title: Supernatural (season 6)

text: The show's creator Eric Kripke originally planned for the show to last only five seasons, but due to increased ratings from the fourth and fifth seasons, the CW network renewed the series for a sixth season. Kripke did not return as showrunner; however, he remained a hands-on executive producer, leaving long-time series writer Sera Gamble to take over the day-to-day production of the show. Filming for the season began with the series star Jensen Ackles-directed fourth episode, "Weekend at Bobby's", to give the actor enough time for pre-production. Kripke also wrote the season finale.


title: Supernatural (season 6)

text: Gamble said the sixth season of the show would focus on the brothers' relationship. The season steered towards the format of the early seasons with "lots of meat-and-potatoes closed-ended episodes, and... a season-long story arc to weave in". According to a press release by the CW, Heaven and Hell fell into "complete disarray", forcing Sam and Dean to reunite to "beat back the rising tide of creatures and demon-spawn" that "roam across a lawless and chaotic landscape". The season jumped ahead a year to "get some distance between [Sam and Dean], get some personal history for each of them" to allow for "new conflict, new circumstances, new stuff". The brothers' roles were reversed, with Dean now hesitant to return to the hunting lifestyle. The brothers investigated why monsters have been "acting off-pattern". The first few episodes establish the mythology. An episode spoofing "Twilight" and other vampire series aired in October 2010 and examined the "current romantic fascination" with vampires. However, the "Twilight" fans at the center of the Winchesters' "disparaging" comments were "slightly fictionalized". On this, Gamble noted, "...part of the thing is finding a balance between [showing] a poster from the actual show and having Sam and Dean really speak their minds. We don't want to offend." A fan of the "Twilight" series, she also commented, "I'm certainly not coming at this from a place of feeling superior to them. I have great respect." Another episode of the season, "Clap Your Hands if You Believe", consisted of an "insane" storyline featuring Tinker Bell, and the episode began with an alien abduction and a redone title sequence that is a tribute to "The X-Files".


title: Supernatural (season 6)

text: Misha Collins returned as series regular Castiel, and Jim Beaver returned as Bobby Singer for several episodes. Mitch Pileggi made multiple appearances as Sam and Dean's grandfather Samuel. The recurring role of Christian, the maternal cousin of Sam and Dean, was given to Corin Nemec; he was described as "capable, calm under pressure, and very good at his job". Kim Rhodes returned as Sheriff Jody Mills, as did Fredric Lehne as Azazel.


title: Supernatural (season 6)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating for "Supernatural"'s sixth season, with an average rating of 7.25/10 based on 7 reviews.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Hardball is a 2001 American sports drama/comedy film directed by Brian Robbins and starring Keanu Reeves in the main role, Diane Lane and D. B. Sweeney. The screenplay by John Gatins is based on the book "Hardball: A Season in the Projects" by Daniel Coyle. The original music score is composed by Mark Isham. The film was released on September 14, 2001, topping the box office the weekend after the September 11 attacks.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Conor O'Neill is a gambler who secretly bets $6,000 on his dead father's account and is now severely in debt with two bookies. In order to repay the debts, he is told by a corporate friend that he must coach a baseball team of troubled African-American fifth grade kids from Chicago's ABLA housing projects in exchange for $500 each week, for ten weeks.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Worried only about getting his $500 check, Conor shows up at the baseball field to a rag tag bunch of trash-talking, street-wise, inner city kids who live in the projects. Some of the players include: Andre Ray Peetes, a smart-mouthed jokester, captain of the team who knows about all the players and forms a strong bond with Conor; Kofi Evans, a troubled, angry boy who has a rivalry with Andre, a quick temper, but is the best player on the team; Jefferson Albert Tibbs, a sweet, overweight, asthmatic player; Jamal, Andre's best friend and the oldest on the team; Miles Penfield II, the brilliant pitcher who listens to The Notorious B.I.G.’s Big Poppa to pitch well; and Jarius "G-Baby" Evans, Kofi's much younger brother who is too young to play so he becomes Conor's assistant.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Conor's efforts are hindered from the onset by the fact that he does not have nine kids to make up the team—Jamal’s mother altered his birth certificate to be younger and G-Baby is sad because he is far too young to play. The older kids tell Conor it is because their teacher, Elizabeth "Sister" Wilkes, is making several boys finish a book report. Conor visits the teacher, but his life is threatened repeatedly by his bookies for not paying his gambling debts. He is visited by the mother of two boys and her sister's son that are allowed to play in exchange for him tutoring them.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Conor works to get the team to support each other and stop trash-talking each other's bad plays; but the team nevertheless loses its first game 16–1, which fosters hostility between the players. Conor brings them together by buying them pizza (trading sports tickets for the pizza) and leads the team to win their second game 9–3. The team starts to come together as Conor tries to kindle a romance with Wilkes.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Conor risks everything and makes a $12,000 bet with a new bookie to cover the $12,000 debt he owes to the other bookies. His stress, already high from his gambling debts, runs higher at the baseball field because Jamal is pulled from playing after a competing coach questions the boy's age and Myles can't wear headphones while he pitches. Conor takes offense to the league president's threat to be removed, after he voices his objection to his team having to wear ratty T-shirts while the other teams have full uniforms. In protest, he announces it was his last game which draws dissension and resentment from his players.


title: Hardball (film)

text: Conor barely wins his $12,000 bet, pays off all his debts, and refuses to turn that bet for $24,000 using the winnings. Conor connects with the kids and finds it harder to leave than he thought. He surprises them with second row seats (behind Sammy Sosa's dugout) to a major league game. He stops gambling; his relationship with Wilkes grows; he gets new uniforms for the players (sponsored by one of his bookies); and he assumes a fatherly role in leading the team to the championship game (called "going to the 'ship" by the boys).


title: Hardball (film)

text: Just after Conor drops the kids off at home after winning the pre-championship game, G-Baby is struck and killed by a stray bullet and Kofi has to hold him as he dies. Conor wants to forfeit the game, but Andre and especially Kofi, rallies the team together. The end credits show the kids finally getting the trophies they wanted after winning the championship.


title: Hardball (film)

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on September 11, 2001 by Columbia Records. It peaked at #55 on the "Billboard" 200 and #34 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.


title: Hardball (film)

text: The film topped the box office by grossing $10.1 million on its opening weekend, which came shortly after the September 11 attacks. Worldwide it grossed $44.1 million The film at No. 2 at the box office that weekend was "The Glass House" which also starred Diane Lane.


title: Hardball (film)

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 41% based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 4.72/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Although "Hardball" contains some touching moments, they are not enough to transcend the sports formula." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Golden Child

text: The Golden Child is a 1986 American dark fantasy martial arts action comedy film directed by Michael Ritchie. The film stars Eddie Murphy as Chandler Jarrell, a Los Angeles social worker who is informed that he is "The Chosen One", and is destined to save "The Golden Child", a kidnapped Tibetan boy with mystical powers who is said to be the savior of all humankind. Alongside Murphy, the film's cast includes Charlotte Lewis and Charles Dance.


title: The Golden Child

text: Rated PG-13, Murphy's first film not to be rated R by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), "The Golden Child" was produced and distributed by Paramount Pictures and received a total gross of $79,817,937 at the United States domestic box office.


title: The Golden Child

text: In a remote temple in Tibet, a young boy with mystical powers – the Golden Child – receives badges of station and demonstrates his power to the monks of the temple by reviving a dead eastern rosella, which becomes a constant companion and familiar. A mysterious man, Sardo Numspa, has his men break into the temple, slaughter the monks and abduct the boy.


title: The Golden Child

text: A young woman, Kee Nang, watches a Los Angeles TV show in which social worker Chandler Jarrell talks about his latest case, a missing girl named Cheryll Mosley. Kee seeks him out and informs him of the kidnapping of the Golden Child and that he is the "chosen one" who would save the Child. Chandler does not take this seriously, even after a bird begins following him, and him seeing an astral projection of the Child. The next day, Cheryll Mosley is found dead near an abandoned house smeared with Tibetan graffiti and a pot full of blood-soaked oatmeal. Kee reveals to Chandler that this house was a holding place for the Child and introduces him to Doctor Hong, a mystic expert, and Kala (a creature half dragon, half woman, who remains hidden behind a screen).


title: The Golden Child

text: Chandler and Kee track down a motorcycle gang, the Yellow Dragons, which Cheryll had joined, and Chinese restaurant owner Tommy Tong, a henchman of Numspa, to whom Cheryll had been "sold" for her blood, a way to make the Child vulnerable to earthly harm. However, Tong is killed by Numspa as a potential traitor. Numspa then communes with his master, a unseen powerful demon, who informs him of how to kill the child. Still not taking the case too seriously, Chandler is drawn by Numspa into a controlled dream, where he receives a burn mark on his arm. Numspa presents his demands: the Ajanti Dagger (a mystic weapon capable of killing the Child) in exchange for the boy. Chandler finally agrees to help, and he and Kee spend the night together.


title: The Golden Child

text: Chandler and Kee travel to Tibet, where Chandler is swindled by an old amulet seller, later revealed as the High Priest of the temple where the dagger is kept hidden (and, subsequently, Kee's father). In order to obtain the knife, Chandler has to pass a test: an obstacle course in a bottomless cavern whilst carrying a glass of water without spilling a drop. With luck and wits, Chandler recovers the blade and even manages to bring it past customs into the United States.


title: The Golden Child

text: That night, Numspa and his henchmen attack Chandler and Kee. The Ajanti Dagger is lost to the villains, and Kee takes a crossbow bolt meant for Chandler, dying in his arms while confessing her love for him. Doctor Hong and Kala offer him hope: as long as the sun shines upon Kee, the Child might be able to save her. With the help of the Child's familiar, Chandler locates Numspa's hideout, retrieves the dagger with the help of Til, one of Numspa's men converted to good by the Child, and frees the boy. When Chandler confronts Numspa, he reveals himself as a winged demon. Chandler and the Child escape, only to be trapped inside a warehouse. Chandler loses the dagger when the warehouse collapses, with Numspa buried under falling masonry.


title: The Golden Child

text: Chandler and the Child head to Doctor Hong's shop, where Kee is being kept. As the two approach Kee's body, a badly injured but berserk Numspa attacks Chandler, but the amulet the Old Man sold Chandler protects him, then blasts the dagger from Numspa's hand. The Child uses his magic to place the dagger back into Chandler's hands, and Chandler stabs Numspa through the heart, destroying him. The Child then uses the last rays of sunlight and his powers to bring Kee back from the dead. The three later take a walk discussing the Child's return to Tibet.


title: The Golden Child

text: J. L. Reate, the actor who played the "Golden Child", the male titular character, is actually female. Her full name is Jasmine Lauren Reate, and she was 7 when filming began. This was her one and only theatrical performance.


title: The Golden Child

text: Dennis Feldman, a professional photographer whose only writing credit was "Just One of the Guys", wrote a script called "The Rose of Tibet", which he planned as "a Raymond Chandler movie with supernatural elements." It attracted Hollywood's attention and after a bidding war Paramount Pictures purchased the script for $330,000. Feldman had intended it to be a detective story rather than a comedy and thought of Mel Gibson for the lead role. John Carpenter was offered the chance to direct the film, but he preferred to instead work on "Big Trouble in Little China" (1986) starring Kurt Russell.


title: The Golden Child

text: Alan Silvestri ("Back to the Future") was originally set to provide the film score but turned the project down. Paramount then turned to John Barry, who had just come off his award-winning score for "Out of Africa". However, during post-production, Barry also left the project when both differences with the producers and test screening feedback presented considerable challenges for the composer. The test audience reaction had led the producers replacing Barry's score with new music by Michel Colombier that, in contrast to Barry's work, was mostly "synthpop" (although there were some brief orchestral passages throughout). Some of Barry's musical cues remain in the final cut of the film and one track, "Wisdom of the Ages", appeared on the first soundtrack release issued by Capitol Records.


title: The Golden Child

text: In 2011, La-La Land Records released a limited-edition 3-CD soundtrack set containing the entirety of both Barry's mostly unused score (on disc one), and Colombier's final theatrical score (on disc two), in addition to an exclusive Barry-composed song, sung by emerging composer Randy Edelman. The songs that had been released on Capitol's first soundtrack in 1986 were also featured in the set.


title: The Golden Child

text: Released in December 1986, "The Golden Child" was a box office success. It earned US$79,817,937 in the United States alone, making it the eighth biggest film of the year. "My pictures make their money back," Murphy remarked in 1989. "No matter how I feel, for instance, about "The Golden Child" – which was a piece of shit – the movie made more than $100 million. So who am I to say it sucks?" After "The Golden Child", Murphy would participate in the writing of many of his films.


title: The Golden Child

text: Despite its commercial success, the film did not meet Paramount's expectations when compared to Murphy's previous film, "Beverly Hills Cop" (1984), which earnered US$234,760,478 at the US box office.


title: The Golden Child

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 22% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2/10. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 37 out of 100, based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Golden Child

text: Roger Ebert of "The Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and stated ""The Golden Child" may not be the Eddie Murphy movie we were waiting for, but it will do. It is funnier, more assured and more tailored to Murphy than "Beverly Hills Cop" and it shows a side of his comic persona that I don't think has been much appreciated: his essential underlying sweetness. Murphy's comedy is not based on hurt and aggression, but on affection and an understanding that comes from seeing right through the other characters." In his "Movie Guide", Leonard Maltin stated, "It was a box-office hit, but have you ever met anyone who actually liked it?" Janet Maslin of The New York Times called it a "comedy without laughs".


title: The Golden Child

text: Writer Dennis Feldman was disappointed with the film and thought they should have taken the script more seriously "but instead, everybody wanted to make an Eddie Murphy comedy" and was critical of director Michael Ritchie "it's not what the director should have done—and he didn't even do it that well, either."


title: Motorola 68000

text: The Motorola 68000 (sometimes shortened to Motorola 68k or m68k and usually pronounced "sixty-eight-thousand") is a 16/32-bit complex instruction set computer (CISC) microprocessor, introduced in 1979 by Motorola Semiconductor Products Sector.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The design implements a 32-bit instruction set, with 32-bit registers and a 16-bit internal data bus. The address bus is 24 bits and does not use memory segmentation, which made it easier to program for. Internally, it uses a 16-bit data arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and two more 16-bit ALUs used mostly for addresses, and has a 16-bit external data bus. For this reason, Motorola termed it a 16/32-bit processor.


title: Motorola 68000

text: As one of the first widely available processors with a 32-bit instruction set, and running at relatively high speeds for the era, the 68k was a popular design through the 1980s. It was widely used in a new generation of personal computers with graphical user interfaces, including the Macintosh 128K, Amiga, Atari ST, and X68000. The 1988 Sega Genesis/Mega Drive console is powered by a 68000.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Later processors in the Motorola 68000 series, beginning with the Motorola 68020, use full 32-bit ALUs and have full 32-bit address and data buses. The original 68k is generally software forward-compatible with the rest of the line despite being limited to a 16-bit wide external bus.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Motorola's first widely-produced microprocessor was the 6800, introduced in early 1974 and available in quantity late that year. The company set itself the goal of selling 25,000 units in one year, a goal they did meet. Although a capable design, it was eclipsed by more powerful designs, such as the Zilog Z80, and less expensive designs, such as the MOS Technology 6502. By late 1976, the sales book was flat and the division was only saved by a project for General Motors that turned into a huge product line for engine control and other tasks.


title: Motorola 68000

text: By the time the 6800 was introduced a small number of 16-bit designs had come to market. These were generally modeled on minicomputer platforms like the Data General Nova or PDP-8. Based on the semiconductor manufacturing processes of the era, these were often multi-chip solutions like the National Semiconductor IMP-16, or the single-chip PACE that had issues with speed.


title: Motorola 68000

text: With the sales prospects for the 6800 dimming, but still cash-flush from the engine control sales, in late 1976 Colin Crook, Operations Manager, began considering how to successfully win future sales. They were aware that Intel was working on a 16-bit extension of their 8080 series, which would emerge as the Intel 8086, and had heard rumors of a 16-bit Zilog Z80, which became the Z8000. These would use new design techniques that would eliminate the problems seen in earlier 16-bit systems.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Motorola knew that if they launched a product similar to the 8086, within 10% of its capabilities, Intel would kill them in the market. In order to compete, they set themselves the goal of being two times as powerful at the same cost, or one-half the cost with the same performance. Crook decided that they would attack the high-end of the market with the most powerful processor on the market. Another 16-bit would not do, their design would have to be bigger, and that meant having some 32-bit features. Crook had decided on this approach by the end of 1976.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Crook formed the Motorola Advanced Computer System on Silicon (MACSS) project to build the design and hired Tom Gunter to be its principal architect. Gunter began forming his team in January 1977. The performance goal was set at 1 million instructions per second (MIPS). They wanted the design to not only win back microcomputer vendors like Apple Computer and Tandy, but also minicomputer companies like NCR and AT&T.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The team decided to abandon an attempt at backward compatibility with the 6800, as they felt the 8-bit designs were too limited to be the basis for new designs. The new system was influenced by the PDP-11, the most popular minicomputer design of the era. At the time, a key concept in minis was the concept of an orthogonal instruction set, in which every operation was allowed to work on any sort of data. To feed the correct data into the internal units, MACSS made extensive use of microcode, essentially small programs in read only memory that gathered up the required data, performed the operations and wrote out the results. MACSS was among the first to use this technique in a microprocessor.


title: Motorola 68000

text: There was a large amount of support hardware for the 6800 that would remain useful, things like UARTs and similar interfacing systems. For this reason, the new design retained a bus protocol compatibility mode for existing 6800 peripheral devices.


title: Motorola 68000

text: A chip with 32 data and 32 addressing pins would require 64 pins, plus more for power and other features. At the time, 64-pin dual inline package (DIP)s were "large, heavy-cost" systems and "just terrible", making that the largest they could consider. To make it fit, Crook selected a hybrid design, with a 32-bit instruction set architecture (ISA) but 16-bit components implementing it, like the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The external interface was reduced to 16 data pins and 24 for addresses, allowing it all to fit in a 64-pin package. This became known as the "Texas Cockroach".


title: Motorola 68000

text: Motorola's design techniques were less advanced than their competition, and their fabrication lines were outdated, with low yields. In 1978, the company entered a technology exchange program with Hitachi, dramatically improving their production side. As part of this, a new fab, MOS-8, was built using the latest 5-inch wafer sizes and Intel's HMOS process with a 3.5 µm feature size. This did not change their design side. While companies like Zilog and MOS Technology had introduced CPUs using depletion mode NMOS logic and silicon gates, Motorola was still using enhancement mode and metal gates. It was not until 1982 that they moved the MACCS to these techniques, and not until the mid-to-late 1980s that Motorola had caught up in the overall fabrication.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Formally introduced in September 1979, initial samples were released in February 1980, with production chips available over the counter in November. Initial speed grades are 4, 6, and 8 MHz. 10 MHz chips became available during 1981, and 12.5 MHz chips by June 1982. The 16.67 MHz "12F" version of the MC68000, the fastest version of the original HMOS chip, was not produced until the late 1980s.


title: Motorola 68000

text: By the start of 1981, the 68k was making multiple design wins on the high end, and Gunter began to approach Apple to win their business. At that time, the 68k sold for about $125 in quantity. In meetings with Steve Jobs, Jobs talked about using the 68k in the Apple Lisa, but stated "the real future is in this product that I'm personally doing. If you want this business, you got to commit that you'll sell it for $15." Motorola countered by offering to sell it at $55 at first, then step down to $35, and so on. Jobs agreed, and the Macintosh moved from the 6809 to the 68k. The average price eventually reached $14.76.


title: Motorola 68000

text: In 1982, the 68000 received a minor update to its instruction set architecture (ISA) to support virtual memory and to conform to the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. The updated chip is called the 68010. It also adds a new "loop mode" which speeds up small loops, and increases overall performance by about 10% at the same clock speeds. A further extended version, which exposes 31 bits of the address bus, was also produced in small quantities as the 68012.


title: Motorola 68000

text: To support lower-cost systems and control applications with smaller memory sizes, Motorola introduced the 8-bit compatible MC68008, also in 1982. This is a 68000 with an 8-bit data bus and a smaller (20-bit) address bus. After 1982, Motorola devoted more attention to the 68020 and 88000 projects.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Several other companies were second-source manufacturers of the HMOS 68000. These included Hitachi (HD68000), who shrank the feature size to 2.7 µm for their 12.5 MHz version, Mostek (MK68000), Rockwell (R68000), Signetics (SCN68000), Thomson/SGS-Thomson (originally EF68000 and later TS68000), and Toshiba (TMP68000). Toshiba was also a second-source maker of the CMOS 68HC000 (TMP68HC000).


title: Motorola 68000

text: Encrypted variants of the 68000, being the Hitachi FD1089 and FD1094, store decryption keys for opcodes and opcode data in battery-backed memory and were used in certain Sega arcade systems including System 16 to prevent piracy and illegal bootleg games.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68HC000, the first CMOS version of the 68000, was designed by Hitachi and jointly introduced in 1985. Motorola's version is called the MC68HC000, while Hitachi's is the HD68HC000. The 68HC000 offers speeds of 8–20 MHz. Except for using CMOS circuitry, it behaved identically to the HMOS MC68000, but the change to CMOS greatly reduced its power consumption. The original HMOS MC68000 consumed around 1.35 watts at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, regardless of clock speed, while the MC68HC000 consumed only 0.13 watts at 8 MHz and 0.38 watts at 20 MHz. (Unlike CMOS circuits, HMOS still draws power when idle, so power consumption varies little with clock rate.) Apple selected the 68HC000 for use in the Macintosh Portable.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Motorola replaced the MC68008 with the MC68HC001 in 1990. This chip resembles the 68HC000 in most respects, but its data bus can operate in either 16-bit or 8-bit mode, depending on the value of an input pin at reset. Thus, like the 68008, it can be used in systems with cheaper 8-bit memories.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The later evolution of the 68000 focused on more modern embedded control applications and on-chip peripherals. The 68EC000 chip and SCM68000 core remove the M6800 peripheral bus, and exclude the MOVE from SR instruction from user mode programs, making the 68EC000 and 68SEC000 the only 68000 CPUs not 100% object code compatible with previous 68000 CPUs when run in User Mode. When run in Supervisor Mode, there is no difference. In 1996, Motorola updated the standalone core with fully static circuitry, drawing only 2 µW in low-power mode, calling it the MC68SEC000.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Motorola ceased production of the HMOS MC68000, as well as the MC68008, MC68010, MC68330, and MC68340 in on June 1, 1996, but its spin-off company Freescale Semiconductor was still producing the MC68HC000, MC68HC001, MC68EC000, and MC68SEC000, as well as the MC68302 and MC68306 microcontrollers and later versions of the DragonBall family. The 68000's architectural descendants, the 680x0, CPU32, and Coldfire families, were also still in production. More recently, with the Sendai fab closure, all 68HC000, 68020, 68030, and 68882 parts have been discontinued, leaving only the 68SEC000 in production.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Since being succeeded by "true" 32-bit microprocessors, the 68000 is used as the core of many microcontrollers. In 1989, Motorola introduced the MC68302 communications processor.


title: Motorola 68000

text: IBM considered the 68000 for the IBM PC but chose the Intel 8088 because the 68000 was not ready; Walden C. Rhines wrote that thus "Motorola, with its superior technology, lost the single most important design contest of the last 50 years". (IBM Instruments briefly sold the 68000-based IBM System 9000 laboratory computer systems.) The 68k instruction set is particularly well suited to implement Unix, and the 68000 and its successors became the dominant CPUs for Unix-based workstations including Sun workstations and Apollo/Domain workstations.


title: Motorola 68000

text: In 1981, Motorola introduced the Motorola 68000 Educational Computer Board, a single-board computer for educational and training purposes which in addition to the 68000 itself contained memory, I/O devices, programmable timer and wire-wrap area for custom circuitry. The board remained in use in US colleges as a tool for learning assembly programming until the early 1990s.


title: Motorola 68000

text: At its introduction, the 68000 was first used in high-priced systems, including multiuser microcomputers like the WICAT 150, early Alpha Microsystems computers, Sage II / IV, Tandy 6000 / TRS-80 Model 16, and ; single-user workstations such as Hewlett-Packard's HP 9000 Series 200 systems, the first Apollo/Domain systems, Sun Microsystems' Sun-1, and the Corvus Concept; and graphics terminals like Digital Equipment Corporation's VAXstation 100 and Silicon Graphics' IRIS 1000 and 1200. Unix systems rapidly moved to the more capable later generations of the 68k line, which remained popular in that market throughout the 1980s.


title: Motorola 68000

text: By the mid-1980s, falling production cost made the 68000 viable for use in personal and home computers, starting with the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and followed by the Commodore Amiga, Atari ST, and Sharp X68000.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The Sinclair QL microcomputer, along with its derivatives, such as the ICL One Per Desk business terminal, was the most commercially important utilisation of the 68008. Helix Systems (in Missouri, United States) designed an extension to the SWTPC SS-50 bus, the SS-64, and produced systems built around the 68008 processor.


title: Motorola 68000

text: While the adoption of RISC and x86 displaced the 68000 series as desktop/workstation CPU, the processor found substantial use in embedded applications. By the early 1990s, quantities of 68000 CPUs could be purchased for less than 30 USD per part.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 also saw great success as an embedded controller. As early as 1981, laser printers such as the Imagen Imprint-10 were controlled by external boards equipped with the 68000. The first HP LaserJet, introduced in 1984, came with a built-in 8 MHz 68000. Other printer manufacturers adopted the 68000, including Apple with its introduction of the LaserWriter in 1985, the first PostScript laser printer. The 68000 continued to be widely used in printers throughout the rest of the 1980s, persisting well into the 1990s in low-end printers.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 was successful in the field of industrial control systems. Among the systems benefited from having a 68000 or derivative as their microprocessor were families of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) manufactured by Allen-Bradley, Texas Instruments and subsequently, following the acquisition of that division of TI, by Siemens. Users of such systems do not accept product obsolescence at the same rate as domestic users, and it is entirely likely that despite having been installed over 20 years ago, many 68000-based controllers will continue in reliable service well into the 21st century.


title: Motorola 68000

text: In a number of digital oscilloscopes from the 80s, the 68000 has been used as a waveform display processor; some models including the LeCroy 9400/9400A also use the 68000 as a waveform math processor (including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of two waveforms/references/waveform memories), and some digital oscilloscopes using the 68000 (including the 9400/9400A) can also perform fast Fourier transform functions on a waveform.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 683XX microcontrollers, based on the 68000 architecture, are used in networking and telecom equipment, television set-top boxes, laboratory and medical instruments, and even handheld calculators. The MC68302 and its derivatives have been used in many telecom products from Cisco, 3com, Ascend, Marconi, Cyclades and others. Past models of the Palm PDAs and the Handspring Visor used the DragonBall, a derivative of the 68000. AlphaSmart used the DragonBall family in later versions of its portable word processors. Texas Instruments used the 68000 in its high-end graphing calculators, the TI-89 and TI-92 series and Voyage 200.


title: Motorola 68000

text: A modified version of the 68000 formed the basis of the IBM XT/370 hardware emulator of the System 370 processor.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Video game manufacturers used the 68000 as the backbone of many arcade games and home game consoles: Atari's "Food Fight", from 1982, was one of the first 68000-based arcade games. Others included Sega's System 16, Capcom's CP System and CPS-2, and SNK's Neo Geo. By the late 1980s, the 68000 was inexpensive enough to power home game consoles, such as Sega's Sega Genesis console and also the Sega CD attachment for it (A Sega CD system has three CPUs, two of them 68000s). The multi-processor Atari Jaguar console from 1993 used a 68000 as a support chip, although some developers used it as the primary processor due to familiarity. The Sega Saturn console used the 68000 as a sound co-processor. In October 1995, the 68000 made it into a handheld game console, Sega's Genesis Nomad, as its CPU.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Certain arcade games (such as "Steel Gunner" and others based on Namco System 2) use a dual 68000 CPU configuration, and systems with a triple 68000 CPU configuration also exist (such as "Galaxy Force" and others based on the Sega Y Board), along with a quad 68000 CPU configuration, which has been used by Jaleco (one 68000 for sound has a lower clock rate compared to the other 68000 CPUs) for games such as "Big Run" and "Cisco Heat"; another, fifth 68000 (at a different clock rate than the other 68000 CPUs) was used in the Jaleco arcade game "Wild Pilot" for input/output (I/O) processing.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 has a 24-bit external address bus and two byte-select signals "replaced" A0. These 24 lines can therefore address 16 MB of physical memory with byte resolution. Address storage and computation uses 32 bits internally; however, the 8 high-order address bits are ignored due to the physical lack of device pins. This allows it to run software written for a logically flat 32-bit address space, while accessing only a 24-bit physical address space. Motorola's intent with the internal 32-bit address space was forward compatibility, making it feasible to write 68000 software that would take full advantage of later 32-bit implementations of the 68000 instruction set.


title: Motorola 68000

text: However, this did not prevent programmers from writing forward incompatible software. "24-bit" software that discarded the upper address byte, or used it for purposes other than addressing, could fail on 32-bit 68000 implementations. For example, early (pre-7.0) versions of Apple's Mac OS used the high byte of memory-block master pointers to hold flags such as "locked" and "purgeable". Later versions of the OS moved the flags to a nearby location, and Apple began shipping computers which had "32-bit clean" ROMs beginning with the release of the 1989 Mac IIci.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The CPU has eight 32-bit general-purpose data registers (D0-D7), and eight address registers (A0-A7). The last address register is the stack pointer, and assemblers accept the label SP as equivalent to A7. This was a good number of registers at the time in many ways. It was small enough to allow the 68000 to respond quickly to interrupts (even in the worst case where all 8 data registers D0–D7 and 7 address registers A0–A6 needed to be saved, 15 registers in total), and yet large enough to make most calculations fast, because they could be done entirely within the processor without keeping any partial results in memory. (Note that an exception routine in supervisor mode can also save the user stack pointer A7, which would total 8 address registers. However, the dual stack pointer (A7 and supervisor-mode A7') design of the 68000 makes this normally unnecessary, except when a task switch is performed in a multitasking system.)


title: Motorola 68000

text: Having the two types of registers allows one 32-bit address and one 16-bit data calculation to take place at the one time. This results in reduced instruction execution time as addresses and data can be processed in parallel.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 has a 16-bit status register. The upper 8 bits is the system byte, and modification of it is privileged. The lower 8 bits is the user byte, also known as the condition code register (CCR), and modification of it is not privileged. The 68000 comparison, arithmetic, and logic operations modify condition codes to record their results for use by later conditional jumps. The condition code bits are "zero" (Z), "carry" (C), "overflow" (V), "extend" (X), and "negative" (N). The "extend" (X) flag deserves special mention, because it is separate from the carry flag. This permits the extra bit from arithmetic, logic, and shift operations to be separated from the carry multiprecision arithmetic.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The designers attempted to make the assembly language orthogonal. That is, instructions are divided into operations and address modes, and almost all address modes are available for almost all instructions. There are 56 instructions and a minimum instruction size of 16 bits. Many instructions and addressing modes are longer to include more address or mode bits.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The CPU, and later the whole family, implements two levels of privilege. User mode gives access to everything except privileged instructions such as interrupt level controls. Supervisor privilege gives access to everything. An interrupt always becomes supervisory. The supervisor bit is stored in the status register, and is visible to user programs.


title: Motorola 68000

text: An advantage of this system is that the supervisor level has a separate stack pointer. This permits a multitasking system to use very small stacks for tasks, because the designers do not have to allocate the memory required to hold the stack frames of a maximum stack-up of interrupts.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The CPU recognizes seven interrupt levels. Levels 1 through 5 are strictly prioritized. That is, a higher-numbered interrupt can always interrupt a lower-numbered interrupt. In the status register, a privileged instruction allows setting the current minimum interrupt level, blocking lower or equal priority interrupts. For example, if the interrupt level in the status register is set to 3, higher levels from 4 to 7 can cause an exception. Level 7 is a level triggered non-maskable interrupt (NMI). Level 1 can be interrupted by any higher level. Level 0 means no interrupt. The level is stored in the status register, and is visible to user-level programs.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Hardware interrupts are signalled to the CPU using three inputs that encode the highest pending interrupt priority. A separate encoder is usually required to encode the interrupts, though for systems that do not require more than three hardware interrupts it is possible to connect the interrupt signals directly to the encoded inputs at the cost of more software complexity. The interrupt controller can be as simple as a 74LS148 priority encoder, or may be part of a very large-scale integration (VLSI) peripheral chip such as the MC68901 Multi-Function Peripheral (used in the Atari ST range of computers and Sharp X68000), which also provides a UART, timer, and parallel I/O.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The "exception table" (interrupt vector table interrupt vector addresses) is fixed at addresses 0 through 1023, permitting 256 32-bit vectors. The first vector (RESET) consists of two vectors, namely the starting stack address, and the starting code address. Vectors 3 through 15 are used to report various errors: bus error, address error, illegal instruction, zero division, CHK and CHK2 vector, privilege violation (to block privilege escalation), and some reserved vectors that became line 1010 emulator, line 1111 emulator, and hardware breakpoint. Vector 24 starts the real interrupts: spurious interrupt (no hardware acknowledgement), and level 1 through level 7 autovectors, then the 16 TRAP vectors, then some more reserved vectors, then the user defined vectors.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Since the starting code address vector must always be valid on reset, systems commonly included some nonvolatile memory (e.g. ROM) starting at address zero to contain the vectors and bootstrap code. However, for a general purpose system it is desirable for the operating system to be able to change the vectors at runtime. This was often accomplished by either pointing the vectors in ROM to a jump table in RAM, or through use of bank switching to allow the ROM to be replaced by RAM at runtime.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 does not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements for full processor virtualization because it has a single unprivileged instruction, "MOVE from SR", which allows user-mode software read-only access to a small amount of privileged state. The 68EC000 and 68SEC000, which are later derivatives of the 68000, do meet the requirements as the "MOVE from SR" instruction is privileged. The same change was introduced on the 68010 and later CPUs.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 is also unable to easily support virtual memory, which requires the ability to trap and recover from a failed memory access. The 68000 does provide a bus error exception which can be used to trap, but it does not save enough processor state to resume the faulted instruction once the operating system has handled the exception. Several companies did succeed in making 68000-based Unix workstations with virtual memory that worked by using two 68000 chips running in parallel on different phased clocks. When the "leading" 68000 encountered a bad memory access, extra hardware would interrupt the "main" 68000 to prevent it from also encountering the bad memory access. This interrupt routine would handle the virtual memory functions and restart the "leading" 68000 in the correct state to continue properly synchronized operation when the "main" 68000 returned from the interrupt.


title: Motorola 68000

text: These problems were fixed in the next major revision of the 68k architecture with the release of the MC68010. The Bus Error and Address Error exceptions push a large amount of internal state onto the supervisor stack in order to facilitate recovery, and the "MOVE from SR" instruction was made privileged. A new unprivileged "MOVE from CCR" instruction is provided for use in its place by user mode software; an operating system can trap and emulate user mode "MOVE from SR" instructions if desired.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Most instructions have dot-letter suffixes, permitting operations to occur on 8-bit bytes (".b"), 16-bit words (".w"), and 32-bit longs (".l").


title: Motorola 68000

text: Like many CPUs of its era the cycle timing of some instructions varied depending on the source operand(s). For example, the unsigned multiply instruction takes (38+2n) clock cycles to complete where 'n' is equal to the number of bits set in the operand. To create a function that took a fixed cycle count required the addition of extra code after the multiply instruction. This would typically consume extra cycles for each bit that wasn't set in the original multiplication operand.


title: Motorola 68000

text: Most instructions are dyadic, that is, the operation has a source, and a destination, and the destination is changed. Notable instructions were:


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68EC000 is a low-cost version of the 68000 with a slightly different pinout, designed for embedded controller applications. The 68EC000 can have either a 8-bit or 16-bit data bus, switchable at reset.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The processors are available in a variety of speeds including 8 and 16 MHz configurations, producing 2,100 and 4,376 Dhrystones each. These processors have no floating-point unit, and it is difficult to implement an FPU coprocessor (MC68881/2) with one because the EC series lacks necessary coprocessor instructions.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68EC000 was used as a controller in many audio applications, including Ensoniq musical instruments and sound cards, where it was part of the MIDI synthesizer. On Ensoniq sound boards, the controller provided several advantages compared to competitors without a CPU on board. The processor allowed the board to be configured to perform various audio tasks, such as MPU-401 MIDI synthesis or MT-32 emulation, without the use of a terminate-and-stay-resident program. This improved software compatibility, lowered CPU usage, and eliminated host system memory usage.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The Motorola 68EC000 core was later used in the m68k-based DragonBall processors from Motorola/Freescale.


title: Motorola 68000

text: It also was used as a sound controller in the Sega Saturn game console and as a controller for the HP JetDirect Ethernet controller boards for the mid-1990s HP LaserJet printers.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The 68000 assembly code below is for a subroutine named , which copies a null-terminated string of 8-bit characters to a destination string, converting all alphabetic characters to lower case.


title: Motorola 68000

text: The subroutine establishes a call frame using register A6 as the frame pointer. This kind of calling convention supports reentrant and recursive code and is typically used by languages like C and C++. The subroutine then retrieves the parameters passed to it ( and ) from the stack. It then loops, reading an ASCII character (one byte) from the string, checking whether it is a capital alphabetic character, and if so, converting it into a lower-case character, otherwise leaving it as it is, then writing the character into the string. Finally, it checks whether the character was a null character; if not, it repeats the loop, otherwise it restores the previous stack frame (and A6 register) and returns. Note that the string pointers (registers A0 and A1) are auto-incremented in each iteration of the loop.


title: Motorola 68000

text: In contrast, the code below is for a stand-alone function, even on the most restrictive version of AMS for the TI-89 series of calculators, being kernel-independent, with no values looked up in tables, files or libraries when executing, no system calls, no exception processing, minimal registers to be used, nor the need to save any. It is valid for historical Julian dates from 1 March 1 AD, or for Gregorian ones. In less than two dozen operations it calculates a day number compatible with ISO 8601 when called with three inputs stored at their corresponding LOCATIONS:


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Şehzade Bayezid (; 1527 – 25 September 1561) was an Ottoman prince as the son of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and Hurrem Sultan. After the execution of Şehzade Mustafa (who had been the heir apparent to the Ottoman throne) in 1553, Bayezid became the popular heir among the army. Throughout the 1550s, when Suleiman was already in his 60s, a protracted competition for the throne between Bayezid and his brother Selim became evident. Bayezid had fallen into disfavor with his father – who was angered by Bayezid's disobedience stemming from around the same years – as opposed to Selim (who would eventually succeed as Selim II). After being defeated in a battle near Konya in 1559 by Selim and Sokullu Mehmet Pasha (with the help of the Sultan's army), he fled to the neighbouring Safavid Empire, where he was lavishly received by Tahmasp I. However, in 1561, on the continuous insistence of the Sultan throughout his son's exile, and after several large payments, Tahmasp allowed Bayezid to be executed by agents of his own father.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Bayezid was born in 1527 in Constantinople (Istanbul) during the reign of his father, Suleiman the Magnificent. His mother was Hurrem, an Orthodox priest's daughter from present-day Ukraine who was the sultan's concubine at that time. At the time of his birth, Bayezid had three elder full-brothers, Mehmed (born 1521), and Selim (born 1524) and Abdüllah (born 1525) and an elder full-sister Mihrimah Sultan (born 1522). He also had one elder half-brother Mustafa (born 1515) and later one younger full-brother, Cihangir (born 1531). In 1533 or 1534, breaking a two-century-old tradition, his father freed and legally wed his mother.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: As a court rule, şehzades were appointed to govern a province in order to gain administrative experience. Bayezid became the governor of Kütahya. However, during his father's 12th campaign to Nakhchivan (part of modern Azerbaijan) in 1553, he was assigned to rule in Constantinople (the capital of the Ottoman Empire) in the absence of his father. During the campaign, Şehzade Mustafa, Suleiman's eldest son and the popular heir to the throne, was executed upon the sultan's order.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: The news of Mustafa's execution caused unrest in all parts of the empire, and an impostor claiming to be the executed Mustafa rebelled against Suleiman in Rumelia. One source reports that although the rebellion was subdued by a vizier, Suleiman suspected that his son Bayezid was deliberately slow to react.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: However, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul from 1554 to 1562, describes the events quite differently in one of his famous letters to fellow scholar Nicholas Michault. In his letter, Busbecq describes the rise of the impostor as part of a conspiracy by Bayezid (referred to as "Bajazet" in the letter) to seize the Sultanate in order to avoid being killed by his brother Selim upon Selim's promotion to Sultan.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Suleiman had five sons who lived to reach adulthood. His second son, Mehmed, had died of smallpox in 1543. After the execution of Mustafa (Suleiman's eldest who had been the most potential heir to the throne) and the death of Cihangir (the youngest brother who suffered from extremely poor health) in 1553, only two princes were left to be the potential claimant to throne: Bayezid and Selim (the future Selim II). Bayezid was the governor of Kütahya and Selim was the governor of Manisa, two cities at almost equal distance from Istanbul, the capital. (Distance from the capital was important for the prince who reaches the capital had the chance of being the next sultan after his father's death)


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Suleiman was in his 60s, and the competition between the two brothers over the throne was evident. Suleiman scolded his sons and decided to change their places of duty. Bayezid was assigned to rule Amasya and Selim to Konya, both provinces being further from Constantinople but still equidistant. Selim was quick to obey and promptly moved to Konya, but to the dismay of his father, Bayezid obeyed only after much hesitation. Angered, Suleiman accused Bayezid of being a rebel and supported his elder son Selim against Bayezid. Selim, in collaboration with Sokollu Mehmet Pasha (the future grand vizier) and with additional help from his father's army, defeated his brother in a civil war at Konya in May 1559.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Bayezid returned to Amasya and escaped to the Safavid Empire with his sons and a small army. According to journalist and historian researcher Murat Bardakçı, Sokullu Mehmet Pasha sent an army after Bayezid, which was defeated by Bayezid's forces. In the autumn of 1559, he reached the Safavid town of Yerevan, where he was received with great respect by its governor. Some time later, he reached Tabriz, where he was welcomed by Shah Tahmasp I. Although Tahmasp I initially wholeheartedly and lavishly welcomed Bayezid, including giving magnificent parties in his honour, he later jailed him on the request of Sultan Suleiman. Both Suleiman and Selim sent envoys to Persia to persuade the shah to execute Bayezid. For the coming one and half year in fact, embassies would continue to travel between Istanbul and Qazvin. On 16 July, what would be the last of the Ottoman embassies would arrive, whose formal task, like the previous embassies, was to try to return Bayezid to Istanbul. As stated by Prof. Colin P. Mitchell, this included Hüsrev Pasha (the governor of Van), Sinan Pasha, Ali Aqa Chavush Bashi, and a retinue of two hundred officials. In the letter that was given with the embassy, Suleiman also declared his readiness to reconfirm the Treaty of Amasya (1555) and to begin a new era of Ottoman–Safavid relations. Suleiman, throughout the embassies, also gave Tahmasp numerous gifts. He also agreed with Tahmasp's demand to pay him for handing Bayezid over (400,000 gold coins were given). Finally, on 25 September 1561, Bayezid and his four sons were handed over by Tahmasp and executed in the environs of the Safavid capital Qazvin by the Ottoman executioner, Ali Aqa Chavush Bashi, through the way of garrotting. They were laid to rest in Sivas.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: Bayezid had eleven children, seven sons and four daughters. Harem's records indicate that they were all half-siblings, with the exception of Şehzade Osman and Şehzade Mahmud. However, none of his concubines are known by name.


title: Şehzade Bayezid

text: All of Bayezid's sons still alive in 1561 were executed with their father by order of their grandfather, Suleiman the Magnificent.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis Baratheon is a fictional character in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series of epic fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin, and its television adaptation "Game of Thrones". He is the second son of Steffon Baratheon and Cassandra Estermont, as well as the brother of Robert – lord of the Seven Kingdoms, and Renly – lord of Storm's End. He is the Lord of Dragonstone, and after his elder brother's death, becomes a claimant to the Iron Throne of Westeros and a key player in the subsequent civil war. Stannis's goals are frequently impeded by his lack of manpower and resources, owing to his unpopularity with other noble houses. He must therefore rely on the counsel of the foreign priestess Melisandre and his right-hand man, lowborn smuggler Davos Seaworth, who he later promotes to Hand of the King. Stannis often struggles to escape the shadow of his two more overtly charismatic brothers, particularly Robert.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Though first mentioned in 1996's "A Game of Thrones", Stannis formally appeared in "A Clash of Kings" (1998), "A Storm of Swords" (2000) and "A Dance with Dragons" (2011). In December 2011, Martin posted a sample chapter from the yet-unfinished "The Winds of Winter", told from Theon Greyjoy's viewpoint, which confirmed Stannis' return in the sixth book.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis is portrayed by English actor Stephen Dillane in the HBO television adaptation of the series, who has received significant critical praise for his performance. Stannis is a divisive character among fans of the books and television show alike, enjoying both great popularity for his dedication to justice and dark horse status, as well as opposition for his unrelenting attitude towards the Iron Throne. He has earned particular attention for the differences in his characterization between the novels and show, particularly during season five.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis Baratheon is the younger brother of King Robert and older brother of Renly. He is portrayed as a brooding and humorless man with a harsh but fair sense of duty and justice whose dour demeanor is often off-putting in comparison to his two more charismatic brothers. He is renowned as a skilled and prescient military commander. Although he is initially said to be extremely stubborn and inflexible, in later books he has shown some ability to use diplomacy and deception to achieve his goals.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis was born the second of Steffon Baratheon and Cassana Estermont's three sons and in his youth was constantly overshadowed Robert. When Stannis was 14, he witnessed his parents' death in a shipwreck off the coast of House Baratheon's castle, Storm's End, and subsequently lost his faith in the Seven Gods.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: During Robert's Rebellion, a teenage Stannis holds Storm's End in Robert's absence, but is besieged by Mace Tyrell and Paxter Redwyne for the best part of the year. Stannis' garrison avoids starvation thanks only to the smuggler Davos Seaworth, who evades the blockade by the Redwyne fleet to bring the Baratheon soldiers a cargo of onions and fish. When Eddard Stark arrives to lift the siege, Stannis knights Davos as reward for his aid, but also insists that Davos have four fingers removed as punishment for his years of illegal smuggling; Davos agrees, on the condition that Stannis removes the fingers himself. Stannis is subsequently tasked with building a new royal fleet to assault Dragonstone and capture the island, but arrives to find that Aerys II Targaryen's children Viserys and the newborn Daenerys had fled. Robert names Stannis Lord of Dragonstone, giving him control over the islands of Blackwater Bay and the nearby peninsula of Massey's Hook - but Stannis feels slighted, as their younger brother Renly is named Lord of Storm's End, giving him control over the entirety of the Stormlands.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Several years later, Stannis is married to Lady Selyse Florent, but Robert soiled their wedding bed by deflowering Selyse's cousin Delena, further insulting Stannis. Stannis and Selyse have a single daughter together, Shireen, who nearly dies in infancy after contracting greyscale and is left disfigured. Stannis, who is named Robert's Master of Ships, destroys the Iron Fleet under the command of Victarion Greyjoy at Fair Isle during the Greyjoy Rebellion and leads the conquest of Great Wyk, the largest of the Iron Islands, adding to his significant military resume.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: At the beginning of the first novel "A Game of Thrones", Stannis comes to suspect that Robert's children with Cersei Lannister are not actually his. He suspects that Robert will not believe his word alone, so he reveals his suspicions to Robert's Hand of the King and trusted friend, Lord Jon Arryn. The two discover several of Robert's bastard children in King's Landing and begin to gather proof of the bastardy of Cersei's children. Jon Arryn agrees to foster his young son and heir, Robert Arryn, at Dragonstone. However, Jon Arryn dies unexpectedly. Stannis suspects that the Lannisters assassinated Jon Arryn, so he immediately leaves the capital for Dragonstone.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis is frequently described as a large and sinewy man that towers over others, such as Davos Seaworth and Jon Snow, a Baratheon trait. He lacks the long black hair of his brothers, and is instead balding, although he keeps a close-cropped beard of the signature Baratheon black. His face is described as 'tight like cured leather' with hollow, gaunt cheeks. His eyes are described by Asha Greyjoy as 'deep, sunken pits', with a powerful stare that suggests an 'iron ferocity'.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis' most prominent characteristics are his flinty and austere demeanor, unrelenting stubbornness, and powerful sense of duty and justice, the latter of which he is notorious for throughout Westeros. He rarely forgives a slight; Jon Snow once comments that "Stannis Baratheon with a grievance was like a mastiff with a bone; he gnawed it down to splinters." His signature tic is grinding his teeth, often in the face of unpleasant or unforeseen circumstances. He is a renowned commander, sailor, and warrior, although he is a better tactician than fighter. Stannis is known for his brusqueness and lack of tact in social situations and finds himself uncomfortable around women, including his own wife. He abhors brothels and once tried to have them banned from King's Landing, which made him unpopular with the smallfolk there. He dresses plainly in dark clothing and is rarely seen without his sword and dagger. Stannis is plagued with bitterness at the lack of respect and affection he has been shown by his older brother King Robert, and even in childhood was described by the Baratheon family maester as "the most unloved of the three"; a "solemn and joyless" child "mature beyond his years". Stannis is an atheist, despite claims that he is being manipulated by the red priestess Melisandre.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Although Stannis suffers from a lack of support and resources during the War of Five Kings, he is frequently described by his adversaries, including Tywin Lannister, as the most dangerous rival claimant. Above all he is characterized by his fearless and uncompromising pursuit of justice and duty - he is described by Varys in this way: "His claim is the true one, he is known for his prowess as a battle commander, and he is utterly without mercy. There is no creature on earth half so terrifying as a truly just man."


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, predominantly Davos Seaworth and Jon Snow, and later Asha and Theon Greyjoy.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: When Robert travels to Winterfell to name Eddard as his new Hand, Stannis flees to Dragonstone with his forces, including most of the royal navy. Stannis suspects Cersei's involvement in Jon's death. It is later revealed that the true culprit was Jon's wife Lysa, who was persuaded to poison her husband by her lover, Petyr Baelish. Eddard continues Stannis and Jon's investigations, and discovers that Cersei's children are the products of her incestuous affair with her twin brother Jaime Lannister. After Robert's death, Eddard tries to replace Robert's presumed heir Joffrey Baratheon with Stannis, but loses the political struggle against the Lannisters and is executed.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis comes under the influence of the red priestess Melisandre, who believes that Stannis is the reincarnation of Azor Ahai, a messianic figure in her faith. Stannis declares himself the one true King; however, most of the Baratheon bannermen support the claim of his younger and more charismatic brother Renly, as does the powerful House Tyrell due to Renly's marriage to Margaery Tyrell. Stannis tries to negotiate with Renly, offering him the chance to become his heir, which Renly rejects, planning to use his superior numbers to destroy Stannis' army the next day. However, Renly is unexpectedly assassinated by a living shadow conjured by Melisandre using Stannis' life force. After his death, many of Renly's bannermen immediately swear allegiance to Stannis, although the Tyrells side with the Lannisters due to their offer to have Margaery marry Joffrey. Renly's protector Brienne of Tarth swears to avenge his death by killing Stannis, but is talked out of it by Catelyn Stark.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Now equipped with the strongest army and navy in Westeros, Stannis attempts to capture the capital city of King's Landing by sea, but many of his men are killed when Tyrion Lannister detonates jars of wildfire in the Blackwater River and burns most of his fleet. Stannis' forces still nearly claim victory, but Lannister and Tyrell reinforcements arrive in time to drive Stannis' men away from King's Landing. However, with the help of Rolland Storm, the Bastard of Nightsong, Stannis flees to Dragonstone to fight another day.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis retreats to Dragonstone with what is left of his army. He imprisons his Hand Lord Alester Florent, one of his wife's uncles, for trying to offer terms of surrender to the Lannisters. Another of Selyses' uncles, Ser Axell Florent, castellan of Dragonstone, aims to become Stannis' Hand of the King. He suggests a plan to attack Claw Isle in retaliation for Lord Celtigar's bending the knee to Joffrey, but Davos derides an attack on this defenseless island as evil. For this honest counsel Stannis names Davos as his new Hand. Melisandre tells Stannis to burn Edric Storm, one of Robert's bastards, as a sacrifice to raise dragons from Dragonstone. Stannis is conflicted about burning his nephew but uses Edric's blood collected by three leeches to curse the rival kings: Balon Greyjoy, Joffrey Baratheon, and Robb Stark. After Joffrey's, Balon's and Robb's deaths seem to prove the power of king's blood, Stannis considers sacrificing Edric. Davos smuggles Edric off Dragonstone to the Free Cities, and then persuades Stannis to sail to the North and save the Night's Watch from the wildling army.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: After Melisandre burns Alester Florent as a sacrifice to R'hllor to ensure favorable winds, Stannis takes most of his remaining army and sails north to the Wall to relieve the Wildlings' threat on Castle Black. Stannis' sudden arrival at the Wall catches Mance Rayder, the King-Beyond-the-Wall, by surprise, and his cavalry routs the whole Wildling host with few casualties. Afterwards, he remains at Castle Black to negotiate settlement over the Wildling prisoners and offers to legitimise Eddard Stark's bastard son Jon Snow as the new lord of Winterfell if Jon swears loyalty to him and joins the fight against House Bolton. Despite being tempted, Jon declines the offer as he has made an oath binding him to serve the Night's Watch and does not want Winterfell's godswood to be burned by Melisandre. Later, Stannis pressures the Night's Watch to finish electing a new Lord Commander, and Jon is eventually elected through secret lobbying by Samwell Tarly.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis sends ravens to the Northern houses asking for their support in the name of the legitimate king, but only House Karstark and a small faction of House Umber swear allegiance. Stannis has Mance Rayder burned at the stake, and most of the Wildlings end up bending the knee to Stannis, although Stannis is unaware that Melisandre had used blood magic to disguise Mance as his lieutenant, the Lord of Bones, and vice versa. To rally the northern houses to his side, Stannis intends to attack House Bolton's castle The Dreadfort with the help of Arnolf Karstark, castellan of Karhold. In reality, Arnolf is working with the Boltons, hoping to entrap Stannis and have his great-nephew Harrion Karstark (who is the heir of Karhold and captured by House Lannister as hostage) executed, so his branch of the family can take control of Karhold. Jon Snow, however, advises Stannis to march west instead and attack the Ironborn invaders, so that he can rally the Northern lords in the west coast and the northern mountain clans. In exchange, Jon wants the Wildling prisoners so he can reinforce the defense of the Wall. Stannis accepts Jon's counsel and defeats the Ironborn holding Deepwood Motte and taking Asha Greyjoy captive. He restores the castle to House Glover, thus winning their support and that of the nearby House Mormont. He then marches on Winterfell to confront the Boltons, joined by the men of Arnolf Karstark and Mors Umber, but his army is waylaid by heavy snows and forced to camp at a small crofter's village three days' marching away from Winterfell.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Some time later, Jon Snow receives a letter allegedly written by Ramsay Bolton, claiming that Stannis has been defeated and killed, though it is unknown how much of the letter is true or whether it was even written by Ramsay. George R. R. Martin confirmed to a fan in 2015 that Stannis is still alive in the books.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: In December 2011, Martin posted a sample chapter from the yet-unfinished sixth book "The Winds of Winter", told from Theon Greyjoy's viewpoint, where Stannis is actively and efficiently preparing for the looming battle against the Bolton-Frey alliance. He secures a loan by signing a blood contract with the Braavosi banker Tycho Nestoris, whose convoy managed to find Stannis' army, and plans to immediately send Tycho back to the Wall for safety. Tycho also brought along a message from Jon Snow informing Stannis of Arnolf Karstark's planned treachery, after which Stannis arrested Arnolf, his son Arthor and his three grandsons and plans to execute them. He also subdued Tybald, the Dreadfort maester, who out of fear confesses that he has already revealed Stannis's position to the Boltons in Winterfell.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis then sends Ser Justin Massey to escort Tycho and the escaped "Arya Stark" back to Castle Black to reunite her with Jon Snow, in gratitude for Jon's counsel of gathering the northern mountain clans. Massey is to then travel to Braavos and use a loan from the Iron Bank to hire twenty thousand sellswords for Stannis. Stannis tells Massey that in case of his reported death, even if that news is true, Massey is to follow the orders as to seat his daughter Shireen on the Iron Throne.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis then interrogates Theon for information regarding the Boltons' military strength. When Theon taunts Stannis for not taking Ramsay seriously enough, Stannis confidently reveals that he already has a battle plan to utilize the terrain against the incoming Frey army. Stannis next receives Asha Greyjoy, and informs her that her brother Theon must be executed, as showing him mercy would mean losing all of the northmen. To spare Theon the agony of death by burning, Asha pleads with Stannis to personally behead him before a weirwood tree in the tradition of the northmen.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis falls under the influence of Melisandre, a priestess of R'hllor who believes Stannis is the reincarnation of a legendary hero from her religion. After Robert's death, Stannis claims himself the true heir to the Iron Throne as Cersei's children are bastards born of incest. However, most of the Baratheon bannermen support the claim of the younger but far more charismatic Renly. Stannis confronts Renly and offers to make him his heir if he supports him, but Renly refuses, only using the negotiations as an opportunity to mock his brother, and intending to kill Stannis in battle the next day. Melisandre, who had seduced Stannis, gives birth to a shadow baby bearing Stannis' face that kills Renly, and many of Renly's bannermen immediately swear allegiance to Stannis. He then attacks King's Landing by sailing up Blackwater Bay. Stannis' force breaches the walls, but due to Tyrion Lannister's use of wildfire and the arrival of last-minute Lannister and Tyrell reinforcements, he is defeated. Nonetheless, he is convinced to continue fighting by Melisandre, and is further convinced by her magic as she shows him a vision of a battle in the flames.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis acquires one of Robert's bastards, Gendry, from the Brotherhood Without Banners and plans to sacrifice him to further his quest for the Iron Throne. After Davos Seaworth questions his course of action, Stannis has three leeches drawn with Gendry's blood and throws them into a fire, calling for the death of Robb Stark, Balon Greyjoy and Joffrey Baratheon. Upon the news of Robb's death, Davos releases Gendry to prevent him from being sacrificed. Stannis subsequently sentences Davos to death but is swayed by Melisandre, who encourages him to travel North to aid the Night's Watch against the White Walkers emerging from beyond the Wall.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis hears of Joffrey's death and chastises Davos again for releasing Gendry and not finding him a suitable army, prompting Davos to write to the Iron Bank of Braavos in Stannis' name to help pay for an army. The Iron Bank nearly refuses Stannis' request, but Davos manages to convince them that Stannis is the only one they can turn to since Tywin Lannister is nearing old age. Stannis and his army arrive at the Wall shortly after the Battle of Castle Black, interrupting a parley between Jon Snow and Mance Rayder and crushing the wildling force. Stannis learns that Jon is Ned Stark's son, and on Jon's advice, he places Mance and his men under arrest. He is later present at the funeral of the Night's Watch brothers who died during the Battle for Castle Black.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: Stannis begins plans to retake the North from Roose Bolton, hoping to recruit Mance's wildling army, if Mance will bend the knee to him. Mance refuses, and Stannis has him burnt at the stake. Stannis offers to legitimise Jon as a Stark to win the loyalty of the Northerners who refuse to recognise Stannis as their king, but Jon decides to remain loyal to his vows to the Night's Watch. Stannis marches on Winterfell, but his army is delayed by a large snowstorm. In the chaos Ramsay Bolton and his men infiltrate Stannis's camp, and destroy all supplies and horses. Melisandre persuades a reluctant Stannis to sacrifice Shireen to ensure victory. Although the snowstorm lifts, half of Stannis's army deserts him, Selyse commits suicide out of guilt, and Melisandre flees to Castle Black. Stannis decides to complete the march on foot. As his army arrives at Winterfell, it is swiftly defeated by a cavalry charge led by Ramsay Bolton. Stannis survives the battle, but is confronted by Brienne of Tarth, a former member of Renly's Kingsguard. Stannis confesses to killing Renly with blood magic, and Brienne executes him, telling Stannis she is killing him in the name of the 'rightful' King Renly.


title: Stannis Baratheon

text: The English actor Stephen Dillane has received positive reviews for his performance as Stannis Baratheon, especially in the fifth season. On her review for "Sons of the Harpy", Sarah Hughes of "The Guardian" wrote, "Stephen Dillane has always been wonderful at showing us the core of this rigid, complex man." His performance on the same episode also received positive reviews from "Vulture". Harri Sargeant of "Hypable" wrote, "Stephen Dillane has always been one of the classiest actors on the show, and his last moments as the King Who Almost Was saw as commanding a performance as ever." In her review for "Mother's Mercy", Meghan O'Keefe of "Decider" wrote, "Whether you like Stannis or not, you have to admit that Stephen Dillane delivered a monumental performance this season." Cindy Davis of "Pajiba" wrote "After Shireen's seemingly pointless death, it's a testament to Stephen Dillane's phenomenal skills that we could feel anything at all for a man who watched his daughter burned alive." Nick Steinberg of "Goliath" wrote, "Credit has to go to Stephen Dillane for his performance, especially in these last few episodes where he's had to convey a form of grim tragedy that's effectively conveyed the character's downfall." For his part, Dillane expressed misgivings about his performance, telling "The Times" newspaper, "I didn't know what I was doing until we'd finished filming and it was too late. The damage had been done. I thought no one would believe in me and I was rather disheartened by the end. I felt I'd built the castle on non-existent foundations.”


title: Clitoromegaly

text: Clitoromegaly (or macroclitoris) is an abnormal enlargement of the clitoris that is mostly congenital or acquired, though deliberately induced clitoris enlargement as a form of genital body modification is achieved through various uses of anabolic steroids, including testosterone. Clitoromegaly is not the same as normal enlargement of the clitoris seen during sexual arousal.


title: Clitoromegaly

text: The different grade of genital ambiguity is commonly measured by the Prader classification, which ranges, in ascending order of masculinisation, from 1: "female external genitalia with clitoromegaly" through 5: "pseudo-phallus looking like normal male external genitalia".


title: Clitoromegaly

text: If present at birth, congenital adrenal hyperplasia can be one of the causes, since in this condition the adrenal gland of the female fetus produces additional androgens and the newborn baby has ambiguous genitalia which are not clearly male or female. In pregnant women who received norethisterone during pregnancy, masculinization of the fetus occurs, resulting in hypertrophy of the clitoris; however, this is rarely seen nowadays due to use of safer progestogens. It can also be caused by the autosomal recessive congenital disorder known as Fraser syndrome.


title: Clitoromegaly

text: In acquired clitoromegaly, the main cause is endocrine hormonal imbalance affecting the adult person, including polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and hyperthecosis. Acquired clitoromegaly may also be caused by pathologies affecting the ovaries and other endocrine glands. These pathologies may include virulent (such as arrhenoblastoma) and neurofibromatosic tumors. Another cause is clitoral cysts. Sometimes there may be no obvious clinical or hormonal reason.


title: Clitoromegaly

text: Female bodybuilders and athletes who use androgens, primarily to enhance muscular growth, strength and appearance , may also experience clearly evident enlargement of the clitoris and increases in libido. For transgender men taking testosterone as part of transgender hormone therapy (female-to-male) masculinization of the clitoris may be a desired effect. Women who use testosterone for therapeutic reasons (treating low libido, averting osteoporosis, as part of an anti-depressant regimen, etc.) may experience some enlargement of the clitoris, although the dosages warranted for these conditions are much lower. Pseudoclitoromegaly or pseudohypertrophy of the clitoris "has been reported in small girls due to masturbation: manipulations of the skin of prepuce leads to repeated mechanical trauma, which expands the prepuce and labia minora, thus imitating true clitoral enlargement".


title: Clitoromegaly

text: In "Atlas of Human Sex Anatomy" (1949) by Robert Latou Dickinson, the "typical" clitoris is defined as having a crosswise width of 3 to 4 mm (0.12 - 0.16 inches) and a lengthwise width of 4 to 5 mm (0.16 - 0.20 inches). On the other hand, in obstetrics and gynecology medical literature, a frequent definition of clitoromegaly is when there is a clitoral index (product of lengthwise and crosswise widths) of greater than 35 mm (0.05 inches), which is almost twice the size given above for an "average" sized clitoris.


title: Clitoromegaly

text: Early surgical reduction of clitoromegaly via full or partial clitoridectomy is controversial, and intersex people exposed to such treatment have spoken of their loss of physical sensation, and loss of autonomy. In recent years, human rights institutions have criticized early surgical management of such characteristics.


title: Clitoromegaly

text: In 2013, it was disclosed in a medical journal that four unnamed elite female athletes from developing countries were subjected to gonadectomies and partial clitoridectomies after testosterone testing revealed that they had an intersex condition. In April 2016, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on health, Dainius Pūras, condemned this treatment as a form of female genital mutilation "in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures."


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Chandrayaan-1 (, ) was the first Indian lunar probe under the Chandrayaan program. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor. India launched the spacecraft using a PSLV-XL rocket on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. The mission was a major boost to India's space program, as India researched and developed indigenous technology to explore the Moon. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter at 14:36 UTC and struck the south pole in a controlled manner, making India the fourth country to place its flag insignia on the Moon. The probe hit near the crater Shackleton at 15:01 UTC The location of impact was named Jawahar Point.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: It was intended to survey the lunar surface over a two-year period, to produce a complete map of the chemical composition at the surface and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest as they might contain water ice. Among its many achievements was the discovery of widespread presence of water molecules in lunar soil.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: After almost a year, the orbiter started suffering from several technical issues including failure of the star tracker and poor thermal shielding; Chandrayaan-1 stopped communicating at about 20:00 UTC on 28 August 2009, shortly after which the ISRO officially declared that the mission was over. Chandrayaan-1 operated for 312 days as opposed to the intended two years, however the mission achieved most of its scientific objectives including detecting presence of Lunar Water.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: On 2 July 2016, NASA used ground-based radar systems to relocate Chandrayaan-1 in its lunar orbit, more than seven years after it shut down. Repeated observations over the next three months allowed a precise determination of its orbit which varies between in altitude every two years.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Then Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced the "Chandrayaan 1" project on course in his Independence Day speech on 15 August 2003. The mission was a major boost to India's space program. The idea of an Indian scientific mission to the Moon was first raised in 1999 during a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences. The Astronautical Society of India (ASI) carried forward the idea in 2000. Soon after, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) set up the National Lunar Mission Task Force which concluded that ISRO has the technical expertise to carry out an Indian mission to the Moon. In April 2003 over 100 famous and respected Indian scientists in the fields of planetary and space sciences, Earth sciences, physics, chemistry, astronomy, astrophysics, engineering and communication sciences discussed and approved the Task Force recommendation to launch an Indian probe to the Moon. Six months later, in November, the Indian government gave approval for the mission.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The scientific payload had a mass of and contained five Indian instruments and six instruments from other countries.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: During the tenure of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, the Chandrayaan project got a boost and finally Chandrayaan-1 was launched on 22 October 2008 at 00:52 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre using the ISRO's tall, four-stage PSLV C11 launch vehicle. Chandrayaan-1 was sent to the Moon in a series of orbit-increasing manoeuvres around the Earth over a period of 21 days as opposed to launching the craft on a direct trajectory to the Moon. At launch the spacecraft was inserted into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with an apogee of and a perigee of . The apogee was increased with a series of five orbit burns conducted over a period of 13 days after launch.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: For the duration of the mission, ISRO's telemetry, tracking and command network (ISTRAC) at Peenya in Bangalore, tracked and controlled Chandrayaan-1. Scientists from India, Europe, and the U.S. conducted a high-level review of Chandrayaan-1 on 29 January 2009 after the spacecraft completed its first 100 days in space.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The first orbit-raising manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was performed at 03:30 UTC on 23 October 2008 when the spacecraft's 440 Newton liquid engine was fired for about 18 minutes by commanding the spacecraft from Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC) at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) at Peenya, Bangalore. With this Chandrayaan-1's apogee was raised to , and its perigee to . In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about 11 hours to go around the Earth once.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The second orbit-raising manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was carried out on 25 October 2008 at 00:18 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about 16 minutes, raising its apogee to , and its perigee to , thus completing 20 percent of its journey. In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft took about twenty-five and a half hours to go round the Earth once. This was the first time an Indian spacecraft went beyond the high geostationary orbit and reached an altitude more than twice that height.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The third orbit raising manoeuvre was initiated on 26 October 2008 at 01:38 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about nine and a half minutes. With this its apogee was raised to , and the perigee to . In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about 73 hours to go around the Earth once.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The fourth orbit-raising manoeuvre took place on 29 October 2008 at 02:08 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about three minutes, raising its apogee to and the perigee to . This extended its orbit to a distance more than half the way to the Moon. In this orbit, the spacecraft took about six days to go around the Earth once.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The fifth and final orbit raising manoeuvre was carried out on 3 November 2008 at 23:26 UTC when the spacecraft's engine was fired for about two and a half minutes resulting in Chandrayaan-1 entering the Lunar Transfer Trajectory with an apogee of about .


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Chandrayaan-1 completed the lunar orbit insertion operation on 8 November 2008 at 11:21 UTC. This manoeuvre involved firing of the liquid engine for 817 seconds (about thirteen and half minutes) when the spacecraft passed within from the Moon. The satellite was placed in an elliptical orbit that passed over the polar regions of the Moon, with aposelene and periselene. The orbital period was estimated to be around 11 hours. With the successful completion of this operation, India became the fifth nation to put a vehicle in lunar orbit.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: First Lunar Orbit Reduction Manoeuvre of Chandrayaan-1 was carried out on 9 November 2008 at 14:33 UTC. During this, the engine of the spacecraft was fired for about 57 seconds. This reduced the periselene to while aposelene remained unchanged at 7,502 km. In this elliptical orbit, Chandrayaan-1 took about ten and a half hours to circle the Moon once.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: This manoeuvre was carried out on 10 November 2008 at 16:28 UTC, resulting in steep decrease in Chandrayaan-1's aposelene to and its periselene to , During this manoeuvre, the engine was fired for about 866 seconds (about fourteen and a half minutes). Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 16 minutes to go around the Moon once in this orbit.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Third Lunar Orbit Reduction was carried out by firing the onboard engine for 31 seconds on 11 November 2008 at 13:00 UTC. This reduced the periselene to , while the aposelene remained constant at 255 km. In this orbit Chandrayaan-1 took two hours and 9 minutes to go around the Moon once.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft was placed into a mission-specific lunar polar orbit of above the lunar surface on 12 November 2008. In the final orbit reduction manoeuvre, Chandrayaan-1's aposelene and periselene were both reduced to 100 km. In this orbit, Chandrayaan-1 takes about two hours to go around the Moon once. Two of the 11 payloads—the Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) and the Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM)—were switched on. The TMC acquired images of both the Earth and the Moon.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) crash-landed on the lunar surface on 14 November 2008, 15:01 UTC near the crater Shackleton at the south pole. The MIP was one of eleven scientific instruments (payloads) on board Chandrayaan-1.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The MIP separated from Chandrayaan at 100 km from lunar surface and began its nosedive at 14:36 UTC. going into free fall for thirty minutes. As it fell, it kept sending information back to the mother satellite which, in turn, beamed the information back to Earth. The altimeter then also began recording measurements to prepare for a rover to land on the lunar surface during a second Moon mission.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Following the deployment of the MIP, the other scientific instruments were turned on, starting the next phase of the mission.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: After scientific analyses of the received data from the MIP, the Indian Space Research Organisation confirmed the presence of water in the lunar soil and published the finding in a press conference addressed by its then Chairman G. Madhavan Nair.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: ISRO had reported on 25 November 2008 that Chandrayaan-1's temperature had risen above normal to , Scientists said that it was caused by higher than expected temperatures in lunar orbit. The temperature was brought down by about by rotating the spacecraft about 20 degrees and switching off some of the instruments. Subsequently, ISRO reported on 27 November 2008 that the spacecraft was operating under normal temperature conditions. In subsequent reports ISRO says, since the spacecraft was still recording higher than normal temperatures, it would be running only one instrument at a time until January 2009 when lunar orbital temperature conditions are said to stabilize. It was initially thought that the spacecraft was experiencing high temperature because of radiation from the Sun and infrared radiation reflected by the Moon. However the rise in spacecraft temperature was later attributed to a batch of DC-DC converters with poor thermal regulation.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The mineral content on the lunar surface was mapped with the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M), a NASA instrument on board the orbiter. The presence of iron was reiterated and changes in rock and mineral composition have been identified. The Oriental Basin region of the Moon was mapped, and it indicates abundance of iron-bearing minerals such as pyroxene.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: In 2018 it was announced that M infrared data had been re-analyzed to confirm the existence of water across wide expanses of the Moon's polar regions.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: ISRO announced in January 2009 the completion of the mapping of the Apollo Moon missions landing sites by the orbiter, using multiple payloads. Six of the sites have been mapped including landing sites of Apollo 15 and Apollo 17.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The craft completed 3,000 orbits acquiring 70,000 images of the lunar surface, which is quite a record compared to the lunar flights of other nations. ISRO officials estimated that if more than 40,000 images have been transmitted by Chandrayaan's cameras in 75 days, it worked out to nearly 535 images being sent daily. They were first transmitted to Indian Deep Space Network at Byalalu near Bangalore, from where they were flashed to ISRO's Telemetry Tracking And Command Network (ISTRAC) at Bangalore.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Some of these images have a resolution of down to , providing a sharp and clear picture of the Moon's surface, while many images sent by some of the other missions had only a 100-metre resolution. For comparison, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera has a 0.5 meter resolution.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: On 26 November, the indigenous Terrain Mapping Camera, which was first activated on 29 October 2008, acquired images of peaks and craters. This came as a surprise to ISRO officials because the Moon consists mostly of craters.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The X-ray signatures of aluminium, magnesium and silicon were picked up by the C1XS X-ray camera. The signals were picked up during a solar flare that caused an X-ray fluorescence phenomenon. The flare that caused the fluorescence was within the lowest C1XS sensitivity range.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: On 25 March 2009 Chandrayaan beamed back its first images of the Earth in its entirety. These images were taken with the TMC. Previous imaging was done on only one part of the Earth. The new images show Asia, parts of Africa and Australia with India being in the center.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: After the completion of all the major mission objectives, the orbit of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, which had been at a height of from the lunar surface since November 2008, was raised to . The orbit raising manoeuvres were carried out between 03:30 and 04:30 UTC on 19 May 2009. The spacecraft in this higher altitude enabled further studies on orbit perturbations, gravitational field variation of the Moon and also enabled imaging lunar surface with a wider swath. It was later revealed that the true reason for the orbit change was that it was an attempt to keep the temperature of the probe down. It was "...assumed that the temperature [of the spacecraft subsystems] at 100 km above the Moon's surface would be around 75 degrees Celsius. However, it was more than 75 degrees and problems started to surface. We had to raise the orbit to 200 km."


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The star tracker, a device used for pointing attitude determination (orientation), failed in orbit after nine months of operation. Afterward, the orientation of Chandrayaan was determined using a back-up procedure using a two-axis Sun sensor and taking a bearing from an Earth station. This was used to update three axis gyroscopes which enabled spacecraft operations. The second failure, detected on 16 May, was attributed to excessive radiation from the Sun.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: On 21 August 2009 Chandrayaan-1 along with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter attempted to perform a bistatic radar experiment using their Mini-SAR radars to detect the presence of water ice on the lunar surface. The attempt was a failure; it turned out the Chandrayaan-1 radar was not pointed at the Moon during the experiment.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The Mini-SAR has imaged many of the permanently shadowed regions that exist at both poles of the Moon. In March 2010, it was reported that the Mini-SAR on board the Chandrayaan-1 had discovered more than 40 permanently darkened craters near the Moon's north pole which are hypothesized to contain an estimated 600 million metric tonnes of water-ice. The radar's high CPR is not uniquely diagnostic of either roughness or ice; the science team must take into account the environment of the occurrences of high CPR signal to interpret its cause. The ice must be relatively pure and at least a couple of meters thick to give this signature. The estimated amount of water ice potentially present is comparable to the quantity estimated from the previous mission of Lunar Prospector's neutron data.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Although the results are consistent with recent findings of other NASA instruments onboard Chandrayaan-1 (the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (MP3) discovered water molecules in the Moon's polar regions, while water vapour was detected by NASA's Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite, or LCROSS) this observation is not consistent with the presence of thick deposits of nearly pure water ice within a few meters of the lunar surface, but it does not rule out the presence of small (<~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice mixed in with the regolith.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The mission was launched on 22 October 2008 and expected to operate for two years. However, around 20:00 UTC on 28 August 2009 communication with the spacecraft was suddenly lost. The probe had operated for 312 days. The craft had been expected to remain in orbit for approximately another 1000 days and to crash into the lunar surface in late 2012, although in 2016 it was found to still be in orbit.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: A member of the science advisory board of Chandrayaan-1 said that it is difficult to ascertain reasons for the loss of contact. ISRO Chairman Madhavan Nair said that due to very high radiation, power-supply units controlling both the computer systems on board failed, snapping the communication connectivity. However, information released later showed that the power supply supplied by MDI failed due to overheating.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Although the mission was less than 10 months in duration, and less than half the intended two years in length, a review by scientists termed the mission successful, as it had completed 95% of its primary objectives.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Chandrayaan's NASA Instrument Moon Mineralogy Mapper has confirmed the magma ocean hypothesis, meaning that the Moon was once completely molten.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: The terrain mapping camera on board Chandrayaan-1, besides producing more than 70,000 three dimensional images, has recorded images of the landing site of U.S. spacecraft Apollo 15.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: TMC and HySI payloads of ISRO have covered about 70% of the lunar surface, while M covered more than 95% of the same and SIR-2 has provided high-resolution spectral data on the mineralogy of the Moon.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: Indian Space Research Organisation said interesting data on lunar polar areas was provided by Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) and High Energy X-ray Spectrometer (HEX) of ISRO as well as Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) of the US.


title: Chandrayaan-1

text: LLRI covered both the lunar poles and additional lunar regions of interest, HEX made about 200 orbits over the lunar poles and Mini-SAR provided complete coverage of both North and South Polar Regions of the Moon.