title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Fumimaro Konoe was born in Tokyo on 12 October 1891 to the prominent Konoe family, one of the main branches of the ancient Fujiwara clan. This made the Konoe "head of the most prestigious, and highest ranking noble house in the realm." They had first become independent of the Fujiwara in the 12th century, when Minamoto no Yoritomo divided the Fujiwara into the Five Regent Houses ("go-sekke"). Japanese historian Eri Hotta described the Konoe as ""First among the go-sekke""; Fumimaro would be its 29th leader. While the average height of Japanese people at that time was around 160 cm (5 ft 3 in), Konoe was over 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) tall.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe's father, Atsumaro, had been politically active, having organized the Anti-Russia Society in 1903. Fumimaro's mother died shortly after his birth; his father then married her younger sister. Fumimaro was misled into thinking she was his real mother, and found out the truth when he was 12 years old after his father's death.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Fumimaro inherited family debt when his father died. Thanks to the financial support of the zaibatsu Sumitomo, which he received throughout his career, and the auction of Fujiwara heirlooms, the family was able to become solvent.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Fumimaro was not the only talented member of his family: his younger brother Hidemaro Konoye later became a symphony conductor and founded NHK Symphony Orchestra.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: At Kyoto Imperial University, Fumimaro studied socialism, translating Oscar Wilde's "The Soul of Man Under Socialism" into Japanese. There, he met genrō Saionji Kinmochi and became his protégé. After graduation, Fumimaro turned to Saionji for advice about starting a political career, and worked briefly in the home ministry before accompanying his mentor to Versailles as part of the Japanese peace delegation.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: But first, Konoe completed two tasks. With Kiku, one of several geisha lovers in his life, he fathered an illegitimate child. And in December 1918, he also published an essay entitled "Reject the Anglo-American-Centered Peace" (英米本位の平和主義を排す). In this article, he argued that western democracies were supporting democracy, peace, and self-determination only hypocritically, while actually undermining those ideals through racially discriminatory imperialism. He attacked the League of Nations as an effort to institutionalize the status quo: colonial hegemony by the western powers. Following a translation by American journalist Thomas Franklin Fairfax Millard, Saionji wrote a rebuttal in his journal, "Millard's Review of the Far East". Saionji considered Konoe's writing reckless, but, after it became internationally read, Konoe was invited to dinner by Sun Yat-sen. Sun admired Japan's quick modernization; at the dinner, they discussed pan-Asian nationalism.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: During the Paris peace conference, Konoe was one of the Japanese diplomats who proposed the Racial Equality Proposal for the Covenant of the League of Nations. When the Racial Equality Clause came up before the committee, it received the support of Japan, France, Serbia, Greece, Italy, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, and China. However, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson overturned the vote, declaring that the clause needed unanimous support. Konoe took the rejection of the Racial Equality Clause very badly, seeing it as a humiliation of Japan.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Upon his return to Japan he published a booklet where he described his travels to France, England and America, how he was angered by rising anti-Japanese sentiment there, and how government policy in the US discriminated against Japanese immigration. He also described China as a rival to Japan in international relations.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In 1916, while at university, Fumimaro took his father's seat in the house of peers. After his return from Europe he was aggressively recruited by the most powerful political faction of Japan's budding Taishō democracy of the 1920s: the "kenkyukai", a conservative, militaristic faction, led by Yamagata Aritomo and generally opposed to democratic reform. In September 1922, he joined them.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: The opposing faction was the "seiyukai", led by Hara Takashi, which drew its strength from the lower house. Eventually the "seiyukai" was able to gain the Aritomo's support, and Hara Takashi became premier in 1918. Konoe believed the house of peers should stay neutral in factional party politics, lest a partisan-seeming peerage have their privileges restricted. He therefore supported Takashi's "seiyukai" government, as did most of the "kenkyukai".


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: However, by 1923, the "seiyukai" had split into two factions and could no longer control the government. During the premiership of Kato Komei and his party, the "kenseikai", Konoe supported universal male suffrage to forestall serious curtailment of the noble privileges. Konoe believed universal male suffrage was the best way to channel popular discontent and thereby reduce the chance of violent revolution. As the house of peers became allied with different political factions in the lower house, Konoe left the "kenkyukai" in November 1927.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Like his position in regard to the nobility, he believed that the emperor should not take political positions. In his eyes, a political emperor would diminish the imperial prestige, undermine the unifying power of the throne, expose the emperor to criticism, and potentially undermine domestic tranquillity. His greatest fear in this period of rapid industrialization would become the threat of left-wing revolution, facilitated by the petty factionalism of Taishō democracy's political factions. He saw the peerage as a bulwark of stability committed to tranquillity, harmony, and the maintenance of the status quo. Its function was to restrain the excesses of the elected government, but its power had to be used sparingly.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: The Japanese home ministry was extremely powerful, in charge of the police, elections, public works, Shinto shrines, and land development. The home ministry was also abused to influence elections in favour of the ruling party. Despite having once believed it to be beneath the dignity of a nobleman, Konoe entered into an alliance with important home ministry officials. The most important among these officials was Yoshiharu Tazawa, whom he met after he became the managing director of the Japan Youth Hall ("Nippon Seinenkan") in 1921. Konoe and his allies saw the influence of local "meiboka" political bosses as a threat to Japan's political stability. Universal suffrage had opened the vote to the undereducated peasantry, but local bosses, using pork-barrel politics, manipulated their influence on the government. These officials also shared Konoe's concern about party influence within the home ministry, which had seen great turnover mirroring the political upheaval occurring in the Diet. Konoe's association with the youth hall began two months after the publication of an article in July 1921, where he stressed education of the electorate's political wisdom and morality, and lamented that education only taught youth to accept ideas passively from their superiors. The Youth Corps ("Seinendan") was thereafter created to foster a moral sense of civic duty among the people, with the overall purpose of destroying the "meiboka" system.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In 1925, Konoe and these officials formed the Alliance for a New Japan ("Shin Nippon Domei"), which endorsed the concept of representative government but rejected the value of party and local village bosses, instead advocating that new candidates from outside the parties should run for office. The Association for Election Purification ("Senkyo Shukusei Domeikai") was also created, an organization whose purpose was to circumvent and weaken pork-barrel local politics by supporting candidates that were not beholden to "meiboka" bosses. The alliance formed a political party ("meiseikai") but was unable to secure popular support and dissolved within two years of formation (in 1928).


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In the 1920s Japanese foreign policy was largely in line with Anglo-American policy, the treaty of Versailles, and the Washington Naval Conference treaty, and there was agreement between the great powers over the establishment of an independent Chinese state. A flourishing party system controlled the cabinet in alliance with industry. The Great Depression of the 1930s, the rise of Soviet military power in the east, further insistence on limitations to Japanese naval power, and increased Chinese resistance to Japanese aggression in Asia marked the abandonment of Japanese cooperation with the Anglo-American powers. The Japanese government began to seek autonomy in foreign policy, and — as the sense of crisis deepened — unity and mobilization became overarching imperatives.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe assumed the vice presidency of the house of peers in 1931. In 1932, political parties lost control of the cabinet. Thenceforth, cabinets were formed by alliances of political elites and military factions. As Japan mobilized its resources for war, the government increased suppression of political parties and what remained of the left wing. Konoe ascended to the presidency of the house of peers in 1933 and spent the next few years mediating between elite political factions, elite policy consensus, and national unity.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Meanwhile, Fumimaro sent his eldest son Fumitaka to study in the U.S., at Princeton, wishing to prepare him for politics and make him an able proponent of Japan in America. Unlike most of his elite contemporaries, Fumimaro had not been educated abroad due to his father's poor finances. Fumimaro visited Fumitaka in 1934 and he was shocked by rising anti-Japanese sentiment. This experience deepened his resentment of the U.S., which he perceived as selfish and racist, and which he blamed for its failure to avert economic disaster. In a speech in 1935, Konoe said that the "monopolization" of resources by the Anglo-American alliance must end and be replaced by an ""international new deal"" to help countries like Japan take care of their growing populations.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe's views were thus a recapitulation of those he had expressed at Versailles almost 20 years earlier. He still believed that Japan was the equal and the rival of the western powers, that Japan had a right to expansion in China, that such expansion was "survival", and that the "Anglo-American powers were hypocrites seeking to enforce their economic dominance of the world."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Despite his tutelage under the liberal-leaning Saionji Kinmochi, his study of socialism at university, and his support of universal suffrage, he seemed to have had a contradictory attraction to fascism, which angered and alarmed the ageing "genrō". At a costume party before Saionji's daughter was married in 1937, he was reported to have dressed as Hitler. Despite these misgivings, Saionji nominated Konoe to the emperor, and in June 1937 Konoe became Prime Minister.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Upon assuming office, Konoe spent the short time between then and war with China attempting to secure pardons for the ultranationalist leaders of the 26 February incident, who had attempted to assassinate his mentor Saionji. Konoe retained the military and legal ministers from the previous cabinet upon assumption of the premiership, and refused to take ministers from the political parties, as he was not interested in resurrecting party government. One month later, Japanese troops clashed with Chinese troops near Peking in the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Nevertheless, a consensus emerged among Japanese military leadership that the nation was not ready for war with China, and a truce was made on July 11.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: The ceasefire was broken by July 20 after Konoe's government sent more divisions to China, causing full-scale war to erupt.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In November 1937 Konoe instituted a new system of joint conference between the civil government and the military called liaison conferences. In attendance at these liaison meetings were the prime minister, the foreign minister, the ministers of the army and navy, and their chiefs of general staff. This arrangement resulted in an imbalance in favor of the military, since each member in attendance had an equal say in policymaking.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Prior to the capture on Nanjing, Chang Kai-shek, through the German ambassador in China, attempted to negotiate, but Konoe rejected the overture.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: After taking Nanking, the Japanese Army was doubtful about its ability to advance up the Yangtze river valley, and favoured taking up a German offer of mediation to end the war with China. Konoe, by contrast, was not interested in peace, and instead chose to escalate the war by suggesting deliberately humiliating terms that he knew Chiang Kai-shek would never accept in order to win a "total victory" over China.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In January 1938, Konoe issued a statement where he declared that "Kuomintang aggression had not ceased despite its defeat," that it was "subjecting its people to great misery," and that Japan would no longer deal with Chang. Six days later, he gave a speech where he blamed China for the continued conflict. When later asked for clarifications, Konoe said he meant more than just non-recognition of Chiang's regime but "rejected it" and would "eradicate it". The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote about Konoe's escalation of the war: "The one time in the decade between 1931 and 1941 that the civilian authorities in Tokyo mustered the energy, courage and ingenuity to overrule the military on a major peace issue they did so with fatal results — fatal for Japan, fatal for China, and for Konoe himself."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Due to a trade imbalance, Japan had lost a large amount of its gold reserves by late 1937. Konoe believed that a new economic system geared toward exploitation of northern China's resources was the only way to stop this economic deterioration. In response to continued U.S. support for the so-called Open Door Policy, Konoe rejected it "as he had since Versailles, but left open possible western interests in southern China." In a declaration on 3 November 1938, Konoe said Japan sought a new order in east Asia, that Chiang no longer spoke for China, that Japan would reconstruct China without help from foreign powers, and that a "tripartite relationship of . . . Japan, Manchukuo, and China" would "create a new culture, and realize close economic cohesion throughout east Asia."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In April 1938, Konoe and the military pushed a National Mobilization Law through the Diet, which declared a state of emergency, allowed the central government to control all manpower and material, and rationed the flow of raw materials into the Japanese market. Japanese victories continued at Xuzhou, Hankow, Canton, Wuchang, and Hanyang, but Chinese resistance nonetheless continued. Konoe resigned in January 1939, leaving the war that he had a large part in making to be finished by someone else, and was appointed chairman of the Privy Council. The Japanese public, which had been told that the war was an endless series of victories, was bewildered.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Kiichirō Hiranuma succeeded him as Prime Minister. Konoe was awarded the 1st class of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1939.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Due to dissatisfaction with the policies of Prime Minister Mitsumasa Yonai later that year, the Japanese Army demanded Konoe's return. Yonai had refused to align Japan with the Nazis; in response, the army minister Shunroku Hata resigned and the army refused to nominate a replacement. Konoe was recalled after Saionji — for the last time before his death later that year — again endorsed him.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On 23 June, Konoe resigned his position as Chairman of the Privy Council, and on 16 July 1940, the Yonai cabinet resigned and Konoe was appointed Prime Minister. Konoe did set out to end the war in with China. But Konoe also deemed political parties as too liberal and divisive, thereby aiding the pro-war factions in the military.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: The Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA) was created in 1940 under Konoe as a wartime mobilization organization, ironically in alliance with local "meiboka", since their cooperation was required to mobilize the rural population. Konoe's government pressured political parties to dissolve into the IRAA, though he resisted calls to form a political party akin to Nazi party, believing it would revive the political strife of the 1920s. Additionally, he worried that becoming the head of a political party would be beneath the dignity of a nobleman. Instead, he worked to promote the IRAA as the sole political order.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Even before Konoe had been recalled, the army had already planned an invasion of French Indochina. The invasion would secure needed resources to wage war with China, cut off western supply of Kuomintang armies, put the Japanese military in a strategic location to threaten more territory, and would hopefully intimidate the Dutch East Indies into supplying Japan with oil. The U.S. responded with the Export Control Act and increased aid to Chiang. Despite this response, foreign minister Yosuke Matsuoka signed the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, over the objection of some of Konoe's advisors, including former Japanese ambassador to the U.S. Kikujiro Ishii. In an October 4 press conference, Konoe said that the U.S. should not misunderstand the intentions of the tripartite powers and should help them to build a new world order. Additionally he said that if the U.S. did not end its provocative actions and deliberately chose to misunderstand the actions of the tripartite powers, there would be no option left but war. In November 1940, Japan signed the Sino-Japanese treaty with Wang Jingwei, who had been a disciple of Sun Yat-sen and headed a rival Kuomintang government in Nanjing. But Konoe's Government did not relinquish all held territory to Jinwei's government, undercutting its authority, and Wang's government was largely seen as an illegitimate puppet. In December 1940 the British reopened the Burma road and lent 10 million pounds to Chiang's Kuomintang. Konoe recommenced negotiations with the Dutch in January 1941 in an attempt to secure an alternate source of oil.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: In February 1941 Konoe chose Admiral Nomura as Japanese ambassador to the U.S. Matsuoka and Stalin signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in Moscow on 13 April 1941, which made it clear that the Soviets would not help the Allies in the event of war with Japan. On April 18, 1941, word arrived from Nomura of a diplomatic breakthrough, a draft of understanding between the US and Japan. The basis of this agreement had been drafted by two American Maryknoll priests James Edward Walsh and James M. Drought, who had met Roosevelt through Postmaster General Frank C. Walker. The outline of the proposal, which had been drafted in consultation with banker Tadao Ikawa, Colonel Hideo Iwakura, and Nomura, included American recognition of Manchukuo, the merging of Chiang's government with the Japanese-backed Reorganized National Government of China, normalization of trade relations, withdrawal of Japanese troops from China, mutual respect for Chinese independence, and an agreement that Japanese immigration to the United States would proceed on the basis of equality with other nationals free from discrimination.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: When Matsuoka returned to Tokyo, a liaison conference was held, during which he voiced his opposition to the draft of understanding, believing it would betray their Nazi allies. After arguing that Japan should let Germany see this draft, he left the meeting, citing exhaustion, Konoe also retreated to his villa, also claiming a fever, instead of forcing the issue. Matsuoka pushed for an immediate attack on British Singapore and began to openly criticise Konoe and his cabinet, leading to suspicions that he wanted to replace Konoe as prime minister. Matsuoka changed the U.S. draft into a counteroffer that essentially gutted most of the Japanese concessions in regard to China and expansion in the Pacific and had Nomura deliver it to Washington.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On Sunday, June 22, 1941, Hitler broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union. Coincident with the invasion, Cordell Hull delivered another amendment of the draft on understanding to the Japanese, but this time there was no recognition of the Japanese right to control of Manchukuo. The new draft also completely rejected the Japanese right of military expansion in the Pacific. Hull included a statement that in summary said that as long as Japan was allied to Hitler an agreement would be next to impossible to achieve. He did not specifically mention Matsuoka, but it was implied that he would have to be removed, as the foreign minister was now advocating an immediate attack on the Soviet Union, and did so directly to the emperor. Konoe was forced to apologize to the emperor and assure him that Japan was not about to go to war with the Soviet Union. Masanobu Tsuji had planned to assassinate Konoe if peace had occurred with the United States in order for Japan to attack the Soviet Union, which was at war with Japan's ally Germany.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Matsuoka was convinced that Barbarossa would be a quick German victory, and he was now opposed to attacking Singapore because he believed it would provoke war with the western allies. After a series of liaison conferences where Matsuoka argued forcefully in favour of an attack against the Soviet Union and against further expansion southward, the decision was made to invade and occupy the southern half of French Indochina, which was formalized in an imperial conference on 2 July. Included in this imperial conference resolution was a statement that Japan would not flinch from war with the U.S. and Britain if necessary. Beginning on 10 July Konoe held a series of liaison conferences to discuss the Japanese response to Hull's latest amendment to the draft of understanding. It was decided that a reply would not be given until the Japanese takeover of southern Indochina was complete, hoping that if it went peacefully, perhaps the U.S. could be convinced to tolerate the occupation without intervention. On 14 July Matsuoka drafted a response — through illness — which said Japan would not abandon the tripartite pact. He attacked Hull's statement, which had been aimed largely at him, and the next day he sent the response to Germany for approval. Sending the draft to the Germans without the cabinet's permission was the final straw. Konoe and his cabinet resigned en masse and reformed the government without Matsuoka on 16 July, when Matsuoka did not attend due to illness.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe's third government was formally created on July 18, with admiral Teijiro Toyoda as foreign minister. The Roosevelt administration hoped that Matsuoka's dismissal would mean Japan was standing down from continued aggressive action; these hopes were dashed when the French government, after being threatened with military action, allowed the Japanese army to occupy all of French Indochina on July 22. Two days later, the U.S. cut off negotiations and froze Japanese assets, the British, Dutch, and Canadian governments following suit shortly thereafter. The same day Roosevelt met with Nomura, where he told the ambassador that if Japan would agree to pull out of Indochina and agree to its being granted a status of neutrality, Japanese assets could be unfrozen. Roosevelt implied that Japanese expansion in China would be tolerated, but Indochina was a red line. He also expressed how disturbed he was that Japan could not see that Hitler was bent on world domination. Konoe did not take aggressive action in implementing Roosevelt's offer, and could not restrain militarists, led by Hideki Tojo. As minister of war, Tojo regarded the seizure as irreversible due to its approval by the emperor.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On July 28 the Japanese began to formally occupy southern Indochina. In response, on August 1, the U.S. embargoed oil exports to Japan, surprising Konoe's cabinet. Finding a replacement source of petroleum was paramount, as the U.S. supplied 93% of Japan's oil in 1940. Navy chief of staff Osami Nagano informed the Emperor that Japan's oil stockpiles would be completely depleted in two years. The same day, Hachiro Arita wrote Konoe a letter telling him that he should not have let the military occupy southern Indochina while negotiations with the U.S. were still ongoing. Konoe responded that the ships were already dispatched and could not turn back in time, and that all he could do was pray for "divine intervention."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On August 6, Konoe's government announced that it would only pull out of Indochina when the war in China was concluded, rejected Roosevelt's neutralization proposal, but promised not to expand further and asked for US mediation in ending the war in China. On 8 August Konoe requested, through Nomura, a meeting with Roosevelt. The suggestion came from Kinkazu Saionji, the grandson of his deceased mentor Saionji Kinmochi. Kinkazu advised Konoe through a monthly informal breakfast club, where Konoe consulted with civilian elites about policy. Hotsumi Ozaki, who was a friend and advisor to Konoe, was a member of this same breakfast club; he was also a member of Richard Sorge's soviet spy ring.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Nomura met with Roosevelt and told him about Konoe's summit proposal. After condemning Japanese aggression in Indochina, Roosevelt said he was open to the meeting, and suggested they could meet in Juneau, Alaska. On September 3, a liaison conference was held where it was decided that Konoe would continue to seek peace with Roosevelt, but, at the same time, Japan would commit to war if a peace agreement did not materialize by mid-October. Moreover, Japan would not abandon the tripartite pact. Konoe, Saionji, and his supporters had drafted a proposal that emphasized a willingness to withdraw troops from China, but Konoe did not introduce this proposal and instead acceded to a proposal from the foreign ministry. The difference in the proposals was that the foreign ministry's was conditioned on an agreement being reached between China and Japan before troops would be withdrawn.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On September 5, Konoe met the emperor with chiefs of staff General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano to inform him of the cabinet's decision to commit to war in the absence of a diplomatic breakthrough. Alarmed, the emperor asked what had happened to the negotiations with Roosevelt. He asked Konoe to change the emphasis from war to negotiation; Konoe replied that would be politically impossible, and the emperor then asked why he had been kept in the dark about these military preparations. The emperor then questioned Sugiyama about the chances of success of an open war with the West. After Sugiyama answered positively, Hirohito scolded him, remembering that the Army had predicted that the invasion of China would be completed in only three months.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On September 6, the emperor approved the cabinet's decision at an imperial conference after being given assurance by the two chiefs of staff that diplomacy was the primary emphasis, with war only as a fall-back option in the event of diplomatic failure. That same evening, Konoe arranged a dinner in secrecy with U.S. ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew. (This was somewhat perilous: on August 15, Hiranuma Kiichiro, a member of Konoe's cabinet and former prime minister, had been shot six times by an ultra-nationalist because he was seen as too close to Grew.) Konoe told Grew that he was prepared to travel to meet Roosevelt on a moment's notice. Grew then urged his superiors to advise Roosevelt to accept the summit proposal.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: The day after the imperial conference, Konoe arranged a meeting between Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni and army minister Tojo, which was an attempt to bring the war hawk in line with Konoe. Higashikuni told Tojo that since the emperor and Konoe favoured negotiation over war, the army minister should too, and that he should quit if he could not follow a policy of non-confrontation. Tojo replied that if the western encirclement of Japan were to be accepted, Japan would cease to exist. Tojo believed that even if there was only a small chance of winning a war with the U.S., Japan must prepare for it and wage it rather than be encircled and destroyed.On September 10, Nomura met with Hull, who told him that the latest Japanese offer was a non-starter and that Japan would have to make concessions in regard to China before the summit meeting could take place. On September 20, a liaison meeting passed a revised proposal that actually "hardened" conditions for a withdrawal from China. At the liaison conference of September 25, sensing that summit negotiations were stalling, Tojo and the militarists pressed the cabinet to commit to an actual deadline for war of October 15. After this meeting, Konoe told lord keeper of the privy seal Koichi Kido that he was going to resign, but Kido talked him out of it. Konoe then secluded himself in a villa at Kamakura until October 2, leaving foreign minister Toyoda to take charge of negotiations in his absence. Toyoda asked ambassador Grew to tell Roosevelt that Konoe would only be able to grant concessions at the summit but could not commit beforehand due to the influence of the militarists and the risk that any conciliation beforehand would be leaked to the Germans in an effort to bring down the Konoe cabinet. Grew argued in favour of the summit to Roosevelt in a communication on September 29.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On October 1, Konoe summoned navy minister Oikawa to Kamakura, where he secured his commitment of cooperation in acceptance American demands, the navy being acutely aware of the long odds of victory in the event of war with the U.S. Oikawa returned to Tokyo and seemed to secure the cooperation of navy chief of staff Nagano, including Toyoda as foreign minister they formed a potential majority in the next liaison conference. On October 2, Hull delivered to Nomura a statement constituting the preconditions for a summit meeting. Hull made it clear that the Japanese army would have to demonstrate that they were going to pull troops out of French Indochina and China.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: At the October 4 liaison conference, Hull's response was still being processed and could not be fully discussed; Nagano changed his position and now agreed with the army and advocated a deadline for war. Konoe and Oikawa were largely silent and did not try to bring him back to the side of negotiation, further postponing a final decision. The army and the navy were in opposition to each other and held separate high-level meetings, each respectively confirming their resolve to either go to war or pull back from the brink. But Nagano continued to oppose open confrontation of the army, while Oikawa did not want to take the lead as the only member of the liaison conference to oppose war.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe met privately with Tojo twice in a failed attempt to convince him to a troop withdrawal and to take the war option off the table on October 5 and 7. In the October 7 meeting, Konoe told Tojo that "military men take wars too lightly." Tojo's response was, "occasionally one must gather up enough courage, close one's eyes and jump off the platform of the Kiyomizu." Konoe responded that, while such a policy was okay for the individual, "if I think of the national polity that has lasted twenty six hundred years and of the hundred million Japanese belonging to this nation, I, as a person in the position of great responsibility, cannot do such a thing." The next day Tojo met with Oikawa and showed some doubt when he told him that it would be a betrayal of those who had already died in the war for the army to pull troops out of China, but that he was also worried about the many more who would die in an eventual war with the U.S., and that he was considering a troop withdrawal.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe held a meeting on October 12 with military ministers Tojo and Oikawa and foreign minister Toyoda, which became known as the Tekigaiso conference. Konoe began by saying that he had no confidence in the war they were about to wage and would not lead it, but neither Oikawa or Konoe was willing to take the lead in demanding that the army agree to taking the war option off the table. Toyoda was the only member willing to declare that the imperial conference of September 6 was a mistake, implying that the war option should be taken off the table, while Tojo forcefully argued that an imperial resolution could not be violated.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On October 14, one day before the deadline, Konoe and Tojo met one last time, where Konoe attempted to impress upon Tojo the need to stand down from war and accede to U.S. demands for a military withdrawal from China and Indochina. Tojo ruled a troop withdrawal as out of the question. In the cabinet meeting that followed, Tojo declared that the decision of the imperial conference had been thoroughly deliberated, that hundreds of thousands of troops were being moved south as they spoke, that if diplomacy were to continue they must be sure that it would result in success, and that the imperial edict had specifically declared that negotiations must bear fruit by early October (which meant the deadline had already been passed). After this conference Tojo went to see lord keeper of the privy seal Kido, to push for Konoe's resignation.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: That same evening Tojo sent Teiichi Suzuki (at that time the head of the cabinet planning board) to Konoe with a message urging him to resign, stating that if he resigned Tojo would endorse prince Higashikuni as the next prime minister. Suzuki told Konoe that Tojo realized now that the navy was unwilling to admit that it could not fight the U.S. He also told Konoe that Tojo believed the current cabinet must resign and bear the responsibility of wrongfully calling for the imperial edict, and only someone of Higashikuni's imperial background could reverse it. The next day on 15 October Konoe's friend and advisor Hotsumi Ozaki was exposed and arrested as a Soviet spy.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe resigned on 16 October 1941, one day after having recommended Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni to the Emperor as his successor. Two days later, Hirohito chose General Tōjō as Prime Minister. In 1946, Hirohito explained this decision: "I actually thought Prince Higashikuni suitable as chief of staff of the Army; but I think the appointment of a member of the imperial house to a political office must be considered very carefully. Above all, in time of peace this is fine, but when there is a fear that there may even be a war, then more importantly, considering the welfare of the imperial house, I wonder about the wisdom of a member of the imperial family serving [as prime minister]." Six weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe justified his demission to his secretary Kenji Tomita. "Of course His Imperial Majesty is a pacifist and he wished to avoid war. When I told him that to initiate war was a mistake, he agreed. But the next day, he would tell me: 'You were worried about it yesterday but you do not have to worry so much.' Thus, gradually he began to lead to war. And the next time I met him, he leaned even more to war. I felt the Emperor was telling me: 'My prime minister does not understand military matters. I know much more.' In short, the Emperor had absorbed the view of the army and the navy high commands."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: On 29 November 1941, at a luncheon with the emperor with all living former prime ministers in attendance, Konoe voiced his objection to war. Upon hearing of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Konoe said regarding Japan's military success, "What on earth? I really feel a miserable defeat coming; this will only last 2 or 3 months."


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: Konoe played a role in the fall of the Tōjō government in 1944. In February 1945, during the first private audience he had been allowed in three years, he advised the Emperor to begin negotiations to end World War II. According to Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, Shōwa, still looking for a "tennozan" (a great victory), firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation.


title: Fumimaro Konoe

text: After the beginning of the American occupation, Konoe served in the cabinet of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, the first post-war government. He came under suspicion of war crimes after he refused to collaborate with U.S. Army officer Bonner Fellers in "Operation Blacklist", which aimed to exonerate Shōwa and the imperial family of criminal responsibility for the war. In December 1945, during the last call by the Americans for alleged war criminals to report to the Americans, he took potassium cyanide poison and committed suicide. His grave is at the Konoe clan cemetery at the temple of Daitoku-ji in Kyoto.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Atom was a free and open-source text and source code editor for macOS, Linux, and Microsoft Windows with support for plug-ins written in JavaScript, and embedded Git Control. Developed by GitHub, Atom was a desktop application built using web technologies. Most of the extending packages have free software licenses and are community-built and maintained. It was based on the Electron framework, which was developed for that purpose, and hence was formerly called Atom Shell. Electron is a framework that enables cross-platform desktop applications using Chromium and Node.js. Atom was initially written in CoffeeScript and Less, but much of it has been converted to JavaScript.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Atom was released from beta, as version 1.0, on June 25, 2015. Its developers call it a "hackable text editor for the 21st Century",


title: Atom (text editor)

text: On June 8, 2022, GitHub announced that Atom’s end-of-life will happen on December 15, "in order to prioritize technologies that enable the future of software development", specifically its Github Codespaces and Microsoft's Visual Studio Code.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Atom was a "hackable" text editor, which means it is customizable. There is an init script one can customize using CoffeeScript, a style sheet to customize the looks of Atom, and a keymap to map or re-map key combinations to commands. One can even make a package to wrap all of this functionality into a single package, written in their choice of CoffeeScript or JavaScript.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Atom was (and is) developed by GitHub as a text editor, and served as the basis for the Electron Framework.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Facebook then developed the Nuclide and Atom IDE projects to turn Atom into an integrated development environment (IDE), but development on Nuclide and Atom IDE stopped in December 2018.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: On June 8, 2022, GitHub announced the expected shutdown of Atom by scheduling archival of all development repositories of Atom by December 15, 2022. Atom's founder, Nathan Sobo, has announced that he's building the "spiritual successor" to Atom, titled Zed. Unlike Atom, Zed will be written in Rust and will not be using the Electron framework.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: On December 15, 2022 the first beta release of Pulsar-Edit was released on their site. The goal of Pulsar-Edit is continue development of the Atom editor.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Like most other configurable text editors, Atom enabled users to install third-party packages and themes to customize the features and looks of the editor. Packages can be installed, managed and published via Atom's package manager apm. All types of packages, including but not limited to: Syntactic highlighting support for languages other than the default, debuggers, etc. can be installed via apm.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Atom's default packages can apply syntax highlighting for multiple programming languages and file formats.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: Initially, extension packages for Atom and anything not part of Atom's core were released under an open-source license. On May 6, 2014, the rest of Atom, including the core application, its package manager, as well as its desktop framework Electron, were released as free and open-source software under the MIT License.


title: Atom (text editor)

text: There was initially concern and discussion about two opt-out packages that report various data to external servers.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Yann Sommer (born 17 December 1988) is a Swiss professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Bundesliga club Borussia Mönchengladbach and the Switzerland national team.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer completed his apprenticeship at Basel, where he won the Swiss Super League on four consecutive occasions before transferring to Mönchengladbach in 2014. He also won the Swiss Challenge League and two Liechtenstein Football Cups while on loan to Vaduz.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer made his debut for the Switzerland national team in 2012. He represented the nation at the FIFA World Cup in 2014, 2018 and 2022, and the UEFA European Championship in 2016 and 2020.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Born in Morges, Vaud, Sommer played as a child in the youth teams of FC Herrliberg and later of Concordia Basel. He moved to the Basel youth setup in 2003. He signed his first professional contract with Basel in 2005. He became the first-choice goalkeeper in the under-21 squad almost immediately, fending off opposition like Jayson Leutwiler and Orkan Avci, and was third-choice for the senior squad behind Franco Costanzo and Louis Crayton.


title: Yann Sommer

text: During the summer of 2007, Sommer signed a new contract lasting until 2011, and was loaned out to Liechtensteiner club Vaduz to gain first-team experience in an environment somewhat more competitive than the reserves in the Swiss 1. Liga. He was made the first-choice goalkeeper and played 33 matches over the course of the 2007–08 Swiss Challenge League season, playing a major part in Vaduz's promotion to the Swiss Super League. His loan deal was then extended to last until January 2009. He made his Super League debut for Vaduz on 20 July 2008 in the 2–1 away win against Luzern. Sommer was recalled to Basel on 7 January 2009 because the club's first-choice goalkeeper, Franco Costanzo, was injured.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer made his Super League debut for Basel in a 3–2 defeat to Young Boys at the Stade de Suisse, Wankdorf, on 7 February 2009. He played six matches for Basel up until the end of the season. On 16 June, he joined Grasshoppers on a one-season-long loan. During his season there, he played 33 league matches.


title: Yann Sommer

text: On 14 June 2010, Sommer signed a five-year contract with Basel. He served as second-choice goalkeeper behind Franco Costanzo. In March 2011, Basel announced it would not offer Costanzo a contract extension, therefore making Sommer the club's first-choice goalkeeper. Sommer played five Super League matches during the 2010–11 season and so was part of the championship-winning team.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer made his UEFA Champions League debut on 14 September 2011 in the 2–1 home win against Oțelul Galați. He was first-choice goalkeeper in the 2011–12 season, after the end of which he won the double of the league and Swiss Cup.


title: Yann Sommer

text: At the end of the 2012–13 season, Sommer won the league title for the third consecutive time, having played in all 36 league matches. Basel also finished as runners-up in the Swiss Cup. In the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Basel advanced to the semi-finals, where they were matched against reigning Champions League holders Chelsea. Basel was eliminated 2–5 on aggregate.


title: Yann Sommer

text: At the end of the 2013–14 season, Sommer won the league championship with Basel. They also reached the final of the 2013–14 Swiss Cup, but were beaten 2–0 by Zürich after extra time. In the 2013–14 Champions League, Basel finished the group stage in third position to qualify for Europa League knockout phase, where they advanced as far as the quarter-finals. In their 2013–14 season, Basel played a total of 68 matches: 36 Swiss League fixtures, 6 Swiss Cup, 6 Champions League and 10 Europa League and 10 test matches. Sommer totaled 58 appearances: 35 League, 2 Cup, 10 Champions League and 6 Europa League, as well 5 in the test games.


title: Yann Sommer

text: On 10 March 2014, Sommer signed a five-year contract with German Bundesliga side Borussia Mönchengladbach, effective from 1 July. He was signed to replace Marc-André ter Stegen, who had joined Barcelona. In Sommer's first season at Mönchengladbach, 2014–15, Gladbach finished in third place in the Bundesliga, club's highest league finish since 1978. The club also managed to beat its record of consecutive matches without defeat, exceeding the record of 17 matches it had set during the 1970–71 season.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer's debut came against FC 08 Homburg in the DFB-Pokal, where Gladbach won 3–1. Sommer played against VfB Stuttgart on the opening day in a 1–1 draw. He was famously lobbed from long range by teammate Christoph Kramer against Borussia Dortmund in a 1–0 defeat, but Gladbach went on to secure qualification for the UEFA Champions League with one match remaining. At the season's conclusion, Sommer was named Gladbach's player of the season.


title: Yann Sommer

text: The 2015–16 season began poorly: Gladbach lost its opening match 4–0 to Borussia Dortmund, with Sommer being blamed for the first goal. The club was reported to be in large trouble, and before its first Champions League match of the season, the club's players held crisis talks to discuss their problems. After losing 3–0 to Sevilla, Sommer was heavily criticized for his play. After a fifth-straight Bundesliga defeat, against rivals 1. FC Köln, coach Lucien Favre resigned. In contrast to the previous year, it was the worst start to a season Gladbach had ever suffered.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Under new interim boss André Schubert, the club's dramatically improved with four wins from four matches, resulting in Schubert's permanent appointment. Sommer was forced to sit out against VfL Wolfsburg due to a broken nose, having injured it against Manchester City in the Champions League. He was replaced for the Wolfsburg match by Tobias Sippel. Sommer eventually played in all of the remaining Bundesliga matches, with his performances leading to interest from Manchester City.


title: Yann Sommer

text: However, Borussia Mönchengladbach finished fourth in the 2015–16 season, and qualified for the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League, in which they finished third in their group which had Barcelona, Manchester City and Celtic, then reached the Europa League round of 16, before being knocked out by Schalke 04 on the away goal rule after a 3–3 draw on aggregate.


title: Yann Sommer

text: In November 2019, Sommer extended his contract until 2023. In the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League, Borussia Mönchengladbach reached the round of 16, where they lost against Manchester City. On 27 August 2022, Sommer made 19 saves in a 1–1 away draw against Bayern Munich, to be a Bundesliga record.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer has represented Switzerland at various age levels, including at under-16, -17, -19 and -21 levels. He made his Swiss U-16s debut on 26 August 2003, but the match ended in a 0–5 defeat against the Germany. His U-17s debut was on 20 November 2003 in the 1–1 draw against England.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer made his professional debut for the Swiss under-21s on 22 August 2007, as he was substituted in at half-time during the 2–1 away win against Belgium. He was goalkeeper and captain of the Swiss U-21 team which competed in the final tournament of the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, hosted by Denmark between 11 and 25 June 2011. The Swiss team reached the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championship Final on 25 June without conceding a goal, but lost 2–0 to Spain. This was Sommer's final match for the under-21s.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer made his debut for the Switzerland senior side on 30 May 2012 at the Swissporarena, Lucerne, in a 0–1 defeat against Romania in a friendly match. On 13 May, he was named in Switzerland's 23-man squad for the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Alongside Bundesliga colleagues Roman Bürki and Marwin Hitz, Sommer was one of three goalkeepers included in Switzerland's UEFA Euro 2016 squad. Sommer was Switzerland's first-choice goalkeeper, playing all four of the nation's matches. Sommer was unable to prevent Switzerland being eliminated by Poland in the round of 16, losing 5–4 on penalties, after a 1–1 draw.


title: Yann Sommer

text: He was included in the Switzerland's 23-man squad for the 2018 World Cup. In May 2019, he played in 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals, where his team finished 4th.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer was included in the 26-man Swiss squad for the postponed UEFA Euro 2020. On 28 June 2021, Sommer saved a penalty from Kylian Mbappé during the penalty shoot-out, in which Switzerland won 5–4 against France in the UEFA Euro 2020 round of 16, after a 3–3 draw. On 2 July 2021, he made eight saves in extra time alone against Spain in the Euro 2020 quarter-finals; however, Switzerland lost 1–3 on penalties, after a 1–1 draw.


title: Yann Sommer

text: In 2022, Sommer was chosen to be a member of the Swiss squad for the 2022 World Cup. He was named Man of the Match in his team's opening group game against Cameroon, which his team won 1–0.


title: Yann Sommer

text: Sommer married Alina in August 2019, whom he began dating in 2016. Their daughter, Mila, was born on 4 November 2019.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Dignity Health Sports Park is a multi-use sports complex located on the campus of California State University, Dominguez Hills in Carson, California. The complex consists of the 27,000-seat Dignity Health Sports Park soccer stadium, the Dignity Health Sports Park tennis stadium, a track-and-field facility, and the VELO Sports Center velodrome. It is approximately south of downtown Los Angeles, and its primary tenant is the LA Galaxy of Major League Soccer (MLS). The main stadium is also home to the Los Angeles Wildcats of the XFL. The LA Galaxy II of the USL Championship play their home matches at the complex's track and field facility. For 2020 and 2021, the stadium served as the temporary home of the San Diego State Aztecs football team.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Opened in 2003, the $150 million complex was developed and is operated by the Anschutz Entertainment Group. With a seating capacity of 27,000, it is the second largest soccer-specific stadium in the United States, after Geodis Park in Nashville, Tennessee, and the third-largest among its kind in MLS, after Geodis Park and BMO Field in Toronto. During its first decade, the stadium was known as Home Depot Center through a naming rights deal with hardware retailer The Home Depot. In 2013, the name was changed to StubHub Center after naming rights were sold to online ticket marketplace StubHub. The current name, from healthcare provider Dignity Health, debuted in 2019.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: In addition to hosting LA Galaxy games since its opening, the stadium also served as the home of the now-defunct Chivas USA MLS team from 2005 to 2014. The stadium was the temporary home of the Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League (NFL) from 2017 to 2019, being the smallest NFL stadium over the course of those three seasons. When the Chargers played at the stadium, the facility was known as ROKiT Field at StubHub Center as part of a "multi-year" agreement with ROKiT.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Originally opened as Home Depot Center in 2003, it was renamed StubHub Center on June 1, 2013. It was renamed Dignity Health Sports Park on January 1, 2019, after Dignity Health signed a new naming rights agreement.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The 27,000-seat main stadium was the second American sports arena designed specifically for soccer in the MLS era. When the venue opened in June 2003 as the new home of LA Galaxy, a number of special events took place in celebration. Pelé was in attendance at the opening match along with many dignitaries from the soccer world and other celebrities.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: In addition to the soccer stadium, Dignity Health Sports Park features the 2,450-seat VELO Sports Center (velodrome), an 8,000-seat tennis stadium, and an outdoor track and field facility that has 2,000 permanent seats and is expandable to 20,000.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: In 2017, to accommodate the Chargers' use of the stadium, upgrades were made at cost to the Chargers including bleachers in the second deck on the east side of the stadium being replaced by tip-up seats and moved to the berm on the north side, adding 1,000 seats. A new section of upper-level bleachers, which seat 330, were erected in the southeast corner of the stadium. Also, the luxury suites were renovated with new seats, furniture, community tables, and engineered hardwood floors and the press box underwent an upgrade with a third row added to the main box, boosting capacity from about 35 to 53. Floors were constructed on the roof of the luxury suites so an auxiliary press box could be built on both sides of the main box.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Two new radio booths were built outside the south side of the press box, and a large new booth on the north side to serve as a security command post for police and NFL officials was constructed. Two booths were added on each side of the press box for the NFL-mandated 20-yard-line television cameras, and a stairway allowing access to the roof of the main box was built to accommodate the 50-yard-line camera. To accommodate 53-man NFL rosters, four small locker rooms were converted to two larger ones with 60 cubicles in each. Also added were small postgame news conference rooms for each team and rooms for game officials and the chain gang. After the Chargers left for Inglewood, the football facilities were taken over by the Wildcats when the XFL team began operations in 2020.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Aside from being home to the LA Galaxy of Major League Soccer, it was also home to two defunct clubs, the MLS team Chivas USA as well as Los Angeles Sol of the Women's Professional Soccer. The stadium hosted the 2003 MLS All-Star Game and the MLS Cup in 2003, 2004, 2008, 2011, 2012 and 2014.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Dignity Health Sports Park was also the site of the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup final. Both the United States women's and men's national football teams often use the facility for training camps and select home matches.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: It also hosted the 2004 NCAA Men's College Cup, with Duke, Indiana, Maryland, and UC Santa Barbara qualifying.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The track and field stadium on the site is also home to the LA Galaxy II of the USL Championship, farm club to the parent Galaxy.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: On July 30, 2016, it hosted a 2016 International Champions Cup match between Paris Saint-Germain and Leicester City. Paris Saint-Germain won the match 4–0 to complete a perfect record in the ICC.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The stadium hosted the first three editions (2004–06) of the USA Sevens, an annual international rugby sevens competition that is part of the World Rugby Sevens Series, again hosted that event on February 29 to March 1, 2020. and is announced to host the 2022 edition on March 6–7, 2022.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The stadium has also hosted all United States national team matches for the Pacific Nations Cup between 2013 and 2014. and the "Quest For Gold" pre-Olympic Rugby Sevens showcase on June 25–26, 2021.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: It was also the location for the State Championship Bowl Games for high school football teams in the state of California from 2006 to 2014. The Semper Fidelis All America game was held there on January 5, 2014, featuring an East vs West high school matchup. The first college football game was held at the stadium on January 21, 2012, as the AstroTurf NFLPA Collegiate Bowl, with the National Team beating the American Team 20–14.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The track played host to the 2005 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships. It is also the home of the Adidas Running Club, a member of the USA Elite Running Circuit, and the Adidas Track Classic. Dignity Health Sports Park is also home to EXOS, formerly Athletes' Performance, which trains athletes in a variety of sports.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The Los Angeles Riptide of Major League Lacrosse played their home games at the track and field stadium.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The soccer and tennis stadiums of the Center have also served as the main venues for ESPN's Summer X Games.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: From 2010 to 2016, it hosted the Reebok CrossFit Games. Initially only utilizing the tennis stadium, over the years it also expanded to the running field and the soccer stadium.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The facility has also hosted several high-profile professional boxing matches, including Andre Ward vs. Arthur Abraham, Brandon Ríos vs. Urbano Antillón, Shawn Porter vs. Kell Brook and matches featuring other notable fighters. The venue has become iconic among boxing fans for its electric atmosphere.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: On August 16, 2013, Resurrection Fighting Alliance held an MMA event titled "RFA 9: Curran vs. Munhoz", with the main event crowning a new Bantamweight Champion.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The Los Angeles Chargers had a three-year tenure at Dignity Health Sports Park from 2017 to 2019, while SoFi Stadium in Inglewood was being built. During the team's three seasons at the stadium, they compiled an even 11–11 record. Chargers fans were outnumbered by opposing teams' supporters, who frequently filled much of the stadium.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The stadium served as the temporary home of the San Diego State Aztecs football team from San Diego State University. The 2020 and 2021 seasons were played at Dignity Health Sports Park until Aztec Stadium in San Diego, the replacement for the Aztecs' former home of San Diego Stadium, is completed for the 2022 season. The final Aztecs game held at the stadium was the 2021 Mountain West Conference Football Championship Game, a 46-13 loss by the Aztecs to the Utah State Aggies. During the team's two seasons at the stadium, they compiled a 9-3 record (3-1 in 2020 and 6-2 in 2021).


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: During the 2028 Summer Olympics, the venue will host rugby, tennis, modern pentathlon, field hockey, and track cycling.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The Vans Warped Tour was held annually in the stadium parking lot until the tour's final year in 2018.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: It also served as the host facility for the first two seasons of Spike TV's "Pros vs Joes" reality sports contests.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: In 2007 it received the bands Héroes del Silencio, in their Tour 2007, and Soda Stereo in their Me Verás Volver tour 2007.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: The facility is frequently used to provide a stadium background in film, television and advertising. The complex was the site of tasks for the third season of the CBS reality competition "Tough as Nails". The sports park was the site of the final task and finish line of 33rd season of "The Amazing Race".


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: Dignity Health Sports Park is located south of the Avalon Boulevard exit on California State Route 91.


title: Dignity Health Sports Park

text: In 2017, the LA Galaxy launched a shuttle bus service operated by Long Beach Transit. With two routes connecting Dignity Health Sports Park with the Harbor Gateway Transit Center and Del Amo station of LA Metro Rail.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: José Paolo Guerrero Gonzales (; born 1 January 1984), known as Paolo Guerrero, is a Peruvian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Avaí and the Peru national team.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Forging his career in Germany, Guerrero started at giants Bayern Munich, before making his name at Hamburger SV, scoring 47 goals across eight Bundesliga seasons. His greatest successes came in Brazil, where he scored the winning goal of the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup Final for Corinthians.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: With 38 goals in 107 matches for Peru since debuting at 20, Guerrero holds the honour of being the highest goalscorer for his national team. He has represented them at five Copas América and one World Cup. He led them to third place in the 2011 and 2015 Copas, and to runners-up in 2019, finishing as top scorer in all three of these tournaments. He is also the top scoring active player in the Copa América. He was one of 59 nominees for the 2015 FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the first Peruvian to receive that recognition. He's also the oldest Peruvian player to appear in a World Cup, at the age of 34 and 177 days.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In 2021, the IFFHS included Guerrero in their best South American team of the last decade, being recognized as the best South American center forward between 2010 and 2020 (joining the podium with Neymar and Sergio Agüero).


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In addition, he was voted the "best centre forward in America" in 2012 and 2017 by the newspaper "El País", based on the opinion of some two hundred journalists from the region. He has also been named included by CONMEBOL in the teams of the tournament for the 2011, 2015 and 2019 Copas América.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero was born in Lima, starting his football career in the youth teams of Alianza Lima. In 2003, he signed a contract with Bavarian giants Bayern Munich. During the 2003–04 season, Guerrero played in the Regionalliga Süd where he scored 21 goals in 23 games. During the 2004–05 season, he joined fellow countryman Claudio Pizarro as a member of the Bayern first team.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In June 2006, it was announced that Guerrero had transferred to Hamburger SV and signed a contract with the club through 2010. His first season was marred by an injury, which took away half his season, and his low productivity, being a sub most of the season. Near the end, he did score three goals, making his season total 5 goals in 20 games. One of these goals was against former club Bayern Munich in a 1–2 victory which left Bayern with no possibilities of making it to the UEFA Champions League. In the 2007–08 season, his second at Hamburg, Guerrero played 29 of 34 games in the Bundesliga, scoring nine goals and getting four assists, as well as becoming an undisputed starter and a vital part of the side; he was the third top scorer, behind Rafael van der Vaart (12 goals) and Ivica Olić (14 goals). In the UEFA Cup and qualification, he played nine games, scoring five goals and getting three assists. His first hat-trick in his professional career was against Karlsruher SC, in the last game of the Bundesliga, scoring the second, third, and fourth goals in a 7–0 victory. This victory secured them fourth place and a UEFA Cup spot for next season.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: By the beginning of the 2008–09 season, Guerrero had become first choice striker for Hamburger SV. Coach Martin Jol even went as far as saying that Guerrero better not catch even a cold during the season. Guerrero was fined a club record (somewhere in the region of €50,000–100,000), in April 2010 for an incident at the end of a league game with Hannover 96, where after apparently having been abused by a Hamburg fan, Guerrero threw his drink bottle into the crowd, striking that fan in the face. The German Football Association (DFB) suspended Guerrero for five league games and fined him €20,000.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero joined Brazilian club Corinthians on 13 July 2012, on a three-year deal for a fee of R$7.5 million. He scored both of their goals in the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup, once in the semi-finals against Al Ahly SC and the winning goal in the final against Chelsea.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In May 2013, Guerrero became the first Peruvian footballer to appear on the cover of "Placar", Brazil's biggest football magazine. The cover featured him as a warrior (""guerrero"" is similar to the Portuguese word ""guerreiro"", both meaning "warrior") fresh out of battle, with blood on his legs, and carrying a Corinthians flag.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In July 2013, Corinthians won the 2013 Recopa Sudamericana, defeating city rivals São Paulo FC 3–1 on aggregate. Guerrero scored in the first leg, a 2–1 away win.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In 2015, Guerrero and Corinthians were not able to reach a deal on the renegotiation of his contract, due to end on 15 July. His last game for Corinthians was against Fluminense on 24 May. Corinthians confirmed his release three days later.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: It was announced on 29 May 2015, that Guerrero would join Flamengo after playing for Peru in the Copa América in Chile.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In the 2017 Campeonato Carioca, Guerrero scored both of Flamengo's goals in a 2–1 semi-final win over Botafogo, and a further goal in the second leg of the final to win 3–1 on aggregate over Fluminense in the Maracanã.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: On 12 August 2018, Guerrero signed with S.C. Internacional on a three-year contract, after leaving Flamengo on a free transfer. He was given the number 79, to commemorate the last time Inter won the Campeonato Brasileiro. However, days before he was to debut, on 24 August, his FIFA ban was upheld, preventing him from playing his first match until April 2019.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In 2019, Guerrero's number changed from 79 to 9, due to the departure of Leandro Damião. After his ban expired, Guerrero finally made his debut for Inter in the Campeonato Gaúcho against Caxias, on 6 April, scoring in the 2–0 semi-final win. His Copa Libertadores debut came against Palestino of Chile, a match where he scored twice.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero's national career began at the 2001 Bolivarian Games where he won gold with the U-17 squad. His career with the senior team began in the unsuccessful 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign, but he managed to score twice for the national side. His first goal was the winner against Chile in Lima's Estadio Nacional. It was followed by a first-minute goal in the next match against Ecuador at the same venue, though the Ecuadorians fought back to secure a 2–2 away draw. In the opening game of the 2007 Copa América in Mérida, Venezuela, Guerrero concluded a 3–0 win over Uruguay as Peru went on to reach the quarter-finals.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero was ruled out of Peru's first two 2010 World Cup qualifying games because of injury. A further blow to Peru was laid down by FIFA when Guerrero was suspended six games for insulting the referee during the match against Uruguay in June 2008. Following Peru's disastrous qualifying campaign for the 2010 World Cup, José del Solar was replaced with Uruguayan manager Sergio Markarián and Guerrero was called up for the 2011 Copa América. In place of an injured Pizarro, Guerrero played as the team's starting striker in the competition and scored five times, making him the tournament's top scorer, one each against Uruguay and Mexico followed by a hat-trick against Venezuela in the third place play-off match which Peru won 4–1.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: At the 2015 Copa América held in Chile, Guerrero scored a hat-trick in a 3–1 win against Bolivia in the quarter-final in Temuco. He scored the second goal in Peru's 2–0 win over Paraguay in the third place play-off, thus helping Peru to third place at the Copa América for a second consecutive time and finishing as joint top-goalscorer with Chile's Eduardo Vargas.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero became the all-time leading goalscorer for Peru on 4 June 2016, after scoring against Haiti in a 1–0 win at the Copa América Centenario.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero made 17 appearances and scored five goals in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, helping Peru clinch a berth in the play-offs. On 3 November 2017, it was announced that Guerrero had failed the doping control test after the match against Argentina in the previous month for what was initially reported as a "social drug". He received a preemptive 30-day suspension from FIFA, making him miss the World Cup play-off tie against New Zealand, eventually won by Peru.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: On 8 December 2017, it was revealed that Guerrero had tested positive for benzoylecgonine, the primary metabolite of cocaine. As a result, he was banned by FIFA from all competitions for one year, meaning that he would not have been able to participate in the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The ban was reduced on appeal 12 days later. Guerrero's lawyers had argued that the failed test had occurred as a result of the consumption of a traditional coca tea, using forensic analysis of the Children of Llullaillaco as evidence.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: However, on 14 May 2018, the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld the appeal filed by the World Anti-Doping Agency, extending the ban to 14 months and ruling him out of the tournament. It accepted that Guerrero did not intend to enhance performance but said he was at fault, even if not significantly.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: On 31 May 2018, it was announced Guerrero would be allowed to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup after the Swiss Federal Tribunal temporarily lifted the ban.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: On 3 June 2018, Guerrero made his comeback after a seven-month absence from the national team scoring twice in the 3–0 friendly win against Saudi Arabia.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: A 2018 report of investigative journalists of German broadcasting station ARD revealed doping practices in Brazil, involving physician Mohamad Barakat who reportedly treated Guerrero and who had already posed with him many years ago.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero made his World Cup debut on 16 June 2018, coming off the bench in the 1–0 loss to Denmark. On 26 June, he assisted André Carrillo's goal, which was Peru's first World Cup goal in 36 years, and scored the second goal in Peru's 2–0 win over Australia, in the team's final group match, as his side suffered a first-round exit from the competition. At the age of 34 and 177 days, he became the oldest Peruvian player to appear in a FIFA World Cup.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In May 2019, Guerrero was included in Ricardo Gareca's final 23-man squad for the 2019 Copa América in Brazil. He scored the opening goal in Peru's second group game of the tournament on 18 June – a 3–1 victory over Bolivia. In the semi-finals against defending champions Chile on 3 July, Guerrero scored the final goal of a 3–0 win, which saw Peru advance to the final of the tournament for the first time since 1975.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: In the 2019 Copa América Final against hosts Brazil on 7 July, at the Maracanã Stadium, Guerrero scored the temporary equaliser from the penalty spot in the first half; the match eventually ended in a 3–1 victory to Brazil. Guerrero finished the tournament as the top scorer with 3 goals, alongside Brazil's Everton Soares, who won the Golden Boot Award due to having played fewer minutes than the Peruvian throughout the tournament.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero has a fear of flying. Media reports claim his fear of flying is due to the death of his uncle José González Ganoza in the 1987 Alianza Lima air disaster.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: Guerrero's older brother, Julio Rivera, was also a footballer for the Peru national team who progressed through the Alianza Lima youth system. The brothers were both following in the path of their uncle who had represented Alianza Lima and the Peru national team before them.


title: Paolo Guerrero

text: His nephew, also named Julio Rivera, was found dead from a robbery in Lima. Guerrero held his death with sorrow and honor to his late nephew.


title: Easter Bunny

text: The Easter Bunny (also called the Easter Rabbit or Easter Hare) is a folkloric figure and symbol of Easter, depicted as a rabbit—sometimes dressed with clothes—bringing Easter eggs. Originating among German Lutherans, the "Easter Hare" originally played the role of a judge, evaluating whether children were good or disobedient in behavior at the start of the season of Eastertide, similar to the "naughty or nice" list made by Santa Claus. As part of the legend, the creature carries colored eggs in its basket, as well as candy, and sometimes toys, to the homes of children. As such, the Easter Bunny again shows similarities to Santa (or the Christkind) and Christmas by bringing gifts to children on the night before a holiday. The custom was first mentioned in Georg Franck von Franckenau's "De ovis paschalibus" ('About Easter eggs') in 1682, referring to a German tradition of an Easter Hare bringing eggs for the children.


title: Easter Bunny

text: The hare was a popular motif in medieval church art. In ancient times, it was widely believed (as by Pliny, Plutarch, Philostratus, and Aelian) that the hare was a hermaphrodite. The idea that a hare could reproduce without loss of virginity led to an association with the Virgin Mary, with hares sometimes occurring in illuminated manuscripts and Northern European paintings of the Virgin and Christ Child. It may also have been associated with the Holy Trinity, as in the three hares motif.


title: Easter Bunny

text: Eggs have been used as fertility symbols since antiquity. Eggs became a symbol in Christianity associated with rebirth as early as the 1st century AD, via the iconography of the Phoenix egg, and they became associated with Easter specifically in medieval Europe, when eating them was prohibited during the fast of Lent. A common practice in England at that time was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast.


title: Easter Bunny

text: As a special dish, eggs would probably have been decorated as part of the Easter celebrations. Later, German Protestants retained the custom of eating colored eggs for Easter, though they did not continue the tradition of fasting. Eggs boiled with some flowers change their color, bringing the spring into the homes, and some over time added the custom of decorating the eggs. Many Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day typically dye their Easter eggs red, the color of blood, in recognition of the blood of the sacrificed Christ (and, of the renewal of life in springtime). Some also use the color green, in honor of the new foliage emerging after the long-dead time of winter. The Ukrainian art of decorating eggs for Easter, known as "pysanky", dates to ancient, pre-Christian times. Similar variants of this form of artwork are seen amongst other eastern and central European cultures.


title: Easter Bunny

text: The idea of an egg-giving hare went to the U.S. in the 18th century. Protestant German immigrants in the Pennsylvania Dutch area told their children about the "Osterhase" (sometimes spelled "Oschter Haws"). "Hase" means "hare", not rabbit, and in Northwest European folklore the "Easter Bunny" indeed is a hare. According to the legend, only good children received gifts of colored eggs in the nests that they made in their caps and bonnets before Easter.


title: Easter Bunny

text: In a publication from 1874 German philologist Adolf Holtzmann stated "The Easter Hare is unintelligible to me, but probably the hare was the sacred animal of Ostara". The connection between Easter and that goddess had been made by Jacob Grimm in his 1835 "Deutsche Mythologie". This proposed association was repeated by other authors including Charles Isaac Elton and Charles J. Billson. In 1961 Christina Hole wrote, "The hare was the sacred beast of Eastre (or Ēostre), a Saxon goddess of Spring and of the dawn." The belief that Ēostre had a hare companion who became the Easter Bunny was popularized when it was presented as fact in the BBC documentary "Shadow of the Hare" (1993).


title: Easter Bunny

text: The Oxford "Dictionary of English Folklore" however states "... there is no shred of evidence" that hares were sacred to Ēostre, noting that Bede does not associate her with any animal.


title: Automatic watch

text: An automatic watch, also known as a self-winding watch or simply an automatic, is a mechanical watch where the natural motion of the wearer provides energy to wind the mainspring, making manual winding unnecessary if worn enough. It is distinguished from a "manual watch" in that a manual watch must have its mainspring wound by hand at regular intervals.


title: Automatic watch

text: In a mechanical watch the watch's gears are turned by a spiral spring called a mainspring. In a "manual watch" energy is stored in the mainspring by turning a knob, the "crown" on the side of the watch. Then the energy from the mainspring powers the watch movement until it runs down, requiring the spring to be wound again.


title: Automatic watch

text: A self-winding watch movement has a mechanism which winds the mainspring using the natural motions of the wearer's body. The watch contains an oscillating weight that turns on a pivot. The normal movements of the watch in the user's pocket (for a pocketwatch) or on the user's arm (for a wristwatch) cause the rotor to pivot on its staff, which is attached to a ratcheted winding mechanism. The motion of the watch is thereby translated into circular motion of the weight which, through a series of reverser and reducing gears, eventually winds the mainspring. There are many different designs for modern self-winding mechanisms. Some designs allow winding of the watch to take place while the weight swings in only one direction while other, more advanced, mechanisms have two ratchets and wind the mainspring during both clockwise and anti-clockwise weight motions.


title: Automatic watch

text: The fully wound mainspring in a typical watch can store enough energy reserve for roughly two days, allowing the watch to keep running through the night while stationary. In many cases automatic wristwatches can also be wound manually by turning the crown, so the watch can be kept running when not worn, and in case the wearer's wrist motions are not sufficient to keep it wound automatically.


title: Automatic watch

text: Self-winding mechanisms continue working even after the mainspring is fully wound up. If a simple mainspring was used, this would put excessive tension on the mainspring. This could break the mainspring, and even if it did not, it can cause a problem called "knocking" or "banking". The excessive drive force applied to the watch movement gear train can make the balance wheel rotate with excessive amplitude, causing the impulse pin to hit the back of the pallet fork horns. This will make the watch run fast, and could break the impulse pin. To prevent this, a slipping clutch device is used on the mainspring so it cannot be overwound.


title: Automatic watch

text: The "slipping mainspring" device was patented by Adrien Philippe, one of the founders of Patek Philippe, on 16 June 1863, long before self-winding wristwatches. In an ordinary watch mainspring barrel, the outer end of the spiral mainspring is attached to the inside of the barrel. In the slipping barrel, the mainspring is attached to a circular steel expansion spring, often called the 'bridle', which presses against the inside wall of the barrel, which has serrations or notches to hold it.


title: Automatic watch

text: As long as the mainspring is less than fully wound, the bridle holds the mainspring by friction to the barrel wall, allowing the mainspring to be wound. When the mainspring reaches full wind, its force is stronger than the bridle spring, and further winding pulls the bridle loose from the notches and it simply slides along the wall, preventing the mainspring from being wound further. The bridle must grip the barrel wall with just the right force to allow the mainspring to wind fully but not overwind. If it grips too loosely, the bridle will begin to slip before the mainspring is fully wound, a defect known as 'mainspring creep' which results in a shortened reserve power time.


title: Automatic watch

text: A further advantage of this device is that the mainspring cannot be broken by excessive manual winding. This feature is often described in watch company advertising as an "unbreakable mainspring".


title: Automatic watch

text: The earliest reference to self-winding watches is at the end of 1773 when a newspaper reported that Joseph Tlustos had invented a watch that did not need to be wound. But his idea was probably based on the myth of perpetual motion, and it is unlikely that it was a practical solution to the problem of self-winding watches. In 1776 Joseph Gallmayr also stated that he had made a self-winding watch, but there is no evidence to support this claim.


title: Automatic watch

text: The earliest credible evidence for a successful design is the watch made by the Swiss watchmaker Abraham-Louis Perrelet, who lived in Le Locle. In late 1776 or early 1777, he invented a self-winding mechanism for pocket watches using an oscillating weight inside the watch that moved up and down. The Geneva Society of Arts, reporting on this watch in 1777, stated that 15 minutes walking was necessary to fully wind the watch.


title: Automatic watch

text: In 1777 Abraham-Louis Breguet also became interested in the idea, and his first attempts led him to make a self-winding mechanism with a barrel remontoire. Although a successful design, it was too complex and expensive for it to be manufactured and sold.


title: Automatic watch

text: About the end of 1777 or early 1778, Hubert Sarton () designed a watch with a rotor mechanism. Towards the end of 1778 he sent a watch to the French Academy of Sciences and a report was written which, together with a drawing, gave a detailed description of the mechanism. Sarton's design is similar to those used in modern wrist watches, although there is no evidence linking the 18th-century design to 20th-century developments.


title: Automatic watch

text: About the beginning of 1779, Abraham-Louis Breguet became aware of Perrelet's watches, probably through Louis Recordon, who travelled from Geneva to London via Le Locle and Paris. Breguet studied and improved the design, and made many self-winding watches from then to about 1810.


title: Automatic watch

text: Although a few self-winding watches and patents for them were made from 1780 on, for more than one hundred years these watches were rare, until the advent of the wrist watch.


title: Automatic watch

text: As noted above, some watches used bidirectional winding and others used unidirectional winding. The latter is sufficient and all of Breguet's watches used unidirectional winding.


title: Automatic watch

text: Before the invention of the slipping mainspring, automatic watches had a system for locking the weight. Most common, as in the 1780 drawing, when the mainspring was fully wound a lever K was raised that entered a hole N in the weight to prevent it from moving until the mainspring had unwound enough to lower the lever. Different methods were used in side-weight, rotor and center-weight mechanisms.


title: Automatic watch

text: The advent of the wrist watch after World War I led to renewed interest in self-winding mechanisms, and all four types listed above were used:


title: Automatic watch

text: Invented by John Harwood, a watch repairer from Bolton, England, who took out a UK patent with his financial backer, Harry Cutts, on 7 July 1923, and obtained a corresponding Swiss patent on 16 October 1923. The Harwood system used a pivoting weight which swung as the wearer moved, winding the mainspring. The ratchet mechanism wound the mainspring only when moving in one direction. The weight did not rotate a full 360°; spring bumpers limited its swing to about 180°, to encourage a back and forth motion. This early type of self-winding mechanism is now referred to as a 'hammer' or 'bumper'.


title: Automatic watch

text: Like its 18th-century counterparts, Harwood's watch also had a problem with jerking because ""the brass weight hit too sharply against the banking pins as it pivoted"".


title: Automatic watch

text: When fully wound, Harwood's watch would run for 12 hours autonomously. It did not have a conventional stem winder, so the hands were moved manually by rotating a bezel around the face of the watch. The watches were first produced with the help of Swiss watch manufacturer Fortis and went on sale in 1928. 30,000 were made before the Harwood Self-Winding Watch Company collapsed in 1931 in the Great Depression. 'Bumper' watches were the first commercially successful automatic watches; they were made by several high grade watch manufacturers during the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Automatic watch

text: The Rolex Watch Company improved Harwood's design in 1930 and used it as the basis for the company's Oyster Perpetual, in which the centrally mounted semi-circular weight could rotate through a full 360° rather than the about 200° of the 'bumper' winder. Rolex's version also increased the amount of energy stored in the mainspring, allowing it to run autonomously for up to 35 hours.


title: Automatic watch

text: Information about 18th-century rotor watches was not published until 1949. Although the Oyster Perpetual was probably an original invention, the company may have known of Coviot's 1893 patent that re-invented the 18th-century design.


title: Automatic watch

text: With John Harwood's patent for self-winding watches set to expire in the early 1930s, Glycine founder Eugène Meylan started developing his own self-winding mechanism. Meylan’s design was unusual: a separate module that could be used with almost any 8.75 ligne (19.74 millimeter) watch movement. In October 1930, Glycine released their first automatic watches using this module, which became the world's first widely-produced automatic watches. This allowed Glycine to survive the global depression in the 1930s that caused many Swiss watchmakers to close shop.


title: Automatic watch

text: The next development for automatic watches came in 1948 from Eterna Watch. To wind a watch effectively, one of the chief requirements of a rotor is heft. Until this point, the best bearing used in any watch was a jewel bearing, which perfectly suits the small gears of a watch. A rotor, on the other hand, requires a different solution. In 1948, Eterna introduced the solution that is still in use today: ball bearings. Ball bearings provide robust support for a heavy object to rotate smoothly and reliably even under abnormal stress, such as if the watch were dropped. Eterna adopted geared bidirectional winding shortly afterwards.


title: Automatic watch

text: By the 1960s, automatic winding had become widespread in quality mechanical watches. Because the rotor weight needed in an automatic watch takes up a lot of space in the case, increasing its thickness, some manufacturers of quality watches, such as Patek Philippe, continue to design manually wound watches, which can be as thin as 1.77 millimeters.


title: Automatic watch

text: However, in 2007 Carl F. Bucherer implemented a new approach without a rotor, a peripherally mounted power source, where a geared ring and a rotating unbalance mass segment made of tungsten encircles the entire mechanism, rotating on carbon rollers whenever the watch moves. A system of clutch wheels captures power. No rotor means thinner watches and an ultradense weight swinging around a greater radius means a better chance of achieving a greater power reserve with same amount of arm movement.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The Iraqi Armed Forces ( romanized: "Al-Quwwat Al-Musallahah Al-Iraqiyyah") (Kurdish: هێزە چەکدارەکانی عێراق) are the military forces of the Republic of Iraq. They consist of the Iraqi Army, the Iraqi Air Force, and the Iraqi Navy. Along with these three primary service branches, there exists the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. The President of Iraq acts as the supreme commander of the military as outlined by the national constitution.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The armed forces of Iraq have a long and very active history. They were initially formed in the early 1920s. Six military coup d'états were mounted by the Army between 1936 and 1941. The armed forces first saw combat in the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941. They fought against Israel in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the 1967 Six-Day War, and in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Two wars with the Kurds were fought from 1961 to 1970 and in 1974 and 1975. A much larger conflict was the Iran–Iraq War, initiated by the Iraqis in 1980, which continued until 1988. Thereafter Iraq began the invasion of Kuwait, which led to the Persian Gulf War of 1991, which led in turn to confrontations over the Iraqi no-fly zones during the 1990s, and finally the Iraq War of 2003. Two strong categories for Iraq have been logistics and combat engineering. Iraqi soldiers have also usually fought hard in difficult situations.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The armed forces are administered by the Ministry of Defence (MOD). Since the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, which toppled the Saddam Hussein regime, the Iraqi Armed Forces received substantial assistance from the United States Armed Forces. Since the implementation of the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement on January 1, 2009, the Iraqi Armed Forces and the forces of the Iraqi interior ministry are responsible for providing security and upholding law and order throughout Iraq.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The Iraqi Army was historically one of the more competent militaries in the Arab world. However, during Saddam Hussein's dictatorship and interference in military organization, the competence of the Army severely declined. The Iraqi Army, in particular, is one of the most trusted national institutions of Iraq. The Iraqi Armed Forces deficiencies have been identified in enabling functions, such as, e.g., logistics and military intelligence. In high-end conventional operations, Iraqi capabilities are currently limited by lack of artillery and air power.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: In addition to formal armed forces, the Popular Mobilisation Forces militias, and the Kurdish Peshmerga also exist.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: Part A, First Section, Article 9 states that 'The Iraqi armed forces and security services will be composed of the components of the Iraqi people with due consideration given to their balance and representation without discrimination or exclusion. They shall be subject to the control of the civilian authority, shall defend Iraq, shall not be used as an instrument to oppress the Iraqi people, shall not interfere in political affairs, and shall have no role in the transfer of authority.' Parts B and C prohibit the formation of military militias outside the framework of the armed forces and prohibit armed forces personnel from standing for political office or campaigning for political candidates. Part C expressively notes that military personnel are allowed to vote in elections. Part E expressively states the Iraqi Government's commitment to the respect and implementation of Iraq's international obligations regarding the non-proliferation, non-development, nonproduction, and non-use of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The Second Section says that military service shall be regulated by law.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: Iraq's legislation on defence dates from the Coalition Provisional Authority period of 2003–2004. CPA Order 22 established the New Iraqi Army on August 18, 2003, and CPA Order 67 renamed the New Iraqi Army the Iraqi Armed Forces on March 21, 2004. In the process, the New Iraqi Army was expanded to include an Army, Air Force, Coastal Defense Force, reserve forces, and other elements.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: Iraq does not appear to have publicly issued a national defence review or white paper. Much of defence policy since 2003 has been set by the United States. For example, one mission objective for Multi-National Force-Iraq was an ""Iraq that has a security force that can maintain domestic order and deny Iraq as a safe haven for terrorists"". To do this, the U.S. aimed to train and equip Iraq's security forces and gradually transition security responsibilities to them. In 2010 there are at least three major defence tasks. They are the suppression of the insurgency, the resolution of the Kurdish Peshmerga forces' status in relation to the Iraqi Armed Forces themselves, and longer-term, the growth of the armed forces so that they can defend Iraq from external threats.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The armed forces of Iraq as a modern country began to be formed by the British after they assumed mandated control over Iraq after 1917. During the March 1921 Cairo conference, it was agreed that an Iraqi Army would be created along British lines, with training and equipment provided by the UK. King Faisal wanted an army of 15,000–20,000 men. The army actually grew from 3,500 in 1922 to 7,000 in 1927 and then to 11,500 in 1932. The army became a modernising influence in the country. In 1931, the Iraqi Air Force was founded with a small number of pilots. Six Army coups took place, with one in 1936 being led by Bakr Sidqi and the last being the Rashid Ali coup of 1941. Following the persecution of the Assyrians, which culminated in the Simele massacre of 1932, a conscription law was introduced, which strengthened the Iraqi Army at the expense of the tribal sheiks. In 1938–1939, Iraqi Army forces were concentrated near the Kuwaiti border, as the military portion of a policy by then-King Ghazni to encourage its union with Iraq. British forces later defeated the Iraqis in the short Anglo-Iraqi War of May 1941, during the Second World War. The Iraqi Air Force used British aircraft until the 14 July Revolution in 1958, where the new Iraqi government began increased diplomatic relationships with the Soviet Union. The Iraqi Air Force used both Soviet and British aircraft throughout the 1950s and 1960s. In 1961, Iraqi forces were again amassed along the Kuwaiti border, and Iraqi again threatened to invade. A quick British deployment of troops, aircraft, and naval vessels, called Operation Vantage, deterred any move though. Iraqi forces fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, a first war against the Kurds from 1961 to 1970, and then in the Six-Day War of 1967.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: Iraqi participation in the Six-Day War was limited, principally owing to the slow reaction of the Iraqi 3rd Armoured Division, which had been stationed in eastern Jordan. The 3rd Armoured Division did not organise itself and reach the front line before the Jordanians ceased operations. Therefore, Iraqi participation was limited to a Tu-16 bomber raid on Israel, which did not locate its targets, and a return Israeli air raid on the H-3 airbase, which was around 435 kilometers from Bagdad in western Iraq, near the H-3 oil pumping station. The Israelis reportedly destroyed 21 Iraqi aircraft for the loss of three of their own.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: After the first Kurdish war ended with a Peshmerga victory, the Iraqi military began to implement a number of changes. They concluded that Soviet equipment and methods did not meet their needs and that many western weapons were superior to their Soviet counterparts. Also the Soviet Union was trying to influence Iraqi policy by holding up arms deliveries. Despite the large amount of Soviet equipment that Iraq continued to receive (shown by the SIPRI Arms Transfers Database, Iraq 1973–1990), Iraq sought Western military equipment. Purchases from France included 64 Mirage F1 fighter-attack aircraft in 1976 and 200 AMX-30 tanks in 1977. That same year, Iraq ordered ten frigates and corvettes from Italy and in 1978 it purchased 200 Cascavel APCs from Brazil. While Iraqi generals supported a complete changeover to Western equipment, Western countries were reluctant to sell large amounts of weaponry to Iraq. Western weapons were more expensive than Soviet ones, and they took longer to train personnel on, so there was a reluctance to make a complete equipment reversal. However, more weapons were bought from various non-communist countries, supplementing their largely Soviet arsenal, and a reliance on Soviet doctrine reduced. In most cases, the Iraqis went back to British doctrine, while in others, they melded British and Soviet doctrine. Iraq's logistics capability was also improved, with the purchase of 2,000 heavy equipment transporters.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: Iraqi participation in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 took the part of a 60,000 strong Iraqi Army expeditionary force which operated on the Syrian front. However, the force did not perform very well, and the Iraqi Air Force did not do well either, losing 26 of the 101 fighter aircraft sent to Syria without shooting down any Israeli aircraft.


title: Iraqi Armed Forces

text: The Kurds started the second Kurdish war of 1974–75, but the war ended in a Kurdish defeat after the Iranian–Iraqi Algiers agreement cut off Iranian support to the Kurds. From 1973 to 1980, Saddam largely relieved the armed forces of internal security functions by creating new paramilitary forces, such as the Iraqi Popular Army. He also guaranteed the military's loyalty to the regime by promoting loyal officers and purging questionable ones. However, this had the effect of filling the senior officer ranks with incompetents.