text: In Ontario, snowfall warnings were issued in advance of the winter storm. School bus service was cancelled across the Greater Toronto Area, and schools were completely closed in Halton and Durham. of snow fell in Windsor, at Toronto Pearson International Airport and fell in Ottawa. The highest totals in the region were the over in and around the Hamilton and Niagara Region.


title: February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm

text: The storm was shortly followed by another major winter storm a few days later, which caused at least an additional 29 fatalities and $2 billion (2021 USD) in damage, worsening the 2021 Texas power crisis and hampering recovery efforts in the state.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Hainanese chicken rice is a dish of poached chicken and seasoned rice, served with chilli sauce and usually with cucumber garnishes. It was created by immigrants from Hainan in southern China and adapted from the Hainanese dish Wenchang chicken.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: It is considered one of the national dishes of Singapore and is most commonly associated with Singaporean cuisine, being widely available in most food courts and hawker centres around the country. Variants of the dish can also be seen throughout Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia and Thailand, where it remains a culinary staple.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Hainanese chicken rice is a dish adapted from early Chinese immigrants originally from Hainan province in southern China. It is based on a well-known Hainanese dish called Wenchang chicken (), which is one of four important Hainan dishes dating to the Qin dynasty. The Hainanese in China traditionally used a specific breed, the Wenchang chicken, to make the dish. They would usually cook rice with the leftover chicken stock to create a dish known as "Wenchang chicken rice". The original dish was adapted by the Hainanese overseas Chinese population in the Nanyang area (present-day Southeast Asia).


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Almost every country in Asia with a history of immigration from China has a version. The San Francisco Chronicle says, "the dish maps 150 years’ immigration from China's Hainan Island...to Singapore and Malaysia, where the dish is often known as Hainan chicken rice; to Vietnam, where it is called "Hai Nam chicken"; and to Thailand, where it has been renamed "khao man gai" ("fatty rice chicken")."


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In Singapore, the dish was born out of frugality, created by servant-class immigrants trying to stretch the flavour of the chicken.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The first chicken rice restaurants opened in Singapore during Japanese occupation in World War II, when the British were forced out and their Hainanese servants lost their source of income. One of the first was Yet Con, which opened in the early 1940s. There were also sources stating that Wang Yiyuan, a street hawker first started selling "chicken rice balls wrapped in banana leaves " in Singapore during the 1920s. The dish was popularised in Singapore in the 1950s by Moh Lee Twee, whose Swee Kee Chicken Rice Restaurant operated from 1947 to 1997. Hong Kong food critic Chua Lam credits Moh with the creation of the dish.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Hainanese chicken rice is considered one of Singapore's national dishes. It is eaten "everywhere, every day" in Singapore and is a "ubiquitous sight in hawker centres across the country". The chicken is typically served with seasoned rice, with chilli sauce and usually with cucumber garnishes. While most commonly associated with Singaporean cuisine, the dish is also seen throughout Southeast Asia and in parts of the United States, where the dish is named "Singapore chicken rice" in some places. The dish is widely popular in Singapore and can be found in hawker centres, restaurants and hotels.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In August 2021, Singapore's McDonald's launched a Hainanese Chicken burger which is significantly derived from the dish, in part of the country's celebration for National Day which falls on 9 August.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In a debate that stretches back decades to 1965, when the two countries split, Malaysia and Singapore have both laid claim to inventing the dish.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In 2009, then Malaysian Tourism Minister Ng Yen Yen said that Hainanese chicken rice was "uniquely Malaysian" and had been "hijacked" by other countries. Ng later clarified that she was misquoted on her intention to patent the foods, and that a study on the origins of the foods would be conducted "and an apology conveyed if it was wrongly claimed."


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In 2018, then Malaysian Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng joked that Singapore claimed "chicken rice is theirs (and) if we’re not careful, ‘char koay teow‘ will become theirs" one day.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Catherine Ling of "CNN" called Hainanese chicken rice one of the "40 Singapore foods we can't live without". It was listed as one of the "World's 50 best foods" by CNN in 2018. David Farley of the BBC called it "the dish worth the 15-hour flight" and said it was "deceptively simple – which is good, because on paper it sounds awfully boring." "Saveur" called it "one of the most beloved culinary exports of Southeast Asia."


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In Malaysia, "nasi ayam" (literally "chicken rice" in Bahasa Melayu) is "a culinary staple" and a popular street food, particularly in Ipoh, a center of Hainanese immigration.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The general term "nasi ayam" can refer to multiple variations including roasted and fried chicken, can be served with a variety of sauces including barbecue, and can be accompanied by a variety of side dishes including steamed rice rather than seasoned 'oily' rice, soup, or chicken offal.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: In Malacca and Muar, the rice is served in balls rather than in bowls; this dish is commonly known as "Chicken rice balls". Steamed rice is shaped into golf ball-sized orbs and served alongside the chopped chicken.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The chicken is prepared in accordance with traditional Hainanese methods, which involve poaching the entire chicken at sub-boiling temperatures to both cook the bird and produce the stock. The bird is dipped in ice after cooking to produce a jelly-like skin finishing and hung to dry.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The stock is skimmed of fat and some of the fat and liquid, along with ginger, garlic, and pandan leaves, are used in the cooking of the rice, producing an oily, flavourful rice sometimes known as "oily rice". In Singapore "the most important part of chicken rice is not the chicken, but the rice."


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The dish is served with a dipping sauce of freshly minced red chilli and garlic, usually accompanied with dark soy sauce and freshly ground ginger. Fresh cucumber boiled in the chicken broth and light soy sauce with a dash of sesame oil is served with the chicken, which is usually served at room temperature. Some stalls may also serve nonya achar as an additional side.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: Hainanese chicken rice is a common dish in Thailand where it is called "khao man kai" (), literally meaning "chicken oily rice". The chickens used in Thailand for this dish are usually free range chickens of local breeds, resulting in a leaner and tastier texture; however, meat from chickens of large scale poultry farms are increasingly being used. "Khao man kai" is served with a garnish of cucumbers and occasionally chicken blood tofu and fresh coriander, along with a bowl of "nam sup", a clear chicken broth which often contains sliced daikon. The accompanying sauce is most often made with tauchu (also known as yellow soybean paste), thick soy sauce, chilli, ginger, garlic and vinegar.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: One famous Bangkok neighbourhood for "Khao man kai" is Pratunam in Ratchathewi district, located near to Platinum Fashion Mall, CentralWorld and Ratchaprasong Intersection. Some restaurant in Pratunam received Bib Gourmand awards from the 2018 Michelin Guide. It has been reported that these restaurants are especially popular amongst Hong Kong, Japanese and Taiwanese tourists. "Khao man kai" is also well known in other areas, including Bang Sue, Yaowarat and Phasi Charoen near Bang Wa BTS station and Phyathai 3 Hospital including various places viz Thanon Tok near Rama III Bridge, Thong Lor on Sukhumvit Road, Wat Suthiwararam School, Yan Nawa, Bang Kapi, Wat Saket and Saphan Kwai neighbourhoods.


title: Hainanese chicken rice

text: The dish is known as "Cơm Gà Hải Nam" in Vietnamese, and was common in South Vietnam prior to the Fall of Saigon.


title: Cleveland Abduction

text: Cleveland Abduction is a 2015 American crime drama television film directed by Alex Kalymnios from a teleplay written by Stephen Tolkin. Based on the Ariel Castro kidnappings, the film stars Taryn Manning, Raymond Cruz and Joe Morton. It debuted May 2, 2015 on Lifetime.


title: Cleveland Abduction

text: In Cleveland, Ohio, Michelle Knight (Manning) a 21-year-old single mother had lost custody of her son. On August 23, 2002, Knight was on her way to the court when she accepted a ride from her acquaintance Ariel Castro (Cruz), who was the father of a schoolmate. However, Castro abducted Knight and held her captive in his home. Finding strength through her belief in God and determined to be reunited with her son, Knight refused to be broken down by Castro. Soon thereafter Castro kidnaps and rapes two more girls, Amanda Berry (Droke) and Georgina "Gina" DeJesus (Sarife). These girls too become imprisoned along with Knight. They become friends and fellow victims; treat each other as sisters through their years in captivity.


title: Cleveland Abduction

text: When Berry became pregnant with Castro's child, it was Knight who delivered her baby, even performing CPR on the infant girl under the threat of Castro killing her if Berry's child didn't survive. Despite enduring more than a decade of brutality and captivity, Knight's spirit would not be broken as her faith in the face of what she once thought would be a hopeless situation was a testament to the human spirit. On May 6, 2013, Berry succeeds in escaping from the house and the police arrive and released the women. Knight is finally given the chance to reclaim her life after nearly 11 years of captivity.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Francesc "Tito" Vilanova Bayó (17 September 1968 – 25 April 2014) was a Spanish professional football central midfielder and manager.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: After a career which consisted of a total of 26 La Liga matches in three seasons, all with Celta, he went on to work with Barcelona as an assistant coach under Pep Guardiola, being part of the squad that had won 14 titles.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Vilanova was appointed as first-team manager in 2012, winning La Liga in his only season. He stepped down in July 2013 due to ill health, and died the next year from throat cancer.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Born in Bellcaire d'Empordà, Girona, Catalonia, Vilanova emerged in the youth ranks of local FC Barcelona, but left the La Liga giants in 1990 unable to break through into the first team. His next club was also in his native region, UE Figueres, with the player helping to its best-ever Segunda División classification in the 1991–92 campaign (third place); the team would eventually face Cádiz CF in the promotion play-offs, losing 3–1 on aggregate.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Subsequently, Vilanova moved to the top division with RC Celta de Vigo, but appeared rarely over three full seasons, returning to division two in 1995 and representing CD Badajoz, RCD Mallorca – contributing ten matches as the Balearic Islands side promoted to the top flight – UE Lleida and Elche CF, retiring in December 2001 with lowly UDA Gramenet.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: During his time at Lleida, in a 1998 Copa Catalunya game against Barcelona, coached by José Mourinho who swapped responsibilities with head coach Louis van Gaal during the tournament, Vilanova scored a goal, becoming the first player to net against a team directed by the Portuguese.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Vilanova started his coaching career in 2003–04, being in charge of Tercera División side FC Palafrugell and suffering relegation to Primera Catalana. After working as technical director at Terrassa FC he was appointed assistant manager at FC Barcelona B, under manager Pep Guardiola, with the team in the fourth tier.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: In the summer of 2008, after leading the reserves to promotion to Segunda División B, Vilanova and Guardiola were assigned to the first team, replacing Dutch duo Frank Rijkaard and Johan Neeskens. His first year at the Camp Nou was the most successful in the club's history, with the side winning six major trophies and becoming the first in Spain to conquer the Copa del Rey, league and UEFA Champions League titles (the treble) in the same season.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: On 27 April 2012, at the press conference in which Barcelona confirmed Guardiola's departure, it was also announced that Vilanova would be his successor; on 15 June, he signed a two-year contract. The same year, Lionel Messi revealed that Vilanova was the first coach at the club to trust him, and made him a starter for their under-16 teams.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Vilanova managed to field 11 academy graduates at the same time in a league game against Levante UD on 25 November 2012, after Dani Alves left with an injury early on and was replaced by Martín Montoya. His team went on to lose only eight competitive matches during the campaign, scoring at least once in every league fixture and winning their 22nd domestic championship by a record margin of 15 points, totalling 100 in the process.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: On 19 December 2012, Barcelona announced that Vilanova was suffering from parotid gland cancer for the second time. He was first diagnosed on 22 November of the previous year.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Vilanova underwent surgery on 20 December 2012, subsequently being in chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatment for around six weeks. Assistant Jordi Roura took over as head coach, with Vilanova returning to the bench in late March 2013.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: On 19 July 2013, Vilanova resigned as Barcelona manager as he relapsed from his condition, stating that the related treatment was not compatible with the status of a professional manager. He died on 25 April 2014, due to complications from cancer, at the age of 45 after suffering a relapse the previous week.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: Vilanova was married to Montse Chaure. The couple had two children, daughter Carlota and son Adrià, with the latter also being involved in Barcelona's youth system.


title: Tito Vilanova

text: In 2013, while Vilanova was in New York City for his cancer treatment, Guardiola was also living in the city on a sabbatical. He was disappointed that Guardiola did not come to see him stating, "He's my friend and I needed him, but he wasn't there for me."


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Birth is a 2004 American drama film directed by Jonathan Glazer and starring Nicole Kidman, Lauren Bacall, Danny Huston, Anne Heche, and Cameron Bright. The film follows Anna, who becomes convinced that her dead husband Sean is reincarnated as a ten-year-old boy.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Distributed by New Line Cinema, the film polarized critics upon release and grossed $23.9 million against its $20 million budget.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Sean and Anna are a married couple living in New York City. While scenes of Central Park are shown on screen, Sean is heard lecturing to an unseen audience, explaining that he does not believe in reincarnation. After the lecture he goes jogging, collapses, and dies. Ten years later, Anna has accepted a marriage proposal from her boyfriend, Joseph.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: When Clifford, Sean's brother, arrives at Anna's engagement party, his wife Clara excuses herself, saying she forgot to wrap Anna's gift. Instead, she buys a replacement after hurriedly burying the original gift while a young boy secretly looks on.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: At a party for Anna's mother, the boy, who has followed Clara, claims to be Anna's deceased husband, Sean, and warns her not to marry Joseph. At first Anna dismisses the boy's claim. When Anna receives a letter from him the next day warning her not to marry Joseph she realizes the boy truly believes he is her reincarnated husband.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: That night Anna and Joseph discuss the letter. Since the building watchman seems to know the boy and that his name is Sean, Joseph calls to get more information. When Sean answers the phone, Joseph rushes downstairs to confront him. He takes him to Sean's father and the three of them order Sean to leave Anna alone. Sean refuses to recant his story and Anna watches Sean collapse in his father's arms.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Sean leaves a message on Anna's answering machine, which her mother overhears. That day at lunch, Anna's mother mentions that Sean wants to meet Anna in the park and that she will know whereabouts. Anna hurries to Central Park and finds Sean waiting in the spot where her husband died. He offers to submit to questioning.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Anna's brother-in-law Bob, a doctor, talks to Sean, recording his responses on tape. Sean answers all the questions, even giving intimate details of Anna and Sean's sex life. Sean is brought to Anna's by his mother and he is able to identify parts of the apartment. Everyone except Anna remains doubtful. Anna's family become worried, particularly her sister Laura, who treats Sean with contempt.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: When Anna misses an appointment with her fiancé to spend time with Sean, Joseph begins feeling worried, not merely about the boy but about Anna's odd behavior. His jealousy is made plain when he physically attacks Sean. When Sean runs out, Anna follows him and Sean kisses her on the lips.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Anna seems convinced by the boy's story and asks Clara and Clifford to meet him. Clara encounters Sean at the door and asks him to visit her later. When he visits he brings a backpack full of Anna's love letters to Sean. This package was Clara's spiteful engagement gift, which the boy had secretly unearthed and read the night of the party. Clara had been Sean's lover before his death, and he gave the letters to her unopened as proof of his love. Clara had been jealous that Sean would not leave Anna, but at the last moment abandoned her plan to give Anna the letters. When Clara points out to Sean that if he were really a reincarnation he would have come to her first, Sean runs out, confused.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: When Anna finds Sean, she suggests they run away and marry when he is of legal age. He tells Anna that since he loves her he can not be the reincarnated Sean.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Anna apologizes to Joseph, and they are married at the beach. Sean writes a long letter apologizing to Anna, wondering why he had the delusion of being her husband. Anna wades into the sea in anguish after the ceremony. Joseph gradually pulls her back to the shore and whispers into her ear.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Director Jonathan Glazer was interested in making a film about "the idea of eternal love" and a "mystery of the heart". While writing the script, he was not interested in making a ghost story or a "paranormal piece". He envisioned a fairy tale structure early on. The initial idea for the film came to him one day when he was in his kitchen: "There's this little kid and he tells a woman he's her dead husband – and he's ten years old." Glazer went to Paris to discuss the idea with French screenwriter Jean-Claude Carrière at his producer's recommendation. Carrière ended up helping Glazer with the story and acted as a script consultant. The director spent eight months going back and forth to Paris every weekend turning one paragraph into three acts. The script went through 21 drafts as Glazer and co-screenwriter Milo Addica worked on the story. With only a few weeks before principal photography was to begin, the two writers decided to refocus the entire film. Originally, the script was about the boy and they changed it to be about the woman instead. "We aimed to make something robust in which every question leads to another," said Carrière. "I'm not a Buddhist and I don't believe in reincarnation; I don't think I could do a film about it if I did. I was more interested in the idea of eternal love. I wanted to make a mystery, the mystery of the heart."


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Actress Nicole Kidman read the screenplay and wanted to do the film when she found out that Glazer was directing as she loved his previous film, "Sexy Beast". She approached the director about doing the film. At first, he resisted because he felt that "her celebrity is so everywhere that I thought it could only hurt the delicate nature of this character". However, he met with Kidman and realized that "she was ready to inhabit the role". The more he talked to Kidman about her character, he would rewrite the script on weekends, tailoring it specifically for her. To show Anna in mourning both externally and internally, Glazer gave her short hair, spare wardrobe and short, clipped speech. The director explained Anna's appearance as "somebody who had sort of let all glamor go and sexuality go". Kidman said that Glazer instructed her to do small, personal reactions. She found the character to be all-consuming so that she could not separate herself from the role. To research for the role, Kidman spoke to two friends who had lost their fathers and they talked about how it still affected them years after.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Addica and Glazer often wrote scenes the day before they were shot, giving them to the actors on the actual day they were shooting.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: "Birth" was ranked 12th on its opening weekend, garnering US$1,705,577 from 550 theaters. The worldwide box office earnings total was US$23,925,492, with US$5,095,038 in the United States (US) and US$18,830,454 in markets outside of the US.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: "Birth" debuted at the 2004 Venice Film Festival where its first press screening was greeted with widely reported booing and catcalls. Glazer responded, "People are a bit polarised by it, which is healthy".


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: The critics's consensus for "Birth" at review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reads: "A well-mounted production is undermined by a muddled, absurd storyline of questionable taste." On the website, 39% of 147 reviews are classified as "fresh" (positive), and the average rating is 5.10/10. According to Metacritic, which compiled 38 reviews and calculated a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, the film received "mixed or average reviews". In his review for "Newsweek", David Ansen wrote, "the script is hooey. "Birth" is ridiculous, and oddly unforgettable". Michael O'Sullivan, in his review for "The Washington Post", wrote, "What I'm not so fond of is the cop-out ultimately taken by the filmmakers, who can't seem to follow through on their promisingly metaphysical premise (let alone the theme of obsessive love), electing instead to eliminate all ambiguity". In his review for the "New York Daily News", Jack Mathews called the film, "corny, plodding, implausible and – on occasion – seriously creepy".


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: However, Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four and compared it to "Rosemary's Baby" saying, ""Birth" is less sensational and more ominous, and also more intriguing because instead of going for quick thrills, it explores what might really happen if a 10-year-old turned up and said what Sean says". In his review for "The New York Times", A.O. Scott praised Nicole Kidman's performance: "Without Ms. Kidman's brilliantly nuanced performance, "Birth" might feel arch, chilly and a little sadistic, but she gives herself so completely to the role that the film becomes both spellbinding and heartbreaking, a delicate chamber piece with the large, troubled heart of an opera." "Birth" was placed at 96 on Slant Magazine's best films of the 2000s. Writing in "The Guardian" in August 2010, film critic David Thomson included the film in his list of '10 lost works of genius'.


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: The film generated controversy due to a scene wherein Kidman shares a bath with Bright, both apparently naked. In fact, Bright was never naked and the two were never even in the same room during the filming of the bath scene apart from one camera shot, and when this shot happened both wore special clothes that were not visible to the camera. Glazer insists that the scene is not erotic or exploitative. "I can imagine that, before people see it, they might think it was salacious. But I knew it was never going to be that."


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: At a press conference at the Venice Film Festival, Kidman addressed the controversy of her character kissing a boy: "It wasn't that I wanted to make a film where I kiss a 10-year-old boy. I wanted to make a film where you understand love." Further controversy occurred at the festival when a journalist described Kidman as a "screen legend", to which her co-star Lauren Bacall replied, "She is a beginner". Kidman downplayed Bacall's remarks and said, "I certainly don't feel like a big star in Hollywood".


title: Birth (2004 film)

text: Complaints of the film's "cop-out" ending are questioned by Roger Ebert in his review, who notes: "There seem to be two possible explanations for what finally happens, but neither one is consistent with all of the facts."


title: The Game Changers

text: The Game Changers is a 2018 documentary film about athletes who have plant-based diets. The film interviews science experts in various fields, showcases success stories of athletes that have adopted such diets, highlights favorable scientific studies, and champions what the filmmakers argue are benefits of plant-based diets for both athletes and non-athletes. It received generally positive reviews by viewers but was criticized by some nutrition, fitness, and science communication professionals for what they identified as scientific inaccuracies and a perceived unbalanced support for strictly plant-based nutrition with several accusing the film of promoting misinformation and pseudoscience.


title: The Game Changers

text: "The Game Changers" debuted at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2018, with a second edit released worldwide for a one-day screening in September 2019. The film has over a dozen executive producers, including James Cameron, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Pamela Anderson, Rip Esselstyn, Jackie Chan and Brendan Brazier.


title: The Game Changers

text: James Wilks is a mixed martial artist and self defense instructor. Having suffered an injury he used his downtime to explore the effects of plant-based diets on health, recovery, and athletic performance. He first explores the vegetarian diet of Roman gladiators before interviewing athletes such as Scott Jurek, Patrik Baboumian, Bryant Jennings, and Derrick Morgan who attribute their success to a plant-based diet.


title: The Game Changers

text: Comments follow from Scott Stoll, a physician for the USA Olympic team, who argues that animal based protein impedes recovery and athletic performance due to certain inflammatory molecules and inflammatory mediators. He contrasts this with plant-based proteins that, he argues, promote gut microbial diversity, reduce inflammation, and optimize recovery and athletic performance. The film dramatizes a comparison of postprandial effects of meals consisting of animal- versus plant-based foods, purporting to show that those who ate meat showed reduced penile function and indications of endothelial dysfunction that could disrupt athletic performance. In an interview, Professor of Epidemiology and Nutrition, Walter Willett, argues that there is accumulating evidence showing that high consumption of protein from dairy sources is related to a higher risk of prostate cancer.


title: The Game Changers

text: The next scenes criticize the meat and dairy industry for what Perry Mason, Executive Officer of the Cook County Department of Public Health, calls tactics out of the tobacco industry playbook where public relations firms such as "Exponent" hire researchers to create doubt to counteract public health messages. Doctor of preventative medicine David Katz says despite the appearance of confusion in the media, there is global consensus that a healthy diet is a plant-food rich diet.


title: The Game Changers

text: A further indictment of animal agriculture comes from Bob Bailey, Research Director of Energy, Environment, and Resources at Chatham House, who says that while three quarters of all agricultural land are used for livestock production such food sources provide 34% of the protein and 18% of the calories worldwide. Animal agriculture is charged with being a main driver of deforestation and is implicated in habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. Other scientists in the film mention other environmental impacts of animal farming including carbon dioxide emissions, the overuse of fresh water, and water pollution. Professor of Food Policy, Tim Lang, makes a closing argument that reducing meat and dairy consumption and increasing plant consumption will improve both public health and environmental health.


title: The Game Changers

text: Having recovered from his injury, Wilks is shown teaching self defense with an additional component, what he terms "internal defense", saying that with his understanding of the benefits of plant-based diets he now has the tools to protect more lives than ever before.


title: The Game Changers

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews from critics. It has been credited with influencing some viewers to shift their dietary habits towards more plant-based options, an impact that has been dubbed the "Game Changers effect". Actor Dolph Lundgren and CEO of Greggs, Roger Whiteside said they decided to follow a vegan diet after watching it. Viewing the film was accredited as an approved activity for continuing medical education (CME) credits by the Defense Health Agency, and the American College of Lifestyle Medicine offers CME credits for watching the film and passing an online quiz based on it.


title: The Game Changers

text: Despite positive reception, the documentary was criticized by some professionals in fitness, nutrition, and science communication. For example, sports nutrition expert Asker Jeukendrup said, ""Game Changers" ticks almost all the boxes of pseudoscience, and none of the boxes of science" while Joe Schwarcz, director of the McGill University Office for Science and Society complained, "There is good science to be had for promoting a plant-based diet, but this film strays too much into pseudoscience for my appetite." Schwarcz criticized the film, saying "the feats of the athletes in "The Game Changers" cannot be considered to be proof of the benefits of a vegan diet for athletic performance". According to Schwarcz, the evidence presented "is quite flimsy", the filmmakers indulge in confirmation bias and data dredging, and "some of the research cited on behalf of veganism is funded by the organic or avocado industries".


title: The Game Changers

text: The journal of the Hungarian Dietetic Association "Új DIÉTA" (New Diet) criticized the film, calling it "pseudoscience rather than real science" and "propaganda for veganism". The journal criticized the film for "one-sided research" and claims lacking in scientific basis, saying ""The Game Changers" only includes research that is conducive to the message they want to convey, that a vegan (plant based) diet is better in all respects than a diet containing animal-derived foods". The journal opined that it is "of paramount importance" that a documentary of this type approach the topic with scientific rigor, but "instead, the filmmakers placed more emphasis (on) eliciting emotional impact than the proper scientific background". The journal observed that "the film details at length" a consensus that vegan diet "is the most ideal" from a sustainability standpoint, however, according to a study in 2020, "it cannot be stated that the vegan diet would be the most sustainable". According to the journal, the filmmakers have numerous conflicts of interest, noting that "the speaking doctors, celebrities and professionals are all dedicated vegan activists, vegan distributors, and famous vegan fanatics like Jackie Chan or Arnold Schwarzenegger."


title: The Game Changers

text: "Mail & Guardian" writer Luke Feltham criticized Wilks claim that "we are presenting the facts and letting people make their own decisions". According to Feltham, "But that's not quite true. At every turn "The Game Changers" does its best to instill horror at even the thought of drinking a glass of milk. The claim is that not only is all meat—not just red meat—unhealthy for you, it will also hinder your athletic performance dramatically. There's even a neat animation of your capillaries collapsing in on themselves". Feltham also perceived a number of conflict of interests among the filmmakers, saying, "it's hard to shake the sense that there is a strong agenda here." Feltham called the film "an hour-and-a-half advertisement for vegan living" and concluded that "instead of inspiring a balanced diet, "The Game Changers" happily goes to the other extreme".


title: The Game Changers

text: Registered Dietetian SaVanna Shoemaker gave a mixed review for Healthline: "While a vegan diet may provide several health benefits, the film tends to overstate these claims while ignoring research on other eating patterns." Paul Kita, food and nutrition editor for "Men's Health," complained of factual inaccuracies in the information presented and data taken out of context in a misleading fashion saying that the documentary "presents only one side of the facts, often via controversial sources, grand extrapolations from small studies, and statements that are flat-out misleading."


title: The Game Changers

text: Some generally supportive reviewers also took issue with the movie's portrayal of masculinity especially as it adopts some stereotypical arguments regarding virility and the traditionally assumed connections between masculinity and strength.


title: Ruta Lee

text: Ruta Lee (born Ruta Mary Kilmonis; May 30, 1935) is an American actress and dancer who appeared as one of the brides in the musical "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers". She had roles in films including Billy Wilder's crime drama "Witness for the Prosecution" and Stanley Donen's musical comedy "Funny Face", and also is remembered for her guest appearance in a 1963 episode of Rod Serling's sci-fi series "The Twilight Zone" called "A Short Drink from a Certain Fountain".


title: Ruta Lee

text: Lee guest-starred on many television series, and was also featured on a number of game shows, including "Hollywood Squares", "What's My Line?", and "Match Game", and as Alex Trebek's co-host on "High Rollers".


title: Ruta Lee

text: Ruta Lee was born on May 30, 1935, in Montreal, Quebec, the only child of Lithuanian Roman Catholic immigrants. Her father was a tailor and her mother a homemaker.


title: Ruta Lee

text: On March 1, 1948, her family moved to the United States and ended up settling in Los Angeles, where she graduated in 1954 from Hollywood High School and began studying acting and appearing in school plays. She attended both Los Angeles City College and the University of California at Los Angeles. She worked as a cashier, usherette, and candy girl at Grauman's Chinese Theater, but when she was $40 short in her cash account at the end of her shift one night, she was fired.


title: Ruta Lee

text: Lee then got a break as a guest on two episodes of CBS's "The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show". She soon found an agent, who landed her a job in an episode of "The Roy Rogers Show", followed by a spot in 1953 on the series "Adventures of Superman". That same year, while acting in a small theater production of "On the Town", she landed a role as bride Ruth in the Academy Award-nominated musical "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers", while still billed as Ruta Kilmonis. After that success, Lee appeared in several films, including "Anything Goes" (1956), "Funny Face" (1957), "Witness for the Prosecution" (1957), and "Marjorie Morningstar" (1958). In 1962, she played the female lead in the Rat Pack comedy/Western film "Sergeants 3" starring Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., Peter Lawford, and Joey Bishop. She then co-starred with Audie Murphy and Darren McGavin in a Western, "Bullet for a Badman" (1964).


title: Ruta Lee

text: In addition to films, Lee has appeared in dozens of guest-starring roles on television. For a number of years, she seemed to be everywhere on the small screen. From 1957 to 1959, she was cast in different roles in eight episodes of the CBS crime drama series "The Lineup", and also played the leading lady in three episodes of "Maverick": "The Comstock Conspiracy" (1957) with James Garner, "The Plunder of Paradise" (1958), and "Betrayal" (1959) with Jack Kelly. In 1959 and 1960, she was cast in four episodes of John Bromfield's syndicated crime drama "U.S. Marshal".


title: Ruta Lee

text: She appeared as Ellen Barton in the 1960 episode "Grant of Land" of the ABC Western series, "The Rebel", starring Nick Adams. She also made five guest appearances on the CBS courtroom drama series "Perry Mason" between 1958 and 1965, including the roles of murderer Connie Cooper in "The Case of the Screaming Woman" (1958), defendant Millie Crest in "The Case of the Foot-Loose Doll" (1959), as Vita Culver in "The Case of the Prudent Prosecutor", Vivian Cosgrave in the episode "The Case of the Libelous Locket" (1963), and as Irene Prentice in "The Case of the Gambling Lady" (1965).


title: Ruta Lee

text: On December 10, 1962, Lee was cast as Lenore Walton Hanford in "Wanted for the Murder of Cheyenne Bodie", the penultimate episode of the ABC/Warner Bros. Western series "Cheyenne", with Clint Walker in the starring role. In the storyline, Bodie is mistaken for a notorious gunfighter and framed for his "own" murder.


title: Ruta Lee

text: In 1963, Lee guest-starred as Lucy Tolliver in the 12th episode, "Enough Rope", of the NBC/WB Western series "Temple Houston", with Jeffrey Hunter as an historical figure, frontier lawyer Temple Lea Houston, youngest son of Sam Houston. "Temple Houston" was cancelled after 26 weeks. Of Hunter, Lee said, "He was one of the prettiest people that ever was put on the screen; God, he was gorgeous."


title: Ruta Lee

text: Lee was further cast on "Richard Diamond, Private Detective", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer", "Sugarfoot", "M Squad", "Gunsmoke", "77 Sunset Strip", "The Alaskans", "Colt .45", "Wagon Train", "Bat Masterson", "Hawaiian Eye", "Rawhide", "The Wild Wild West", "Ironside", "The Fugitive", and three episodes of "Hogan's Heroes". Lee appeared in two guest spots of "The Andy Griffith Show", in 1962 and 1965.


title: Ruta Lee

text: Also in 1965, she was cast as a movie star named Gloria Morgan in the episode "Gomer Dates a Movie Star" on the sitcom "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.". In 1963, she was cast in CBS's "The Twilight Zone" in the episode "A Short Drink from a Certain Fountain" as a woman whose elderly husband undergoes a scientific experiment and then ages "backward".


title: Ruta Lee

text: Lee also began appearing regularly on game shows such as "The Hollywood Squares", "You Don't Say", and "Match Game". In the early 1970s, Lee continued to perform in both film and television roles on "Love, American Style" and "The Mod Squad", and had a role in the film "The Doomsday Machine" (1972). By 1974, Lee had grown frustrated by an increasing lack of roles, and took a job co-hosting the daytime game show "High Rollers". She remained with the show until 1976.


title: Ruta Lee

text: During the 1980s, she lent her voice to episodes of "The Flintstone Comedy Show" and "The Smurfs", in addition to guest roles on "CHiPs", "Fantasy Island", "The Love Boat", and "Charles in Charge". Lee also performed extensively in the mid-1980s on stage, including the title character in the musical "Peter Pan".


title: Ruta Lee

text: From 1988 to 1989, Lee played a recurring role on the CBS sitcom "Coming of Age". In 1989, she played the role of Sally Powers in the television movie "Sweet Bird of Youth" with Elizabeth Taylor. In the 1990s, Lee continued to appear in episodic television, most notably on the sitcom "Roseanne". Lee appeared as the girlfriend of Bev Harris (Estelle Parsons), whose character disclosed she was gay.


title: Ruta Lee

text: She played the wife of comedian Jerry Lewis in the British comedy-drama "Funny Bones" (1995), in which they play the parents of the Oliver Platt's character. In 2002, Lee was presented with one of the Golden Boot Awards for her work in Western television and cinema.


title: Ruta Lee

text: In 2006, Lee received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to the television industry. In 1995, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to Lee.


title: Ruta Lee

text: In February 2008, Lee appeared as Clairee in a production of "Steel Magnolias" with Sally Struthers at the Casa Mañana theatre in Fort Worth, Texas. In October 2010, Lee played the role of Miss Mona in "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas", also at the Casa Mañana Theatre.


title: Ruta Lee

text: In 1976, Lee married Texas restaurant executive Webster B. "Webb" Lowe Jr. They divided their time between their homes in Hollywood, Palm Springs, Fort Worth, and Mexico. Webb died July 1, 2020. They had no children. Lee describes her political views as "conservative" and she appeared at the 1972 Republican National Convention. On August 24, 2013, Lee was inducted into the National Lithuanian American Hall of Fame.


title: Ruta Lee

text: In 1964, Lee called then-Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, asking him to pardon her grandmother Ludvise Kamandulis, who had been in an internment camp in Siberia since World War II. The pardon was granted, and Lee's grandmother came to live with her in California in 1964. Kamandulis died two years later. Lee again rescued a relative from the former Soviet Union when she secured custody of her 18-year-old cousin, Maryte Kaseta, from Lithuania in 1987.


title: Ruta Lee

text: Lee has been involved with the charitable organization The Thalians for over 50 years. In addition to raising money and providing services for troubled youth and mental-health organizations, Lee, who is also the board chairman, co-produced the annual Ball of the Thalians with the late Debbie Reynolds throughout these five decades. In 2011, after 55 years of involvement with The Thalians, she stepped down and is now a member emerita.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Nathanael Greene (June 19, 1786, sometimes misspelled Nathaniel) was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. He emerged from the war with a reputation as General George Washington's most talented and dependable officer, and is known for his successful command in the southern theater of the war.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Born into a prosperous Quaker family in Warwick, Rhode Island, Greene became active in the colonial opposition to British revenue policies in the early 1770s and helped establish the Kentish Guards, a state militia. After the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, the legislature of Rhode Island established an army and appointed Greene to command it. Later in the year, Greene became a general in the newly established Continental Army. Greene served under Washington in the Boston campaign, the New York and New Jersey campaign, and the Philadelphia campaign before being appointed quartermaster general of the Continental Army in 1778.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: In October 1780, General Washington appointed Greene as the commander of the Continental Army in the southern theater, involving engagements primarily in Virginia, Georgia and South Carolina. After taking command, Greene engaged in a successful campaign of guerrilla warfare against the numerically superior force of General Charles Cornwallis. He inflicted major losses on British forces at Battle of Guilford Court House, the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs, eroding British control of the American South. Major fighting on land came to an end following the surrender of Cornwallis at the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781, but Greene continued to serve in the Continental Army until late 1783. After the war, he became a planter in the South, but his rice crops mainly failed. He died in 1786 at his Mulberry Grove Plantation in Chatham County, Georgia. Many places in the United States are named after Greene.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Greene was born on August 7, 1742 <nowiki>[</nowiki>O.S.<nowiki>]</nowiki>, on Forge Farm at Potowomut in the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, which was then part of British America. He was the second son of Mary Mott and Nathanael Greene Sr., a prosperous Quaker merchant and farmer. Greene was descended from John Greene and Samuel Gorton, both of whom were founding settlers of Warwick. Greene had two older half-brothers from his father's first marriage, and was one of six children born to Nathanael and Mary. Due to religious beliefs, Greene's father discouraged book learning, as well as dancing and other activities. Nonetheless, Greene convinced his father to hire a tutor, and he studied mathematics, the classics, law, and various works of the Age of Enlightenment. At some point during his childhood, Greene gained a slight limp that would remain with him for the rest of his life.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: In 1770, Greene moved to Coventry, Rhode Island, to take charge of the family-owned foundry, and he built a house in Coventry called Spell Hall. Later in the year, Greene and his brothers inherited the family business after their father's death. Greene began to assemble a large library that included military histories by authors like Caesar, Frederick the Great, and Maurice de Saxe.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: In July 1774, Greene married the nineteen-year-old Catharine Littlefield, a niece-by-marriage of his distant cousin, William Greene, an influential political leader in Rhode Island. That same year, one of Greene's younger brothers married a daughter of Samuel Ward, a prominent Rhode Island politician who became an important political ally until his death in 1776. Greene and Catherine's first child was born in 1776, and they had six more children between 1777 and 1786.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British parliament began imposing new policies designed to raise revenue from British America for a war that colonists had played a pivotal role in instigating. After British official William Dudington seized a vessel owned by Greene and his brothers, Greene filed an ultimately successful lawsuit against Dudington for damages. While the lawsuit was pending, Dudington's vessel was torched by a Rhode Island mob in what became known as the Gaspee Affair. In the aftermath of the Gaspee Affair, Greene became increasingly alienated from the British. At the same time, Greene drifted away from his father's Quaker faith, and he was suspended from Quaker meetings in July 1773. In 1774, after the passage of revenue-raising measures that colonials derided as the "Intolerable Acts," Greene helped organize a local militia known as the Kentish Guards. Because of his limp, Greene was not selected as an officer in the militia.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: The American Revolutionary War broke out with the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord. In early May, the legislature of Rhode Island established the Rhode Island Army of Observation and appointed Greene to command it. Greene's army marched to Boston, where other colonial forces were laying siege to a British garrison. He missed the June 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill because he was visiting Rhode Island at the time, but he returned almost immediately after the battle and was impressed by the performance of colonial forces. That same month, the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington to command all colonial forces. In addition to Washington, Congress appointed sixteen generals, and Greene was appointed as a brigadier general in the Continental Army. Washington took command of the Siege of Boston in July 1775, bringing with him generals such as Charles Lee, Horatio Gates, and Thomas Mifflin. Washington organized the Continental Army into three divisions, each consisting of regiments from different colonies, and Greene was given command of a brigade consisting of seven regiments. The Siege of Boston continued until March 1776, when British forces evacuated from the city. After the end of the siege, Greene briefly served as the commander of military forces in Boston, but he rejoined Washington's army in April 1776.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Washington established his headquarters in Manhattan, and Greene was tasked with preparing for the invasion of nearby Long Island. While he focused on building up fortifications in Brooklyn, Greene befriended General Henry Knox and struck up a correspondence with John Adams. He was also, along with several other individuals, promoted to major general by an act of Congress. Because of a severe fever, he did not take part in the Battle of Long Island, which ended with an American retreat from Long Island. After the battle, Greene urged Washington to raze Manhattan so that it would not fall into the hands of the British, but Congress forbade Washington from doing so. Unable to raze Manhattan, Washington initially wanted to fortify the city, but Greene joined with several officers in convincing Washington that the city was indefensible. During the withdrawal from Manhattan, Greene saw combat for the first time in the Battle of Harlem Heights, a minor British defeat that nonetheless represented one of the first American victories in the war.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After the Battle of Harlem Heights, Washington placed Greene in command of both Fort Constitution (later known as Fort Lee), which was on New Jersey side of the Hudson River, and Fort Washington, which was across the river from Fort Constitution. While in command of Fort Lee, Greene established supply depots in New Jersey along a potential line of retreat; these would later prove to be valuable resources for the Continental Army. Washington suggested to Greene that he remove the garrison from Fort Washington due to its vulnerability to a British attack, but he ultimately deferred to Greene's decision to continue to station soldiers there. In the subsequent Battle of Fort Washington, fought in November 1776, the British captured the Fort Washington and its 3,000-man garrison. Greene was subjected to heavy criticism in the aftermath of the battle, but Washington declined to relieve Greene from command. Shortly after the Battle of Fort Washington, a British force under General Cornwallis captured Fort Lee, and the Continental Army began a retreat across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Greene commanded part of Washington's army in the December 1776 Battle of Trenton and the January 1777 Battle of Princeton, both of which were victories for the Continental Army.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Along with the rest of Washington's army, Greene was stationed in New Jersey throughout the first half of 1777. In July 1777, he publicly threatened to resign over the appointment of a French officer to the Continental Army, but he ultimately retained his commission. Meanwhile, the British began a campaign to capture Philadelphia, the seat of Congress. At the Battle of the Brandywine, Greene commanded a division at the center of the American line, but the British launched a flanking maneuver. Greene's division helped prevent the envelopment of American forces and allowed for a safe retreat. The British captured Philadelphia shortly after the Battle of the Brandywine, but Washington launched a surprise attack on a British force at the October 1777 Battle of Germantown. Greene's detachment arrived late to the battle, which ended in another American defeat. In December, Greene joined with the rest of Washington's army in establishing a camp at Valley Forge, located twenty-five miles northwest of Philadelphia. Over the winter of 1777–1778, he clashed with Thomas Mifflin and other members of the Conway Cabal, a group that frequently criticized Washington and sought to install Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: In March 1778, Greene reluctantly accepted the position of quartermaster general, making him responsible for procuring supplies for the Continental Army. Along with his top two assistants, Charles Pettit and John Cox, Greene reorganized his 3,000-person department, establishing supply depots in strategic places across the United States. As quartermaster general, Greene continued to attend Washington's councils-of-war, an unusual arrangement for a staff officer. After France joined the war in early 1778, the British army in Philadelphia was ordered to New York. Along with Anthony Wayne and the Marquis de Lafayette, Greene recommended an attack on the British force while it retreated across New Jersey to New York. Greene commanded a division in the subsequent Battle of Monmouth, which, after hours of fighting, ended indecisively.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: In July 1778, Washington granted Greene temporary leave as quartermaster general so that he could take part in an attack on British forces stationed in his home state of Rhode Island. The offensive was designed as a combined Franco-American operation under the command of General John Sullivan and French admiral d'Estaing, but the French fleet withdrew due to bad weather conditions. Greene fought in the subsequent Battle of Rhode Island, an inconclusive battle that ended with a British retreat from the American position. After the battle, the American force under Sullivan left Rhode Island, while Greene returned to his duties as quartermaster general.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After mid-1778, the Northern theater of the war became a stalemate, as the main British force remained in New York City and Washington's force was stationed nearby on the Hudson River. The British turned their attention to the Southern theater of the war, launching an ultimately successful expedition to capture Savannah. Though he desired a battlefield command, Greene continued to serve as the Continental Army's quartermaster general. As Congress was increasingly powerless to furnish funds for supplies, Greene became an advocate of a stronger national government. In June 1780, while Washington's main force continued to guard the Hudson River, Greene led a detachment to block the advance of a British contingent through New Jersey. Despite being vastly outnumbered in the Battle of Springfield, Greene forced the withdrawal of the British force on the field. Shortly after the battle, Greene resigned as quartermaster general in a letter that strongly criticized Congress; although some members of Congress were so outraged by the letter that they sought to relieve Greene of his officer's commission, Washington's intervention ensured that Greene retained a position in the Continental Army. After Benedict Arnold defected to the British, Greene briefly served as the commandant of West Point and presided over the execution of John André, Arnold's contact in the British army.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: By October 1780, the Continental Army had suffered several devastating defeats in the South under the command of Benjamin Lincoln and Horatio Gates, leaving the United States at a major disadvantage in the Southern theater of the war. On October 14, 1780, Washington, acting on the authorization of Congress, appointed Greene as the commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army. By the time he took command, the British were in control of key portions of Georgia and South Carolina, and the governments of the Southern states were unable to provide much support to the Continental Army. Greene would face a 6,000-man British army led by General Cornwallis and cavalry commander Banastre Tarleton, as well as numerous Loyalist militias that worked with the British. Outnumbered and under-supplied, Greene settled on a strategy of guerrilla warfare rather than pitched battles in order to prevent the advance of the British into North Carolina and Virginia. His strategy would heavily depend on riverboats and cavalry to outmaneuver and harass British forces. Among Greene's key subordinates in the Southern campaign were his second-in-command, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, cavalry commander Henry Lee, the Marquis de Lafayette, Daniel Morgan, and Francis Marion.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: While en route to the Southern theater, Greene learned of the American victory at October 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain, which postponed Cornwallis's planned advance into North Carolina. Upon arriving in Charlotte, North Carolina, in December 1780, Greene went against conventional military strategy by dividing his forces; he would lead the main American force southeast, while Morgan would lead a smaller detachment to the southwest. Cornwallis responded by dividing his own forces, marching the main detachment against Greene while Tarleton led a force against Morgan. In the January 1781 Battle of Cowpens, Morgan led Continental troops to a major victory that resulted in the near-total destruction of Tarleton's force. After the battle, Cornwallis set off in pursuit of Morgan, burning some of his own supplies in order to speed up his army's movement. Greene linked up with Morgan and retreated into North Carolina, purposely forcing Cornwallis away from British supply lines. On February 9, in consultation with Morgan and other top officers, Greene decided to continue the retreat north, heading toward the Dan River at the North Carolina-Virginia border.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: With the British in close pursuit, Greene divided his forces, leading the main contingent north while sending a smaller group under Colonel Otho Williams to harass British forces. Greene's force outpaced the British and crossed the Dan River on February 14. Greene's contemporaries were impressed by the speed and efficiency of the retreat through difficult territory; Alexander Hamilton wrote that it was a "masterpiece of military skill and exertion." Unwilling to travel even farther from his supply lines, General Cornwallis led his army south to Hillsborough, North Carolina. On February 22, Greene's force crossed back over the Dan River to challenge Cornwallis in North Carolina.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After crossing back into North Carolina, Greene harassed Cornwallis's army. In early March, he received reinforcements from North Carolina and Virginia, doubling the size of his force to approximately 4,000 men. On March 14, he led his army to Guilford Courthouse and began preparing for an attack by Cornwallis, using a strategy based on Morgan's plan at the Battle of Cowpens. Greene established three defensive lines, with the North Carolina militia making up the first line, the Virginia militia making up the second line, and the Continental Army regulars, positioned on a hill behind a small stream, making up the third line. After skirmishes on the morning of the March 15, the main British force launched a full attack in the afternoon, beginning the Battle of Guilford Court House. The first American line fired volleys and then fled, either to the next line or away from the battlefield. The second line held up for longer, and continued to resist the British advance while Cornwallis ordered an unsuccessful assault against the third line. The British re-formed and launched an assault on the left flank of the third line, but were overwhelmed by Henry Lee's cavalry. In response, Cornwallis ordered his artillery to fire grapeshot into the fray, hitting British and American soldiers alike. With his army's left flank collapsing, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing the battle to an end. Although the Battle of Guilford Court House ended with an American defeat, the British suffered substantially greater losses.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After the Battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis's force headed south to Wilmington, North Carolina. Greene initially gave chase, but declined to press to launch an attack after much of the militia returned home. To Greene's surprise, in late April Cornwallis's force began a march north to Yorktown, Virginia. Rather than follow Cornwallis, Greene headed South, where he challenged British commander Francis Rawdon for control of South Carolina and Georgia. On April 20, he began a siege of Camden, South Carolina, and established a camp at a nearby ridge known as Hobkirk's Hill. On the 25th, Rawdon launched a surprise attack on Greene's position, beginning the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill. Despite having been taken by surprise, Greene's force nearly achieved victory, but the left flank collapsed and the cavalry failed to arrive. Facing total defeat, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing an end to the battle. Although the American and British forces suffered a similar number of losses in the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, Greene was deeply disappointed by the result of the battle.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: On May 10, Rawdon's force left Camden for Charleston, South Carolina, effectively conceding control of much of interior South Carolina to the Continental Army. In a series of small actions known as the "war of the posts," Greene and his subordinates further eroded British control of interior South Carolina by capturing several British forts. On June 18, after undertaking the month-long Siege of Ninety-Six, Greene launched an unsuccessful attack on the British fort at Ninety Six, South Carolina. Although the assault failed, Rawdon ordered the fort abandoned shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, Greene's subordinates further expanded Continental control, capturing Augusta, Georgia, on June 5. By the end of June, the British controlled little more than a thin strip of coastal land from Charleston to Savannah. After resting through much of July and August, the Continental Army resumed operations and engaged a British force on September 8 at the Battle of Eutaw Springs. The battle ended with a Continental retreat, but the British suffered more substantial losses. After the battle, the British force returned to Charleston, leaving interior South Carolina in full control of Continental forces. Congress issued Greene a gold medal and passed a resolution congratulating him for his victory at Eutaw Springs.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: While Greene campaigned in South Carolina and Georgia, Lafayette led Continental resistance to Cornwallis's army in Virginia. Although Greene's command gave him leadership of Continental operations in Virginia, he was unable to closely control events in Virginia from South Carolina. Lafayette heeded Greene's advice to avoid combat, but his force only narrowly escaped destruction at the July 1781 Battle of Green Spring. In August, Washington and French general Rochambeau left New York for Yorktown, intent on inflicting a decisive defeat against Cornwallis. Washington laid siege to Cornwallis at Yorktown, and Cornwallis surrendered on October 19.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Yorktown was widely regarded as a disastrous defeat for the British, and many considered the war to have effectively ended in late 1781. The governments of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia each voted Greene liberal grants of lands and money, including an estate called "Boone's Barony" in Bamberg County, South Carolina, and Mulberry Grove Plantation near Savannah. Nonetheless, the British still controlled New York, Savannah, and Charleston, and Greene still contended with Loyalist militias who sought to destabilize Continental control. With American finances in a disastrous state, Greene also struggled to clothe and feed his troops. In late 1781, he declined appointment to the newly created position of secretary of war, which was charged with overseeing the Continental Army. He also corresponded with Robert Morris, the superintendent of finance of the United States, who shared Greene's view on the need for a stronger national government than the one that had been established in the Articles of Confederation. No major military action occurred in 1782, and the British evacuated Savannah and Charleston before the end of that year. Congress officially declared the end of the war in April 1783, and Greene resigned his commission in late 1783.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: After resigning his commission, Greene returned to Newport. Facing a large amount of debt, he relocated to the South to focus on the slave plantations he had been awarded during the war, and he made his home at the Mulberry Grove Plantation outside of Savannah. In 1784, Greene declined appointment to a commission tasked with negotiating treaties with Native Americans, but he agreed to attend the first meeting of the Society of the Cincinnati. He then became an original member with the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Greene fell ill on June 12, 1786, and he died at Mulberry Grove on June 19, 1786, at the age of 43. The official cause of death was sunstroke. For over a century, his remains were interred at the Graham Vault in Colonial Park Cemetery in Savannah, alongside John Maitland, his arch-rival in the conflict. On November 14, 1902, through the efforts of Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati President Asa Bird Gardiner, his remains were moved to a monument in Johnson Square in Savannah. Greene Square, about a third of a mile southeast of Johnson Square, was named for him upon its platting in 1799.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: As noted above, Greene was in debt. In 1782 and 1783, Greene had difficulty supplying his troops in Charleston with clothing and provisions. He contracted with Banks & Co to furnish supplies, but was compelled to put his name to the bond for the supplies. An order was given by Greene to Robert Morris for payment of the amount; this was paid by the Government of the United States to the contractor, who did not use it to pay the debt and left the bond unpaid. Greene paid the debt himself, and in 1791 his executrix petitioned Congress for relief. Greene had obtained some security from a partner of Banks & Co named Ferrie on a mortgage or lien on a tract of land, but the land was liable to a prior mortgage of £1,000 sterling to an Englishman named Murray. In 1788, the mortgagor in England filed a bill to foreclose on the mortgage, while Greene's family instituted proceedings against Ferrie, who was entitled to a reversionary interest in the land. The court ordered the land be sold and the sale proceeds to be first used to extinguish the mortgage, with the balance to go to representatives of General Greene. The land was sold, and after the £1,000 mortgage had been paid off, the residue of £2,400 was to go Greene's representatives. However, the purchaser never took title and never paid the money, on the grounds that the title was in dispute. In 1792 a Relief Act was passed by Congress for General Greene which was based upon the decree of the land sale; the sum of which he was entitled to (£2,400) was exempted out of the indemnity allowed him at that time, not one cent of which his heirs received except $2,000. In 1830, the administrators of Murray filed a bill of Chancery against the land; however, his agent who had bought the land had not taken title to it, on the grounds that there was a dispute about the land. The claim to the title was not resolved and the money never paid. Meanwhile, from 1789 to 1840, the plantation had gone to ruin; under the original decree, the land, instead of bringing the sum it had first bought, was sold for only $13,000. This left Greene's representatives only about $2,000 instead of £2,400. In 1840, they applied to Congress for the difference between the two sums. In 1854, the case was put to Congress for the relief of Phineas Nightingale, who was the administrator of the deceased General Greene.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Defense analyst Robert Killebrew writes that Greene was "regarded by peers and historians as the second-best American general" in the Revolutionary War, after Washington. The historian Russell Weigley believed that "Greene's outstanding characteristic as a strategist was his ability to weave the maraudings of partisan raiders into a coherent pattern, coordinating them with the maneuvers of a field army otherwise too weak to accomplish much, and making the combination a deadly one... [He] remains alone as an American master developing a strategy of unconventional war." Historian Curtis F. Morgan Jr. describes Greene as Washington's "most trusted military subordinate." According to Golway, "on at least two occasions, fellow officers and politicians described Greene... as the man Washington had designated to succeed him if he were killed or captured." He was also respected by his opponents; Cornwallis wrote that Greene was "as dangerous as Washington. He is vigilant, enterprising, and full of resources–there is but little hope of gaining an advantage over him." Alexander Hamilton wrote that Greene's death deprived the country of a "universal and pervading genius which qualified him not less for the Senate than for the field." Killebrew argues that Greene was the "most underrated general" in American history.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: His statue, along with that of Roger Williams, represents the state of Rhode Island in the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol. Washington, D.C., also hosts a bronze equestrian statue of Greene in Stanton Park. A large oil portrait of Nathanael Greene hangs in the State Room in the Rhode Island State House, and a statue stands outside the building's south facade. A cenotaph to him stands in the Old Forge Burial Ground in Warwick. Greene is also memorialized by statues in or near Philadelphia, Valley Forge National Historical Park, Greensboro, North Carolina, Greensburg, Pennsylvania, and Greenville, South Carolina. The Nathanael Greene Monument in Savannah, Georgia, serves as his burial place.


title: Nathanael Greene

text: Numerous places and things have been named after Greene across in the United States. Fourteen counties are named for Greene, the most populous of which is Greene County, Missouri. Municipalities named for Greene include Greensboro, North Carolina; Greensboro, Georgia; Greensburg, Pennsylvania; Greenville, North Carolina; Greenville, South Carolina, and Greeneville, Tennessee. Other things named for Greene include the Green River in Kentucky, Fort Greene Park in Brooklyn, and several schools. Several ships have been named for Greene, including the , the , the USS "Nathanael Greene", and the USAV "MGen Nathanael Greene".


title: Nathanael Greene

text: The Nathanael Greene Homestead in Coventry, Rhode Island, features Spell Hall, which was General Greene's home, built in 1774. Greene commissioned cabinetmaker Thomas Spencer to build a desk and bookcase, likely to be put in this new home. The desk and bookcase is now at the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia. It was built in East Greenwich, Rhode Island, in the Chippendale Style. An inscription is written in graphite on an interior drawer that says that the desk originally belonged to Nathanael Greene.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong's parents owned the film production company Cinetel Soul. Hong took the entrance exam and entered the theater department at Chung-Ang University in South Korea. He then studied in the United States where he received his bachelor's degree from the California College of Arts and Crafts and his master's at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong made his directorial debut at age 35 with "The Day a Pig Fell into the Well" in 1996. "Woman is the Future of Man" (2004) was his first film to screen in competition at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong's films have also screened at the Berlin International Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival, and the Locarno Film Festival.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: He has received the Prix Un Certain Regard at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival for "Hahaha", the Silver Leopard Award for Best Director at the 2013 Locarno International Film Festival for "Our Sunhi", and the Golden Leopard at the 2015 Locarno International Film Festival for "Right Now, Wrong Then". His 2020 film "The Woman Who Ran" won him the Silver Bear for Best Director at the 70th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong's 2022 black and white film "The Novelist's Film" won the Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize at the Berlinale. It was described as the film that "celebrates the beauty of chance encounters, while talking about the importance of authenticity in the dishonest world of cinema" by the executive director Carlo Shatrian of the 72nd Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: There are certain elements that are commonly found in Hong's films. A typical Hong film highlights a theme of domestic realism with many of the scenes set on residential streets, cafes, hotels, schools, and in the stairwells of apartment buildings. Characters in the film are seen walking around the city, drinking soju, and having sex. The main characters in his films are often movie directors or actors, and scenes typically consist of a single shot, often beginning and ending with a camera zoom. The budgets for his movies average about $100,000.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong is often spontaneous when shooting, delivering the day's scene on the morning of the shoot and frequently changing stories while on set. He rarely prepares scripts in advance. Hong instead begins with a basic guideline and writes his scenes on the morning of the filming day, making changes throughout the day. Hong starts the filming day at 4 a.m. when he begins to write the dialogue for that day's shoot. Hong also develops close relationships with the actors over alcohol and cigarettes and sometimes shoots certain scenes while the actors are under the influence.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: Hong's style has been compared to Eric Rohmer's, and it has even been argued that allusions to Rohmer's films appear in some films directed by Hong.


title: Hong Sang-soo

text: In 2016, Hong was reported to be having an extramarital affair with actress Kim Min-hee, who appeared in his 2015 film, "Right Now, Wrong Then". Hong admitted to the affair in March 2017, at the Seoul premiere of "On the Beach at Night Alone". He filed a divorce suit from his wife in December 2016, but the court rejected his request in June 2019, insisting that only the injured party, Hong's wife, could initiate a legal separation.


title: Holocene calendar

text: The Holocene calendar, also known as the Holocene Era or Human Era (HE), is a year numbering system that adds exactly 10,000 years to the currently dominant (AD/BC or CE/BCE) numbering scheme, placing its first year near the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch and the Neolithic Revolution, when humans shifted from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture and fixed settlements. The current year by the Gregorian calendar, AD 2022, is 12022 HE in the Holocene calendar. The HE scheme was first proposed by Cesare Emiliani in 1993 (11993 HE), though similar proposals to start a new calendar at the same date have been put forward decades earlier.


title: Holocene calendar

text: Cesare Emiliani's proposal for a calendar reform sought to solve a number of alleged problems with the current "Anno Domini" era, which number the years of the commonly accepted world calendar. These issues include:


title: Holocene calendar

text: Instead, HE uses the "beginning of human era" as its epoch, arbitrarily defined as 10,000 BC and denoted year 1 HE, so that AD 1 matches 10,001 HE.


title: Holocene calendar

text: This is a rough approximation of the start of the current geologic epoch, the Holocene (the name means "entirely recent"). The motivation for this is that human civilization (e.g. the first settlements, agriculture, etc.) is believed to have arisen within this time. Emiliani later proposed that the start of the Holocene should be fixed at the same date as the beginning of his proposed era.


title: Holocene calendar

text: Human Era proponents claim that it makes for easier geological, archaeological, dendrochronological, anthropological and historical dating, as well as that it bases its epoch on an event more universally relevant than the birth of Jesus. All key dates in human history can then be listed using a simple increasing date scale with smaller dates always occurring before larger dates. Another gain is that the Holocene Era starts before the other calendar eras, so it could be useful for the comparison and conversion of dates from different calendars.


title: Holocene calendar

text: When Emiliani discussed the calendar in a follow-up article in 1994, he mentioned that there was no agreement on the date of the start of the Holocene epoch, with estimates at the time ranging between 12,700 and 10,970 years BP. Since then, scientists have improved their understanding of the Holocene on the evidence of ice cores and can now more accurately date its beginning. A consensus view was formally adopted by the IUGS in 2013, placing its start at 11,700 years before 2000 (9701 BC), about 300 years more recent than the epoch of the Holocene calendar.


title: Holocene calendar

text: In 1924 Gabriel Deville proposed the use of "Calendrier nouveau de chronologie ancienne" (CNCA), which would start 10,000 years before AD 1, which is identical to Emiliani's much later proposal.


title: Holocene calendar

text: Conversion from Julian or Gregorian calendar years to the Human Era can be achieved by adding 10,000 to the AD/CE year. The present year, 2022, can be transformed into a Holocene year by adding the digit "1" before it, making it  HE. Years BC/BCE are converted by subtracting the BC/BCE year number from 10,001.


title: STS-51-L

text: STS-51-L was the 25th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program and the final flight of Space Shuttle "Challenger".


title: STS-51-L

text: Planned as the first Teacher in Space Project flight in addition to observing Halley's Comet for six days and performing a routine satellite deployment, the mission never achieved orbit; a structural failure during its ascent phase 73 seconds after launch from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B on January 28, 1986, killed all seven crew members —Commander Francis R. "Dick" Scobee, Pilot Michael J. Smith, Mission Specialists Ellison S. Onizuka, Judith A. Resnik and Ronald E. McNair, and Payload Specialists Gregory B. Jarvis and S. Christa McAuliffe—and destroyed the orbiter.


title: STS-51-L

text: Immediately after the disaster, President Ronald Reagan convened the Rogers Commission to determine the cause of the explosion. The failure of an O-ring seal on the starboard Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) was determined to have caused the shuttle to break up in flight. Space Shuttle flights were suspended while the O-rings and other hazards that could have destroyed the vehicle on following missions were addressed. Shuttle missions resumed in September 1988 with STS-26, launched 32 months after the accident.


title: STS-51-L

text: The tenth mission for "Challenger", STS-51-L, was scheduled to deploy the second in a series of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS-B), carry out the first flight of the "Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy" (SPARTAN-203) / Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable in order to observe Halley's Comet, and carry out several lessons from space as part of the Teacher in Space Project and Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP). The flight marked the first American orbital mission to involve in-flight fatalities. It was also the first American human spaceflight mission to launch and fail to reach space; the first such mission in the world had been the Soviet Soyuz 18a mission, in which the two crew members had survived. Gregory Jarvis was originally scheduled to fly on the previous shuttle flight (STS-61-C), but he was reassigned to this flight and replaced by Congressman Clarence W. "Bill" Nelson.


title: STS-51-L

text: Although the crew died in the "Challenger" disaster, their seating assignment chart depicts what would have happened if the mission had been performed as planned.


title: STS-51-L

text: During the ascent phase, 73 seconds after liftoff, the vehicle experienced a catastrophic structural failure resulting in the loss of crew and vehicle. The Rogers Commission later determined the cause of the accident to have been the failure of the primary and secondary (backup) O-ring seals on "Challenger"s right Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). The failure of these seals allowed a flamethrower-like flare to impinge upon one of two aft SRB attach struts, which eventually failed, freeing the booster to pivot about its remaining attachment points. The forward part of the booster cylinder struck the external tank inter-tank area, leading to a structural failure of the Space Shuttle external tank (ET) – the core structural component of the entire stack. A rapid burning of liberated propellants ensued. With the structural "backbone" of the stack compromised and breaking up, the SRBs flew off on their own, as did the orbiter, which rapidly disintegrated due to overwhelming aerodynamic forces. The launch had been approved despite a predicted ambient temperature of , well below the qualification limit of major components such as the SRBs, which had been certified for use only at temperatures above . Evidence found in the remnants of the crew cabin showed that several of the emergency Personal Egress Air Packs (PEAPs) carried by the astronauts had been manually activated, suggesting that forces experienced inside the cabin during breakup of the orbiter were not inherently fatal, and that at least three crew members were alive and capable of conscious action for a period following vehicle breakup. "Tracking reported that the vehicle had exploded and impacted the water in an area approximately located at 28.64° north, 80.28° west".


title: STS-51-L

text: Divers from the located what they believed to be the crew cabin on the ocean floor on March 7, 1986. A dive the following day confirmed that it was the cabin and that the remains of the crew were inside. No official investigation into the "Challenger" disaster has determined the cause of death of the astronauts; it is almost certain that the disintegration itself did not kill the entire crew as 3 of the 4 Personal Egress Air Packs (PEAPs) that were recovered had been manually activated. This would only be done during an emergency or loss of cabin pressure. PEAPs do not provide a pressurized air flow and would still have resulted in the astronauts losing consciousness within several seconds. There were media reports alleging that NASA had a tape recording of the crew panicking and on-board conversation following the disintegration during the 2 minute 45 second free fall before hitting the sea east of Florida. This was likely fabricated and no recording exists, as the crew may have been unconscious from loss of cabin pressure and the astronauts did not wear individual voice recorders.


title: STS-51-L

text: Francis R. "Dick" Scobee asked Kennedy Space Center engineer Ernie Reyes to design the mission patch seen above to represent the mission STS-51-L. In it, "Challenger" is depicted launching from Florida and soaring into space to carry out a variety of goals. Among the prescribed duties of the five astronauts and two payload specialists (represented by the seven stars of the U.S. flag) was observation and photography of Halley's Comet, backdropped against the U.S. flag in the insignia. Surnames of the crew members encircle the scene, with the payload specialists being recognized below. The surname of the first teacher in space, S. Christa McAuliffe, is followed by a symbolic apple.


title: Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans

text: There is evidence for interbreeding between archaic and modern humans during the Middle Paleolithic and early Upper Paleolithic. The interbreeding happened in several independent events that included Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as several unidentified hominins.


text: In Eurasia, interbreeding between Neanderthals and Denisovans with modern humans took place several times. The introgression events into modern humans are estimated to have happened about 47,000–65,000 years ago with Neanderthals and about 44,000–54,000 years ago with Denisovans.


text: Neanderthal-derived DNA has been found in the genomes of most or possibly all contemporary populations, varying noticeably by region. It accounts for 1–4% of modern genomes for people outside Sub-Saharan Africa, although estimates vary, and either none or possibly up to 0.3% — according to recent research — for those in Africa. It is highest in East Asians, intermediate in Europeans, and lower in Southeast Asians. According to some research, it is also lower in Melanesians compared to both East Asians and Europeans. However, other research finds higher Neanderthal admixture in Melanesians, as well as in Native Americans, than in Europeans (though not higher than in East Asians).


text: Denisovan-derived ancestry is largely absent from modern populations in Africa and Western Eurasia. The highest rates, by far, of Denisovan admixture have been found in Oceanian and some Southeast Asian populations. An estimated 4–6% of the genome of modern Melanesians is derived from Denisovans, but the highest amounts detected thus far are found in the Negrito populations of the Philippines. While some Southeast Asian Negrito populations carry Denisovan admixture, others have none, such as the Andamanese. In addition, low traces of Denisovan-derived ancestry have been found in mainland Asia, with an elevated Denisovan ancestry in South Asian populations compared to other mainland populations.


text: In Africa, archaic alleles consistent with several independent admixture events in the subcontinent have been found. It is currently unknown who these archaic African hominins were.


text: Introgression of DNA from other lineages has enabled humanity "to migrate to, and succeed in, numerous new environments". Therefore, a strong case can be made that hybridization was an essential driving force in the emergence of modern humans.


text: On 7 May 2010, following the genome sequencing of three Vindija Neanderthals, a draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome was published and revealed that Neanderthals shared more alleles with Eurasian populations (e.g. French, Han Chinese, and Papua New Guinean) than with sub-Saharan African populations (e.g. Yoruba and San). According to the authors Green et al. (2010), the observed excess of genetic similarity is best explained by recent gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans after the migration out of Africa. They estimated the proportion of Neanderthal-derived ancestry to be 1–4% of the Eurasian genome. Prüfer et al. (2013) estimated the proportion to be 1.5–2.1% for non-Africans, Lohse and Frantz (2014) infer a higher rate of 3.4–7.3% in Eurasia. In 2017, Prüfer et al. revised their estimate to 1.8–2.6% for non-Africans outside Oceania.


text: According to a later study by Chen et al. (2020), Africans (specifically, the 1000 Genomes African populations) also have Neanderthal admixture, with this Neanderthal admixture in African individuals accounting for 17 megabases, which is 0.3% of their genome. According to the authors, Africans gained their Neanderthal admixture predominantly from a back-migration by peoples (modern humans carrying Neanderthal admixture) that had diverged from ancestral Europeans (postdating the split between East Asians and Europeans). This back-migration is proposed to have happened about 20,000 years ago. However, some scientists, such as geneticist David Reich, have doubts about how extensive the flow of DNA back to Africa would have been, finding the signal of Neanderthal admixture "really weak".


text: About 20% of the Neanderthal genome has been found introgressed or assimilated in the modern human population (by analyzing East Asians and Europeans), but the figure has also been estimated at about a third.


text: A higher Neanderthal admixture was found in East Asians than in Europeans, which is estimated to be about 20% more introgression into East Asians. This could possibly be explained by the occurrence of further admixture events in the early ancestors of East Asians after the separation of Europeans and East Asians, dilution of Neanderthal ancestry in Europeans by populations with low Neanderthal ancestry from later migrations, or natural selection that may have been relatively lower in East Asians than in Europeans. Studies simulating admixture models indicate that a reduced efficacy of purifying selection against Neanderthal alleles in East Asians could not account for the greater proportion of Neanderthal ancestry of East Asians, thus favoring more-complex models involving additional pulses of Neanderthal introgression into East Asians. Such models show a pulse to ancestral Eurasians, followed by separation and an additional pulse to ancestral East Asians. It is observed that there is a small but significant variation of Neanderthal admixture rates within European populations, but no significant variation within East Asian populations. Prüfer et al. (2017) remarked that East Asians carry more Neanderthal DNA (2.3–2.6%) than Western Eurasians (1.8–2.4%).


text: It was later determined by Chen et al. (2020) that East Asians have 8% more Neanderthal ancestry, revised from the previous reports of 20% more Neanderthal ancestry, compared to Europeans. This stems from the fact that Neanderthal ancestry shared with Africans had been masked, because Africans were thought to have no Neanderthal admixture and were therefore used as reference samples. Thus, any overlap in Neanderthal admixture with Africans resulted in an underestimation of Neanderthal admixture in non-Africans and especially in Europeans. The authors give a single pulse of Neanderthal admixture after the out-of-Africa dispersal as the most parsimonious explanation for the enrichment in East Asians, but they add that variation in Neanderthal ancestry may also be attributed to dilution to account for the now-more-modest differences found. As a proportion of the total amount of Neanderthal sequence for each population, 7.2% of the sequence in Europeans is shared exclusively with Africans, while 2% of the sequence in East Asians is shared exclusively with Africans.


text: Genomic analysis suggests that there is a global division in Neanderthal introgression between sub-Saharan African populations and other modern human groups (including North Africans) rather than between African and non-African populations. North African groups share a similar excess of derived alleles with Neanderthals as do non-African populations, whereas sub-Saharan African groups are the only modern human populations that generally did not experience Neanderthal admixture. The Neanderthal genetic signal among North African populations was found to vary depending on the relative quantity of autochthonous North African, European, Near Eastern and sub-Saharan ancestry. Using f4 ancestry ratio statistical analysis, the Neanderthal inferred admixture was observed to be: highest among the North African populations with maximal autochthonous North African ancestry such as Tunisian Berbers, where it was at the same level or even higher than that of Eurasian populations (100–138%); high among North African populations carrying greater European or Near Eastern admixture, such as groups in North Morocco and Egypt (∼60–70%); and lowest among North African populations with greater Sub-Saharan admixture, such as in South Morocco (20%). Quinto et al. (2012) therefore postulate that the presence of this Neanderthal genetic signal in Africa is not due to recent gene flow from Near Eastern or European populations since it is higher among populations bearing indigenous pre-Neolithic North African ancestry. Low but significant rates of Neanderthal admixture has also been observed for the Maasai of East Africa. After identifying African and non-African ancestry among the Maasai, it can be concluded that recent non-African modern human (post-Neanderthal) gene flow was the source of the contribution since around an estimated 30% of the Maasai genome can be traced to non-African introgression from about 100 generations ago.


text: Presenting a high-quality genome sequence of a female Altai Neanderthal, it has been found that the Neanderthal component in non-African modern humans is more related to the Mezmaiskaya Neanderthal (North Caucasus) than to the Altai Neanderthal (Siberia) or the Vindija Neanderthals (Croatia). By high-coverage sequencing the genome of a 50,000-year-old female Vindija Neanderthal fragment, it was later found that the Vindija and Mezmaiskaya Neanderthals did not seem to differ in the extent of their allele-sharing with modern humans. In this case, it was also found that the Neanderthal component in non-African modern humans is more closely related to the Vindija and Mezmaiskaya Neanderthals than to the Altai Neanderthal. These results suggest that a majority of the admixture into modern humans came from Neanderthal populations that had diverged (about 80–100kya) from the Vindija and Mezmaiskaya Neanderthal lineages before the latter two diverged from each other.


text: Analysis of chromosome 21 of the Altai, El Sidrón (Spain), and Vindija Neanderthals indicates that of these three lineages, only the El Sidrón and Vindija Neanderthals display significant rates of gene flow (0.3–2.6%) into modern humans, suggesting that the El Sidrón and Vindija Neanderthals are more closely related than the Altai Neanderthal to the Neanderthals that interbred with modern humans about 47,000–65,000 years ago. Conversely, significant rates of modern human gene flow into Neanderthals occurred—of the three examined lineages—for only the Altai Neanderthal (0.1–2.1%), suggesting that modern human gene flow into Neanderthals mainly took place after the separation of the Altai Neanderthals from the El Sidrón and Vindija Neanderthals that occurred roughly 110,000 years ago. The findings show that the source of modern human gene flow into Neanderthals originated from a population of early modern humans from about 100,000 years ago, predating the out-of-Africa migration of the modern human ancestors of present-day non-Africans.


text: No evidence of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been found in modern humans. This suggests that successful Neanderthal admixture happened in pairings with Neanderthal males and modern human females. Possible hypotheses are that Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA had detrimental mutations that led to the extinction of carriers, that the hybrid offspring of Neanderthal mothers were raised in Neanderthal groups and became extinct with them, or that female Neanderthals and male Sapiens did not produce fertile offspring. However, the hypothesized incompatibility between Neanderthals and modern humans is contested by findings that suggest that the Y chromosome of Neanderthals was replaced by an extinct lineage of the modern human Y chromosome, which introgressed into Neanderthals between 100,000 and 370,000 years ago. Furthermore, the study concludes that the replacement of the Y chromosomes and mitochondrial DNA in Neanderthals after gene flow from modern humans is highly plausible given the increased genetic load in Neanderthals relative to modern humans.


text: As shown in an interbreeding model produced by Neves and Serva (2012), the Neanderthal admixture in modern humans may have been caused by a very low rate of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals, with the exchange of one pair of individuals between the two populations in about every 77 generations. This low rate of interbreeding would account for the absence of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA from the modern human gene pool as found in earlier studies, as the model estimates a probability of only 7% for a Neanderthal origin of both mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome in modern humans.


text: There are large genomic regions with strongly reduced Neanderthal contribution in modern humans due to negative selection, partly caused by hybrid male infertility. These regions were most-pronounced on the X chromosome, with fivefold lower Neanderthal ancestry compared to autosomes. They also contained relatively high numbers of genes specific to testes. This means that modern humans have relatively few Neanderthal genes that are located on the X chromosome or expressed in the testes, suggesting male infertility as a probable cause. It may be partly affected by hemizygosity of X chromosome genes in males.


text: Deserts of Neanderthal sequences may also be caused by genetic drift involving intense bottlenecks in the modern human population and background selection as a result of strong selection against deleterious Neanderthal alleles. The overlap of many deserts of Neanderthal and Denisovan sequences suggests that repeated loss of archaic DNA occur at specific loci.


text: It has also been shown that Neanderthal ancestry has been selected against in conserved biological pathways, such as RNA processing.


text: Consistent with the hypothesis that purifying selection has reduced Neanderthal contribution in present-day modern human genomes, Upper Paleolithic Eurasian modern humans (such as the Tianyuan modern human) carry more Neanderthal DNA (about 4–5%) than present-day Eurasian modern humans (about 1–2%).