re-introduced.


title: Substance dependence

text: Infants also experience substance withdrawal, known as neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), which can have severe and life-threatening effects. Addiction to drugs such as alcohol in expectant mothers not only causes NAS, but also an array of other issues which can continually affect the infant throughout their lifetime.


title: Substance dependence

text: The dependence potential of a drug varies from substance to substance, and from individual to individual. Dose, frequency, pharmacokinetics of a particular substance, route of administration, and time are critical factors for developing a drug dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: An article in "The Lancet" compared the harm and dependence liability of 20 drugs, using a scale from zero to three for physical dependence, psychological dependence, and pleasure to create a mean score for dependence. Selected results can be seen in the chart below.


title: Substance dependence

text: Capture rates enumerate the percentage of users who reported that they had become dependent to their respective drug at some point.


title: Substance dependence

text: Two factors have been identified as playing pivotal roles in psychological dependence: the neuropeptide "corticotropin-releasing factor" (CRF) and the gene transcription factor "cAMP response element binding protein" (CREB). The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) is one brain structure that has been implicated in the psychological component of drug dependence. In the NAcc, CREB is activated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) immediately after a high and triggers changes in gene expression that affect proteins such as dynorphin; dynorphin peptides reduce dopamine release into the NAcc by temporarily inhibiting the reward pathway. A sustained activation of CREB thus forces a larger dose to be taken to reach the same effect. In addition, it leaves the user feeling generally depressed and dissatisfied, and unable to find pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, often leading to a return to the drug for another dose.


title: Substance dependence

text: In addition to CREB, it is hypothesized that stress mechanisms play a role in dependence. Koob and Kreek have hypothesized that during drug use, activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) and other stress systems in the extended amygdala. This activation influences the dysregulated emotional state associated with psychological dependence. They found that as drug use escalates, so does the presence of CRF in human cerebrospinal fluid. In rat models, the separate use of CRF inhibitors and CRF receptor antagonists both decreased self-administration of the drug of study. Other studies in this review showed dysregulation of other neuropeptides that affect the HPA axis, including enkephalin which is an endogenous opioid peptide that regulates pain. It also appears that µ-opioid receptors, which enkephalin acts upon, is influential in the reward system and can regulate the expression of stress hormones.


title: Substance dependence

text: Increased expression of AMPA receptors in nucleus accumbens MSNs is a potential mechanism of aversion produced by drug withdrawal.


title: Substance dependence

text: Upregulation of the signal transduction pathway in the locus coeruleus by has been implicated as the mechanism responsible for certain aspects of opioid-induced physical dependence. The temporal course of withdrawal correlates with LC firing, and administration of α agonists into the locus coeruleus leads to a decrease in LC firing and norepinephrine release during withdrawal. A possible mechanism involves upregulation of NMDA receptors, which is supported by the attenuation of withdraw by NMDA receptor antagonists. Physical dependence on opioids has been observed to produce an elevation of extracellular glutamate, an increase in NMDA receptor subunits NR1 and NR2A, phosphorylated CaMKII, and c-fos. Expression of CaMKII and c-fos is attenuated by NMDA receptor antagonists, which is associated with blunted withdrawal in adult rats, but not neonatal rats While acute administration of opioids decreases AMPA receptor expression and depresses both NMDA and non-NMDA excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the NAC, withdrawal involves a lowered threshold for LTP and an increase in spontaneous firing in the NAc.


title: Substance dependence

text: "Substance dependence", as defined in the DSM-IV, can be diagnosed with physiological dependence, evidence of tolerance or withdrawal, or without physiological dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: Addiction is a complex but treatable condition. It is characterized by compulsive drug craving, seeking, and use that persists even if the user is aware of severe adverse consequences. For some people, addiction becomes chronic, with periodic relapses even after long periods of abstinence. As a chronic, relapsing disease, addiction may require continued treatments to increase the intervals between relapses and diminish their intensity. While some with substance issues recover and lead fulfilling lives, others require ongoing additional support. The ultimate goal of addiction treatment is to enable an individual to manage their substance misuse; for some this may mean abstinence. Immediate goals are often to reduce substance abuse, improve the patient's ability to function, and minimize the medical and social complications of substance abuse and their addiction; this is called "harm reduction".


title: Substance dependence

text: Treatments for addiction vary widely according to the types of drugs involved, amount of drugs used, duration of the drug addiction, medical complications and the social needs of the individual. Determining the best type of recovery program for an addicted person depends on a number of factors, including: personality, drugs of choice, concept of spirituality or religion, mental or physical illness, and local availability and affordability of programs.


title: Substance dependence

text: Many different ideas circulate regarding what is considered a successful outcome in the recovery from addiction. Programs that emphasize controlled drinking exist for alcohol addiction. Opiate replacement therapy has been a medical standard of treatment for opioid addiction for many years.


title: Substance dependence

text: Treatments and attitudes toward addiction vary widely among different countries. In the US and developing countries, the goal of commissioners of treatment for drug dependence is generally total abstinence from all drugs. Other countries, particularly in Europe, argue the aims of treatment for drug dependence are more complex, with treatment aims including reduction in use to the point that drug use no longer interferes with normal activities such as work and family commitments; shifting the addict away from more dangerous routes of drug administration such as injecting to safer routes such as oral administration; reduction in crime committed by drug addicts; and treatment of other comorbid conditions such as AIDS, hepatitis and mental health disorders. These kinds of outcomes can be achieved without eliminating drug use completely. Drug treatment programs in Europe often report more favorable outcomes than those in the US because the criteria for measuring success are functional rather than abstinence-based. The supporters of programs with total abstinence from drugs as a goal believe that enabling further drug use means prolonged drug use and risks an increase in addiction and complications from addiction.


title: Substance dependence

text: Residential drug treatment can be broadly divided into two camps: 12-step programs and therapeutic communities. 12-step programs are a nonclinical support-group and spiritual-based approach to treating addiction. Therapy typically involves the use of cognitive-behavioral therapy, an approach that looks at the relationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviors, addressing the root cause of maladaptive behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy treats addiction as a behavior rather than a disease, and so is subsequently curable, or rather, unlearnable. Cognitive-behavioral therapy programs recognize that, for some individuals, controlled use is a more realistic possibility.


title: Substance dependence

text: One of many recovery methods are 12-step recovery programs, with prominent examples including Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Drug Addicts Anonymous and Pills Anonymous. They are commonly known and used for a variety of addictions for the individual addicted and the family of the individual. Substance-abuse rehabilitation (rehab) centers offer a residential treatment program for some of the more seriously addicted, in order to isolate the patient from drugs and interactions with other users and dealers. Outpatient clinics usually offer a combination of individual counseling and group counseling. Frequently, a physician or psychiatrist will prescribe medications in order to help patients cope with the side effects of their addiction. Medications can help immensely with anxiety and insomnia, can treat underlying mental disorders (cf. self-medication hypothesis, Khantzian 1997) such as depression, and can help reduce or eliminate withdrawal symptomology when withdrawing from physiologically addictive drugs. Some examples are using benzodiazepines for alcohol detoxification, which prevents delirium tremens and complications; using a slow taper of benzodiazepines or a taper of phenobarbital, sometimes including another antiepileptic agent such as gabapentin, pregabalin, or valproate, for withdrawal from barbiturates or benzodiazepines; using drugs such as baclofen to reduce cravings and propensity for relapse amongst addicts to any drug, especially effective in stimulant users, and alcoholics (in which it is nearly as effective as benzodiazepines in preventing complications); using clonidine, an alpha-agonist, and loperamide for opioid detoxification, for first-time users or those who wish to attempt an abstinence-based recovery (90% of opioid users relapse to active addiction within eight months or are multiple relapse patients); or replacing an opioid that is interfering with or destructive to a user's life, such as illicitly-obtained heroin, dilaudid, or oxycodone, with an opioid that can be administered legally, reduces or eliminates drug cravings, and does not produce a high, such as methadone or buprenorphine – opioid replacement therapy – which is the gold standard for treatment of opioid dependence in developed countries, reducing the risk and cost to both user and society more effectively than any other treatment modality (for opioid dependence), and shows the best short-term and long-term gains for the user, with the greatest longevity, least risk of fatality, greatest quality of life, and lowest risk of relapse and legal issues including arrest and incarceration.


title: Substance dependence

text: In a survey of treatment providers from three separate institutions, the National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors, Rational Recovery Systems and the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, measuring the treatment provider's responses on the "Spiritual Belief Scale" (a scale measuring belief in the four spiritual characteristics of AA identified by Ernest Kurtz); the scores were found to explain 41% of the variance in the treatment provider's responses on the "Addiction Belief Scale" (a scale measuring adherence to the disease model or the free-will model of addiction).


title: Substance dependence

text: Behavioral programming is considered critical in helping those with addictions achieve abstinence. From the applied behavior analysis literature and the behavioral psychology literature, several evidence based intervention programs have emerged: (1) behavioral marital therapy; (2) community reinforcement approach; (3) cue exposure therapy; and (4) contingency management strategies. In addition, the same author suggests that social skills training adjunctive to inpatient treatment of alcohol dependence is probably efficacious. Community reinforcement has both efficacy and effectiveness data. In addition, behavioral treatment such as community reinforcement and family training (CRAFT) have helped family members to get their loved ones into treatment. Motivational intervention has also shown to be an effective treatment for substance dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, are used by some practitioners to alleviate the symptoms of drug addiction. In 1997, the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted, as policy, the following statement after a report on a number of alternative therapies including acupuncture:


title: Substance dependence

text: Medical professionals need to apply many techniques and approaches to help patients with substance related disorders. Using a psychodynamic approach is one of the techniques that psychologists use to solve addiction problems. In psychodynamic therapy, psychologists need to understand the conflicts and the needs of the addicted person, and also need to locate the defects of their ego and defense mechanisms. Using this approach alone has proven to be ineffective in solving addiction problems. Cognitive and behavioral techniques should be integrated with psychodynamic approaches to achieve effective treatment for substance related disorders. Cognitive treatment requires psychologists to think deeply about what is happening in the brain of an addicted person. Cognitive psychologists should zoom in to neural functions of the brain and understand that drugs have been manipulating the dopamine reward center of the brain. From this particular state of thinking, cognitive psychologists need to find ways to change the thought process of the addicted person.


title: Substance dependence

text: There are two routes typically applied to a cognitive approach to substance abuse: tracking the thoughts that pull patients to addiction and tracking the thoughts that prevent them from relapsing. Behavioral techniques have the widest application in treating substance related disorders. Behavioral psychologists can use the techniques of "aversion therapy", based on the findings of Pavlov's classical conditioning. It uses the principle of pairing abused substances with unpleasant stimuli or conditions; for example, pairing pain, electrical shock, or nausea with alcohol consumption. The use of medications may also be used in this approach, such as using disulfiram to pair unpleasant effects with the thought of alcohol use. Psychologists tend to use an integration of all these approaches to produce reliable and effective treatment. With the advanced clinical use of medications, biological treatment is now considered to be one of the most efficient interventions that psychologists may use as treatment for those with substance dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: Another approach is to use medicines that interfere with the functions of the drugs in the brain. Similarly, one can also substitute the misused substance with a weaker, safer version to slowly taper the patient off of their dependence. Such is the case with Suboxone in the context of opioid dependence. These approaches are aimed at the process of detoxification. Medical professionals weigh the consequences of withdrawal symptoms against the risk of staying dependent on these substances. These withdrawal symptoms can be very difficult and painful times for patients. Most will have steps in place to handle severe withdrawal symptoms, either through behavioral therapy or other medications. Biological intervention should be combined with behavioral therapy approaches and other non-pharmacological techniques. Group therapies including anonymity, teamwork and sharing concerns of daily life among people who also have substance dependence issues can have a great impact on outcomes. However, these programs proved to be more effective and influential on persons who did not reach levels of serious dependence.


title: Substance dependence

text: The phenomenon of drug addiction has occurred to some degree throughout recorded history (see "Opium"). Modern agricultural practices, improvements in access to drugs, advancements in biochemistry, and dramatic increases in the recommendation of drug usage by clinical practitioners have exacerbated the problem significantly in the 20th century. Improved means of active biological agent manufacture and the introduction of synthetic compounds, such as fentanyl and methamphetamine, are also factors contributing to drug addiction.


title: Substance dependence

text: For the entirety of US history, drugs have been used by some members of the population. In the country's early years, most drug use by the settlers was of alcohol or tobacco.


title: Substance dependence

text: The 19th century saw opium usage in the US become much more common and popular. Morphine was isolated in the early 19th century, and came to be prescribed commonly by doctors, both as a painkiller and as an intended cure for opium addiction. At the time, the prevailing medical opinion was that the addiction process occurred in the stomach, and thus it was hypothesized that patients would not become addicted to morphine if it was injected into them via a hypodermic needle, and it was further hypothesized that this might potentially be able to cure opium addiction. However, many people did become addicted to morphine. In particular, addiction to opium became widespread among soldiers fighting in the Civil War, who very often required painkillers and thus were very often prescribed morphine. Women were also very frequently prescribed opiates, and opiates were advertised as being able to relieve "female troubles".


title: Substance dependence

text: Many soldiers in the Vietnam War were introduced to heroin and developed a dependency on the substance which survived even when they returned to the US. Technological advances in travel meant that this increased demand for heroin in the US could now be met. Furthermore, as technology advanced, more drugs were synthesized and discovered, opening up new avenues to substance dependency.


title: Substance dependence

text: Internationally, the U.S. and Eastern Europe contain the countries with the highest substance abuse disorder occurrence (5-6%). Africa, Asia, and the Middle East contain countries with the lowest worldwide occurrence (1-2%). Across the globe, those that tended to have a higher prevalence of substance dependence were in their twenties, unemployed, and men. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reports on substance dependence/abuse rates in various population demographics across the U.S. When surveying populations based on race and ethnicity in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that American Indian/Alaskan Natives were among the highest rates and Asians were among the lowest rates in comparison to other racial/ethnic groups.


title: Substance dependence

text: When surveying populations based on gender in those ages 12 and older, it was observed that males had a higher substance dependence rate than females. However, the difference in the rates are not apparent until after age 17."Drug and Alcohol Dependence" reports that older adults abuse drugs including alcohol at a rate of 15-20%. It's estimated that 52 million Americans beyond 12 years old have abused a substance.


title: Substance dependence

text: Alcohol dependence or abuse rates were shown to have no correspondence with any person's education level when populations were surveyed in varying degrees of education from ages 26 and older. However, when it came to illicit drug use there was a correlation, in which those that graduated from college had the lowest rates. Furthermore, dependence rates were greater in unemployed populations ages 18 and older and in metropolitan-residing populations ages 12 and older.


title: Substance dependence

text: The National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago reported an analysis on disparities within admissions for substance abuse treatment in the Appalachian region, which comprises 13 states and 410 counties in the Eastern part of the U.S. While their findings for most demographic categories were similar to the national findings by NSDUH, they had different results for racial/ethnic groups which varied by sub-regions. Overall, Whites were the demographic with the largest admission rate (83%), while Alaskan Native, American Indian, Pacific Islander, and Asian populations had the lowest admissions (1.8%).


title: Substance dependence

text: Depending on the jurisdiction, addictive drugs may be legal, legal only as part of a government sponsored study, illegal to use for any purpose, illegal to sell, or even illegal to merely possess.


title: Substance dependence

text: Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like substances under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, anesthetics, hallucinogenics, derivatives and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs. Unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence.


title: Substance dependence

text: Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, while others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, under legislation specifically about drugs, alcohol and nicotine are not usually included.


title: Substance dependence

text: Although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.


title: Substance dependence

text: It is unclear whether laws against illegal drug use do anything to stem usage and dependency. In jurisdictions where addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by drug dealers, who are often involved with organized crime. Even though the cost of producing most illegal addictive substances is very low, their illegality combined with the addict's need permits the seller to command a premium price, often hundreds of times the production cost. As a result, addicts sometimes turn to crime to support their habit.


title: Substance dependence

text: In the United States, drug policy is primarily controlled by the federal government. The Department of Justice's Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) enforces controlled substances laws and regulations. The Department of Health and Human Services' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) serve to protect and promote public health by controlling the manufacturing, marketing, and distribution of products, like medications.


title: Substance dependence

text: The United States' approach to substance abuse has shifted over the last decade, and is continuing to change. The federal government was minimally involved in the 19th century. The federal government transitioned from using taxation of drugs in the early 20th century to criminalizing drug abuse with legislations and agencies like the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) mid-20th century in response to the nation's growing substance abuse issue. These strict punishments for drug offenses shined light on the fact that drug abuse was a multi-faceted problem. The President's Advisory Commission on Narcotics and Drug Abuse of 1963 addressed the need for a medical solution to drug abuse. However, drug abuse continued to be enforced by the federal government through agencies such as the DEA and further legislations such as The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984, and Anti-Drug Abuse Acts.


title: Substance dependence

text: In the past decade, there have been growing efforts through state and local legislations to shift from criminalizing drug abuse to treating it as a health condition requiring medical intervention. 28 states currently allow for the establishment of needle exchanges. Florida, Iowa, Missouri and Arizona all introduced bills to allow for the establishment of needle exchanges in 2019. These bills have grown in popularity across party lines since needle exchanges were first introduced in Amsterdam in 1983. In addition, AB-186 Controlled substances: overdose prevention program was introduced to operate safe injection sites in the City and County of San Francisco. The bill was vetoed on September 30, 2018, by California Governor Jerry Brown. The legality of these sites are still in discussion, so there are no such sites in the United States yet. However, there is growing international evidence for successful safe injection facilities.


title: British Film Institute

text: The British Film Institute (BFI) is a film and television charitable organisation which promotes and preserves film-making and television in the United Kingdom. The BFI uses funds provided by the National Lottery to encourage film production, distribution, and education. It is sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and partially funded under the British Film Institute Act 1949.


title: British Film Institute

text: It was established in 1933 to encourage the development of the arts of film, television and the moving image throughout the United Kingdom, to promote their use as a record of contemporary life and manners, to promote education about film, television and the moving image generally, and their impact on society, to promote access to and appreciation of the widest possible range of British and world cinema and to establish, care for and develop collections reflecting the moving image history and heritage of the United Kingdom.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI maintains the world's largest film archive, the BFI National Archive, previously called National Film Library (1935–1955), National Film Archive (1955–1992), and National Film and Television Archive (1993–2006). The archive contains more than 50,000 fiction films, over 100,000 non-fiction titles, and around 625,000 television programmes. The majority of the collection is British material but it also features internationally significant holdings from around the world. The Archive also collects films which feature key British actors and the work of British directors.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI runs the BFI Southbank (formerly the National Film Theatre (NFT)) and the BFI IMAX cinema, both located on the south bank of the River Thames in London. The IMAX has the largest cinema screen in the UK and shows popular recent releases and short films showcasing its technology, which includes 3D screenings and 11,600 watts of digital surround sound. BFI Southbank (the National Film Theatre screens and the Studio) shows films from all over the world, particularly critically acclaimed historical and specialised films that may not otherwise get a cinema showing. The BFI also distributes archival and cultural cinema to other venues – each year to more than 800 venues all across the UK, as well as to a substantial number of overseas venues.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI offers a range of education initiatives, in particular to support the teaching of film and media studies in schools. In late 2012, the BFI received money from the Department for Education to create the BFI Film Academy Network for young people aged between 16 and 25. A residential scheme is held at the NFTS every year.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI runs the annual London Film Festival along with and the youth-orientated Future Film Festival.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI publishes the monthly "Sight & Sound" magazine as well as films on Blu-ray, DVD and books. It runs the BFI National Library (a reference library), and maintains the BFI Film & TV Database and Summary of Information on Film and Television (SIFT), which are databases of credits, synopses and other information about film and television productions. SIFT has a collection of about 7 million still frames from film and television.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI has co-produced a number of television series featuring footage from the BFI National Archive, in partnership with the BBC, including "The Lost World of Mitchell & Kenyon", "The Lost World of Friese-Greene", and "The Lost World of Tibet".


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI has also produced contemporary artists' moving image work, most notably through the programme of the BFI Gallery, which was located at BFI Southbank from March 2007 to March 2011. The programme of the gallery resulted in several new commissions by leading artists, including projects which engaged directly with the BFI National Archive, among which: Patrick Keiller's 'The City of the Future', Iain Forsyth and Jane Pollard's 'RadioMania: An Abandoned Work' and Deimantas Narkevicious' 'Into the Unknown'. The Gallery also initiated projects by film-makers such as Michael Snow, Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Jane and Louise Wilson and John Akomfrah.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI also operates a streaming service called "BFI Player". This streaming service offers a variety of niche and art films.


title: British Film Institute

text: The institute was founded in 1933. Despite its foundation resulting from a recommendation in a report on "Film in National Life", at that time the institute was a private company, though it has received public money throughout its history—from the Privy Council and Treasury until 1965 and the various culture departments since then.


title: British Film Institute

text: The institute was restructured following the Radcliffe Report of 1948 which recommended that it should concentrate on developing the appreciation of filmic art, rather than creating film itself. Thus control of educational film production passed to the National Committee for Visual Aids in Education and the British Film Academy assumed control for promoting production. From 1952 to 2000, the BFI provided funding for new and experimental film-makers via the BFI Production Board.


title: British Film Institute

text: The institute received a royal charter in 1983. This was updated in 2000, and in the same year the newly established UK Film Council took responsibility for providing the BFI's annual grant-in-aid (government subsidy). As an independent registered charity, the BFI is regulated by the Charity Commission and the Privy Council.


title: British Film Institute

text: In 1988, the BFI opened the London Museum of the Moving Image (MOMI) on the South Bank. MOMI was acclaimed internationally and set new standards for education through entertainment, but subsequently it did not receive the high levels of continuing investment that might have enabled it to keep pace with technological developments and ever-rising audience expectations. The museum was "temporarily" closed in 1999 when the BFI stated that it would be re-sited. This did not happen, and MOMI's closure became permanent in 2002 when it was decided to redevelop the South Bank site. This redevelopment was itself then further delayed.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI is currently managed on a day-to-day basis by its chief executive, Ben Roberts. Supreme decision-making authority rests with a chair and a board of up to 14 governors. The current chair is Josh Berger, who took up the post in February 2016. He succeeded Greg Dyke, who took office on 1 March 2008. Dyke succeeded the late Anthony Minghella (film director), who was chair from 2003 until 31 December 2007. The chair of the board is appointed by the BFI's own Board of Governors but requires the consent of the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. Other Governors are co-opted by existing board members when required (but if one of these is appointed Deputy Chair, that appointment is subject to ratification by the Secretary of State).


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI operates with three sources of income. The largest is public money allocated by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. In 2011–12, this funding amounted to approximately £20m. The second largest source is commercial activity such as receipts from ticket sales at BFI Southbank or the BFI London IMAX theatre (£5m in 2007), sales of DVDs, etc. Thirdly, grants and sponsorship of around £5m are obtained from various sources, including National Lottery funding grants, private sponsors and through donations (J. Paul Getty, Jr. donated around £1m in his will following his death in 2003). The BFI is also the distributor for all Lottery funds for film (in 2011–12 this amounted to c.£25m).


title: British Film Institute

text: As well as its work on film, the BFI also devotes a large amount of its time to the preservation and study of British television programming and its history. In 2000, it published a high-profile list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes, as voted for by a range of industry figures.


title: British Film Institute

text: The delayed redevelopment of the National Film Theatre finally took place in 2007, creating in the rebranded "BFI Southbank" new education spaces, a contemporary art gallery dedicated to the moving image (the BFI Gallery), and a pioneering mediatheque which for the first time enabled the public to gain access, free of charge, to some of the otherwise inaccessible treasures in the National Film & Television Archive. The mediatheque has proved to be the most successful element of this redevelopment, and there are plans to roll out a network of them across the UK.


title: British Film Institute

text: An announcement of a £25 million capital investment in the Strategy for UK Screen Heritage was made by Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport at the opening night of the 2007 London Film Festival. The bulk of this money paid for long overdue development of the BFI National Archive facilities in Hertfordshire and Warwickshire.


title: British Film Institute

text: During 2009, the UK Film Council persuaded the government that there should only be one main public-funded body for film, and that body should be the UKFC, while the BFI should be abolished. In 2010, the government announced that there would be a single body for film. Despite intensive lobbying (including, controversially, using public funding to pay public relations agencies to put its case forward), the UKFC failed to persuade the government that it should have that role and, instead, the BFI took over most of the UKFC's functions and funding from 1 April 2011, with the UKFC being subsequently abolished. Since then, the BFI has been responsible for all Lottery funding for film—originally in excess of £25m p.a., and currently in excess of £40m p.a.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI Film Academy forms part of the BFI's overall 5–19 Education Scheme. The programme is being supported by the Department for Education in England who have committed £1m per annum funding from April 2012 and 31 March 2015. It is also funded through the National Lottery, Creative Scotland and Northern Ireland Screen.


title: British Film Institute

text: On 29 November 2016, the BFI announced that over 100,000 television programmes are to be digitised before the video tapes, which currently have an estimated five-to-six-year shelf life, become unusable. The BFI aims to make sure that the television archive is still there in 200 years' time.


title: British Film Institute

text: The BFI recently announced that it is teaming up with American diversity and inclusion program #StartWith8Hollywood founded by Thuc Doan Nguyen to make it global.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A citizen's arrest is an arrest made by a private citizen – that is, a person who is not acting as a sworn law-enforcement official. In common law jurisdictions, the practice dates back to medieval England and the English common law, in which sheriffs encouraged ordinary citizens to help apprehend law breakers.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Despite the practice's name, in most countries, the arresting person is usually designated as a "person" with arrest powers, who need not be a "citizen" of the country in which they are acting. For example, in the British jurisdiction of England and Wales, the power comes from section 24A(2) of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, called "any person arrest". This legislation states "any person" has these powers, and does not state that they need to be a British citizen.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Anyone who makes a citizen's arrest can find themselves facing possible lawsuits or criminal charges (e.g. charges of false imprisonment, unlawful restraint, kidnapping, or wrongful arrest) if the wrong person is apprehended or a suspect's civil rights are violated. This is especially true when police forces are attempting to determine who an aggressor is. Private citizens do not enjoy the same immunity from civil liability when making arrests on other private citizens as police officers do.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The level of responsibility that a person performing a citizen's arrest may bear depends on the jurisdiction. For instance, in France and Germany, a person stopping a criminal from committing a crime, including crimes against belongings, is not criminally responsible as long as the means employed are in proportion to the threat. Note, however, that in both countries, this results from a different legal norm, "aid to others in immediate danger", which is concerned with prevention, not prosecution, of crimes.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Australia, the power to arrest is granted by both federal and state legislation; however, the exact power granted differs depending on jurisdiction. The power to arrest for a federal offence is granted by section 3Z of the "Crimes Act 1914". Under the Act, a person who is not a police constable may, without warrant, arrest another person if they believe on reasonable grounds that:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A person who arrests another person must, as soon as practicable after the arrest, arrange for the other person, and any property found on the other person, to be delivered into the custody of a constable.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Generally speaking, as regards the law in Australia: Where it is clear on the evidence that a private citizen, or security officer, in detaining a suspect, acted reasonably and the suspect unreasonably, then it is likely that the court will find in favour of the citizen or security officer and against the suspect if that suspect chooses, later, to sue the citizen for assault or false imprisonment. In other circumstances where, e.g. a property owner (or an agent) arrests a thief in a manner, and in circumstances, disproportionate to the likely harm to the victim, and in clear defiance of the rights of the suspect (for example, to be taken forthwith to a police station), then the court is very likely to find in favour of the suspect (guilty or otherwise). The courts may order compensation for such suspects in appropriate circumstances.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In the Australian state of New South Wales, the power to arrest is granted to anyone who is not a police officer by section 100 of the "Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002" (NSW). Under the Act, a person may, without a warrant, arrest another person if:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Section 231 of the Act allows the use of such force as is "reasonably necessary to make the arrest or to prevent the escape of the person after arrest". A person who arrests another person under section 100 must, as soon as is reasonably practicable, take the person, and any property found on the person, before a magistrate to be dealt with according to law. The magistrate will also decide whether or not the force applied in making the arrest was reasonable under the circumstances.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In the Australian state of Queensland, the power to arrest is granted by section 546 of Schedule 1 to the "Criminal Code Act 1899" (Qld). Under the Act, any person who finds another committing an offence may, without warrant, arrest the other person. The power to arrest in Queensland also allows for arrest on suspicion of an offence:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Following the arrest, the person arrested must, without delay, be handed over to a justice of the peace or police officer, in accordance with section 552 of the Criminal Code. Legal advice should then be sought to avoid any possible legal action for wrongful arrest, false imprisonment or assault.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Section 271 of the "Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935" (SA) grants arrest powers to a person in South Australia.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Under the "Police Offences Act 1935" (Tas), section 55(3), any person may arrest any other person whom they find committing an offence, where they have reasonable grounds to believe that the conduct will create or may involve substantial injury to another person, serious danger of such injury, loss of property or serious injury to property. Section 55(5) states "For the purposes of this section, a person is said to be 'found offending' if he does any act, or makes any omission, or conducts or behaves himself, and thereby causes a person who finds him reasonable grounds for believing that he has, in respect of such act, omission, or conduct, committed an offence against this Act." There are further provisions in section 301 of the "Criminal Code Act 1924" (Tas) that appear to allow a sliding scale of force in executing an arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In the Australian state of Victoria, the power to arrest is granted in section 458 of the "Crimes Act 1958" (Vic). It states that a person may, without a warrant, arrest a person that they find committing an offence for one or more of the following reasons:


title: Citizen's arrest

text: A person may also arrest another person if they are instructed to do so by a member of the police force, or if they believe on reasonable grounds that the offender is escaping legal custody.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Section 461 states that if an arrest is made under section 458 of the "Crimes Act", and is later proven to be false, then the arrest itself won't be considered unlawful if it was made on reasonable grounds. Section 462A allows any person the right to use force "not disproportionate to the objective as he believes on reasonable grounds to be necessary to prevent the commission, continuance or completion of an indictable offence or to effect or assist in effecting the lawful arrest of a person committing or suspected of committing any offence".


title: Citizen's arrest

text: It was only in 2004 that the Western Australian parliament repealed the provisions of the former section 47 of the "Police Act 1892" which allowed any person to arrest without a warrant "any reputed common prostitute, thief, loose, idle or disorderly person, who, within view of such person apprehending, shall offend against this Act, and shall forthwith deliver him to any constable or police officer of the place where he shall have been apprehended, to be taken and conveyed before a Justice, to be dealt with according to law ..." A private citizen would have found it rather difficult to interpret the terms "loose" or "idle" with any degree of legal certainty. Citizen's arrest powers are now in section 25 of the "Criminal Investigation Act 2006" (WA).


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Austria, citizen's arrests ("") can be made under § 80 Abs 2 StPO (code of penal procedures). The person making the arrest is allowed to hold the arrestee solely for the purpose of turning him over to a proper legal authority such as the police.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Brazil, a Federal law allows any person to arrest a suspect criminal found in flagrante delicto or fleeing from the crime scene. The person has to, at his/her own judgment, have the physical power to keep the suspect detained, has to verbally explain what (s)he is doing to the arrestee and has to call the police. Both have to wait for the arrival of the police. The person who makes a citizen's arrest has to sign the police forms as a witness and explain the facts. Typically it will lead to a time burden of at least two hours. If the facts cannot be verified the person who realizes the citizen's arrest might be sued by the arrestee.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Canada's blanket arrest authorities for crimes or violations of federal statutes are found in the Criminal Code. In Canada, a criminal offence is any offence that is created by a federal statute—there are no "provincial crimes".


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Criminal offences are divided into three groups: indictable, dual procedure, and summary conviction. For the purposes of arrest, dual procedure offences are considered to be indictable.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The Criminal Code provisions related to citizen arrests were changed in 2012, by the Citizen's Arrest and Self-defence Act. As a consequence, it is now possible to make a citizen's arrest in Canada in circumstances where a "reasonable" amount of time has lapsed between the commission of a property-related offence and the arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: There are several arrest authorities found through the various provincial statutes. The most notable citizen's arrest authority in Ontario is found in the Trespass to Property Act, but there are others found in the Highway Traffic Act, the Liquor Licence Act, and many others.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Denmark, pursuant to § 755 (2) of the Administration of Justice Act, anyone may arrest a person caught in the act of committing a crime or in direct connection to a crime if the criminal act is subject to public prosecution. The arrestee must as soon as possible be turned over to the police with information about the time of and reasons for the arrest.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Ethiopia, Any private person may arrest without warrant a person who has committed a flagrant offence as defined in Art. 19 and 20 of the Criminal Procedure Code where the offence is punishable with simple imprisonment for not less than


title: Citizen's arrest

text: three months. In addition Where the police call for assistance in making an arrest with or without warrant there shall be a duty to assist where assistance can be given without risk. The Criminal Procedure Code also provides that Where an arrest is made the person making the arrest shall without unnecessary delay hand over the person so arrested to the nearest police


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Finland, Coercive Measures Act 22.7.2011/806 gives a right to apprehend someone in the act of committing a crime "(in flagrante delicto)" or fleeing from the crime scene, if punishment for the crime might be imprisonment or the crime is petty assault, petty theft, petty embezzlement, petty unauthorized use, petty stealing of a motor vehicle for temporary use, petty damage to property or petty fraud. A person wanted by the police (arrest warrant) can be apprehended by anyone. After the apprehension, the detainee must be handed over to the police as soon as possible. If the criminal is resisting or tries to escape, the law gives a citizen the right to use an amount of force considered necessary, when considering the nature of the crime, the behavior of the apprehended and the situation as a whole.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: French law allows any civilian to arrest a person caught "in flagrante delicto" committing a felony or misdemeanor punishable by a jail sentence, with the obligation to immediately bring that person before the nearest officer of the police judiciaire. In modern practice, one would detain the perpetrator and immediately call the nearest police, then hand over the perpetrator and any evidence to the first police officers to arrive at the scene. Use of force is not authorised.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Citizen's arrests (in German: "Jedermann-Anhalte- und -Festnahmerecht") can be made under § 127 I 1 StPO (code of penal procedures) if the arrestee is caught "in flagrante delicto" and either the identity of the person cannot be otherwise established immediately or they are suspected to try to flee. The person making the arrest is allowed to hold the arrestee solely for the purpose of turning them over to a proper legal authority such as the police. German law does not establish that the crime has to be serious, nor that the person making the arrest has to actually be a citizen of Germany.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The use of force is authorized, but the force must be proportional ("verhältnismäßig") to the circumstances and the suspected crime.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Citizen's arrest is known as the "101 power". Under the Criminal Procedure Ordinance (cap. 221 of the Laws of Hong Kong), section 101(2) provides that "Any person may arrest without warrant any person whom he may reasonably suspect of being guilty of an arrestable offence" using "force as is reasonable and proportionate in the circumstances". Once an arrest is made, the suspect must be delivered to a police office as soon as possible for court proceedings. "Arrestable offence" is defined as any crimes that can be sentenced for more than 12 months of jail time.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: According to article 273 of "Act XC. of 2017 concerning Penal Procedure", anyone may arrest a person caught committing a felony, but is obliged to hand the person over to the "investigative authorities" immediately; if this is not possible, the police must be informed.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The Code of Criminal Procedure allows private citizens to detain those suspected of crimes in order to prevent their escape, so long as the crime in question is on the list of crimes subjected to citizens' arrest, the crime is evident, and law enforcement is absent from the scene.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: The term "citizen's arrest" is colloquially used for arrest, without an arrest warrant, made by someone other than a member of the Garda Síochána. Despite the colloquial name, non-Irish citizens have performed such arrests. The law of the Republic of Ireland, being derived from English law, inherited the common law power for private individuals to arrest for felony or breach of the peace. The Criminal Law Act 1997 abolished the common-law distinction between felonies and misdemeanours and instead distinguishes "arrestable" and "non-arrestable" offences; arrestable offences are those punishable by at least five years' imprisonment, and private individuals may arrest those "in flagrante", having committed, or about to commit an arrestable offence.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Several other statutes which define offences likewise state "any person may arrest" someone committing the offence; relevant offences include


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In addition, the Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Act 1976 schedules offences associated with the Troubles in Northern Ireland, and authorises anyone to arrest someone for committing or having committed such an offence, whether in the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland. The 1976 act, and a similar Westminster act giving reciprocal extraterritorial jurisdiction, obviated the need for extradition between the jurisdictions, which would have been more controversial.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: If the arrester lacks reasonable cause to believe the arrested person to have committed the offence, the latter may sue the former for defamation, wrongful arrest, or trespass. For most offences, a private individual can only make such an arrest if the suspect would otherwise evade arrest by a Garda, and the arrester must surrender the suspect to Garda custody as soon as practicable. An exception is that stamp hawkers must be brought before the District Court. Citizen's arrests are rare; most often they are made by store detectives on shoplifting suspects.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: An Israeli law allowing anyone to arrest a suspect whom they witnessed carrying out a felony was repealed in 1996 and replaced by a new law allowing the detention of a suspect by another person under certain conditions. Section 75 of the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Powers – Arrest) of 1996 allows anyone to detain a person who is witnessed carrying out certain suspected crimes. The crimes include the following: a felony, theft, a crime of violence and a crime which has caused serious damage to property. A person using these detention powers may use reasonable force if their request is not met as long as they do not cause the suspect bruising. They must hand the suspect over to the police immediately and no later than three hours. A citizen's arrest cannot be performed on persons whose identity is known or who are not suspected of fleeing. The law can be used by both private individuals and private security.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: Any private citizen can, according to article 383 of the Italian Code of Criminal Procedure, arrest another person, provided they are caught ""in flagranza di reato"" (In flagrante delicto) and the felony they are caught committing includes mandatory arrest from the police and is ""perseguibile d'ufficio"", meaning that the judicial authority, once received the ""notitia criminis"" (a crime report), has the duty to commence prosecution, without a party necessarily filing a complaint. The person making the arrest is legally required to hand to police the arrested person and the corpus delicti to the judicial authority, failure to do so could result in the person making the arrest committing a crime.


title: Citizen's arrest

text: In Japan, Section 213 of the Code of Criminal Procedure allows anyone from civilians to firefighters witnessing any crime in progress to make an arrest. This is called "genkouhan" (現行犯, meaning "in flagrante delicto"). Most criminals who attempt to flee, or refuse to identify themselves, can be held until police arrive. However, making a citizen's arrest to prevent petty crime (e.g. illegal assembly, accidental injury, accidental trespass, defamation of character, leaving a parking lot without paying) is false imprisonment per Section 220 of the Criminal Code.