text: Charles is the first member of the royal family to marry in a civil ceremony in England. Stephen Cretney, a Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford, questioned whether Charles and Camilla could marry in a civil ceremony, as the Royal Family was specifically excluded from the law which instituted civil marriages in England (Marriage Act 1836). On 14 February the BBC's "Panorama" uncovered documents of official legislative research advice dating from 1956 and 1964, which stated that it was not lawful for members of the royal family to marry in a civil ceremony in England and Wales, though it would be lawful in Scotland. These documents' statements were dismissed in a statement published by Clarence House on the advice of four unnamed legal experts. It took the view that the 1836 Act had been repealed by the Marriage Act 1949. Lord Falconer of Thoroton, Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs and Lord Chancellor, made the following statement:The Government are satisfied that it is lawful for the Prince of Wales and Mrs Parker-Bowles, like anyone else, to marry by a civil ceremony in accordance with Part III of the Marriage Act 1949. Civil marriages were introduced in England, by the Marriage Act 1836. Section 45 said that the Act "... shall not extend to the marriage of any of the Royal Family". But the provisions on civil marriage in the 1836 Act were repealed by the Marriage Act 1949. All remaining parts of the 1836 Act, including Section 45, were repealed by the Registration Service Act 1953. No part of the 1836 Act therefore remains on the statute book. ... We are aware that different views have been taken in the past; but we consider that these were overcautious, and we are clear that the interpretation I have set out in this Statement is correct. We also note that the Human Rights Act has since 2000 required legislation to be interpreted wherever possible in a way that is compatible with the right to marry (Article 12) and with the right to enjoy that right without discrimination (Article 14). This, in our view, puts the modern meaning of the 1949 Act beyond doubt.Professor Rebecca Probert has subsequently argued that Charles and Camilla's wedding is not legal. She says that it was not possible, as the government claimed, for such a drastic change in the law to have been implemented by the 1949 Act because it was introduced under a specially authorised procedure that can only be used in respect of "Consolidation Acts", acts which bring together the law previously contained in a number of statutes into one statute without changing it in any major way. Probert argues that article 79(5), which reads: "Nothing in this Act shall affect any law or custom relating to the marriage of members of the Royal Family.", still holds, on these grounds.


title: Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles

text: The government raised the issue of the Human Rights Act, noting that under this the 1949 Act had to be interpreted wherever possible to uphold the right to marry without discrimination. The key words are "wherever possible" - the Human Rights Act specifically states that where a statute makes something illegal the only way to make it legal is to amend or repeal the statute. For example, were the Sovereign to deny a member permission to marry under the Royal Marriages Act, an application to the Court for a declaration that the marriage must be permitted to go ahead under human rights legislation would fail.


text: Eleven objections were received by the Cirencester and Chippenham register offices but were all rejected by the Registrar General (and National Statistician) Len Cook, who determined that a civil marriage would in fact be valid.


text: On 17 February, Clarence House announced the marriage's change of venue from Windsor Castle to the Windsor Guildhall, immediately outside the walls of the castle. This substitution came about when it was discovered that the legal requirements for licensing the royal castle for civil weddings would require opening it up to other prospective couples for at least three years. On 22 February, Buckingham Palace announced that the Queen would not attend the wedding ceremony, but would attend the church blessing and host the reception afterwards. The reason stated by the palace was the couple wanted to keep the occasion low key. On 4 April, it was announced that the wedding would be postponed 24 hours until 9 April, so that the Prince of Wales could attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II as the representative of the Queen. The postponement also allowed some of the dignitaries who were invited to the funeral to attend the wedding. In keeping with tradition, the Prince of Wales spent the night apart from his bride-to-be at Highgrove House, his country home in Gloucestershire, with his sons Princes William and Harry, while Camilla remained at Clarence House.


text: The wedding took place at the Windsor Guildhall at 12.30 pm BST (11:30 UTC) on Saturday 9 April 2005. Crowds had gathered on the streets since dawn ahead of the service. The ceremony was attended by senior members of the royal family apart from the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.


text: After the wedding, the couple's witnesses were Prince William of Wales and Tom Parker Bowles, sons of the groom and bride respectively. In keeping with tradition, the couple's wedding rings are crafted from 22 carat Welsh gold from the Clogau St David's mine in Bontddu. The tradition of using Clogau Gold within the wedding rings of the Royal Family dates back to 1923. The design of the wedding rings is by Wartski, a London jeweller that has held the Royal Warrant to the Prince of Wales since 1979. The prince wears his on the small finger of his left hand.


text: The civil wedding was followed by a televised blessing, officially termed a Service of Prayer and Dedication by both the Prince of Wales's office and the press. in the afternoon at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. This was attended by 800 guests and all the senior members of the royal family, including the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh, and led by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. During this ceremony Charles and Camilla joined the congregation in reading "the strongest act of penitence from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer", widely quoted in press reports of the wedding:We acknowledge and bewail our manifold sins and wickedness, Which we, from time to time, most grievously have committed, by thought, word and deed, Against thy Divine Majesty, Provoking most justly thy wrath and indignation against us.


text: The arrangements for the wedding and service were strongly supported by the Archbishop of Canterbury as "consistent with the Church of England guidelines concerning remarriage". The "strongly-worded" act of penitence recited by the couple was a confessional prayer written by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury to King Henry VIII. It was interpreted as a confession by both, of past sins, albeit without specific reference and going "some way towards acknowledging concerns" over their past misdemeanours.


text: For the wedding, the Duchess wore a cream-coloured dress and coat with a wide-brimmed cream-coloured hat. For the Service of Prayer and Dedication afterward, she wore a floor-length embroidered pale blue and gold coat over a matching chiffon dress and a dramatic spray of golden feathers in her hair. Both ensembles were by Antonia Robinson and Anna Valentine, London designers who worked under the name Robinson Valentine, now solely called Anna Valentine; both hats were made by the Irish milliner Philip Treacy.


text: The Duchess's flower bouquet contained daffodils, jasmine, Lily of the Valley, pink and cream lilies, camellias, hydrangeas, and roses which came from the Prince of Wales Highgrove House gardens. Charles and all male members of the royal family wore morning dress. The wedding cake was made by Mrs Blunden, owner of the "Sophisticake" cake shop in Woodhall Spa, Lincolnshire. In April 2005 a hotelier paid £215 in an internet auction for a slice of the cake.


text: Following the service of blessing, the couple greeted the people who had lined outside the chapel. The party then moved to Windsor Castle's State Apartments where the Queen hosted a reception for a number of guests. The couple later went to Scotland for their honeymoon.


text: Manufacturers of pottery and other commemorative items faced a late rush to change the dates on their products after the delayed wedding date became known. However, sales of those with the incorrect date soared when people began to think that they would become collectors' items. For the wedding day, the theme park Alton Towers changed the name of their rollercoaster "Rita: Queen of Speed" to "Camilla: Queen of Speed". Television commercials and signs around the park were all updated to reflect this change.


text: The BBC gained the rights to broadcast the event where there was live coverage of the Service of Prayer and Dedication from St George's Chapel. On BBC One, Huw Edwards and Sophie Raworth presented the live coverage of the event and fashion advisors Trinny Woodall and Susannah Constantine contributed as the contemporary social commentators. The BBC had around thirty cameras at the event and shared footage with broadcasters throughout the world. BBC News 24 also had coverage during the day with Jane Hill and Simon McCoy reporting live from Windsor.


text: Many self-described fans of Diana, Princess of Wales opposed the wedding of Charles and Camilla Parker-Bowles, with some referring to the event as "Black Thursday" and writing to national newspapers to express their disapproval.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha (; ) is a Sino-Tibetan language that is the official and national language of Bhutan. It is written using the Tibetan script.


title: Dzongkha

text: The word means "the language of the fortress", from ' "fortress" and ' "language". , Dzongkha had 171,080 native speakers and about 640,000 total speakers.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha is considered a South Tibetic language. It is closely related to and partially intelligible with Sikkimese, and to some other Bhutanese languages such as Chocha Ngacha, Brokpa, Brokkat and Lakha. It has a more distant relationship to Standard Tibetan. Spoken Dzongkha and Tibetan are around 50 to 80 percent mutually intelligible.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha and its dialects are the native tongue of eight western districts of Bhutan ("viz." Wangdue Phodrang, , Thimphu, Gasa, Paro, Ha, Dagana and Chukha). There are also some native speakers near the Indian town of Kalimpong, once part of Bhutan but now in North Bengal and in Sikkim.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha was declared the national language of Bhutan in 1971. Dzongkha study is mandatory in all schools, and the language is the "lingua franca" in the districts to the south and east where it is not the mother tongue. The Bhutanese films "Travellers and Magicians" (2003) and "" (2019) are in Dzongkha.


title: Dzongkha

text: The Tibetan script used to write Dzongkha has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants. Dzongkha is usually written in Bhutanese forms of the Uchen script, forms of the Tibetan script known as "Jôyi" "cursive longhand" and "Jôtshum" "formal longhand". The print form is known simply as "Tshûm".


title: Dzongkha

text: There are various systems of romanization and transliteration for Dzongkha, but none accurately represents its phonetic sound. The Bhutanese government adopted a transcription system known as Roman Dzongkha, devised by the linguist George van Driem, as its standard in 1991.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha is a tonal language and has two level tones (high and low), and two contour tone distinctions, totaling four tones. The tone of a syllable determines the allophone of the onset and the phonation type of the nuclear vowel.


title: Dzongkha

text: All consonants may begin a syllable. In the onsets of low-tone syllables, consonants are voiced. Aspirated consonants (indicated by the superscript "h"), , and are not found in low-tone syllables. The rhotic is usually a trill or a fricative trill , and is voiceless in the onsets of high-tone syllables.


title: Dzongkha

text: Only a few consonants are found in syllable-final positions. Most common among them are . Syllable-final is often elided and results in the preceding vowel nasalized and prolonged, especially word-finally. Syllable-final is most often omitted when word-final as well, unless in formal speech. In literary pronunciation, liquids and may also end a syllable. Though rare, is also found in syllable-final positions. No other consonants are found in syllable-final positions.


title: Dzongkha

text: Many words in Dzongkha are monosyllabic. Syllables usually take the form of CVC, CV, or VC. Syllables with complex onsets are also found, but such an onset must be a combination of an unaspirated bilabial stop and a palatal affricate. The bilabial stops in complex onsets are often omitted in colloquial speech.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha is considered a South Tibetic language. It is closely related to and partially intelligible with Sikkimese, and to some other Bhutanese languages such as Chocha Ngacha, Brokpa, Brokkat and Lakha.


title: Dzongkha

text: Dzongkha bears a close linguistic relationship to J'umowa, which is spoken in the Chumbi Valley of Southern Tibet. It has a much more distant relationship to Standard Tibetan. Spoken Dzongkha and Tibetan are around 50% to 80% mutually intelligible, with the literary forms of both highly influenced by the liturgical (clerical) Classical Tibetan language, known in Bhutan as "Chöke," which has been used for centuries by Buddhist monks. Chöke was used as the language of education in Bhutan until the early 1960s when it was replaced by Dzongkha in public schools.


title: Dzongkha

text: Although descended from Classical Tibetan, Dzongkha shows a great many irregularities in sound changes that make the official spelling and standard pronunciation more distant from each other than is the case with Standard Tibetan. "Traditional orthography and modern phonology are two distinct systems operating by a distinct set of rules."


title: Dzongkha

text: The following is a sample text in Dzongkha of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:


title: Hazard

text: A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would allow them, even just theoretically, to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value. The probability of that harm being realized in a specific "incident", combined with the magnitude of potential harm, make up its risk, a term often used synonymously in colloquial speech.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards can be classified in several ways; they can be classified as natural, anthropogenic, technological, or any combination, such as in the case of the natural phenomenon of wildfire becoming more common due to human-made climate change or more harmful due to changes in building practices. A common theme across many forms of hazards in the presence of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal hazards and by the populations that may be affected and the severity of the associated risk. In most cases, a hazard may affect a range of targets and have little or no effect on others.


title: Hazard

text: Identification of hazards assumes that the potential targets are defined, and is the first step in performing a risk assessment.


title: Hazard

text: Environmental hazards include long term environmental deterioration such as acidification of soils and build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide to communal and involuntary social hazards such as crime and terrorism to voluntary and personal hazards such as drug abuse and mountain climbing. Environmental hazards usually have defined or common characteristics including their tendency to be rapid onset events meaning they occur with a short warning time, they have a clear source of origin which is easily identified, the impact will be swift and losses suffered quickly during or shortly after the onset of the event, risk of exposure is usually involuntary due to location or proximity of people to the hazard and the "disaster occurs with an intensity and scale that justifies an emergency response".


title: Hazard

text: Hazards may be grouped according to their characteristics. These factors are related to geophysical events, which are not process specific:


title: Hazard

text: Natural hazards may be defined as "extreme events that originate in the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere or atmosphere" or "a potential threat to humans and their welfare" which include earthquake, landslide, hurricane and tsunamis. Technological and man-made hazards include explosions, the release of toxic materials, episodes of severe contamination, structural collapses, and transportation, construction and manufacturing accidents etc. A distinction can also be made between rapid-onset natural hazards, technological hazards, and social hazards, which are described as being of sudden occurrence and relatively short duration, and the consequences of longer-term environmental degradation such as desertification and drought.


title: Hazard

text: In defining hazard Keith Smith argues that what may be defined as the hazard is only a hazard if there is the presence of humans to make it a hazard and that it is otherwise merely an event of interest. In this sense, the environmental conditions we may consider hostile or hazardous can be seen as neutral in that it is our perception, human location and actions which identify resources and hazards within the range of natural events. In this regard, human sensitivity to environmental hazards is a combination of both physical exposure (natural and/or technological events at a location related to their statistical variability) and human vulnerability (about social and economic tolerance of the same location).


title: Hazard

text: Smith states that natural hazards are best seen in an ecological framework to distinguish between natural events as natural hazards. He says, "natural hazards, therefore, result from the conflict of geophysical processes with people and they lie at the interface what has been called the natural events system and the human interface system." He says that "this interpretation of natural hazards gives humans a central role. Firstly through location, because it is only when people and their possessions get in the way of natural processes that hazard exists."


title: Hazard

text: A natural hazard can be considered as a geophysical event when it occurs in extremes and a human factor is involved that may present a risk. In this context, we can see that there may be an acceptable variation of magnitude which can vary from the estimated normal or average range with upper and lower limits or thresholds. In these extremes, the natural occurrence may become an event that presents a risk to the environment or people. Smith says "most social and economic activities are geared to some expectation of the 'average' conditions. As long as the variation of the environmental element remains fairly close to this expected performance, insignificant damage occurs and the element will be perceived as beneficial. However, when the variability exceeds some threshold beyond the normal band of tolerance, the same variable starts to impose a stress on society and become a hazard." Thus, above-average wind speeds resulting in a tropical depression or hurricane according to intensity measures on the Saffir–Simpson scale will provide an extreme natural event that may be considered a hazard.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards can be classified as different types in several ways. One of these ways is by specifying the origin of the hazard. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical, etc. Another class of hazard does not involve the release of stored energy, but the presence of hazardous situations. Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres, awkward positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards may also be classified as natural, anthropogenic, or technological. They may also be classified as health or safety hazards and by the populations that may be affected and the severity of the associated risk.


title: Hazard

text: In most cases, a hazard may affect a range of targets and have little or no effect on others. Identification of hazards assumes that the potential targets are defined.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards to navigation are another formal classification of hazard. They are usually only hazardous in the context of obstructions to the passage of shipping in their vicinity.


title: Hazard

text: Natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods, volcanoes and tsunami have threatened people, society, the natural environment, and the built environment, particularly more vulnerable people, throughout history, and in some cases, on a day-to-day basis. According to the Red Cross, each year 130,000 people are killed, 90,000 are injured and 140 million are affected by unique events known as natural disasters.


title: Hazard

text: Recent policy-oriented work into hazard management began with the work of Gilbert White, the first person to study engineering schemes as a means of mitigating flooding in the US. From 1935 to 1967 White and his colleagues led the research into flood defences, and further collaboration on the investigation was undertaken at the University of Chicago.


title: Hazard

text: In December 1989, after several years of preparation, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 44/236 proclaiming the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The objective of that decade was stated in the annexe of Resolution 44/236 as follows:


title: Hazard

text: "…to reduce through concerted international action, especially in developing countries, the loss of life, property damage, and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes, wind-storms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, wildfire, grasshopper and locust infestations, drought and desertification and other calamities of natural origin."


title: Hazard

text: Methods to reduce risk from natural hazards include construction of high-risk facilities away from areas with high risk, engineering redundancy, emergency reserve funds, purchasing relevant insurance, and the development of operational recovery plans.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards due to human behaviour and activity. The social, natural and built environment are not only at risk from geophysical hazards but also from technological hazards including industrial explosions, the release of chemical hazards and major accident hazards (MAHs).


title: Hazard

text: Hazards due to sociological causes, also a sub-class of anthropogenic hazards. Sociological hazards include crime, terrorist threats and war.


title: Hazard

text: Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, originate in biological processes of living organisms and refer to agents that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, the security of property, or the health of the environment. The term and its associated symbol may be used as a warning so that those potentially exposed to the substances will know to take precautions. The biohazard symbol was developed in 1966 by Charles Baldwin, an environmental-health engineer working for the Dow Chemical Company on the containment products. and is used in the labelling of biological materials that carry a significant health risk, such as viral samples and used hypodermic needles.


title: Hazard

text: Biological hazards include viruses, parasites, bacteria, food, fungi, and foreign toxins. Many specific biological hazards have been identified. For example, the hazards of naturally occurring bacteria such as "Escherichia coli" and "Salmonella" are well known as disease-causing pathogens, and a variety of measures have been taken to limit human exposure to these microorganisms through food safety, good personal hygiene, and education. However, the potential for new biological hazards exists through the discovery of new microorganisms and the development of new genetically modified (GM) organisms. The use of new GM organisms is regulated by various governmental agencies. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) controls GM plants that produce or resist pesticides (i.e. Bt corn and Roundup ready crops). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates GM plants that will be used as food or for medicinal purposes.


title: Hazard

text: Biological hazards can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can affect health. Many biological hazards are associated with food, including certain viruses, parasites, fungi, bacteria, and plant and seafood toxins. Pathogenic "Campylobacter" and "Salmonella" are common foodborne biological hazards. The hazards from these bacteria can be avoided through risk mitigation steps such as proper handling, storing, and cooking of food. Disease in humans can come from biological hazards in the form of infection by bacteria, antigens, viruses, or parasites.


title: Hazard

text: A chemical can be considered a hazard if by its intrinsic properties it can cause harm or danger to humans, property, or the environment. Health hazards associated with chemicals are dependent on the dose or amount of the chemical. For example, iodine in the form of potassium iodate is used to produce iodised salt. When applied at a rate of 20  mg of potassium iodate per 1000  mg of table salt, the chemical is beneficial in preventing goitre, while iodine intakes of 1200–9500  mg in one dose has been known to cause death. Some chemicals have a cumulative biological effect, while others are metabolically eliminated over time. Other chemical hazards may depend on concentration or total quantity for their effects.


title: Hazard

text: A variety of chemical hazards (e.g. DDT, atrazine, etc.) have been identified. However, every year companies produce more new chemicals to fill new needs or to take the place of older, less effective chemicals. Laws, such as the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the Toxic Substances Control Act in the US, require protection of human health and the environment for any new chemical introduced. In the US, the EPA regulates new chemicals that may have environmental impacts (i.e., pesticides or chemicals released during a manufacturing process), while the FDA regulates new chemicals used in foods or as drugs. The potential hazards of these chemicals can be identified by performing a variety of tests before the authorization of usage. The number of tests required and the extent to which the chemicals are tested varies, depending on the desired usage of the chemical. Chemicals designed as new drugs must undergo more rigorous tests than those used as pesticides.


title: Hazard

text: Some harmful chemicals occur naturally in certain geological formations, such as radon gas or arsenic. Other chemicals include products with commercial uses, such as agricultural and industrial chemicals, as well as products developed for home use. Pesticides, which are normally used to control unwanted insects and plants, may cause a variety of negative effects on non-target organisms. DDT can build up, or bioaccumulate, in birds, resulting in thinner-than-normal eggshells, which can break in the nest. The organochlorine pesticide dieldrin has been linked to Parkinson's disease. Corrosive chemicals like sulfuric acid, which is found in car batteries and research laboratories, can cause severe skin burns. Many other chemicals used in industrial and laboratory settings can cause respiratory, digestive, or nervous system problems if they are inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through the skin. The negative effects of other chemicals, such as alcohol and nicotine, have been well documented.


title: Hazard

text: Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose a risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system, such as the muscles or ligaments of the lower back, tendons or nerves of the hands/wrists, or bones surrounding the knees. Ergonomic hazards include things such as awkward or extreme postures, whole-body or hand/arm vibration, poorly designed tools, equipment, or workstations, repetitive motion, and poor lighting. Ergonomic hazards occur in both occupational and non-occupational settings such as in workshops, building sites, offices, home, school, or public spaces and facilities.


title: Hazard

text: A mechanical hazard is any hazard involving a machine or industrial process. Motor vehicles, aircraft, and air bags pose mechanical hazards. Compressed gases or liquids can also be considered a mechanical hazard.


title: Hazard

text: Hazard identification of new machines and/or industrial processes occurs at various stages in the design of the new machine or process. These hazard identification studies focus mainly on deviations from the intended use or design and the harm that may occur as a result of these deviations. These studies are regulated by various agencies such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.


title: Hazard

text: A physical hazard is a naturally occurring process that has the potential to create loss or damage. Physical hazards include earthquakes, floods, fires, and tornadoes. Physical hazards often have both human and natural elements. Flood problems can be affected by the natural elements of climate fluctuations and storm frequency, and by land drainage and building in a flood plain, human elements. Another physical hazard, X-rays, naturally occur from solar radiation, but have also been utilized by humans for medical purposes; however, overexposure can lead to cancer, skin burns, and tissue damage.


title: Hazard

text: Psychological or psychosocial hazards are hazards that affect the psychological well-being of people, including their ability to participate in a work environment among other people. Psychosocial hazards are related to the way work is designed, organized, and managed, as well as the economic and social contexts of work, and are associated with psychiatric, psychological, and/or physical injury or illness. Linked to psychosocial risks are issues such as occupational stress and workplace violence, which are recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and safety.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards that would affect the health of exposed persons, usually having an acute or chronic illness as the consequence. Fatality would not normally be an immediate consequence. Health hazards may cause measurable changes in the body which are generally indicated by the development of signs and symptoms in the exposed persons, or non-measurable, subjective symptoms.


title: Hazard

text: Hazards that would affect the safety of individuals, usually having an injury or immediate fatality as the consequence of an incident.


title: Hazard

text: Any single or combination of toxic chemical, biological, or physical agents in the environment, resulting from human activities or natural processes, that may affect the health of exposed subjects, including pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, biological contaminants, toxic waste, and industrial and home chemicals Hazards that would affect the environment, particularly the natural environment and ecosystems.


title: Hazard

text: Disaster can be defined as a serious disruption, occurring over a relatively short time, of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic, societal or environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disaster can manifest in various forms, threatening those people or environments specifically vulnerable. Such impacts include loss of property, death, injury, trauma or post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: Hazard

text: Disaster can take various forms, including hurricane, volcano, tsunami, earthquake, drought, famine, plague, disease, rail crash, car crash, tornado, deforestation, flooding, toxic release, and spills (oil, chemicals). These can affect people and the environment on the local regional level, national level or international level (Wisner et al., unknown) where the international community becomes involved with aid donation, governments give money to support affected countries' economies with disaster response and post-disaster reconstruction.


title: Hazard

text: A disaster hazard is an extreme geophysical event that is capable of causing a disaster. 'Extreme' in this case means a substantial variation in either the positive or the negative direction from the normal trend; flood disasters can result from exceptionally high precipitation and river discharge, and drought is caused by exceptionally low values. The fundamental determinants of hazard and the risk of such hazards occurring is timing, location, magnitude and frequency. For example, magnitudes of earthquakes are measured on the Richter scale from 1 to 10, whereby each increment of 1 indicates a tenfold increase in severity. The magnitude-frequency rule states that over a significant period of time many small events and a few large ones will occur. Hurricanes and typhoons on the other hand occur between 5 degrees and 25 degrees north and south of the equator, tending to be seasonal phenomena that are thus largely recurrent in time and predictable in location due to the specific climate variables necessary for their formation.


title: Hazard

text: Major disaster, as it is usually assessed on quantitative criteria of death and damage, was defined by Sheehan and Hewitt (1969), having to conform to the following criteria:


title: Hazard

text: This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster such as secondary effects of, e.g., cholera or dysentery. This definition is still commonly used but has the limitations of number of deaths, injuries, and damage (in $). UNDRO (1984) defined a disaster in a more qualitative fashion as:


title: Hazard

text: an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented.


title: Hazard

text: As with other definitions of disaster, this definition not only encompasses the social aspect of disaster impact and stresses potentially caused but also focuses on losses, implying the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. It does not, however, set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury, respectively.


title: Hazard

text: The terms "hazard" and "risk" are often used interchangeably. However, in terms of risk assessment, these are two very distinct terms. A hazard is an agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the environment. Risk is the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to that hazard.


title: Hazard

text: Risk can be defined as the likelihood or probability of a given hazard of a given level causing a particular level of loss of damage. The elements of risk are populations, communities, the built environment, the natural environment, economic activities and services which are under threat of disaster in a given area. The total risk according to UNDRO 1982 is the "sum of predictable deaths, injuries, destruction, damage, disruption, and costs of repair and mitigation caused by a disaster of a particular level in a given area or areas".


title: Hazard

text: David Alexander distinguishes between risk and vulnerability, saying that "vulnerability refers to the potential for casualty, destruction, damage, disruption or other forms of loss in a particular element: risk combines this with the probable level of loss to be expected from a predictable magnitude of hazard (which can be considered as the manifestation of the agent that produces the loss)." Since hazards have varying degrees of severity, the more intense or severe the hazard, the greater vulnerability there will be since the potential for damage and destruction is increased for the severity of the hazard. Ben Wisner argues that risk or disaster is "a compound function of the natural hazard and the number of people, characterised by their varying degrees of vulnerability to that specific hazard, who occupy the space and time of exposure to the hazard event." (Wisner, et al., 1994).


title: Hazard

text: Another definition of risk is "the probable frequency and probable magnitude of future losses". This definition also focuses on the probability of future loss whereby the degree of vulnerability to hazard represents the level of risk on a particular population or environment. The threats posed by a hazard are:


title: Hazard

text: Hazard symbols or warning symbols are easily recognizable symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials, locations, or objects. The use of hazard symbols is often regulated by law and directed by standards organizations. Hazard symbols may appear with different colours, backgrounds, borders and supplemental information to specify the type of hazard and the level of threat (for example, toxicity classes). Warning symbols are used in many places in place of or in addition to written warnings as they are quickly recognized (faster than reading a written warning) and more universally understood, as the same symbol can be recognized as having the same meaning to speakers of different languages.


title: Hazard

text: Navigational hazards are generally marked on nautical charts, and are also often marked by moored buoys, and changes are published in notices to mariners.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: A standard-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge of . The standard gauge is also called Stephenson gauge (after George Stephenson), International gauge, UIC gauge, uniform gauge, normal gauge and European gauge in Europe, and SGR in East Africa. It is the most widely used track gauge around the world, with approximately 55% of the lines in the world using it. All high-speed rail lines use standard gauge except those in Russia, Finland, and Uzbekistan. The distance between the inside edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States and on some heritage British lines, where it is defined in U.S. customary/Imperial units as exactly "four feet eight and one half inches" which is equivalent to 1435.1mm.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: As railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge (the distance, or width, between the inner sides of the rails) to be used. Different railways used different gauges, and where rails of different gauge met – a "gauge break" – loads had to be unloaded from one set of rail cars and re-loaded onto another, a time-consuming and expensive process. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a "standard gauge" of , allowing interconnectivity and interoperability.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: A popular legend that has been around since at least 1937 traces the origin of the gauge even further back than the coalfields of northern England, pointing to the evidence of rutted roads marked by chariot wheels dating from the Roman Empire. Snopes categorised this legend as "false", but commented that "it is perhaps more fairly labelled as 'True, but for trivial and unremarkable reasons. The historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Research however has been undertaken which supports the hypothesis that "the origin of the standard gauge of the railway might result from an interval of wheel ruts of prehistoric ancient carriages".


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: In addition, while road-travelling vehicles are typically measured from the outermost portions of the wheel rims (and there is some evidence that the first railways were measured in this way as well), it became apparent that for vehicles travelling on rails it was better to have main wheel flanges that fit "inside" the rails, and thus the minimum distance between the wheels (and, by extension, the inside faces of the rail heads) was the important one.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: There was never a standard gauge for horse railways but there were rough groupings: in the north of England none was less than . Wylam colliery's system, built before 1763, was , as was John Blenkinsop's Middleton Railway; the old plateway was relaid to so that Blenkinsop's engine could be used. Others were (in Beamish) or (in Bigges Main (in Wallsend), Kenton, and Coxlodge).


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: The English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured () for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, and used it on his Killingworth line. The Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: Stephenson's Stockton and Darlington railway (S&DR) was built primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. Opening in 1825, the initial gauge of was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made, debuting around 1850, to the gauge. The historic Mount Washington Cog Railway, the world's first mountain-climbing rack railway, is still in operation in the 21st century, and has used the earlier gauge since its inauguration in 1868.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: George Stephenson used the gauge (including a belated extra of free movement to reduce binding on curves) for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this project led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Thus the gauge became widespread and dominant in Britain. Robert was reported to have said that if he had had a second chance to choose a standard gauge, he would have chosen one wider than . "I would take a few inches more, but a very few".


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: During the "gauge war" with the Great Western Railway, standard gauge was called "narrow gauge", in contrast to the Great Western's broad gauge. The modern use of the term "narrow gauge" for gauges less than standard did not arise for many years, until the first such locomotive-hauled passenger railway, the Ffestiniog Railway was built.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: In 1845, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, a Royal Commission on Railway Gauges reported in favour of a standard gauge. The subsequent Gauge Act ruled that new passenger-carrying railways in Great Britain should be built to a standard gauge of , and those in Ireland to a new standard gauge of . In Great Britain, Stephenson's gauge was chosen on the grounds that existing lines of this gauge were eight times longer than those of the rival (later ) gauge adopted principally by the Great Western Railway. It allowed the broad-gauge companies in Great Britain to continue with their tracks and expand their networks within the "Limits of Deviation" and the exceptions defined in the Act. After an intervening period of mixed-gauge operation (tracks were laid with three rails), the Great Western Railway finally completed the conversion of its network to standard gauge in 1892. In North East England, some early lines in colliery (coal mining) areas were , while in Scotland some early lines were . The British gauges converged starting from 1846 as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent. By the 1890s, the entire network was converted to standard gauge.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: The Royal Commission made no comment about small lines narrower than standard gauge (to be called "narrow gauge"), such as the Ffestiniog Railway. Thus it permitted a future multiplicity of narrow gauges in the UK. It also made no comments about future gauges in British colonies, which allowed various gauges to be adopted across the colonies.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: Parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. The American gauges converged, as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent. Notably, all the broad gauge track in the South was converted to "almost standard" gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. "See" Track gauge in the United States.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: In continental Europe, France and Belgium adopted a gauge (measured between the midpoints of each rail's profile) for their early railways. The gauge between the interior edges of the rails (the measurement adopted from 1844) differed slightly between countries, and even between networks within a country (for example, to in France).


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: The first tracks in Austria and in the Netherlands had other gauges ( in Austria for the Donau Moldau line and in the Netherlands for the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij), but for interoperability reasons (the first rail service between Paris and Berlin began in 1849, first Chaix timetable) Germany adopted standard gauges, as did most other European countries.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: The modern method of measuring rail gauge was agreed in the first Berne rail convention of 1886, according to the "Revue générale des chemins de fer, July 1928".


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: Several lines were initially build as standard gauge but were later converted to another gauge for cost or for compatibility reasons.


title: Standard-gauge railway

text: Several states in the United States had laws requiring road vehicles to have a consistent gauge to allow them to follow ruts in the road. Those gauges were similar to railway standard gauge.


title: Gwen Stacy (The Amazing Spider-Man film series)

text: Gwendolyne Maxine Stacy is a fictional character in Marc Webb's "Amazing Spider-Man" films, based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. She was portrayed by Emma Stone in the films "The Amazing Spider-Man" and "The Amazing Spider-Man 2". As opposed to taking a supporting role in the previous film trilogy, Gwen is given a prominent role in Webb's films as one of Peter Parker's classmates, serving as his primary love interest and a foil to his character. Webb based Gwen's character off of her traditional comic-book portrayal. For her performance in the films, Stone has received critical praise and wider recognition, despite the divided response to the film series as a whole.


text: The character of Gwen Stacy first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #31 in 1965. Intended to be Spider-Man's primary love interest, she was soon superseded in popularity by Mary Jane Watson in that role by fans. This eventually led to the now-controversial decision by Spider-Man writers to kill off Gwen, which served as one of the most pivotal moments in comic-book history; Spider-Man's failure to save Gwen was one of the first big failures by a superhero, and is regarded as the end of the Silver Age of Comic Books. The character has subsequently been cloned or revived several times or seen different iterations in the comics, including one as Spider-Gwen, and has been included in several television shows and cartoons based on Spider-Man.


text: The first big-budget cinematic appearance of Gwen Stacy was in "Spider-Man 3", with Bryce Dallas Howard portraying the character in a supporting role, as Mary Jane was already serving as Peter's main love interest in that trilogy. Following the cancellation of "Spider-Man 4" and reboot of the Spider-Man film series, it was originally reported that both Gwen and Mary Jane would appear in the first film of the new series before Gwen was confirmed as the only one of Peter's love interests to appear. The shortlist of actresses to play the role included Lily Collins, Ophelia Lovibond, and Imogen Poots, with Teresa Palmer, Emma Roberts, and Mary Elizabeth Winstead, as reported by "The Hollywood Reporter" as "potentially in the mix". In September 2010, "Variety" reported that the shortlist had expanded to include Emma Stone and Mia Wasikowska. After a few more actresses were considered, Stone was announced as the winner of the role in October 2010 due to her chemistry with Spider-Man actor Andrew Garfield. That chemistry later inspired their off-screen romance.


text: For the role, Stone kept her natural blonde hair color to match Gwen's depiction in the comic books, rather than maintaining her usual dyed red hair. She felt that she had a responsibility to educate herself on Spider-Man, admitting she "hadn't read the comic book growing up, and my experience was with the Sam Raimi movies... I always assumed that Mary Jane was his first love", and having only been familiar with Howard's portrayal in "Spider-Man 3". Stone said, "There's a part of me that really wants to please people [who] love Spider-Man or Gwen Stacy and want her to be done justice. I hope they'll give me license to interpret her my way." While "The Amazing Spider-Man" director Marc Webb introduced a few elements from "Ultimate Spider-Man", he wanted to keep the mainstream version of Gwen Stacy instead of that world's punk rocker, though he states that the "texture" of the romantic relationship between her and Peter is based on that of the "Ultimate" versions of Peter and Mary Jane.


text: Despite her character's death in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", Stone expressed interest in returning as a resurrected Stacy in a future "The Amazing Spider-Man" film in an interview with "Screen Rant". By July 2014, development of follow-ups "Sinister Six", "The Amazing Spider-Man 3", and "The Amazing Spider-Man 4" had stalled; the films would have seen Stone reprise her role, the plot following a returned Norman Osborn setting a resurrected amnesiac Gwen as Carnage against Peter, Harry Osborn, and the Sinister Six. By early 2015, a deal to reboot the series within the Marvel Cinematic Universe was reached, effectively cancelling the "Amazing Spider-Man" franchise.


text: Sony Pictures' official website for "The Amazing Spider-Man" described Gwen Stacy as "smart, charismatic and rebellious". Stone described her character as "a daddy's girl" who is very responsible and protective of her family and loves science. She said of her character, "she offers Parker a world of stability, of a family unit not marred with parental loss and, beyond physical allure, the two forge an intellectual connection over their shared love of science." Her character, she explained, "is stuck between [her father] the Captain and Peter Parker and Spider-Man, who have different ways about going about finding justice in their lives" which she felt was a fun thing to explore. Dana Stevens of "Slate" described the character


text: "as the stuff of a comic nerd's dreams: a sweet, smart, wisecracking dame in demure sweaters, miniskirts, thigh-high stockings and boots."


text: Gwen and Peter's relationship is further explored in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2". When asked about their relationship in the sequel, Stone said, "She saves him more than he saves her. She's incredibly helpful to Spider-Man ... He's the muscle, she's the brains." Emily Kubincanek of "Film School Rejects" observes that unlike Mary Jane Watson, the primary love interest in the Raimi trilogy, Gwen Stacy, as portrayed in the Marc Webb films, provides a "feeling of partnership" in her relationship with Peter Parker and is more than willing to aid him in his battles, even at the cost of her own life when she helps him against Electro and is subsequently targeted and killed by the Green Goblin.


text: Gwen first appears as the daughter of NYPD captain George Stacy and as a classmate to Peter Parker and Flash Thompson at Midtown Science High School. She breaks up a fight between the two, admonishing Flash for not finishing his homework and for beating up Peter, then later commends the latter for standing up to Flash. Peter and Gwen begin to develop a mutual interest in each other from that point onwards. They encounter each other later at Oscorp, where Gwen is interning as a research assistant, as Peter sneaks into the facility to find Dr. Curt Connors and is later bitten by a radioactive spider that gives him new abilities. Gwen catches up with Peter after his Uncle Ben picks him up following after-school detention, and later consoles Peter after Ben's death.


text: After Peter starts tracking down Ben's killer as a masked vigilante, Gwen invites him to dinner with her family, where Peter and Captain Stacy argue about the vigilante's motives. Afterwards, Peter reveals to her that he is, in fact, the vigilante, sharing a kiss with her. Gwen also plays a crucial part in the Lizard's defeat; having helped Peter develop an antidote for Connors' serum for turning people into reptilian hybrids using her own scientific knowledge. Unfortunately, her father is killed by the Lizard before Peter can defeat the villain. George makes Peter promise to keep Gwen out of his dangerous life. Peter honors that vow without immediately telling Gwen, which offends her until she realizes what her father did and forgives Peter. However, when Peter later hints that he's reconsidering keeping that vow, she quietly smiles at this development.


text: Two years later, Gwen and Peter are graduating from high school. She calls him, telling him that he'll be "late" to the graduation ceremony while unbeknownst to her, he is in action as Spider-Man helping the NYPD apprehend Aleksei Sytsevich. Peter arrives just after Gwen finishes her speech as valedictorian to collect his diploma, kissing her in front of the crowd. Gwen and Peter talk where she invites him to dinner before she was called by her mother for a family photo. Later in the evening, Peter tells Gwen about the visions of her father he's been having and insists that he needs to keep his promise which as a result, Gwen breaks up with Peter.


text: Gwen is seen then working at Oscorp and meets Max Dillon in an elevator, where she finds out his birthday and the fact that he is obsessed with Spider-Man. She later meets up with Peter again, in which they try to maintain their friendship and establish some "ground rules". Gwen tells Peter that she is trying to apply for a scholarship to Oxford University, meaning she has to move to England if she gets it. Before the two can discuss it, Max, having suffered an industrial accident and become Electro, shuts off the power to Times Square whilst looking for electricity to power himself. Gwen recognizes Max and starts asking questions; Donald Menken, a high ranking and mutinous Oscorp board member, decides that she is a threat, fires her and targets her for elimination. In the chaos, she also encounters Peter's childhood best friend Harry Osborn.


text: Gwen later leaves Peter a voicemail, saying that she got the position at Oxford and has to leave early for a flight. Peter catches up to her and declares his love for her, agreeing to accompany her to England. They are interrupted by an intentional blackout caused by Electro. Peter takes Gwen down where the police are and Gwen helps him with his web-shooters to go against Electro. Peter heads off to fight with Electro having the upper-hand. As Electro has Spider-Man in the air and is electrocuting him, Gwen comes in a police car and hits Electro, against Peter's demands. The two defeat and kill Electro by overloading his electricity supply.


text: Just after they do so, Harry arrives, now as the Green Goblin, having figured out Spider-Man's identity and wanting revenge for being refused a potentially life-saving blood transfusion. Goblin takes Gwen to a clock tower and drops her but Spider-Man catches her. The two fight at the top of the tower, and Spider-Man manages to subdue the Goblin. However, during the fight, Gwen falls and is supported by a web connected to one of the gears. The gear soon gives away, which cuts the web and Gwen again plummets. Goblin is then defeated and Peter tries to save Gwen using his web. Though he successfully catches her inches from the ground, she dies nonetheless after hitting her head on the ground, causing whiplash. Devastated by his failure to save Gwen, Peter ends his career as Spider-Man.


text: Five months pass and Spider-Man is nowhere to be seen in New York as Peter spends every day at Gwen's grave. Later, an unknown team of men break Sytsevich out of prison. Equipped with an electromechanical suit of armor, Sytsevich dubs himself the "Rhino" and rampages through the streets. Peter, inspired by re-watching Gwen's graduation speech, resumes his role as Spider-Man and confronts him.


text: Gwen does not appear in this film, but is heavily referenced. After Peter is temporarily transported to an alternate reality, he reveals to his alternate self that Gwen's death still haunts him and that he became more brutal while fighting crime. Later on, Peter achieves his redemption when he manages to catch the other Peter's girlfriend MJ as she is falling, preventing her from meeting the same fate as Gwen. He returns to his universe as a happier and more optimistic man. Screenwriters Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers and director Jon Watts revealed that in earlier drafts of the script, due to the ongoing deterioration of space-time between the MCU's reality and that of the Raimi trilogy and Webb films, Gwen (prior to her death) would begin bleeding through to the MCU's dimension, alongside the Raimiverse versions of Mary Jane Watson and Aunt May, and that her and Peter would have a brief but touching reunion. For this, Stone was intended to reprise her role, alongside Kirsten Dunst and Rosemary Harris. However, this was cut due to budget and time-constraints, plus Andrew Garfield's disapproval over it, saying "it'd be too much to have everyone start popping over, even Gwen. I'd say it's more than enough that my Peter's still hurting over her death, and saving Michelle can be his start to finally moving past that".


text: Gwen appears in comics that tie into both films in the series, helping Peter redesign his Spider-Man suit and attempting to maintain a friendship with him after their initial breakup before resuming their relationship.


text: Emma Stone's performance as Gwen Stacy has received positive reviews and led to wider recognition for the actress, as she was nominated for several awards, winning "Favorite Movie Actress" at the 2015 Kids' Choice Awards. Critics praised Stone's chemistry with Andrew Garfield in both "The Amazing Spider-Man" and "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", and the fact that her character was significantly more fleshed-out than the Gwen Stacy of the Sam Raimi trilogy. In a review of the first film, Stephanie Zacharek of Movieline wrote that she "had no specific desire to see the series resuscitated. But watching Garfield and Stone made me think doing so wasn't such a bad idea". Following the release of "The Amazing Spider-Man 2", Alison Willmore of "BuzzFeed" cited Stone's performance and the love story of two people "hopelessly smitten with each other" as the highlights of the film, with the other subplots and villains serving to "complicate the relationship between Peter and Gwen." She also called the love story "uncommonly appealing" for an otherwise cliché superhero film.


text: The plot description and characterization were adapted from Gwen Stacy (Emma Stone) at Spider-Man Films Wiki and Gwendolyne Stacy at the Amazing Spider-Man Wiki, which are available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Republican faction (), also known as the Loyalist faction () or the Government faction (), was the side in the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939 that supported the government of the Second Spanish Republic against the Nationalist faction of the military rebellion. The name Republicans () was mainly used by its members and supporters, while its opponents used the term Rojos (Reds) to refer to this faction due to its left-leaning ideology, including far-left communist and anarchist groups, and the support it received from the Soviet Union.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: At the beginning of the war, the Republicans outnumbered the Nationalists by ten-to-one, but by January 1937 that advantage had dropped to four-to-one.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Republican faction hardly received external support from the Allied powers of World War II, due to the International Non-Intervention Committee. The support of the USSR stands out, fundamentally. Together with Mexico, France and Poland at the beginning of the war, they contributed large amounts of military material and advisers to the Republicans. The support of what came to be called the International Brigades was also noteworthy.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Soviet Union was the main ally of the Second Spanish Republic, contributing tanks and armored cars (especially the T-26 tank, BA-6 armoured car and BT-5 tank), hundreds of airplanes, several hundred thousand firearms and artillery pieces, as well as sending huge amounts of ammunition and several hundred Soviet professional pilots, tankers and sailors. Joseph Stalin would later order the purge of the communists that were anti-Stalinist. The Stalinists betrayed and exterminated the POUM, the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification, as well as the anarchists in Catalonia.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Mexican government maintained good relations with the Spanish republic at the beginning of the conflict, and President Lázaro Cárdenas assured that he was fully in solidarity with the Spanish socialist government in the face of the disloyalty of the army. Besides that the workers' solidarity with Spain was immediate; workers and unions made donations to the Spanish ambassador. The Cárdenas government, unlike the other countries, did not sign the International Non-Intervention Committee, and therefore, it was the only country that officially gave aid in the Spanish Civil War. He sent some 28 million rounds of ammunition, 28,000 rifles, 70 antiaircraft guns, some 55 planes (mainly French) and food to Spain, and after the civil war gave asylum to thousands of exiled veterans and intellectuals from the Republican side.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: However, much of the Mexican citizens and a group of peasants called the Cristeros favored Franco and the Nationalists.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: At the beginning of the war, France, also with a popular front government, made the decision to send war materiel to the Second Spanish Republic (in part because of the agreements signed for the sale of weapons, because of the friendships between the governments and to get rid of the obsolete material from World War I). On July 30, the first consignment of arms for the Republic arrived from France through the Pyrenees. It consisted of several hundred rifles with ammunition, six Renault FT tanks, and several bombers and fighters.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: In October 1936 the republican government in Vitoria began a reorganization process of the fragmented army. The self-denominated People's Republican Army (, EPR) consisted of those Spanish Republican Army units that had remained loyal to the Republic and militia members who were integrated into the new structure.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: At least 40,000 individual volunteers from 52 nations, usually socialists, communists or anarchists, fought for the Republican side.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The vast majority of these, an estimated 32,000 men and women, served in the International Brigades, organized in close conjunction with the Comintern.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: About another 3,000 foreign volunteers fought as members of militias belonging to the anarcho-syndicalist labor/trade union "CNT" and the anti-Stalinist Marxist "POUM". Those fighting with POUM included one of the most famous veterans of the war, George Orwell.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Mexican government supported fully and publicly the claim of the Madrid government and the Republicans. Mexico refused to follow the Anglo-French non-intervention proposals. President Lázaro Cárdenas saw the war as similar to Mexico's own revolution, although a part of Mexican society and the people wanted a Nationalist victory. Mexico's attitude gave immense moral comfort to the Republic, especially since the major Latin American governments—those of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru—sympathized more or less openly with the Nationalists. But Mexican aid could mean relatively little in practical terms if the French border were closed and if Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy remained free to supply the Nationalists with a quality and quantity of weapons far beyond the power of Mexico.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: Mexico furnished $2,000,000 in aid and provided some material assistance, which included a small number of American-made aircraft such as the Bellanca CH-300 and Spartan Zeus that had previously served in the Mexican Air Force. Not all of these aircraft reached the Republicans.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Soviet Union primarily provided material assistance to the Republican forces. In total the USSR provided Spain with 806 planes, 362 tanks, and 1,555 artillery pieces. The Soviet Union ignored the League of Nations embargo and sold arms to the Republic when few other nations would do so; thus it was the Republic's only important source of major weapons. Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement but decided to break the pact. However, unlike Hitler and Mussolini who openly violated the pact, Stalin tried to do so secretly. He created a section X of the Soviet Union military to head the operation, coined Operation X. However, while a new branch of the military was created especially for Spain, most of the weapons and artillery sent to Spain were antiques. Stalin also used weapons captured in past conflicts. However, modern weapons such as BT-5 tanks and I-16 fighter aircraft were also supplied to Spain.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: Many of the Soviet deliveries were lost, or were smaller than Stalin had ordered. He only gave short notice, which meant many weapons were lost in the delivery process. Lastly, when the ships did leave with supplies for the Republicans, the journey was extremely slow. Stalin ordered the builders to include false decks in the design of ships. Then, once the ship left shore it was required to change its flag and change the color of parts of the ship to avoid capture by the Nationalists. However, in 1938, Stalin withdrew his troops and tanks as Republican government policy floundered. Historian Hugh Thomas comments "had they been able to purchase and transport good arms from US, British, and French manufacturers, the socialist and republican members of the Spanish government might have tried to cut themselves loose from Stalin".


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Republic paid for Soviet arms with the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain, in an affair that would become a frequent subject of Francoist propaganda afterward (see Moscow Gold). The cost of Soviet arms was more than US$500 million (in 1936 prices); 72% of Spain's gold reserve, the fourth-largest in the world. The remaining 27%, or 176 tonnes, was transferred to France.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Soviet Union also sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000–3,000). While Soviet troops amounted to no more than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made Republican tanks and aircraft, particularly at the beginning of the war. In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades. Another significant Soviet involvement was the pervasive activity of the NKVD all along the Republican rearguard. Communist figures like Vittorio Vidali ("Comandante Contreras"), Iosif Grigulevich and, above all, Alexander Orlov led those not-so-secret operations, that included murders like those of Andreu Nin and José Robles.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The French position towards the Spanish Republic was characterized by its hesitant attitude and its ambivalence. Thus the government of France did not send direct support to the Spanish Republicans and towards the end of the beleaguered republic ended up turning against it, instead recognizing the Francoist State. President Albert Lebrun opposed direct assistance, but the left-wing government of French Prime Minister Léon Blum was sympathetic to the Republic. Blum considered both sending military aid and technology to the Republicans including aircraft and utilizing the French Navy to blockade the Franco-led Spanish Army of Africa from crossing from Spanish Morocco to Spain. Also upon the outbreak of civil war the Spanish Republican government and the government of France in diplomatic messages discussed a potential transfer of French aircraft to Spanish Republican forces.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: The Blum government feared that the success of Francoist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy that would allow German and Italian military forces to be based in the Canary and Balearic Islands. Right-wing politicians, however, heard of the French government's intention to send military support to the Spanish Republicans in the war and opposed the French government's actions by means of a vicious campaign against the Blum government for its alleged support of the Republicans.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: On 27 July 1936, British officials had discussed with Prime Minister Blum their position on the war and convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republicans. Therefore, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military aid, technology, or forces. However Blum made clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish, and indicated also indicated his support for the Republic, saying:


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum demanding that he send aircraft to the Spanish Republicans at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for provoking Fascist Italian intervention on the side of Franco.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: Nazi Germany informed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported what it described as "the maneuvers of Moscow" by supporting the Spanish Republicans. Finally, on 21 August 1936, France, the UK, and Italy (under pressure from both France and the UK) signed the Non-Intervention proposals involving the Spanish Civil War.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: However, the Blum government provided military assistance to the Spanish Republicans through covert means by supplying obsolete Potez 54, Dewoitine and Loire 46 aircraft to the Spanish Republican Air Force from 7 August 1936 to December of that year. Often with their weapons removed, these almost useless and vulnerable planes rarely survived three months of air missions. Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in other countries.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: Although the half-hearted and largely ineffective support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, German intelligence reported to Franco and his faction that the French military was engaging in open discussions about intervention in the war. Allegedly in 1938 Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Francoist victory in Spain through French occupation of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: Towards the end of the Civil War, most seagoing vessels of the Spanish Republican Navy were evacuated to Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia where the fleet was impounded by the French authorities and later handed over to the Francoist faction. Except for a few crewmen who were put on guard duty on the ships, the Spanish Republican seamen and their officers were interned in a concentration camp at Meheri Zabbens. Defeated members of other branches of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces who escaped were arrested by French authorities and interned in concentration camps in Southern France, such as the Camp de concentration d'Argelès-sur-Mer which at one time held about 100,000 defeated Spanish Republicans. From there some managed to go into exile or went to join the armies of the Allies to fight against the Axis powers, while others ended up in Nazi concentration camps.


title: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)

text: It is important to note that there was infighting between the Republican factions, and that the Communists following Stalinism declared the POUM, the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (an anti-Stalinist communist party), to be an illegal organization, along with the Anarchists. George Orwell would record this in his "Homage to Catalonia" as well as write "Nineteen Eighty-Four" and "Animal Farm" to criticize Stalinism.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Robert Leland Eubanks (born January 8, 1938) is an American disc jockey, television personality and game show host, best known for hosting the game show "The Newlywed Game" on and off since 1966. He also hosted the successful revamp version of "Card Sharks" from 1986 to 1989. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his radio DJ work in 2000. It is in front of Grauman's Egyptian Theatre, where he worked during the first years of his broadcasting career. In 2005, he received a lifetime achievement Emmy Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks was born in Flint, Michigan, but was raised primarily in Pasadena, California, where he grew up listening to music, most notably favorites like Frank Sinatra and Doc Watson. His parents, John Otho Leland Eubanks (September 28, 1905 – April 11, 1995) and Gertrude Eubanks (née McClure; 1907–1997), were originally from Missouri. They moved to Flint during the Great Depression, where their only child was born, before moving on to California. The young boy became a child model, doing photo shoots for ads and meeting his idol, Gene Autry, during an ad photo shoot with him.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks watched popular classic television and quiz game shows. Also growing up in the 1940s and 1950s, he was influenced by Cary Grant, Howard Hughes, Buddy Hackett, and Bill Cullen. He attended Pasadena High School, where he graduated in 1955. After graduation from high school, he attended Los Angeles Pierce College (according to his commentary on a Card Sharks episode) and then went on to become one of California's most popular disc jockeys. In 1956, Eubanks worked at his first radio station, KACY in Oxnard, California. He joined KRLA in Pasadena in 1960 to do the overnight show. In the spring of 1962, he was promoted to morning drive; a year later, he moved to his long-running 6–9 pm evening slot. During most of the 1960s, he was also a producer of concerts such as the Beatles' 1964 and 1965 Hollywood Bowl performances and the Rolling Stones during the first two years of their American tour. While still in Los Angeles, he also produced such artists as Barry Manilow, The Supremes, Dolly Parton, Bob Dylan, Elton John, and Merle Haggard, among others.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks married Irma Barnard of Ann Arbor, an avid athlete, ranch forewoman and artist, on September 10, 1969. They had three children: Trace, a retired firefighter; Corey, a stuntman; and Theresa. In 1970, the couple purchased a portion of a working cattle ranch, and later expanded it to . The entire family enjoyed roping and riding, with Eubanks participating in rodeos during his spare time. Eubanks is a gold card member of the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association. Barnard handled interior decorating, landscaping, and mounting one to two equestrian shows a year. She died in 2002 after a prolonged illness.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: In 2004, Eubanks married Deborah James, a woman 29 years younger. James is a wedding/events coordinator in Ventura, California and has her own company, Bella Vita Events. The couple has a young son, Noah. In October 2010, Eubanks and James put their Westlake Village, California home on the market.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: In 1966, Eubanks received a phone call from Chuck Barris, asking him to host a new game show, "The Newlywed Game"; the show premiered on ABC later that same year. During its debut, it was an immediate hit, and the show's popularity led the network to expand the prime-time lineup, where it had run on the air for five years. Only 28 years old when he started hosting, Eubanks became widely popular for bringing a youthful energy to daytime television, pressing contestants into giving embarrassing and hilarious answers. "The Newlywed Game" was also ranked as one of the top three daytime game shows, for five consecutive seasons, between 1968 and 1973, and was ranked in the top three prime-time game shows, also for five seasons, between 1966 and 1971.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: While hosting "The Newlywed Game", Eubanks was known for using the catchphrase "makin' whoopee", in reference to sexual intercourse. It was Eubanks who borrowed the term from the song of the same name, in an attempt to keep parents with young children from having to explain the facts of life because of a television show. While the network was comfortable with the term "making love", its Standards and Practices Department did not allow the use of the word "panties".


title: Bob Eubanks

text: While not taping, he also pursued a career in the country music business, where he served as manager of such artists as Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell and Marty Robbins. The same year, he also signed Merle Haggard to an exclusive live-performance contract, producing more than 100 dates per year with the performer for almost a decade.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: "The Newlywed Game" ended in 1974, after 2195 episodes, making Eubanks one of the most viewed game show hosts to date. He also hosted various editions in syndication (1977–1980, 1985–1988 and 1997–1999). For season two of the show's 2009 revival on GSN, Eubanks hosted a celebrity charity episode with Carnie Wilson and her husband Rob Bonfiglio playing against Carnie's sister Wendy and her husband Daniel Knutson, and their mother Marilyn Wilson-Rutherford and her current husband Daniel Rutherford. In spring 2010, Eubanks hosted another episode of "The Newlywed Game", subtitled "Game Show Kings". It featured Monty Hall and his wife Marilyn Hall, Peter Marshall and his wife Laurie Stewart, and Wink Martindale with his wife Sandy. This made Eubanks the only person to host the same game show in six consecutive decades (1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010s).


title: Bob Eubanks

text: In 1988, Eubanks left "The Newlywed Game" to pursue other interests (though he was still hosting "Card Sharks" on CBS for another seven months) and was replaced by Paul Rodriguez.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: After "Newlywed Game", he hosted a number of other game shows in his career, including "Rhyme and Reason", "Card Sharks", "Dream House", "The Diamond Head Game", "Trivia Trap", and "Powerball: The Game Show". Eubanks also auditioned to host the CBS daytime version of "Wheel of Fortune"; however, Bob Goen was hired instead.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: In 1985, Mark Goodson hired Eubanks, a second time (the first being the aforementioned "Trivia Trap"), to host a revamped version of the show "Card Sharks" for CBS. Eubanks hosted "Card Sharks" throughout its CBS run from January 1986 until its demise in March 1989. Prior to hosting "Card Sharks", he appeared as a special guest on the original NBC version alongside Jim Perry to promote his 1979 game show "All Star Secrets", which he also produced.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: His final network game show was "Family Secrets". In recent years, he has hosted or co-hosted all five of NBC's "Most Outrageous Game Show Moments" specials. Eubanks was also one of three rotating hosts (along with Chuck Woolery and Jamie Farr) of the "$250,000 Game Show Spectacular" at the Las Vegas Hilton until the show closed in April 2008.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Besides producing Hill-Eubanks's "All Star Secrets", the company also produced "The Guinness Game" in 1979–80, "The Toni Tennille Show" in 1980, Buddy Hackett's "You Bet Your Life" revival in 1980, and "Infatuation" (which Eubanks also hosted) in 1992. Between 1994 and 1995 Eubanks also traveled to Britain to host a British version of this series, "Infatuation UK", produced by Thames Television for UK cable network Living TV. Eubanks tried acting, but found he was not good at doing lines; he also learned the game show business was far more lucrative and less confining.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Prior to entering game shows, Eubanks was a popular radio DJ at station KRLA 1110 in Los Angeles as well as a music promoter and manager, between 1960 and 1968. He was responsible for bringing The Beatles to Los Angeles for their first West Coast performances in 1964 and 1965 (mortgaging his house to do so), all of which took place at the famed Hollywood Bowl, with fellow KRLA DJs Dave Hull and Reb Foster joining Eubanks in introducing them. He also operated several Cinnamon Cinder nightclubs. In the early to mid 1960s, the house band at his the Traffic Circle Cinnamon Cinder club was The Vibrants.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: He stood in for Casey Kasem twice on radio's "American Top 40": January 9–10, 1982 (that year's first regular episode), and April 16–17, 1983.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks hosted the televised 1964 Miss Teen USA pageant, with actor Sebastian Cabot making an appearance as one of the guests.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks appeared in Michael Moore's 1989 documentary "Roger & Me". The film documented Moore's attempts to track General Motors CEO Roger Smith to confront him about the economic devastation resulting from the company's closure of eleven manufacturing plants in Flint, Michigan. Eubanks, a native of Flint, was interviewed about his views on the downsizing, and was filmed telling an off-color homophobic, anti-Semitic joke:


title: Bob Eubanks

text: According to Moore in the film's DVD commentary, Eubanks attempted to denounce the film with the Anti-Defamation League for containing anti-Semitic content, despite the fact that the only anti-semitic content in the film was contributed by Eubanks himself. In a 2010 interview for the , Eubanks discussed his encounter with Moore and gave an explanation on how the ill-fated joke came about.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: In 1992, Eubanks appeared on the TV sitcom "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air" in the episode "Eyes on the Prize" hosting the game show "Double Trouble". That same year, he also made a cameo in the movie "" hosting the game show "Ding-Dang-Dong", where he mentioned that the show's contestants stayed at the Plaza Hotel in New York City, and also gave the phone number for reservations (which allowed Kevin McCallister, played by Macaulay Culkin, to check in).


title: Bob Eubanks

text: He has also hosted the Tournament of Roses Parade on Los Angeles television channel KTLA since 1976 and with Stephanie Edwards from 1978–2005. In 2006, Eubanks continued to host with Edwards's replacement, KTLA Morning Show anchor Michaela Pereira. Edwards returned to her co-hosting position alongside Eubanks in 2009. In September 2015, Bob Eubanks and Stephanie Edwards announced on the KTLA Morning News that the 2016 parade will be their last. In 2017, they were replaced by Leeza Gibbons and Mark Steines.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: Eubanks appeared as himself on the Nickelodeon sitcom "Kenan & Kel" in the episode "The Honeymoon's Over", which aired May 1999. He guest-starred on "That '70s Show" in the January 2000 episode "Eric's Stash".


title: Bob Eubanks

text: He also hosted for some years the Miss California USA Pageant and Mrs. International Pageant, sister pageant to the Miss International (United States) Pageant, between 2000 and 2003.


title: Bob Eubanks

text: On July 6, 2007, Eubanks sat in as a celebrity "Mob Member" on the NBC game show "1 vs. 100". A year after that, he appeared as a "GSN Live" guest on April 4, 2008, and returned on May 18, 2010. His most recent television appearance (not counting his annual KTLA Rose Parade appearances) was on "The Amazing Race 17" season finale, which aired December 12, 2010. In 2011, Eubanks hosted a special version of "The Newlywed Game", live at Champion's Week for the "NASCAR" "Sprint Cup Series".


title: Khagan

text: Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or "Khagan"; ) is a title of imperial rank in the Turkic, Mongolic and some other languages, equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire). The female equivalent is Khatun.


title: Khagan

text: It may also be translated as "Khan of Khans", equivalent to King of Kings. In Bulgarian, the title became known as "Khan", while in modern Turkic, the title became "Khaan" with the "g" sound becoming almost silent or non-existent; the "ğ" in modern Turkish "Kağan" is also silent. Since the division of the Mongol Empire, monarchs of the Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan held the title of "Khagan". "Kağan, Hakan" and "Kaan", Turkish equivalents of the title are common Turkish names in Turkey.


title: Khagan

text: The common western rendering as Great Khan (or "Grand Khan"), notably in the case of the Mongol Empire, is a translation of "Yekhe Khagan" ("Great Emperor" or "").


title: Khagan

text: The term is of unknown origin and possibly a loanword from the Ruanruan language. Canadian sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1962) first suggested that a Xiongnu title, transcribed as (Old Chinese: *"hʷaʔ-hʷaʰ") might have been behind Proto-Turkic *"qaɣan" ~ *"xaɣan". According to Vovin (2007, 2010) the term comes from "qaγan" (meaning "emperor" or "supreme ruler") and was later used in several languages, especially in Turkic and Mongolic.


title: Khagan

text: Turkic and Para-Mongolic origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt, Shiratori, Pulleyblank, Sinor and Doerfer, and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei, as recorded in Book of Song. While Sinor believes "qaγan" or "qapγan" is an intensification of "qan" just as "qap-qara" is an intensification of "qara" "black", in Turkic (with the eventual loss of the "p"), Shiratori rejects a Turkic etymology, instead supporting a Mongolic origin for both "qan" and the female form "qatun".


title: Khagan

text: According to Vovin, the word "*qa-qan" "great-qan" ("*qa-" for "great" or "supreme") is of non-Altaic origin, but instead linked to Yeniseian "*qεʔ ~ qaʔ" "big, great". The origin of "qan" itself is harder according to Vovin. He says that the origin for the word "qan" is not found in any reconstructed proto-language and was used widely by Turkic, Mongolic, Chinese and Korean people with variations from "kan, qan, han and hwan." A relation exists possibly to the Yeniseian words "*qʌ:j" or "*χʌ:j" meaning "ruler".


title: Khagan

text: It may be impossible to prove the ultimate origin of the title, but Vovin says: "Thus, it seems to be quite likely that the ultimate source of both "qaγan" and "qan" can be traced back to Xiong-nu and Yeniseian".


title: Khagan

text: The title was first seen in a speech between 283 and 289, when the Xianbei chief Tuyuhun tried to escape from his younger stepbrother Murong Hui, and began his route from the Liaodong Peninsula to the areas of Ordos Desert. In the speech one of Murong's generals, Yinalou, addressed him as "kehan" (, later ); some sources suggests that Tuyuhun might also have used the title after settling at Qinghai Lake in the 3rd century.


title: Khagan

text: The Rouran Khaganate (330–555) was the first people to use the titles Khagan and Khan for their emperors, replacing the Chanyu of the Xiongnu, whom Grousset and others assume to be Turkic. The Rourans were stated to be descendants of the Donghu people, who in turn are assumed to be proto-Mongols, Mongolic-speaking, or a "non-Altaic" group.


title: Khagan

text: The Avar Khaganate (567–804), who may have included Rouran elements after the Göktürks crushed the Rouran ruling Mongolia, also used this title. The Avars invaded Europe, and for over a century ruled the Carpathian region. Westerners Latinized the title "Khagan" into "Gaganus" (in Historia Francorum), "Cagan" (in the Annales Fuldenses), or "Cacano" (in the Historia Langobardorum).


title: Khagan

text: "The Secret History of the Mongols", written for that very dynasty, clearly distinguishes "Khagan" and "Khan": only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called "Khagan", while other rulers are referred to as "Khan". The title "Khagan" or "Khaan" most literally translates to "great/supreme ruler" in the Mongol language, and by extension "sovereign", "monarch", "high king", or "emperor". The title can also be expanded with the addition of "Yekhe" (meaning "great" or "grand") to produce "Yekhe Khagan", meaning "Great Emperor".


title: Khagan

text: The Mongol Empire began to split politically with the Toluid Civil War during 1260–1264 and the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, but the term "Ikh Khagan" (Great Khan, or Emperor) was still used by the emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), who also took on the title of the Emperor of China. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, the title continued to be used by monarchs of the Northern Yuan dynasty.


title: Khagan

text: Thus, the Yuan is sometimes referred to as the "Empire of the Great Khan", coexisting with the other independent Mongol-ruled khanates in the west, including the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde. Only the Ilkhanate truly recognized the Yuan's overlordship as allies (although it was effectively autonomous). Because Kublai founded the Yuan, the members of the other branches of the Borjigin could take part in the election of a new Khagan as the supporters of one or other of the contestants, but they could not enter the contest as candidates themselves.


title: Khagan

text: Later, Yuan emperors made peace with the three western khanates of the Mongol Empire and were considered as their nominal suzerain. The nominal supremacy, while based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier Khagans (such as the continued border clashes among them), did last for a few decades, until the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368.


title: Khagan

text: After the breakdown of Mongol Empire and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in the mid-14th century, the Mongols turned into a political turmoil. Dayan Khan (1464–1517/1543) once revived the Emperor's authority and recovered its reputation on the Mongolian Plateau, but with the distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs it again caused decentralized rule. The last Khagan of the Chahars, Ligdan Khan, died in 1634 while fighting the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty. In contemporary Mongolian language the words "Khaan" and "Khan" have different meanings, while English language usually does not differentiate between them. The title is also used as a generic term for a king or emperor (as , ), as in "" (, "king/khaan of Spain Juan Carlos").


title: Khagan

text: The title became associated with the Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks and their dynastic successors among such peoples as the Khazars (cf. the compound military title Khagan Bek). Minor rulers were rather relegated to the lower title of khan.


title: Khagan

text: Both Khagan as such and the Turkish form Hakan, with the specification in Arabic "al-Barrayn wa al-Bahrayn" (meaning literally "of both lands and both seas"), or rather fully in Ottoman Turkish "Hakan ül-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn", were among the titles in the official full style of the Great Sultan (and later Caliph) of the Ottoman Empire, reflecting the historical legitimation of the dynasty's rule as political successor to various conquered (often Islamised) states. (The title began: Sultan Hân N.N., Padishah, "Hünkar", Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe; next followed a series of specifically "regional" titles, starting with Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.)


title: Khagan

text: "Khagan" is the second title of Safavid and Qajar shahs (kings) of Iran. For example, Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, Fath Ali Shah and other Qajar shahs used this title. The nickname of Shah Ismail and other Safavid shahs is "Kagan-i Suleyman shan" (Khagan with the glory of Solomon).


title: Khagan

text: Ottoman rulers, after the 14th century, used only two titles "shah" and "khan" until end of the empire. Sultans like Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Magnificent used the title "Khagan of the two seas". Yazıcıoğlu Ali, in early 15th century, traced Osman's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan, the mythical ancestors of Western Turks, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving the Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs. Though it was not entirely an imitation of Genghis Khanid doctrine, the Oghuz claim to sovereignty followed the same pattern. Bayezid I advanced this claim against Timur, who denigrated the Ottoman lineage.


title: Khagan

text: Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan, or "heavenly Khagan" after defeating the Tujue (Göktürks). A later letter sent by the Tang court to the Yenisei Kirghiz Qaghan explained that "the peoples of the northwest" had requested Tang Taizong to become the "Heavenly Qaghan". The Tang dynasty Chinese Emperors were recognized as Khagans of the Turks at least from 665 to 705; moreover, two appeal letters from the Turkic hybrid rulers, Ashina Qutluγ Ton Tardu in 727, the Yabgu of Tokharistan, and Yina Tudun Qule in 741, the king of Tashkent, addressing Emperor Xuanzong of Tang as Tian Kehan during the Umayyad expansion.


title: Khagan

text: In the early 10th century, the Rus' people employed the title of "kagan" (or "qaghan"), reported by the Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah, who wrote between 903 and 913.


title: Khagan

text: It is believed that the tradition endured in the eleventh century, as the metropolitan bishop of Kiev in the Kievan Rus', Hilarion of Kiev, calls both grand prince Vladimir I of Kiev (978–1015) and grand prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) by the title of "kagan", while a graffito on the walls of Saint Sophia's Cathedral gives the same title to the son of Iaroslav, grand prince Sviatoslav II of Kiev (1073–1076).


title: Draft evasion

text: Draft evasion is any successful attempt to elude a government-imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one's nation. Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military draft laws of one's nation. Illegal draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries, in which at least one party of such conflict has enforced conscription. Such evasion is generally considered to be a criminal offense, and laws against it go back thousands of years.


title: Draft evasion

text: There are many draft evasion practices. Those that manage to adhere to or circumvent the law, and those that do not involve taking a public stand, are sometimes referred to as draft avoidance. Draft evaders are sometimes pejoratively referred to as draft dodgers, although in certain contexts that term has also been used non-judgmentally or as an honorific.


title: Draft evasion

text: Practices that involve lawbreaking or taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Although draft resistance is discussed below as a form of "draft evasion", draft resisters and scholars of draft resistance reject the categorization of resistance as a form of evasion or avoidance. Draft resisters argue that they seek to confront, not evade or avoid, the draft.


title: Draft evasion

text: Draft evasion has been a significant phenomenon in nations as different as Colombia, Eritrea, Canada, France, Russia, South Korea, Syria, and the United States. Accounts by scholars and journalists, along with memoiristic writings by draft evaders, indicate that the motives and beliefs of the evaders cannot be usefully stereotyped.


title: Draft evasion

text: Young people have engaged in a wide variety of draft evasion practices around the world, some of which date back thousands of years. This section aims to delineate a representative sampling of draft evasion practices and support activities as identified by scholars and journalists. "Examples" of many of these practices and activities can be found in the section on draft evasion in the nations of the world, further down this page.


title: Draft evasion

text: One type of draft avoidance consists of attempts to follow the letter and spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a legally valid draft deferment or exemption. Sometimes these deferments and exemptions are prompted by political considerations. Another type consists of attempts to circumvent, manipulate, or surreptitiously violate the substance or spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a deferment or exemption. Nearly all attempts at draft avoidance are private and unpublicized. Examples include:


title: Draft evasion

text: Draft evasion that involves overt lawbreaking or that communicates conscious or organized resistance to government policy is sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Examples include: