title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: In the US, Bruce works as a dishwasher at a Chinese restaurant until he gets in a brawl with four of the cooks. The restaurant owner Gussie Yang fires him but also lends him money and encourages him to go to college. While studying philosophy in college, Bruce begins to teach martial arts classes, where he meets Linda, a white American. Bruce marries Linda in defiance of her racist mother, Vivian. Linda suggests Bruce establish a martial arts school, but his Chinese peers demand he train only Chinese people. When Bruce refuses, they challenge him to settle the matter in combat. Bruce defeats a challenger named Johnny Sun in a secret, no-holds-barred match but Johnny attacks Bruce after he has admitted defeat, and Bruce sustains a debilitating back injury. While Bruce is temporarily paralyzed, Linda helps him write the martial arts book "Tao of Jeet Kune Do". Linda gives birth to their first child, Brandon, and the couple reconcile with her mother.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Some months later, during a martial arts tournament run by Ed Parker, Johnny challenges Bruce to a rematch. Bruce not only defeats but humiliates Johnny, earning the respect of the audience. Bruce is unaware that Johnny becomes crippled from his injuries in the fight. After the match, Bill Krieger, who later becomes Bruce's manager, offers him the role of Kato in the television series "The Green Hornet". Bruce and Krieger also create the idea for the television series "Kung Fu", agreeing that Bruce will feature in the lead role. At a cast party, Linda says she is pregnant with their second child, Shannon. Shortly afterwards, the cancellation of "The Green Hornet" is announced. "Kung Fu" later makes it to television but much to Bruce's frustration, it stars the white actor David Carradine. Bruce believes Krieger has betrayed him.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Bruce returns to Hong Kong for his father's funeral. Philip Tan, a Hong Kong film producer, hires Bruce to star in the film "The Big Boss". During the filming of the final scene, Johnny's brother Luke attacks Bruce in revenge for Johnny's humiliating defeat and subsequent disability; Bruce wins the fight. "The Big Boss" is a success and Bruce makes several more films, working as an actor, director, writer and editor. This causes a rift between Bruce and Linda, as Linda wishes to return to the US. Krieger offers Bruce a chance to work on a big-budget Hollywood film, to which Bruce agrees, partly because of Linda's wish to return home.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: On the 32nd day of filming "Enter the Dragon", during the "room of mirrors" sequence, Bruce has a terrifying vision of the Demon that has haunted his and his father's dreams. This time, after being beaten and then shown his own grave, Bruce sees his son urging Bruce to save him. The Demon pursues Brandon, spurring Bruce to fight back, save Brandon and break the Demon's neck with a pair of Nunchaku. Bruce later films another scene from "Enter the Dragon", the film that would make him an international star. In a voice-over, Linda tells the audience Bruce fell into a mysterious coma and died shortly before the film's release and says while many people want to talk about how he died, she prefers to remember how he lived.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Writing about pedagogy and political correctness in film, Meaghan Morris includes a six-page analysis of a scene in "Dragon", where Bruce and Linda watch "Breakfast at Tiffany's" at a cinema; Linda suggests they leave when she notices Bruce is upset at Mickey Rooney's yellowface performance of I. Y. Yunioshi. Morris describes the scene as didactic, as it allows Linda, who was originally enjoying the film, to understand and share Bruce's revulsion of racist stereotypes. Noting the film's portrayal of Bruce's life as a "battle against Western prejudice", Morris concludes "Dragon" is "one of the more powerful treatments of institutionalized racism in a film industry that US cinema possesses".


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Writing in the "Asian Journal of Communication" in 2013, academic Zheng Zhu listed "Dragon" alongside "Kiss of the Dragon" (2001) and "The Tuxedo" (2002) as films that broke from the Western tradition of portraying Asian men as asexual, stating that while they are often featured as heroes in martial arts films, they are rarely portrayed as romantic or loving. Noting the films each show an Asian martial artist with a white female partner, Zhu states they reverse the conventional portrayal of a "dominant white knight and a submissive Oriental lady". However, he makes critiques of the portrayal of these relationships. For example, each film shows "white women play[ing] the most important role" in helping Chinese men accomplish success, as evidenced by Linda's support for Bruce while he recovers from his back injury. Asian men, Zhu argues, are portrayed as incapable of achieving success in Western society unless they are supported by white femininity.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: A major source for the film's screenplay, which was written by director Rob Cohen in cooperation with Edward Khmara and John Raffo, was Linda Lee Cadwell's biography "". Other sources included Robert Clouse's book "Bruce Lee: The Biography", and original research by Khmara and Cohen. Cadwell provided resources for the film's production. Scenes showing hand-written notes and drawings from Bruce's book "Tao of Jeet Kune Do" are his original works. She also provided access to Bruce's clothing so replicas could be created for the film.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Cohen stated his first problem when writing the screenplay was to condense Bruce's life into under two hours of film. He decided to avoid making a standard biographical film and instead incorporate "mystical and legendary aspects" to dramatise Bruce's life, telling his story "as if it were, in fact, a Bruce Lee movie". Cohen learnt that for the first two years of Bruce's life, his parents had dressed and passed him off as a girl to protect him from a superstitious Chinese belief that demons target first-born sons. Influenced by this tale, Cohen decided to show Bruce being pursued by a supernatural demon, seeing it as a metaphor for an inner demon that may have motivated and influenced Bruce. When Cohen first met Cadwell after giving her the screenplay, she asked how Cohen had learnt about Bruce's demon. Cohen said he had dramatised the plot element after studying his life; Cadwell said Bruce told her he felt as though a demon was trying to drag him away when he collapsed 10 weeks before his death. Cohen spent hours talking to both Cadwell and Brandon in preparation for the film.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Actors were still being considered for the role of Bruce in April 1991, including Brandon Lee. While Brandon was the right age and had appropriate martial arts training to portray his father, and was perceived by some as a likely choice for the role, producer Raffaella De Laurentiis said he did not look Chinese enough and that she would have refused to work on the project if they had to resort to making Brandon appear more Asian. Brandon independently turned down the role, finding it too strange to play his father, especially when it came to the romantic life of his parents. Jason Scott Lee, who had auditioned for a role in "The Last of the Mohicans" but was rejected because he did not appear Native American, was recommended for the role of Bruce early in pre-production. "The Last of the Mohicans" casting director was impressed with him and recommended him to Cohen. Jason said at first he felt intimidated by his role portraying Bruce but he overcame his fear after speaking to Brandon. Jason, who had no martial arts training prior to his role in the film, was a gymnast and athlete. Cohen cast Jason because he believed trying to teach a martial artist to act would be more difficult than training an actor in martial arts. To prepare for their roles, Jason and Lauren Holly trained in Bruce's martial-arts style of Jeet Kune Do for months under Bruce's former student Jerry Poteet. Poteet praised Jason's new martial arts abilities, as did John Cheung, the actor who portrayed Johnny Sun and served as the film's fight and stunt coordinator. Cheung worked as a stuntman on "Enter the Dragon". Cohen chose him because he believed it was important for the fight scenes to be choreographed in a Hong Kong style rather than a US one.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Cohen cast Nancy Kwan as Gussie Yang, a restaurant owner and Bruce's employer. Like Bruce, Kwan played a pivotal role in the acceptance of actors of Asian ancestry in major Hollywood film roles and Cohen wanted audiences to be reminded of her achievement and the struggle of Asian American actors. He cast Michael Learned as Vivian Emery because he loved her portrayal of Olivia in "The Waltons" and wished to see Bruce's confrontation with the person recognisable as that character. Emery gave filmmakers permission to portray her as initially hostile and racist towards Bruce; Emery said she had treated him that way when they first met.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Van Williams, who played The Green Hornet in the 1960s TV series of the same name, was given a cameo appearance as the director of "The Green Hornet". Bruce's daughter, Shannon, has a cameo as a singer in the party scene, at which Linda tells Bruce she is pregnant with Shannon. Sven-Ole Thorsen was cast as the Demon due to his height and physique. Cohen states he did a "remarkable job" during the fight scenes considering he was unable to see out of the costume's headpiece. Cohen gave himself a cameo as the director of "Enter the Dragon".


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" was filmed primarily in Hong Kong, Los Angeles and San Francisco. The opening scene was filmed at an 18th-century temple in Hong Kong, which Cohen found while scouting locations. Cohen, who wanted the audience to understand from the beginning that the film would not be a traditional biography, incorporated the theme of a demon chasing Bruce. Cohen wanted to film in Seattle but found little cooperation from local authorities and was denied permission to film at the University of Washington, which Bruce had attended. It was subsequently decided to merge the events of Bruce's life that occurred in Seattle with those that occurred later when he moved to California, where much of the filming took place.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Filming was delayed multiple times; Cohen had a heart attack on 6 February 1992, delaying production for a month; another delay was caused when Jason became ill. Filming was also affected by a monsoon during which Hong Kong experienced its heaviest rainfall in decades, as well as an extortion attempt by a triad, who threatened Cohen and other individuals because the crew were working on the gang's territory. Cohen sped up production so the cast and crew could vacate the area earlier than planned. The setbacks used up the entirety of the film's $1.3million contingency budget.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: The fight between Bruce and the chefs is set in San Francisco but was filmed on a set in Hong Kong, and some of the scenes that take place in Hong Kong were filmed in California. The outdoor scene in which Bruce teaches martial arts to a football team was filmed at a college in Los Angeles using exact replicas of the columns at the University of Washington, where Bruce used to teach. The crowd scenes during the premiere of "The Big Boss" were shot in Macao, China, because the crew could not obtain permission to close roads and film scenes involving hundreds of extras in Hong Kong, where the scene is set.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: More than 1,600 shots were taken for the film, of which a thousand were for the eight fight scenes. Cohen inserted several references to Bruce's films; the extended warm-up routine by Bruce and Johnny before their fight is a reference to the one performed by Bruce and Chuck Norris before their fight in "The Way of the Dragon".


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" original budget had been about $14million. Despite exhausting the contingency budget, Universal agreed to spend a further $1million on fight-scene sound effects and the soundtrack after viewing the film's rough cut, bringing the final cost to $16million. None of the custom-made sound effects in the fight scenes were used twice.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Cohen decided to expand the theme of Bruce's father's belief that a demon was stalking his son, by showing the Demon chasing Brandon. Filming was completed and "Dragon" was less than two months away from opening when Brandon died in a shooting accident while filming "The Crow" in March 1993. Cohen stated the scene is one of the "eeriest moments" in the film for him; after Brandon's death it "gave [him] great pause to think and still haunts [him]". Following Brandon's death, Cohen asked Cadwell whether she wanted to postpone the release or modify the film; she declined and asked for it to be dedicated to his memory with an appropriate quotation. With Cadwell's approval, Cohen chose a quotation by Saint Augustine he originally had on the front of the script: "The key to immortality is first living a life worth remembering", which he felt applied to both Bruce and Brandon.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Marketing for "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" focused on the romance between Bruce and Cadwell; advertising campaigns targeted soft-rock radio stations. Universal chairman Tom Pollock said they were trying to appeal to women and to move beyond Bruce's core audience. The marketing campaign was not modified following Brandon's death.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: The soundtrack for "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" was composed by Randy Edelman, who used a 90-piece orchestra and traditional Chinese instruments. Cohen praised the soundtrack for acting as a kind of "emotional through line" for his film. Ray Apello from "Entertainment Weekly" lauded its romantic tracks, though Jason Ankeny from AllMusic gave the soundtrack two stars out of five, saying the "oddly patriotic, even stereotypically Americanized score" is too generic for the subject matter, adding "per usual, Edelman operates in broad, simple strokes, crafting saccharine melodies that are pure function and no form." Edelman's soundtrack has been licensed for use in trailers for several other films.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: The film received positive reception, with reviewers typically finding it entertaining despite criticisms of its veneration of Bruce. Peter Rainer from the "Los Angeles Times" described the depiction as "hero-worshiping", though he gave a favorable review, saying, "you can forgive the way the film concocts and inflates incidents in Lee's life, because... that's the way it is with larger-than-life actors: They prime you for larger-than-life stories." Roger Ebert said the martial arts sequences defy "gravity and logic... but what the heck: It's fun to watch," and Vincent Canby described it as "an enjoyably hokey, big-budget theatrical film with a lot of kicks and the soul of a television movie". Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" praised the film's ability to appeal to more people than just fans of Bruce and martial arts, saying it also explored issues such as love, interracial romance, marriage and parenthood. Sheila Johnston from "The Independent", however, argued the attempt to cater to multiple audiences with numerous themes convoluted the film.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Jason's performance as Bruce was widely praised. Both Donald Chase and Lawrence Christon of the "Los Angeles Times" commended him; Chase said he seemed to be Bruce's reincarnation and Christon said Jason "brings intelligence and charm to the role". According to Rainer, the exciting aspect of "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" is that with Jason, it was creating a new star from the story of an old one. Cadwell also praised the performance, saying "I almost feel it was worth waiting all this time for Jason to grow old enough to play Bruce." Jason received a nomination for "Most Promising Actor" at the 1993 Chicago Film Critics Association Awards for his roles in both "Dragon" and "Map of the Human Heart", and a nomination for "Best Breakthrough Performance" for "Dragon" at the 1994 MTV Movie Awards.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" premiered in Hollywood at Grauman's Chinese Theatre on 28 April 1993; Bruce's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated earlier that day. A postscreening after party was held in a nearby parking lot under a tent that was decorated with Chinese themes. More than 1,200 guests including Demi Moore, Wesley Snipes, Dolph Lundgren, Sheila E., Mike Myers, Cadwell and Shannon attended, together with the film's co-stars Lauren Holly, Robert Wagner, Nancy Kwan and Van Williams, and producer Raffaella De Laurentiis. Many viewers found the screening to be bittersweet, due to Brandon's recent death. Cadwell stated she attended because the film "is a tribute to our family's life and for that reason I thought I should be here. I feel the film is a tribute to Bruce as a father and to Brandon as a son."


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: The film opened to the public in the US on May 7, and debuted at number one, grossing just over $10million in its opening weekend. The film's revenue outperformed expectations for a biography, which was largely attributed to the number of women who attended screenings; 45% of the film's audience for the opening weekend were women, whereas audiences for Bruce's actual films were overwhelmingly male. The success of the film and also the political satire "Dave" were credited with raising cinema audiences 65% from the same weekend period the previous year. David Fox from "Los Angeles Times" described the earnings as "impressive" for a debut in the historically-slow period of early May. "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story" had a gross of $35.1million in the United States and Canada, and a gross of $28.4million in other territories, making a total worldwide revenue of $63.5million.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: A video game was created by Virgin Interactive and first released on Sega Mega Drive in Europe in June 1994; it was later released in other continents and ported to other platforms. It is a fighting game in which players assume the role of Bruce and fight his opponents in the film, including one of the English sailors and the chefs; the final boss is the Demon. The game omits some of the film's plot elements, such as the romance between Bruce and Cadwell. The game was met with mixed reviews. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" gave the Atari Jaguar version 4.4/10, calling it "more or less your run-of-the-mill action fighter game" and commenting it was released too long after the film to benefit from the license.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: The film was released on VHS by MCA/Universal Home Video December 14, 1993, and on DVD on July 1, 1998.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: In "Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story", Bruce travels to the US in steerage; Cohen acknowledges this is inaccurate and was done to show the typical experiences of emigration by Chinese people. It also allowed him to introduce the character called the History Teacher, who illustrates the difficulties Chinese immigrants faced once they arrived. Extrapolations are made of events in Bruce's life before he met Cadwell. For example, Bruce had a reputation for street fighting and was also employed as a dishwasher, but there is no evidence he fought with a group of chefs while he was at work as shown in the film. Metaphors are used to represent real events. An example of this can be found when a cheering crowd carries Bruce away from Linda after the premiere of "The Big Boss". Cohen said he used the scene to illustrate Bruce's fame creating a distance between the couple.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Some elements of Bruce's life were condensed to reduce the length of the story, such as all his managers' being replaced with the fictional Bill Krieger. The order of events was also sometimes altered to suit the narrative. Tragedy is depicted by combining the death of Bruce's father, who had died years earlier, with the news that Bruce's idea for a television show was stolen and turned into "Kung Fu", which was not released until a year after its depiction in the film. The allegation that Bruce's idea was stolen was first raised in Cadwell's biography "Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew", though it is contested. In his , which occurred in December 1971 on "The Pierre Berton Show", Bruce talks of his plans for a TV series called "The Warrior", which has the same premise as "Kung Fu", though he expresses doubt the series will go ahead as casting a non-white actor in a lead role is considered a business risk by television executives. Bruce did audition for the lead role in "Kung Fu". According to Bruce Lee biographer Matthew E. Polly, he was overlooked due to his accent and also his personality not matching the character, though Warner Bros. insist that "Kung Fu" was a separate project from "The Warrior", an assertion that is supported by Polly.


title: Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story

text: Bruce's assertion that the Chinese martial-arts community confronted him about teaching martial arts to non-Chinese people, and subsequently challenged him to a fight as depicted in the film, is debated. Bruce's opponent in the film, Johnny, is fictional, as is his brother Luke. Bruce's real-life opponent Wong Jack-man contests Bruce's version of events, saying the challenge note he issued to him had nothing to do with his teaching of non-Chinese people. Martial artist Leo Fong, who was Bruce's friend, also said the fight was not about who he was teaching, rather it "really had to do with Bruce's personality". Bruce had publicly denounced other styles of martial arts and had previously accepted and won a challenge fight issued by a karate practitioner who had taken offense at his comments. While supporting Bruce's version of events, Cohen said he dramatised the fight's location and formal setting, as well as Johnny attacking Bruce from behind after losing. Bruce actually injured his back weightlifting, though according to Cohen, depicting Bruce injuring himself in this way would not have been a "great movie moment". While Ed Parker invited Bruce to speak at the 1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships, Bruce was not challenged to a fight there as depicted in the film. The attack of Bruce on the set of "The Big Boss " is also fictional, as is his ability to break a block of ice with his fist during the fight. While wishing to depict an accurate account of Bruce's struggles, accomplishments and personality, Cohen stated he wanted to create fights that had the "humor and spectacle" of one of Bruce's actual films, where there was a "larger sense of fun [and] danger" though "reality is not exactly adhered to".


title: Flea market

text: A flea market (or swap meet) is a type of street market that provides space for vendors to sell previously-owned (second-hand) goods. This type of market is often seasonal. However, in recent years there has been the development of 'formal' and 'casual' markets which divides a fixed-style market (formal) with long-term leases and a seasonal-style market with short-term leases. Consistently, there tends to be an emphasis on sustainable consumption whereby items such as used goods, collectibles, antiques and vintage clothing can be purchased.


title: Flea market

text: Flea market vending is distinguished from street vending in that the market alone, and not any other public attraction, brings in buyers. There are a variety of vendors: some part-time who consider their work at flea markets a hobby due to their possession of an alternative job; full-time vendors who dedicate all their time to their stalls and collection of merchandise and rely solely on the profits made at the market. Vendors require skill in following retro and vintage trends, as well as selecting merchandise which connects with the culture and identity of their customers.


title: Flea market

text: In the United States, the National Association of Flea Markets was established in 1998, which provides various resources for sellers, suppliers and buyers and also provides a means for suppliers and sellers to communicate and form affiliations.


title: Flea market

text: While the concept has existed for millennia, the origins of the term "flea market" are disputed. According to one theory, the Fly Market in 18th-century New York City, located at Maiden Lane near the East River in Manhattan, began the association. The land on which the market took place was originally a salt marsh with a brook, and by the early 1800s the Fly Market was the city's principal market.


title: Flea market

text: A second theory maintains that "flea market" is a common English calque from the French "marché aux puces", which literally translates to "market with fleas", labelled as such because the items sold were previously owned and worn, likely containing fleas. The first reference to this term appeared in two conflicting stories about a location in Paris in the 1860s which was known as the ""marché aux puces"".


title: Flea market

text: The traditional and most-publicized story is in the article "What Is a Flea Market?" by Albert LaFarge in the 1998 winter edition of "Today's Flea Market" magazine:


title: Flea market

text: The second story appeared in the book "Flea Markets", published in Europe by Chartwell Books, reading in its introduction:


title: Flea market

text: In the United States, an outdoor swap meet is the equivalent of a flea market. However, an indoor swap meet is the equivalent of a bazaar, a permanent, indoor shopping center open during normal retail hours, with fixed booths or storefronts for the vendors.


title: Flea market

text: Different English-speaking countries use various names for flea markets. In Australian English, they are also called 'trash and treasure markets'. In Philippine English, the word is "tianggê" from the word "tianguis" via Mexican Spanish coming from Nahuatl. Despite common misconception, it is not derived from Hokkien. The word supplants the indigenous term "talipapâ". In India, it is known as "gurjari" or "shrukawadi bazaar" or even as "juna bazaar" in Pune.


title: Flea market

text: In the United Kingdom, they are known as car boot sales if the event takes place in a field or car park, as the vendors will sell goods from the boot (or 'trunk' in American English) of their car. If the event is held indoors, such as a school or church hall, then it is usually known as either a jumble sale, or a bring and buy sale. In Quebec and France, they are often called "Marché aux puces" (literally "flea market"), while in French-speaking areas of Belgium, the name "brocante" or "vide-grenier" is normally used.


title: Flea market

text: In German, there are many words in use but the most common word is "Flohmarkt", meaning literally "flea market". The same applies to Dutch "vlooienmarkt", Swedish "loppmarknad" and Finnish "kirpputori". In the predominantly Cuban/Hispanic areas of South Florida, they are called "[el] pulguero" ("[the] flea store") from "pulga", the Spanish word for fleas. In the Southern part of Andalusia, due to the influence of Gibraltar English, they are known as "piojito", which means "little louse". In Chile they can be called "persas" or "mercados persa" ("persian market") and "ferias libres", if mostly selling fruit and vegetables. In Argentina are most likely called "feria artesanal" (artisan's or street fair) or "feria americana" (American fair), the latter name is due to have taken the idea from their United States counterpart.


title: Flea market

text: In Moroccan Darija, the term for "flea market" is "juṭiyya", which either derives from French or (throwable), or is an older term derived from "juqa" meaning "gathering of people". An ancient village on the bank of Sebou River by the name "Juta" may have been a big medieval market.


title: Upstart Crow

text: Upstart Crow is a British sitcom based on the life of William Shakespeare. Written by Ben Elton, it premiered on 9 May 2016 on BBC Two as part of the commemorations of the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare's death. Its title quotes "an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers", a critique of Shakespeare by his rival Robert Greene in the latter's "Groats-Worth of Wit".


title: Upstart Crow

text: The show is set from 1592 (the year of Greene's quotation) onwards. Shakespeare is played by David Mitchell; his wife, Anne Hathaway, is played by Liza Tarbuck; and Greene himself by Mark Heap. Shakespeare's father, John Shakespeare is played by Harry Enfield. The first series was directed by Matt Lipsey, with subsequent series being directed by Richard Boden.


title: Upstart Crow

text: The first series follows the writing and preparation to stage "Romeo and Juliet" after William has gained some early career recognition for his poetry, "Henry VI" and "Richard III". Events in each episode allude to one or more Shakespeare plays and usually end with Will discussing the events with Anne and either being inspired to use, or dissuaded from using, them in a future work. Along with the many Shakespearean references (including the use of asides and soliloquies) there are also several references to the television shows "Blackadder" and "The Office". There are running gags in many episodes: the casual sexism towards Kate's attempts to become an actress, Shakespeare's coach journeys between London and Stratford which refer to modern motorway and railway journey frustrations, and are delivered in a style that references the 1970s sitcom "The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin", Shakespeare (and in one episode Marlowe) demanding ale and pie from his servants or family, and Shakespeare frequently claiming credit for common turns-of-phrase that predate Elizabethan times (many of them now commonly misattributed to Shakespeare).


title: Upstart Crow

text: The second and third six-episode series were broadcast in 2017 and 2018, as well as two Christmas Day specials.


title: Upstart Crow

text: A 2020 Christmas special, "Lockdown Christmas 1603", depicted William and Kate during the plague of 1603, making references to the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns in Britain during the year of broadcast.


title: Upstart Crow

text: In September 2019, a stage play adaptation was announced for the Gielgud Theatre, City of Westminster, also written by Elton and with Mitchell and several others reprising their roles. The play opened on 7 February 2020 under the title "The Upstart Crow": Elton commented that it was "an entirely original excursion, not a 'TV adaptation' ". The play reopened in the West End at the Apollo Theatre for a ten-week season from 23 September until 3 December 2022, with Mitchell and Whelan reprising the roles of William Shakespeare and Kate.


title: Upstart Crow

text: The theme music is a 17th-century English country dance tune called "Jamaica". This was first published in the 1670 4th Edition of John Playford's "The Dancing Master", after Shakespeare's death.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Gillian Howard Welch (; born October 2, 1967) is an American singer-songwriter. She performs with her musical partner, guitarist David Rawlings. Their sparse and dark musical style, which combines elements of Appalachian music, bluegrass, country and Americana, is described by "The New Yorker" as "at once innovative and obliquely reminiscent of past rural forms."


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch and Rawlings have collaborated on nine critically acclaimed albums, five released under her name, three released under Rawlings' name, and one under both of their names. Her 1996 debut, "Revival", and the 2001 release "Time (The Revelator)", received nominations for the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album. Her 2003 album, "Soul Journey", introduced electric guitar, drums, and a more upbeat sound to their body of work. After a gap of eight years, she released a fifth studio album, "The Harrow & the Harvest", in 2011, which was also nominated for a Grammy for Best Contemporary Folk Album. In 2020, Welch and Rawlings released "All the Good Times (Are Past & Gone)", which won the 2021 Grammy Award for Best Folk Album.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch was an associate producer and performed on two songs of the soundtrack of the Coen brothers 2000 film "O Brother, Where Art Thou?", a platinum album that won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2002. She also appeared in the film attempting to buy a Soggy Bottom Boys record. Welch, while not one of the principal actors, did sing and provide additional lyrics to the Sirens song "Didn't Leave Nobody but the Baby." In 2018 she and Rawlings wrote the song "When a Cowboy Trades His Spurs for Wings" for the Coens' "The Ballad of Buster Scruggs", for which they received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Welch has collaborated and recorded with Alison Krauss, Ryan Adams, Jay Farrar, Emmylou Harris, Mark Knopfler, the Decemberists, Sam Phillips, Conor Oberst, Ani DiFranco, Robyn Hitchcock, Barry Gibb and Molly Tuttle.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Gillian Howard Welch was born on October 2, 1967 in New York City, and was adopted by Mitzie Welch (née Marilyn Cottle) and Ken Welch, comedy and music entertainers. Her biological mother was a freshman in college, and her father was a musician visiting New York City. Welch has speculated that her biological father could have been one of her favorite musicians, and she later discovered from her adoptive parents that he was a drummer. Alec Wilkinson of "The New Yorker" stated that "from an address they had been given, it appeared that her mother ... may have grown up in the mountains of North Carolina". When Welch was three, her adoptive parents moved to Los Angeles to write music for "The Carol Burnett Show". They also appeared on "The Tonight Show".


title: Gillian Welch

text: As a child, Welch was introduced to the music of American folk singers Bob Dylan, Woody Guthrie, and the Carter Family. She performed folk songs with her peers at the Westland Elementary School in Los Angeles. Welch later attended Crossroads School, a high school in Santa Monica, California. While in high school, a local television program featured her as a student who "excelled at everything she did."


title: Gillian Welch

text: While a student at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Welch played bass in a goth band, and drums in a psychedelic surf band. In college, a roommate played an album by the bluegrass band The Stanley Brothers, and she had an epiphany:


title: Gillian Welch

text: The first song came on and I just stood up and I kind of walked into the other room as if I was in a tractor beam and stood there in front of the stereo. It was just as powerful as the electric stuff, and it was songs I'd grown up singing. All of a sudden I'd found my music.


title: Gillian Welch

text: After graduating from UC Santa Cruz with a degree in photography, Welch attended the Berklee College of Music in Boston, where she majored in songwriting. During her two years studying at Berklee, Welch gained confidence as a performer. Welch met her music partner David Rawlings at a successful audition for Berklee's only country band.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Upon finishing college in 1992, Welch moved to Nashville, Tennessee. She recalled, "I looked at my record collection and saw that all the music I loved had been made in Nashville—Bill Monroe, Dylan, the Stanley Brothers, Neil Young—so I moved there. Not ever thinking I was thirty years too late." Rawlings soon followed. In Nashville, after singing "Long Black Veil," the two first realized that their voices harmonized well and they started to perform as a duo. They never considered using a working name, so the duo were simply billed as "Gillian Welch." A year after moving to Nashville, Welch found a manager, Denise Stiff, who already managed Alison Krauss. Both Welch and Stiff ignored frequent advice that Welch should stop playing with Rawlings and join a band. They eventually signed a recording contract with Almo Sounds. Following a performance opening for Peter Rowan at the Station Inn, producer T-Bone Burnett expressed interest in recording an album. Burnett did not plan to disturb Welch's and Rawlings' preference for minimal instrumentation, and Welch agreed to take him on as a producer.


title: Gillian Welch

text: For the recording sessions of Welch's debut, "Revival", Burnett wanted to recapture the bare sound of Welch's live performance. Welch recalled, "That first week was really intense. It was just T-Bone, the engineer, and Dave and myself. We got so inside our little world. There was very little distance between our singing and playing. The sound was very immediate. It was so light and small." Later, they recorded several more songs and played with an expanded group of musicians; guitarist and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee James Burton, bassist Roy Huskey, Jr., and veteran session drummers Jim Keltner, and Buddy Harman.


title: Gillian Welch

text: The album was released in April 1996 to mostly positive reviews. Mark Deming of Allmusic called it a "superb debut" and wrote, "Welch's debts to artists of the past are obvious and clearly acknowledged, but there's a maturity, intelligence, and keen eye for detail in her songs you wouldn't expect from someone simply trying to ape the Carter Family." Bill Friskics-Warren of "No Depression" praised the album as "breathtakingly austere evocations of rural culture." The Arlington Heights, Illinois "Daily Herald"s Mark Guarino observed that "Revival" was "cheered and scrutinized as a staunch revivalist of Depression-era music only because her originals sounded so much like that era." He attributed this to the biblical imagery of the lyrics, Burnett's threadbare production, and the plainly-sung bleakness in Welch's vocals. Ann Powers of "Rolling Stone" gave "Revival" a lukewarm review and criticized Welch for not singing of her own experiences, and "manufacturing emotion." Robert Christgau echoed Powers: Welch "just doesn't have the voice, eye, or way with words to bring her simulation off."


title: Gillian Welch

text: The song, "Orphan Girl," from "Revival" has been covered by Emmylou Harris, Ann Wilson, Karin Bergquist of Over the Rhine, Mindy Smith, Patty Griffin, Linda Ronstadt, Tim & Mollie O'Brien and Holly Williams.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Others who have recorded Welch's songs include Joan Baez, Grace Porter, Courtney Barnett and Kurt Vile, Punch Brothers, Mike Gordon, Bright Eyes, Calexico, Ani DiFranco, The Decemberists, Karl Blau and Jim James.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "Revival" was nominated for the 1997 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album, but lost to Bruce Springsteen's "The Ghost of Tom Joad."


title: Gillian Welch

text: The duo's 1998 "Hell Among the Yearlings" continued the rustic and dark themes; the songs' subject matter varies from a female character killing a rapist, a mining accident, a murder ballad, and an ode to morphine before death. Like "Revival", "Hell Among The Yearlings" featured a sparse style that focused on Rawlings and Welch's voices and guitars.


title: Gillian Welch

text: The album also received favorable reviews. Robert Wilonsky of the "Dallas Observer" observed that Welch "inhabits a role so completely, the fiction separating character and audience disappears". Thom Owens (Allmusic) stated that the album "lacks some of the focus" of "Revival", but is "a thoroughly satisfying second album" and proof that her debut was not a fluke. "No Depression"'s Farnum Brown commended the live and "immediate feel" of the album, Welch's clawhammer banjo, and Rawlings' harmonies. Similar to "Revival", Welch was praised for reflecting influences such as the Stanley Brothers, but still managing to create an original sound, while Chris Herrington from Minneapolis's "City Pages" criticized the songs' lack of authenticity. He wrote "Welch doesn't write folk songs; she writes folk songs about writing folk songs."


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch sang two songs and served as the associate producer for the Burnett-produced soundtrack to the 2000 film of the same name. She shared vocals with Alison Krauss on a rendition of the gospel song "I'll Fly Away." Dave McKenna of "The Washington Post" praised their version: the singers "soar together." Burnett and Welch wrote additional lyrics for the song "Didn't Leave Nobody but the Baby," sung by Welch, Emmylou Harris, and Krauss. The song is an elaboration of an old Mississippi tune discovered by Alan Lomax, and was nominated for the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. The platinum album won the 2002 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. The surprise success of the soundtrack gave Welch a career boost. Welch also made a cameo appearance in the film.


title: Gillian Welch

text: When Universal Music Group purchased Almo Sounds, Welch began her own independent label, Acony Records (named for the Appalachian wildflower, Acony Bell, subject of the song of that name on "Revival"). Rawlings produced the first release on Welch's new label, the 2001 album "Time (The Revelator)." All but one song on the album was recorded in the historic RCA Studio B in Nashville. "I Want To Sing That Rock and Roll" was recorded live at the Ryman Auditorium in the recording sessions for the concert film "Down from the Mountain".


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch has said the album is about American history, rock 'n' roll, and country music. There are songs about the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, the Titanic Disaster, John Henry, and Elvis Presley. "Time" continues Welch and Rawlings' style of mellow and sparse arrangements. Welch explained, "As opposed to being little tiny folk songs or traditional songs, they're really tiny rock songs. They're just performed in this acoustic setting. In our heads we went electric without changing instruments."


title: Gillian Welch

text: "Time (The Revelator)" received extensive critical praise, most of which focused on the evolution of lyrics from mountain ballads. For Michael Shannon Friedman of "The Charleston Gazette", "Welch's soul-piercing, backwoods quaver has always been a treasure, but on this record her songwriting is absolutely stunning." Critics compare the last track, the 15-minute "I Dream a Highway", to classics by Bob Dylan and Neil Young. Zac Johnson of Allmusic described "I Dream ..." as akin to "sweetly dozing in the [river] current like Huck and Jim's Mississippi River afternoons". "No Depression"s Grant Alden wrote, "Welch and Rawlings have gathered ... fragments from across the rich history of American music and reset them as small, subtle jewels adorning their own keenly observed, carefully constructed language." "Time" finished thirteenth in the 2001 "Village Voice" Pazz & Jop music critic poll. "Time (The Revelator)" appeared in best of decade lists of "Rolling Stone", "Paste", "Uncut", "The Irish Times", and the "Ottawa Citizen". The album was nominated for the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album, but lost to Bob Dylan's "Love and Theft". "Time" peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard Independent Album chart.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "The Revelator Collection" DVD was released in 2002. It featured live performances and music videos of songs from "Time", and some covers. The concert footage was filmed in 2001, and the music videos included Welch and Rawlings performing three songs at RCA Studio B. "No Depression"s Barry Mazor praised the DVD as an accompaniment for "Time", calling it "one last exclamation point on that memorable and important project."


title: Gillian Welch

text: For the 2003 release, "Soul Journey", Welch and Rawlings explored new territory. Welch said: "I wanted to make it a happier record. Out of our four records, I thought this might be the one where you're driving down the road listening to it on a sunny summer day." Rawlings again produced the record. The album also reflected a change in the typically sparse instrumentation: Welch and Rawlings introduced a dobro, violin, electric bass and drums, and Welch later said, "Everything's not supposed to sound the same, you want it to reflect change and growth."


title: Gillian Welch

text: In three songs of "Soul Journey," for the first time Welch and Rawlings recorded their own versions of traditional folk songs.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "Soul Journey" also garnered significant acclaim. John Harris of "Mojo" magazine described the album as "pretty much perfect", and "Uncut"s Barney Hoskyns favorably compared it to Bob Dylan and The Band's "The Basement Tapes". Will Hermes of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that Welch has "never sounded deeper, realer, or sexier." "Soul Journey" peaked at No. 107 on the Billboard charts, and reached No. 3 for Independent Albums.


title: Gillian Welch

text: In addition to their work released under the name “Gillian Welch,” Welch and Rawlings have continued to build upon their partnership with several releases under Rawlings’ name. The Rawlings releases generally feature a larger string band and more lush arrangements than their “Gillian Welch” material, and have usually been released under the band name Dave Rawlings Machine. Andy Gill of "The Independent" described the band’s 2009 debut album "A Friend of a Friend" as "akin to one of Welch's albums, but with the balance of their harmonies swapped to favour Rawlings' voice". Welch co-wrote five of the songs with Rawlings, and provided guitar and harmony vocals. Although ostensibly Rawlings' first solo album, Alex Ramon of "PopMatters" noted the similarities to Welch albums. "Paste Magazine"s Stephen Deusner praised "A Friend of a Friend" for incorporating "a wide swath of traditional American music," comments echoed by "Rolling Stone"s Will Hermes and in the "PopMatters" piece.


title: Gillian Welch

text: On September 18, 2015, the duo released their second album under the band title Dave Rawlings Machine, "Nashville Obsolete". The band includes Willie Watson, Paul Kowert, Brittany Haas, and occasionally includes Jordan Tice.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Released on August 11, 2017, "Poor David’s Almanack" was the first Welch/Rawlings collaboration to be released under the name David Rawlings, dropping the previous Dave Rawlings Machine moniker. The song “Cumberland Gap,” which features on the album, was nominated for the 2018 Grammy Award for Best American Roots Song. It was also utilized in the opening sequence of the 2019 Guy Richie film, "The Gentlemen."


title: Gillian Welch

text: In a 2007 feature in "The Guardian", critic John Harris expressed frustration that there had not been a Gillian Welch release in four years. Creation Records founder Alan McGee showed optimism about Welch and Rawlings testing out some new songs while opening some concerts for Rilo Kiley, and wrote in a 2009 blog entry "the long gestation period signals nothing less than a perfect album". In 2009, Rawlings said that recording for the next Gillian Welch album has started, but did not give a release date.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "The Harrow & the Harvest" was released on June 28, 2011. Welch attributed the long time period between releases to dissatisfaction with the songs they were writing. She explained: "Our songcraft slipped and I really don't know why. It's not uncommon. It's something that happens to writers. It's the deepest frustration we have come through, hence the album title." The writing process involved "this endless back and forth between the two of us," Welch said, stating that "It's our most intertwined, co-authored, jointly-composed album."


title: Gillian Welch

text: The album received praise from publications such as "The Los Angeles Times", "Uncut", and" Rolling Stone". Thom Jurek of Allmusic wrote that the album "is stunning for its intimacy, its lack of studio artifice, its warmth and its timeless, if hard won, songcraft".


title: Gillian Welch

text: The album peaked at No. 20 on the US Billboard 200 and No. 25 on the UK Albums Chart. It was nominated for a Grammy for Best Contemporary Folk Album, as well as Best Engineered Album.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "Boots No 1: The Official Revival Bootleg", was released on November 25, 2016. It received the status of 'universal acclaim', receiving a Metascore of 79, based upon eight critic reviews of the album. The album celebrates the 20th anniversary of Welch's debut album, "Revival", and includes outtakes, alternate versions, and demos of the songs featured on the original, as well as eight new unreleased tracks.


title: Gillian Welch

text: In July 2020, Welch and Rawlings announced All the Good Times (Are Past & Gone), an album of covers and traditional songs recorded at their home during the COVID-19 lockdowns of 2020. "All the Good Times" is notably the first album in their decades-long history of collaboration to be released jointly in both of their names. The album won the 2021 Grammy Award for Best Folk Album.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch and Rawlings incorporate elements of early twentieth century music such as old time, classic country, gospel and traditional bluegrass with modern elements of rhythm and blues, rock 'n' roll, jazz, and punk rock. "The New Yorker"s Alec Wilkinson maintained their musical style is "not easily classified—it is at once innovative and obliquely reminiscent of past rural forms".


title: Gillian Welch

text: The instrumentation on their songs is usually a simple arrangement, with Welch and Rawlings accompanying their own vocals with acoustic guitars, banjos, or a mandolin. Welch plays rhythm guitar with a 1956 Gibson J-50 (or banjo), while Rawlings plays lead on a 1935 Epiphone Olympic Guitar. "The New Yorker"s Wilkinson described Rawlings as a "strikingly inventive guitarist" who plays solos that are "daring melodic leaps". A review in "No Depression" by Andy Moore observed that Rawlings "squeezes, strokes, chokes and does just about everything but blow into" his guitar.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Many songs performed by Welch and Rawlings contain dark themes about social outcasts struggling against such elements as poverty, drug addiction, death, a disconnection from their family, and an unresponsive God. Despite Welch being the lead singer, several of these characters are male. Welch has commented, "To be commercial, everybody wants happy love songs. People would flat-out ask me, 'Don't you have any happy love songs?' Well, as a matter of fact, I don't. I've got songs about orphans and morphine addicts." To reflect these themes, Welch and Rawlings often employ a slow pace to their songs. Their tempo is compared to a "slow heartbeat", and Cowperthwait of "Rolling Stone" observed that their songs "can lull you into near-hypnosis and then make your jaw drop with one final revelation".


title: Gillian Welch

text: Geoffrey Himes of "The Washington Post" described Welch as "one of the most interesting singer-songwriters of her generation". In 2003, Tom Kielty of "The Boston Globe" observed that she was "quietly establishing one of the most impressive catalogs in contemporary roots music", and a 2007 piece in "The Guardian" by John Harris called Welch "one of the decade's greatest talents". Critic Robert Hilburn of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "At every turn, she demonstrates a spark and commitment that should endear her to anyone from country and folk to pop and rock fans who appreciate imagination and heart."


title: Gillian Welch

text: When Welch's first two albums came out, critics questioned the authenticity of her music, as she was raised in Southern California, but performed Appalachian themed songs. For "Revival", Welch was criticized for "manufacturing emotion", and a review of "Hell Among the Yearlings" by Chris Herrington of "City Pages" stated, "Welch is someone who discovered old-time music in college and decided that her own sheltered life could never be worth writing about", and that she is "completely devoid of individuality". Other critics rejected the notion that her background affects the authenticity of her music. Music critic Mark Kemp defended Welch in a "The New York Times" piece:


title: Gillian Welch

text: The first-person protagonist of Ms. Welch's song ("Caleb Meyer") may be a young girl from a time and place that Ms. Welch will never fully understand, but the feelings the singer expresses about rape, and the respect she displays for her chosen musical genre, are nothing if not poignantly authentic. Likewise, it matters not whether Ms. Welch has ever walked the streets of "the black dust towns of East Tennessee" about which she sings in "Miner's Refrain" because the sense of foreboding that she expresses for the men who once labored in coal mines with futile hopes of a better life comes through loud and clear.


title: Gillian Welch

text: "The Wall Street Journal"'s Taylor Holliday echoed this: "Stingy critics give Ms. Welch a hard time because she's a California city girl, not an Appalachian coal miner's daughter. But as Lucinda or Emmylou might attest, love of the music is not a birthright, but an earned right. Listen to Ms. Welch yodel, in a tune about that no-good "gal" Morphine, and you know she's as mountain as they come."


title: Gillian Welch

text: On September 16, 2015 the duo was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award for Songwriting by the Americana Music Association.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch emphasizes music from a previous era as her major influence. She said that "by and large I listen to people who are dead. I'm really of the tried-and-true school. I let 50 years go by and see what's really relevant." Welch has acknowledged inspiration from several traditional country artists, including the Stanley Brothers, the Carter Family, the Louvin Brothers, and the Blue Sky Boys. She explained her relationship with traditional music by saying, "I've never tried to be traditional. It's been a springboard for me and I love it and revere it and would not be doing what I do without the music of the Monroe Brothers, the Stanley Brothers and the Carter Family. However, it was clear I was never going to be able to do exactly that; I'm a songwriter."


title: Gillian Welch

text: In addition to the strong country influence, Welch also draws on a repertoire of such rock 'n' roll artists as Bob Dylan, Chuck Berry, Neil Young, the Grateful Dead and the Velvet Underground. She has noted alternative rock bands Throwing Muses, Pixies and Camper Van Beethoven "don't directly inform my music, but they're in there." Her cover of Black Star by Radiohead became well-known and was released as a single in 2005.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch has recorded songs with a variety of notable artists, including Ryan Adams, Ani DiFranco, Emmylou Harris, Jay Farrar, Alison Krauss, Old Crow Medicine Show, Bright Eyes, Robyn Hitchcock, Steve Earle, Ralph Stanley, Sara Watkins, The Decemberists, Solomon Burke and Mark Knopfler. Welch and Rawlings' contributions on Hitchcock's album "Spooked" was described by Christopher Bahn of "The A.V. Club" as "subtle but vital". She later created the cover art for Hitchcock's 2014 album "The Man Upstairs". Mark Deming of Allmusic wrote that their work on Ryan Adams' album "Heartbreaker" "brought out the best in Adams".


title: Gillian Welch

text: Artists who have recorded songs written by Welch include Jimmy Buffett, Alison Krauss and Union Station, Trisha Yearwood, Joan Baez, Brad Mehldau & Chris Thile, Allison Moorer, Emmylou Harris, Miranda Lambert, Madison Cunningham, Kathy Mattea and ZZ Top.


title: Gillian Welch

text: Welch and Rawlings have played many music festivals, including The Newport Folk Festival, Coachella Festival, The Telluride Bluegrass Festival, The Cambridge Folk Festival, Bonnaroo, MerleFest, The Austin City Limits Festival, and Farm Aid. They have toured North America extensively, and have played in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Concert reviews have praised the chemistry between Welch and Rawlings on stage. Tizzy Asher of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" wrote "there was a startling unspoken intimacy between them. They anticipated each other's movements and shifted when necessary to fit each other." On August 6, 2022, they performed on the Grand Ole Opry.


title: Gillian Welch

text: The Dave Rawlings Machine have toured North America, with the band originally composed of Rawlings, Welch and three members of Old Crow Medicine Show. The band is currently composed of Rawlings, Welch, Wilie Watson, Paul Kowert, and Brittany Haas. Welch and Rawlings also participate in group tours with notable musicians. In 2004, they were part of the Sweet Harmony Traveling Revue, a three-week US tour with Patty Griffin, Buddy Miller and Emmylou Harris. In 2009, The Dave Rawlings Machine joined Old Crow Medicine Show, the Felice Brothers and Justin Townes Earle for the Big Surprise Tour, a US tour described as a "roots-music extravaganza". In 2011, Welch was a support act for Buffalo Springfield, who reformed and toured that year.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: "Fuck tha Police" is a protest song by American hip hop group N.W.A that appears on the 1988 album "Straight Outta Compton" as well as on the "N.W.A's Greatest Hits" compilation. The lyrics protest police brutality and racial profiling and the song was ranked number 425 on "Rolling Stone"s 2004 list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 2021, "Rolling Stone" re-ranked the song at number 190 in an updated list.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: Since its release in 1988, the "Fuck the Police" slogan continues to influence pop culture today in the form of T-shirts, artwork, political expression, and has transitioned into other genres as seen in the cover versions by Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, Dope, Rage Against the Machine, and Kottonmouth Kings (featuring Insane Clown Posse).


title: Fuck tha Police

text: "Fuck tha Police" parodies court proceedings inverting them by presenting Dr. Dre as a judge hearing a prosecution of the police department. Three members of the group, Ice Cube, MC Ren, and Eazy-E, take the stand to "testify" before the judge as prosecutors. Through the lyrics, the rappers criticize the local police force. Two interludes present re-enactments of stereotypical racial profiling and police brutality.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: At the end, the jury finds the police department guilty of being a "redneck, white-bread, chickenshit motherfucker." A police officer, which is revealed to be the defendant, contests that the arguments presented were all lies and starts to demand justice as Dr. Dre orders him out of the courtroom, prompting the police officer to yell obscenities as he's led out.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: The song provoked the FBI to write to N.W.A's record company about the lyrics expressing disapproval and arguing that the song misrepresented police.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: In his autobiography "Ruthless", the band's manager Jerry Heller wrote that the letter was actually a rogue action by a "single pissed-off bureaucrat with a bully pulpit" named Milt Ahlerich, who was falsely purporting to represent the FBI as a whole and that the action "earned him a transfer to the Bureau's backwater Hartford office". He also wrote that he removed all sensitive documents from the office of Ruthless Records in case of an FBI raid.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: In the FBI letter, Ahlerich went on to reference "78 law enforcement officers" who were "feloniously slain in the line of duty during 1988" and that recordings such as those produced by N.W.A. "were both discouraging and degrading to these brave, dedicated officers". Ahlerich did not mention any N.W.A. song by name in the letter, but later confirmed he was referring to "Fuck tha Police".


title: Fuck tha Police

text: In 1989, Australian youth radio station Triple J had been playing "Fuck tha Police" (the only radio station in the world to do so) for up to six months, before being banned by Australian Broadcasting Corporation management following a campaign by a South Australian Liberal senator. As a reaction, Triple J staff went on strike and put N.W.A's "Express Yourself" on continuous play from 9am until 4.30pm (AEST), totalling 82 plays. The song was preceded on each occasion by a speech explaining that due to industrial action, normal transmission had been interrupted. It was revealed in 2005 that the scratch sound from that track was sampled for the Triple J news theme.


title: Fuck tha Police

text: On 10 April 2011, New Zealand musician Tiki Taane was arrested on charges of "disorderly behaviour likely to cause violence to start or continue" after performing the song at a gig in a club in Tauranga during an inspection of the club by the police. On 13 April, Tiki told Marcus Lush on Radio Live that the lyrics often feature in his performances and his arrest came as a complete surprise.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Ocean acidification is the reduction in the pH value of the Earth’s ocean. Between 1751 and 2021, the average pH value of the ocean surface has decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14. The root cause of ocean acidification is carbon dioxide emissions from human activities which have led to atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) levels of more than 410 ppm (in 2020). The oceans absorb CO from the atmosphere. This leads to the formation of carbonic acid (HCO) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion () and a hydrogen ion (H). The free hydrogen ions (H) decrease the pH of the ocean, therefore increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH higher than 8). A decrease in pH corresponds to a decrease in the concentration of carbonate ions, which are the main building block for calcium carbonate (CaCO) shells and skeletons. Marine calcifying organisms, like mollusks, oysters and corals, are particularly affected by this as they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The change in pH value from 8.25 to 8.14 represents an increase of almost 30% in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters have the capacity to absorb more CO. This can increase acidity, lowering the pH and carbonate saturation states in these regions. Other factors that affect the atmosphere-ocean CO exchange, and therefore impact local ocean acidification, include: ocean currents and upwelling zones, proximity to large continental rivers, sea ice coverage, and atmospheric exchange with nitrogen and sulfur from fossil fuel burning and agriculture.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Decreased ocean pH has a range of potentially harmful effects for marine organisms. These include reduced calcification, depressed metabolic rates, lowered immune responses, and reduced energy for basic functions such as reproduction. The effects of ocean acidification are therefore impacting marine ecosystems that provide food, livelihoods, and other ecosystem services for a large portion of humanity. Some 1 billion people are wholly or partially dependent on the fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by coral reefs. Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten future food chains linked with the oceans.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("Life below Water") has a target to "minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification". Reducing carbon dioxide emissions (i.e. climate change mitigation measures) is the only solution that addresses the root cause of ocean acidification. Mitigation measures which achieve carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere would help to reverse ocean acidification. The more specific ocean-based mitigation methods (e.g. ocean alkalinity enhancement, enhanced weathering) could also reduce ocean acidification. These strategies are being researched but generally have a low technology readiness level and many risks.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history. The resulting ecological collapse in the oceans had long-lasting effects on the global carbon cycle and climate.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Present-day (2021) atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) levels of around 415 ppm are around 50% higher than preindustrial concentrations. The current elevated levels and rapid growth rates are unprecedented in the past 55 million years of the geological record. The source for this excess CO is clearly established as human driven, reflecting a mix of anthropogenic fossil fuel, industrial, and land-use/land-change emissions. The ocean acts as a carbon sink for anthropogenic CO and takes up roughly a quarter of total anthropogenic CO emissions. However, the additional CO in the ocean results in a wholesale shift in seawater acid-base chemistry toward more acidic, lower pH conditions and lower saturation states for carbonate minerals used in many marine organism shells and skeletons.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Cumulated since 1850, the ocean sink holds up to 175 ± 35 gigatons of carbon, with more than two-thirds of this amount (120 GtC) being taken up by the global ocean since 1960. Over the historical period, the ocean sink increased in pace with the exponential anthropogenic emissions increase. From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26 % of total anthropogenic emissions. Emissions during the period 1850–2021 amounted to 670 ± 65 gigatons of carbon and were partitioned among the atmosphere (41 %), ocean (26 %), and land (31 %).


title: Ocean acidification

text: The carbon cycle describes the fluxes of carbon dioxide () between the oceans, terrestrial biosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. The carbon cycle involves both organic compounds such as cellulose and inorganic carbon compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonate ion, and bicarbonate ion, together referenced as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). These inorganic compounds are particularly significant in ocean acidification, as they include many forms of dissolved present in the Earth's oceans.


title: Ocean acidification

text: When dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide (), carbonic acid (), bicarbonate () and carbonate (). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as seawater temperature, pressure and salinity (as shown in a Bjerrum plot). These different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's solubility pump. The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric is known as the Revelle factor.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The ocean’s chemistry is changing due to the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO). Ocean pH, carbonate ion concentrations ([CO]), and calcium carbonate mineral saturation states (Ω) have been declining as a result of the uptake of approximately 30% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions over the past 270 years (since around 1750). This process is commonly referred to as “ocean acidification”. Ocean acidification is making it harder for marine calcifiers to build a shell or skeletal structure, endangering coral reefs and the broader marine ecosystems.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Ocean acidification has been called the "evil twin of global warming" and "the other CO problem". Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute the "deadly trio" of climate change pressures on the marine environment. The impacts of this will be most severe for coral reefs and other shelled marine organisms, as well as those populations that depend on the ecosystem services they provide.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Dissolving in seawater increases the hydrogen ion () concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH, as follows:


title: Ocean acidification

text: In shallow coastal and shelf regions, a number of factors interplay to affect air-ocean exchange and resulting pH change. These include biological processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration, as well as water upwelling. Also, ecosystem metabolism in freshwater sources reaching coastal waters can lead to large, but local, pH changes.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Freshwater bodies also appear to be acidifying, although this is a more complex and less obvious phenomenon.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells out of calcium carbonate (). This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the precipitation of dissolved ions into solid structures, structures for many marine organisms, such as coccolithophores, foraminifera, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. After they are formed, these structures are vulnerable to dissolution unless the surrounding seawater contains saturating concentrations of carbonate ions (CO).


title: Ocean acidification

text: Given the current pH of the ocean (around 8.14), of the extra carbon dioxide added into the ocean, very little remains as dissolved carbon dioxide. The majority dissociates into additional bicarbonate and free hydrogen ions. The increase in hydrogen is larger than the increase in bicarbonate, creating an imbalance in the reaction HCO ⇌ CO + H. To maintain chemical equilibrium, some of the carbonate ions already in the ocean combine with some of the hydrogen ions to make further bicarbonate. Thus the ocean's concentration of carbonate ions is reduced, removing an essential building block for marine organisms to build shells, or calcify: Ca + CO ⇌ CaCO.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The increase in concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, and reduction in carbonate, are shown in the Bjerrum plot.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The saturation state (known as Ω) of seawater for a mineral is a measure of the thermodynamic potential for the mineral to form or to dissolve, and for calcium carbonate is described by the following equation:


title: Ocean acidification

text: Here Ω is the product of the concentrations (or activities) of the reacting ions that form the mineral (Ca2+ and CO2−3), divided by the apparent solubility product at equilibrium (Ksp), that is, when the rates of precipitation and dissolution are equal. In seawater, dissolution boundary is formed as a result of temperature, pressure, and depth, and is known as the saturation horizon. Above this saturation horizon, Ω has a value greater than 1, and does not readily dissolve. Most calcifying organisms live in such waters. Below this depth, Ω has a value less than 1, and will dissolve. The carbonate compensation depth is the ocean depth at which carbonate dissolution balances the supply of carbonate to sea floor, therefore sediment below this depth will be void of calcium carbonate. Increasing levels, and the resulting lower pH of seawater, decreases the concentration of CO and the saturation state of therefore increasing dissolution.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Calcium carbonate most commonly occurs in two common polymorphs (crystalline forms): aragonite and calcite. Aragonite is much more soluble than calcite, so the aragonite saturation horizon, and aragonite compensation depth, is always nearer to the surface than the calcite saturation horizon. This also means that those organisms that produce aragonite may be more vulnerable to changes in ocean acidity than those that produce calcite. Ocean acidification and the resulting decrease in carbonate saturation states raise the saturation horizons of both forms closer to the surface. This decrease in saturation state is one of the main factors leading to decreased calcification in marine organisms because the inorganic precipitation of is directly proportional to its saturation state and calcifying organisms exhibit stress in waters with lower saturation states.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Already now large quantities of water undersaturated in aragonite are upwelling close to the Pacific continental shelf area of North America, from Vancouver to Northern California. These continental shelves play an important role in marine ecosystems, since most marine organisms live or are spawned there. Other shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.


title: Ocean acidification

text: At depths of 1000s of meters in the ocean, calcium carbonate shells begin to dissolve as increasing pressure and decreasing temperature shift the chemical equilibria controlling calcium carbonate precipitation. The depth at which this occurs is known as the carbonate compensation depth. Ocean acidification will increase such dissolution and shallow the carbonate compensation depth on timescales of tens to hundreds of years. Zones of downwelling are being affected first.


title: Ocean acidification

text: In the North Pacific and North Atlantic, saturation states are also decreasing (the depth of saturation is getting more shallow). Ocean acidification is progressing in the open ocean as the CO travels to deeper depth as a result of ocean mixing. In the open ocean, this causes carbonate compensation depths to become more shallow, meaning that dissolution of calcium carbonate will occur below those depths. In the North Pacific these carbonate saturations depths are shallowing at a rate of 1-2 m per year.


title: Ocean acidification

text: It is expected that ocean acidification in the future will lead to a significant decrease in the burial of carbonate sediments for several centuries, and even the dissolution of existing carbonate sediments. This will cause an elevation of ocean alkalinity, leading to the enhancement of the ocean as a reservoir for CO which would cause further invasion of CO from the atmosphere to the ocean.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Between 1751 (the beginning of the industrial revolution) and 2021, the average pH value of the ocean surface is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14. This represents an increase of almost 30% in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). For example, in the 15-year period 1995–2010 alone, acidity has increased 6 percent in the upper 100 meters of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Alaska.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2021 stated that "present-day surface pH values are unprecedented for at least 26,000 years and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time. The pH value of the ocean interior has declined over the last 20-30 years everywhere in the global ocean. The report also found that "pH in open ocean surface water has declined by about 0.017 to 0.027 pH units per decade since the late 1980s".


title: Ocean acidification

text: The rate of decline differs by region. This is due to complex interactions between different types of forcing mechanisms: "In the tropical Pacific, its central and eastern upwelling zones exhibited a faster pH decline of minus 0.022 to minus 0.026 pH unit per decade." This is thought to be "due to increased upwelling of CO2-rich sub-surface waters in addition to anthropogenic CO2 uptake." Some regions exhibited a slower acidification rate: a pH decline of minus 0.010 to minus 0.013 pH unit per decade has been observed in warm pools in the western tropical Pacific.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The rate at which ocean acidification will occur may be influenced by the rate of surface ocean warming, because warm waters will not absorb as much . Therefore, greater seawater warming could limit CO absorption and lead to a smaller change in pH for a given increase in CO. The difference in changes in temperature between basins is one of the main reasons for the differences in acidification rates in different localities.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Current rates of ocean acidification have been likened to the greenhouse event at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary (about 56 million years ago), when surface ocean temperatures rose by 5–6 degrees Celsius. In that event, surface ecosystems experienced a variety of impacts, but bottom-dwelling organisms in the deep ocean actually experienced a major extinction. Currently, the rate of carbon addition to the atmosphere-ocean system is about ten times the rate that occurred at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Extensive observational systems are now in place or being built for monitoring seawater CO2 chemistry and acidification for both the global open ocean and some coastal systems.


title: Ocean acidification

text: An important aspect to realize with ocean acidification that is happening today is that the rate of change is much higher than the geologic past. This higher rate of change is what prevents organisms from gradually adapting, or for climate cycle feedbacks to kick in to mitigate ocean acidification. Current ocean acidification is now on a path to reach lower pH levels than at any other point in the last 300 million years. The rate of ocean acidification (i.e. the speed of change in pH value) is also estimated to be unprecedented over that same time scale. These expected changes are considered unprecedented in the geological record. In combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes, this drop in pH value could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean beginning as early as 2100.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The extent of further chemistry changes, including ocean pH, will depend on climate change mitigation efforts taken by nations and their governments. Different scenarios of projected socioeconomic global changes are modelled by using the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) scenarios.


title: Ocean acidification

text: If the 'business as usual' model for human activity persists (where little effort is made to curb greenhouse gas emissions, leading to a very high emission scenario called SSP5-8.5), model projections estimate that surface ocean pH could decrease by as much as 0.44 units compared to the present day by the end of the century. This would mean a pH as low as about 7.7, and represents a further increase in H+ concentrations of two to four times beyond the increase to date.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history. It happened during the Capitanian mass extinction, at the end-Permian extinction, during the end-Triassic extinction, and during the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Three of the big five mass extinction events in the geologic past were associated with a rapid increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, probably due to volcanism and/or thermal dissociation of marine gas hydrates. Elevated CO levels impacted biodiversity. Decreased CaCO3 saturation due to seawater uptake of volcanogenic CO has been suggested as a possible kill mechanism during the marine mass extinction at the end of the Triassic. The end-Triassic biotic crisis is still the most well-established example of a marine mass extinction due to ocean acidification, because (a) carbon isotope records suggest enhanced volcanic activity that decreased the carbonate sedimentation which reduced the carbonate compensation depth and the carbonate saturation state, and a marine extinction coincided precisely in the stratigraphic record, and (b) there was pronounced selectivity of the extinction against organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons, which is predicted from experimental studies. Ocean acidification has also been suggested as a one cause of the end-Permian mass extinction and the end-Cretaceous crisis. Overall, multiple climatic stressors, including ocean acidification, was likely the cause of geologic extinction events.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The most notable example of ocean acidification is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which occurred approximately 56 million years ago when massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments across many ocean basins. Relatively new geochemical methods of testing for pH in the past indicate the pH dropped 0.3 units across the PETM. One study that solves the marine carbonate system for saturation state shows that it may not change much over the PETM, suggesting the rate of carbon release at our best geological analogy was much slower than human-induced carbon emissions. However, stronger proxy methods to test for saturation state are needed to assess how much this pH change may have affected calcifying organisms.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The full ecological consequences of the changes in calcification due to ocean acidification are complex but it appears likely that many calcifying species will be adversely affected by ocean acidification. Increasing ocean acidification makes it more difficult for shell-accreting organisms to access carbonate ions, essential for the production of their hard exoskeletal shell. Oceanic calcifying organism span the food chain from autotrophs to heterotrophs and include organisms such as coccolithophores, corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans and molluscs.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Overall, all marine ecosystems on Earth will be exposed to changes in acidification and several other ocean biogeochemical changes. Ocean acidification may force some organisms to reallocate resources away from productive endpoints in order to maintain calcification. For example, the oyster "Magallana gigas" is recognized to experience metabolic changes alongside altered calcification rates due to energetic tradeoffs resulting from pH imbalances.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Under normal conditions, calcite and aragonite are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ions are supersaturated with respect to seawater. However, as ocean pH falls, the concentration of carbonate ions also decreases. Calcium carbonate thus becomes undersaturated, and structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to calcification stress and dissolution. In particular, studies show that corals, coccolithophores, coralline algae, foraminifera, shellfish and pteropods experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated . Even with active marine conservation practices it may be impossible to bring back many previous shellfish populations.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Some studies have found different responses to ocean acidification, with coccolithophore calcification and photosynthesis both increasing under elevated atmospheric p, and an equal decline in primary production and calcification in response to elevated , or the direction of the response varying between species.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Reduced calcification from ocean acidification may affect the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere to the ocean interior and seafloor sediment, weakening the so-called biological pump. Seawater acidification could also reduce the size of Antarctic phytoplankton, making them less effective at storing carbon. Such changes are being increasingly studied and synthesized through the use of physiological frameworks, including the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework.


title: Ocean acidification

text: A coccolithophore is a unicellular, eukaryotic phytoplankton (alga). Understanding calcification changes in coccolithophores may be particularly important because a decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate: it could contribute to global warming by decreasing the Earth's albedo via their effects on oceanic cloud cover. A study in 2008 examining a sediment core from the North Atlantic found that while the species composition of coccolithophorids remained unchanged for the industrial period 1780 to 2004, the calcification of coccoliths has increased by up to 40% during the same time.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Warm water corals are clearly in decline, with losses of 50% over the last 30-50 years due to multiple threats from ocean warming, ocean acidification, pollution and physical damage from activities such as fishing, and these pressures are expected to intensify.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The fluid in the internal compartments (the coelenteron) where corals grow their exoskeleton is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens, the process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on the aragonite saturation state in the surrounding water, the corals may halt growth because pumping aragonite into the internal compartment will not be energetically favorable. Under the current progression of carbon emissions, around 70% of North Atlantic cold-water corals will be living in corrosive waters by 2050–60.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Acidified conditions primarily reduce the coral’s capacity to build dense exoskeletons, rather than affecting the linear extension of the exoskeleton. The density of some species of corals could be reduced by over 20% by the end of this century.


title: Ocean acidification

text: An "in situ" experiment, conducted on a 400 m2 patch of the Great Barrier Reef, to decrease seawater CO level (raise pH) to near the preindustrial value showed a 7% increase in net calcification. A similar experiment to raise in situ seawater CO level (lower pH) to a level expected soon after the 2050 found that net calcification decreased 34%.


title: Ocean acidification

text: However, a field study of the coral reef in Queensland and Western Australia from 2007 to 2012 found that corals are more resistant to the environmental pH changes than previously thought, due to internal homeostasis regulation; this makes thermal change (marine heatwaves), which leads to coral bleaching, rather than acidification, the main factor for coral reef vulnerability due to climate change.


title: Ocean acidification

text: In some places carbon dioxide bubbles out from the sea floor, locally changing the pH and other aspects of the chemistry of the seawater. Studies of these carbon dioxide seeps have documented a variety of responses by different organisms. Coral reef communities located near carbon dioxide seeps are of particular interest because of the sensitivity of some corals species to acidification. In Papua New Guinea, declining pH caused by carbon dioxide seeps is associated with declines in coral species diversity. However, in Palau carbon dioxide seeps are not associated with reduced species diversity of corals, although bioerosion of coral skeletons is much higher at low pH sites.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Pteropods and brittle stars both form the base of the Arctic food webs and are both seriously damaged from acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and the brittle stars lose muscle mass when re-growing appendages. For pteropods to create shells they require aragonite which is produced through carbonate ions and dissolved calcium and strontium. Pteropods are severely affected because increasing acidification levels have steadily decreased the amount of water supersaturated with carbonate. The degradation of organic matter in Arctic waters has amplified ocean acidification; some Arctic waters are already undersaturated with respect to aragonite.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from Arctic acidification. Similarly, when exposed in experiments to pH reduced by 0.2 to 0.4, larvae of a temperate brittle star, a relative of the common sea star, fewer than 0.1 percent survived more than eight days.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Aside from the slowing and/or reversal of calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects, either indirectly through negative impacts on food resources, or directly as reproductive or physiological effects. For example, the elevated oceanic levels of may produce -induced acidification of body fluids, known as hypercapnia.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Increasing acidity has been observed to reduce metabolic rates in jumbo squid and depress the immune responses of blue mussels. This is possibly because ocean acidification may alter the acoustic properties of seawater, allowing sound to propagate further, and increasing ocean noise. This impacts all animals that use sound for echolocation or communication. Atlantic longfin squid eggs took longer to hatch in acidified water, and the squid's statolith was smaller and malformed in animals placed in sea water with a lower pH. However, these studies are ongoing and there is not yet a full understanding of these processes in marine organisms or ecosystems.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Another possible effect would be an increase in harmful algal bloom events, which could contribute to the accumulation of toxins (domoic acid, brevetoxin, saxitoxin) in small organisms such as anchovies and shellfish, in turn increasing occurrences of amnesic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and paralytic shellfish poisoning. Although algal blooms can be harmful, other beneficial photosynthetic organisms may benefit from increased levels of carbon dioxide. Most importantly, seagrasses will benefit. Research found that as seagrasses increased their photosynthetic activity, calcifying algae's calcification rates rose, likely because localized photosynthetic activity absorbed carbon dioxide and elevated local pH.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Ocean acidification can also have affects on marine fish larvae. It internally affects their olfactory systems, which is a crucial part of their development, especially in the beginning stage of their life. Orange clownfish larvae mostly live on oceanic reefs that are surrounded by vegetative islands. With the use of their sense of smell, larvae are known to be able to detect the differences between reefs surrounded by vegetative islands and reefs not surrounded by vegetative islands. Clownfish larvae need to be able to distinguish between these two destinations to have the ability to locate an area that is satisfactory for their growth. Another use for marine fish olfactory systems is to help in determining the difference between their parents and other adult fish in order to avoid inbreeding.


title: Ocean acidification

text: In an experimental aquarium facility, clownfish were sustained in non-manipulated seawater that obtained a pH of 8.15 ± 0.07 which is similar to our current ocean's pH. To test for effects of different pH levels, seawater was manipulated to three different pH levels, including the non-manipulated pH. The two opposing pH levels correspond with climate change models that predict future atmospheric levels. In the year 2100 the model predicts that we could potentially acquire levels at 1,000 ppm, which correlates with the pH of 7.8 ± 0.05.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Results of this experiment show that when larvae is exposed to a pH of 7.8 ± 0.05 their reaction to environmental cues differs drastically to larvae's reaction to cues in a non-manipulated pH. At the pH of 7.6 ± 0.05 larvae had no reaction to any type of cue. However, a meta-analysis published in 2022 found that the effect sizes of published studies testing for ocean acidification effects on fish behavior have declined by an order of magnitude over the past decade and have been negligible for the past five years.


title: Ocean acidification

text: There is a substantial body of research showing that a combination of ocean acidification and elevated ocean temperature have a compounded effect on marine life and the ocean environment. This effect far exceeds the individual harmful impact of either. In addition, ocean warming, along with increased productivity of phytoplankton from higher CO levels exacerbates ocean deoxygenation. Deoxygenation of ocean waters is an additional stressor on marine organisms that increases ocean stratification therefore limiting nutrients over time and reducing biological gradients.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Meta analyses have quantified the direction and magnitude of the harmful effects of combined ocean acidification, warming and deoxygenation on the ocean. These meta-analyses have been further tested by mesocosm studies that simulated the interaction of these stressors and found a catastrophic effect on the marine food web: thermal stress more than negates any primary producer to herbivore increase in productivity from elevated CO2.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The increase of ocean acidity decelerates the rate of calcification in salt water, leading to smaller and slower growing coral reefs which supports approximately 25% of marine life. Impacts are far-reaching from fisheries and coastal environments down to the deepest depths of the ocean. The increase in ocean acidity in not only killing the coral, but also the wildly diverse population of marine inhabitants which coral reefs support.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The threat of acidification includes a decline in commercial fisheries and the coast-based tourism industry. Several ocean goods and services are likely to be undermined by future ocean acidification potentially affecting the livelihoods of some 400 to 800 million people, depending upon the greenhouse gas emission scenario.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Some 1 billion people are wholly or partially dependent on the fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by coral reefs. Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten future food chains linked with the oceans.


title: Ocean acidification

text: In the Arctic, commercial fisheries are threatened because acidification harms calcifying organisms which form the base of the Arctic food webs (pteropods and brittle stars, see above).  Acidification threatens Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are "a key prey item of a number of higher predators – larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales". Both pteropods and sea stars serve as a substantial food source and their removal from the simple food web would pose a serious threat to the whole ecosystem. The effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries.


title: Ocean acidification

text: The value of fish caught from US commercial fisheries in 2007 was valued at $3.8 billion and of that 73% was derived from calcifiers and their direct predators. Other organisms are directly harmed as a result of acidification. For example, decrease in the growth of marine calcifiers such as the American lobster, ocean quahog, and scallops means there is less shellfish meat available for sale and consumption. Red king crab fisheries are also at a serious threat because crabs are also calcifiers. Baby red king crab when exposed to increased acidification levels experienced 100% mortality after 95 days. In 2006, red king crab accounted for 23% of the total guideline harvest levels and a serious decline in red crab population would threaten the crab harvesting industry.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Acidification will affect the way of life of indigenous peoples. Sport fishing and hunting are both culturally important to Arctic Indigenous peoples.The rapid decrease or disappearance of marine life could also affect the diet of Indigenous peoples. For example, in Washington State and California (United States), Native American communities report potential damage to shellfish resources due to sea level rise and ocean acidification.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Reducing carbon dioxide emissions (i.e. climate change mitigation measures) is the only solution that addresses the root cause of ocean acidification. For example, some mitigation measures focus on carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere (e.g. direct air capture (DAC), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)). These would also slow the rate of acidification.


title: Ocean acidification

text: Approaches that remove carbon dioxide from the ocean include ocean nutrient fertilization, artificial upwelling/downwelling, seaweed farming, ecosystem recovery, ocean alkalinity enhancement, enhanced weathering and electrochemical processes. All of these methods use the ocean to remove from the atmosphere to store it in the ocean. These methods could assist with mitigation but they can have side-effects on marine life. The research field for all CDR methods has grown a lot since 2019.


title: Ocean acidification

text: In total, "ocean-based methods have a combined potential to remove 1–100 gigatons of per year". Their costs are in the order of USD40–500 per ton of . For example, enhanced weathering could remove 2–4 gigatons of per year. This technology comes with a cost of 50-200 USD per ton of .


title: Ocean acidification

text: Some carbon removal techniques add alkalinity to the ocean and therefore immediately buffer pH changes which might help the organisms in the region that the extra alkalinity is added to. The two technologies that fall into this category are ocean alkalinity enhancement and electrochemical methods. Eventually, due to diffusion, that alkalinity addition will be quite small to distant waters. This is why the term "local ocean acidification mitigation" is used. Both of these technologies have the potential to operate on a large scale and to be efficient at removing carbon dioxide. However, they are expensive, have many risks and side effects and currently have a low technology readiness level.