title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy assumed his new command on July 13, 1935. In October Roosevelt came out to California for the California Pacific International Exposition. Leahy treated him to the largest fleet maneuver the U.S. Navy had ever carried out, with 129 warships, including 12 battleships, participating, which the President observed from the deck of the cruiser . On March 30, 1936, Leahy was promoted to the temporary rank of admiral and hoisted his four-star flag on the battleship as Commander Battle Force. One of his last acts in this post was a symbolic one: he transferred his flag to the aircraft carrier as a sign of his conviction that aircraft were now an integral part of sea power.


title: William D. Leahy

text: In December 1935, Swanson told Leahy in confidence that he would be appointed the next CNO if Roosevelt won the 1936 presidential election. Roosevelt won the election with a landslide victory, and on November 10, 1936, it was announced that he would succeed Standley as CNO on January 1, 1937. As CNO, Leahy was content to let the bureau chiefs function as they always had, with the CNO acting as a "primus inter pares". On the other hand, Swanson was chronically ill, and Henry Roosevelt died on February 22, 1936. Charles Edison became the new assistant secretary, but he lacked experience in naval affairs.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy began representing the Navy in cabinet meetings. He met with the President frequently; during his tenure as CNO, Roosevelt had 52 meetings with him, compared with 12 with his Army counterpart, General Malin Craig, none of which were private lunches. Moreover, meetings between Leahy and Roosevelt were sometimes on matters unrelated to the Navy, and frequently went on for hours. At one private lunch on April 15, 1937, Leahy and Roosevelt debated whether new battleships should have 16-inch or (cheaper) 14-inch guns. Leahy ultimately persuaded the President that the new s should have 16-inch guns. On May 22, Leahy accompanied the President and dignitaries including John Nance Garner, Harry Hopkins, James F. Byrnes, Morris Sheppard, Edwin C. Johnson, Claude Pepper and Sam Rayburn on a cruise on the presidential yacht to watch a baseball game between congressmen and the press.


title: William D. Leahy

text: The most important issue confronting the administration was how to respond to the Japanese invasion of China. The commander-in-chief of the Asiatic Fleet, Admiral Harry Yarnell, asked for four additional cruisers to help evacuate American citizens from the Shanghai International Settlement, but the Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, thought this would be too provocative. Leahy went to Hyde Park to take the matter up with Roosevelt. The request was turned down: American isolationist sentiment was too strong to countenance the risk of being drawn into the conflict; Yarnell could use merchant ships, if he could find them. Leahy accepted this presidential decision, as he always did, even when he strongly disagreed. Leahy wrote in his diary that a Japanese threat to bomb the civilian population in China was "evidence, and a conclusive one, that the old accepted rules of warfare are no longer in effect."


title: William D. Leahy

text: On December 12, Leahy was informed of the USS "Panay" incident, in which an American gunboat on the Yangtze River had been sunk by Japanese aircraft. He met with Hull to craft a response, and discussed the matter with Roosevelt on December 14. Leahy saw the "Panay" incident as a test of American resolve. He wanted to answer it with a show of force, with economic sanctions and a naval blockade of Japan. But among Roosevelt's advisors, he was the only one willing to countenance such a drastic step. Roosevelt agreed with him, but in an election year he felt he could not afford to antagonize the pacifists and isolationists. The Japanese apology therefore was accepted.


title: William D. Leahy

text: The "Panay" incident did prompt Roosevelt and Leahy to press ahead with plans for an ambitious shipbuilding program. On January 5, Roosevelt, Leahy and Edison met with Congressman Carl Vinson to draw up a strategy for obtaining Congressional approval for a 20 percent increase in all classes of warships. The resulting Second Vinson Act was approved in May 1938, and provided for four more s, along with cruisers with a total displacement of and destroyers with a total displacement of . Leahy had not thought it worthwhile to build more aircraft carriers, but five were added to what became the Two-Ocean Navy Act, together with five s. Leahy also pushed for the construction of 24 oilers, which would be needed to project American sea power across the vastness of the Pacific. Before retiring as CNO, Leahy joined his wife Louise when she sponsored the first of these, the , which was commissioned on March 20, 1939.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Roosevelt threw a surprise party for Leahy on July 28, 1939, during which he presented him with the Navy Distinguished Service Medal. According to Leahy, Roosevelt said: "Bill, if we have a war, you're going to be right back here helping me run it." To make this easier, Vinson and David I. Walsh were asked to expedite legislation to keep Leahy on the active list for another two years. On August 1, 1939 Leahy formally handed the position of CNO over to Admiral Harold Stark.


title: William D. Leahy

text: From September 1939 to November 1940, Leahy served as Governor of Puerto Rico after Roosevelt removed Blanton Winship for his role in the Ponce massacre. Winship had aligned himself with the Coalición, a pro-American electoral alliance that represented the interests of the island's wealthy elite and American sugar corporations. Roosevelt gave Leahy both military and social objectives to carry out: on the military side, he had to develop and upgrade base installations there; on the social side, he had to alleviate the extreme poverty and inequality that afflicted the island. To tackle these problems, Leahy was given an additional $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) and extraordinary latitude in spending it. Leahy was named as the head of the Puerto Rican office of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which gave him control over New Deal funding. In October 1939, he also became the head of the Puerto Rico Cement Corporation in order to help it secure a $700,000 loan () from the Federal government's Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), and in December he became the head of the Puerto Rican branch of the RFC. His power was enhanced by his direct access to the President and the Secretary of the interior, Harold L. Ickes.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Although given the unflattering sobriquet "Almirante Lija" ("Admiral Sandpaper") by locals, based on his surname, Leahy was regarded as one of the most lenient American governors of the several who served Puerto Rico in the first half of the 20th century. He took an open stance of not intervening directly in local politics, although he remained involved in Federal politics, doing what he could to support Roosevelt's 1940 reelection. He attempted to understand and respect local customs, and initiated various major public works projects. Although his priority was developing Puerto Rico as a military base, over half the WPA funds were spent on public works such as roads and improving sanitation. He regulated prices and production in the coffee industry, and had ships traveling between the United States and the Panama Canal, where major upgrade works were being undertaken, stop over in Puerto Rico when they needed repairs or supplies. In December 1939 he met with Roosevelt and secured an additional $100 million in WPA funding (equivalent to $ million in ) for public works, which allowed him to hire another 20,000 workers. By awarding lucrative government contracts and appointing officials based on Roosevelt's preferences rather than those of the local elite, he soon earned the enmity of the Coalición.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy oversaw the development of military bases and stations across the island. At the time of his appointment as governor, the only naval installations were a radio station and a hydrographic office. On October 30, 1939, a fixed fee contract was awarded for construction of the Naval Air Station Isla Grande. Subsequently the scope of activity was widened to include the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The naval air station was intended to support two squadrons of seaplanes and a carrier air group. The Isla Grande site included an existing Pan Am airstrip and a quarantine station, but most of it was mangrove swamp and tidal mud flats. The site was built up with fill dredged up from the San Antonio and Martín Peña Channels. The existing airstrip was realigned to conform to the prevailing winds, lengthened, widened, and surfaced with asphalt. A secondary runway was also built, along with a new quarantine station and hospital. Construction work on the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station commenced in 1941 under another fixed fee contract and the base was commissioned on July 15, 1943.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Between January 1 and November 1, 1940, Leahy met with Roosevelt six times. One of the most important was a lunch on October 6, 1940. Admiral James O. Richardson, the CINCUS, had been ordered to keep the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor at the conclusion of exercises there to act as a deterrent to the Japanese. Richardson protested; Pearl Harbor, he argued, was unsuitable as a base: it could not provide the needs of the fleet for an extended stay, which would affect its readiness, and was too vulnerable to a surprise attack. Leahy agreed with Richardson, but knew better than to press the matter with Roosevelt when the President's mind was made up. On February 1, 1941, Richardson was recalled and replaced as CINCUS by Admiral Husband Kimmel.


title: William D. Leahy

text: The Fall of France in June 1940 came as a shock to many Americans; Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy described it as "the most shocking single event of the war". American security had been underwritten by Britain and France, allowing the United States to have a comparatively low amount of defense spending, and planning was based on the assumption that France would be a bulwark against Germany, as it had been in World War I, and that the United States would have ample time to mobilize industry and create armies. Now, with France gone, Germany could directly threaten the United States. On November 18, 1940, Leahy was appointed United States Ambassador to France. In his message asking Leahy to accept the position, Roosevelt explained:


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy sailed from Puerto Rico on November 28, and arrived in New York on December 2, from whence he immediately flew to Washington, D.C., to confer with Roosevelt, who told him that he needed to gain the confidence of the French head of state, Marshal Philippe Pétain, and the Commander-in-Chief of the French Navy, Admiral François Darlan. "My major task", Leahy later recalled "was to keep the French on our side in so far as possible". The United States would give Britain all the help it could short of actually joining the war, and Leahy would convince Pétain and Darlan that it was in France's best interest that Germany be defeated. He departed Norfolk, Virginia, on December 17 on the cruiser , and reached Lisbon, Portugal, on December 30. He then traveled overland by train and car to Vichy, where he presented his letter of credence to Pétain on January 9, 1941.


title: William D. Leahy

text: The United States had some levers with which to influence the French. It supplied food and medical aid to the Vichy French regime in French North Africa, hoping in return to moderate its collaboration with the Axis Powers. After six months of negotiations, the British agreed to permit medical supplies to be shipped through the British blockade under Red Cross supervision. Food was another matter; it was estimated that 22 million French people did not get enough to eat. The British believed that Germany would seize up to 58 percent of France's food crops, but Darlan blamed the British naval blockade, arguing that the critical shortage was not of food but of fuel for its distribution, and he threatened to use the French Navy to break the blockade.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy advised Roosevelt that the shipment of supplies to France would improve America's standing and stiffen Pétain's resolve to resist German demands, In his opinion, the "British blockade action which prevents the delivery of necessary foodstuffs to the inhabitants of unoccupied France is of the same order of stupidity as many other British policies in the present war." He also hoped that aid to French North Africa would strengthen the hand of General Maxime Weygand there. Roosevelt compelled the British to accept the shipment of medicine and food intended for children, along with thousands of tons of fuel for their distribution.


title: William D. Leahy

text: American aid proved insufficient to buy French support. In May 1941, Darlan agreed to the Paris Protocols, which granted Germany access to French military bases in Syria, Tunisia, and French West Africa, and in July the French granted Japan access to bases in French Indochina, which directly threatened the American position in the Philippines. Although no German bombers had the range to bomb the United States from bases in Senegal, if they could deploy from Senegal to Vichy-held Martinique, they could do so from there. Weygand, the main American hope for a change in French policy, was recalled on November 18, despite Leahy's warnings that this could prompt a cession of American aid. On December 7, 1941, Leahy received news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. This was followed, on December 11, by the German declaration of war against the United States. With the United States now in the war, Leahy thought that this would strengthen his hand with the Vichy government, but Charles de Gaulle's capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon later that month discredited American assurances that French colonies would not be seized.


title: William D. Leahy

text: By this time Leahy was convinced that the United States was backing the wrong side, and he urged Roosevelt to use this as a pretext for recalling him to the United States. This was finally prompted by the formation of a new government in Vichy under the pro-Axis Pierre Laval on April 18. Meanwhile, on April 9, Leahy's wife Louise underwent a hysterectomy. While recovering from the operation, she suffered an embolism and died on April 21. Leahy called on Pétain to say farewell on April 27. He arrived back in New York on the Swedish-registered ocean liner on June 1. He arranged for a funeral service for Louise at the St. Thomas Episcopal Church, where they had been members for many years, and watched her burial in Arlington National Cemetery on June 3, 1942.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Waging a two-ocean war as part of a coalition revealed serious deficiencies in the organization of the American high command when it came to formulating grand strategy: meetings of the senior officers of the Army and Navy with each other and with the President were irregular and infrequent, and there was no joint planning staff or secretariat to record decisions taken. Under the Constitution of the United States, the President was the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. At a meeting with Roosevelt on February 24, 1942, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George C. Marshall, urged Roosevelt to appoint a chief of staff of the armed forces to provide unity of command, and he suggested Leahy for the role. Leahy had lunch with Roosevelt on July 7, during which this was discussed. On July 21, Leahy was recalled to active duty. He resigned as Ambassador to France and was appointed Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. In announcing the appointment, Roosevelt described Leahy's role as an advisory one rather than that of a supreme commander.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy attended his first meeting of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) on July 28. The other members were Marshall; King, who was now both CNO and Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet (now abbreviated as COMINCH); and Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of U.S. Army Air Forces. Henceforth, the JCS held regular meetings at noon on Wednesdays, which usually commenced with a light lunch. Leahy served as the de facto chairman. He drew up the agenda for the JCS meetings, presided over them, and signed off on all the major papers and decisions. He considered that this was due to his seniority and not by virtue of his position. He had a small personal staff of two military aides-de-camp and two or three secretaries. JCS meetings were held in the Public Health Service Building, where Leahy had an office. After some renovations were made, he was also given an office in the East Wing of the White House on September 7, 1942; the other two main offices there were occupied by Hopkins and Byrnes. Roosevelt had the Map Room constructed in the White House where large maps showed the progress of the war. Only Leahy and Hopkins had unrestricted access to the Map Room; everyone else had to be accompanied by Leahy or Hopkins or given special permission to enter.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Two days after his first JCS meeting, there was a meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS), which Leahy also chaired. In these meetings the JCS met with the leaders of the British Joint Staff Mission: Field Marshal Sir John Dill, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, Air Marshal Douglas Evill and Lieutenant General Gordon Macready. CCS meetings were held every Friday. The main agendum item at his first JCS and CCS meetings was Operation Gymnast, a proposed invasion of French North Africa. Marshall and King were opposed to it on the grounds that it would divert resources necessary for Operation Roundup, a landing in northern France, but after listening to their arguments, Leahy informed them Roosevelt was adamant that it was vital American forces take the field against Germany in 1942, and that Gymnast was to proceed. Roosevelt gave his formal assent on July 25. Marshall and King considered this to be tentative, but Leahy informed them that the decision was final.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy usually arrived at his White House office sometime between 08:30 and 08:45 each day and went over copies of dispatches and reports. For convenience, the documents were color coded: pink for incoming dispatches from the theater; yellow for outgoing ones; green for JCS papers; white for CCS ones; and blue for papers from the Joint Staff Planners. Leahy would select the papers to be brought to the President's attention, and would meet with him each morning in the Oval Office or the Map Room. This included high-grade Ultra intelligence. Control of the flow of information gave Leahy an additional source of power and influence beyond his personal relationship with the President.


title: William D. Leahy

text: When Roosevelt went away, Leahy went with him. Leahy missed the Casablanca Conference in January 1943; after setting out with Roosevelt, Hopkins and Rear Admiral Ross McIntire, Leahy developed bronchitis and had to remain in Trinidad. But he was present at all the other inter-Allied conferences that the President attended. Leahy's support of Roosevelt's decision to invade French North Africa did not mean that he bought into the British Mediterranean strategy. He joined Marshall and King in their advocacy of a cross-Channel operation in 1944. At the first conference he attended, the Third Washington Conference, in May 1943 he clashed with the British chiefs of staff over their reluctance to undertake operations to reopen the overland route to China, which Leahy considered vital to both the war against Japan and the postwar era. Leahy eventually extracted a promise from the British to undertake Operation Anakim, an offensive to recapture Burma, in 1943. Leahy sided with Hopkins and Major General Claire Chennault in supporting a bombing offensive against Japan from bases in China despite Marshall's prescient warnings that this could not be sustained without adequate ground troops to protect the air bases. Marshall was proven correct when a Japanese offensive overran Chennault's bases.


title: William D. Leahy

text: On November 12, 1943, Roosevelt, Hopkins, Leahy, King and Marshall set off together from Hampton Roads on the battleship . Roosevelt occupied the captain's cabin, and Leahy the one for an embarked admiral; Marshall, the next most senior officer, had the chief of staff's cabin. The President had his own mess, where he dined with Hopkins, Leahy, McIntire, and Roosevelt's aides, Rear Admiral Wilson Brown and Major General Edwin "Pa" Watson; the other senior officers took their meals with the ships' officers. They reached Mers-el-Kebir on November 20, from whence they flew to Tunis and then Cairo. Roosevelt stayed at the American Ambassador's compound in Cairo. Space was limited, so he took only Leahy and Hopkins with him. Discussions with the British in Cairo were mainly concerned with Burma and China, about which they had much less interest than the Americans.


title: William D. Leahy

text: They then flew on to Tehran, Iran, for talks with Stalin. Roosevelt was slated to stay at the American legation there, but Stalin offered to put Roosevelt up at the Soviet compound. He was allowed to bring two people with him, so he chose Leahy and Hopkins. The conference reached agreement with the Soviets on the cross-Channel operation (Operation Overlord) and an invasion of Southern France (Operation Anvil). When General Sir Alan Brooke began to back away from the commitment, Leahy finally lost his patience and demanded to know under what circumstances he would be willing to undertake Overlord. In the end, the British, as Leahy put it, "fell into line".


title: William D. Leahy

text: Although the conservative Leahy regarded Hopkins as a "pinko", the two men worked well together, and Leahy became quite fond of Hopkins. Both men were completely devoted to the President, and Leahy saw something of himself in the idealistic Hopkins. Over time, Leahy gradually replaced Hopkins as Roosevelt's must trusted advisor, becoming, in the words of historian Phillips O'Brien, "the second most powerful man in the world". The main reason for this was the precarious state of Hopkins's health. Hopkins was diagnosed with stomach cancer, and in December 1937, doctors removed three quarters of his stomach. Although his cancer did not return, he suffered a series of ailments, including malnutrition and hepatitis B contracted from blood transfusions. His drinking and smoking did not help. For a time he received injections of blood plasma, and seemed to improve, but by late 1943 his health was clearly declining. He married Louise Gill Macy in the Oval office on July 30, 1942. For a time she lived in the White House with Hopkins, but she prevailed on him to move out in December 1943. He was therefore no longer at Roosevelt's beck and call as often.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy spent D-Day, June 6, 1944, in his home town of Hampton, Iowa. This well-publicized "sentimental journey" was part of the deception efforts surrounding the Allied invasion of Europe. The idea was to lull any German agents in the United States into believing that the operation would not take place while such an important officer was out of the capital. The following month, he accompanied President Roosevelt to the Pacific Strategy Conference in Hawaii at which Roosevelt met Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the commander in chief of the Pacific Ocean Areas, and General Douglas MacArthur, the commander in chief of the Southwest Pacific Area. This was unnecessary; the two commanders could have sent representatives to Washington, but Roosevelt saw it as offering good photo opportunities in an election year.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Roosevelt, Leahy and presidential speech writer Samuel Rosenman (instead of Hopkins) set out from Washington in Roosevelt's personal railcar, the "Ferdinand Magellan", on July 13. They went to Hyde Park, where Roosevelt showed Leahy around his Presidential Library, then to Chicago, where Roosevelt conferred with leaders of the Democratic Party over the choice of Harry S. Truman as his vice presidential running mate in the 1944 election. In San Diego they boarded the cruiser , which took them to Hawaii, where Nimitz briefed them on a proposed invasion of the island of Formosa, King's preferred target, but also spoke favorably of MacArthur's alternative of liberating the Philippines. Leahy hoped that this would facilitate a naval and air blockade that would make an invasion of Japan unnecessary. No decision was taken at this time, and the JCS continued debating the issue for months before authorizing the liberation of Luzon on October 3.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Hopkins was not present at the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944 either, continuing Leahy's transformation into a White House advisor. He did not attend the political sessions at Quebec, but at this level political and military issues were indistinguishable. For example, the JCS examined a proposal for a British fleet to participate in the Pacific War, a military proposal with a political objective. King was unenthusiastic about the idea; the U.S. Navy was performing well against the Japanese, and the addition of British forces would complicate command and logistics arrangements. Leahy and Marshall pressed for the British offer to be accepted, and in the end it was, with the proviso that the British Pacific Fleet would be self-supporting.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Another debate concerned the American occupation zone in Germany. The United States was allocated the southern part of Germany, which meant that its lines of communications would run through France, where Leahy was concerned about the prospect of a postwar Communist takeover. Roosevelt and Churchill reached a compromise, whereby the ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven would be given to the Americans, along with the right of transit through the British Zone.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy was advanced to the newly-created rank of Fleet Admiral on December 15, 1944, making him the most senior of the seven men who received five-star rank that month. He accompanied President Roosevelt to the Yalta Conference in February 1945. The cruiser took them to Malta, where Leahy chaired a CCS meeting to discuss the war against Germany, and then the President's personal aircraft, the "Sacred Cow", flew them to Yalta. At Yalta, Roosevelt met Churchill and Stalin to decide how Europe was to be reorganized after the impending surrender of Germany.


title: William D. Leahy

text: On April 12, 1945, Roosevelt died. Leahy attended the ceremonies and the memorial service for his friend, which was held in the East Room of the White House.


title: William D. Leahy

text: On April 13, Leahy gave the regular morning briefing on the progress of the war to Truman, who had become President on Roosevelt's death. This was followed by a short meeting with the Joint Chiefs, the Secretary of War, Henry Stimson, and the Secretary of the Navy, James Forrestal. Afterwards, Leahy offered to resign, but Truman decided to retain him as chief of staff. On June 18, the Joint Chiefs, along with Stimson and Forrestal, met with Truman at the White House to discuss Operation Olympic, the planned invasion of Kyushu. Truman chaired the meeting. Marshall and King strongly favored the operation, and all the others voiced their support except Leahy, who feared that it would result in high casualties. He questioned Marshall's casualty estimates, which were based on the Luzon campaign, which took place on a large land mass where there was ample room for maneuver, rather than the Okinawa campaign, which took place on an island where lack of maneuver room resulted in frontal assaults and high casualties.


title: William D. Leahy

text: According to Truman's "Memoirs: Year of Decisions", Leahy was present in 1945 when Truman was given advice by Vannevar Bush about the Manhattan Project:


title: William D. Leahy

text: After the bomb was tested, Truman consulted with Byrnes, Stimson, Leahy, Marshall, Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of United States Forces, European Theater. The consensus was that the atomic bomb should be used. In his memoirs, Leahy wrote:


title: William D. Leahy

text: In July 1945, Leahy accompanied Truman to the Potsdam Conference where Truman met with Stalin and the new British Prime Minister Clement Attlee to make decisions about the governance of occupied Germany. Hopkins was too ill to make the journey. Leahy was disappointed in the outcome of these conferences. He considered that both Truman and Stalin had suffered defeats, with proposals that would have ensured a lasting peace in Europe being watered down or turned down. He recognized that the Soviet Union was a dominant power in Europe, and that the British Empire was in terminal decline, underscored by the mid-conference replacement of Churchill by Attlee.


title: William D. Leahy

text: On January 24, 1946, Leahy was appointed to the interim National Intelligence Authority (NIA), which oversaw activities of the nascent Central Intelligence Group. The following year the National Security Act of 1947 replaced these organizations with the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency respectively, ending Leahy's involvement. He continued to chair meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and he rejected war plans that he felt placed too much emphasis on the first use of nuclear weapons. Like many naval officers, he was opposed to the unification of the War and Navy departments into the Department of Defense, fearing that the Navy would lose its naval aviation and the Marine Corps. Nor did he agree with formalizing the role of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy was involved in the preparation of two speeches that marked the onset of the Cold War: Truman's Navy Day address on October 27, 1945, and Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech on March 5, 1946. The former was written by Leahy and Rosenman, and reflected Leahy's ideas about the fundamental goals of U.S. foreign policy; the latter was written by Churchill, but in consultation with Leahy, who was the only one of the "American military men" referred to in the speech with whom Churchill discussed the speech. But Leahy's non-interventionist stance on U.S. involvement in the Greek Civil War and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict were increasingly out of step with the policies of the Truman administration. On September 20, 1948, columnist Constantine Brown published allegations that White House advisors Clark Clifford and David K. Niles were urging Truman to get rid of Leahy, whom they regarded, Brown said, as an "old-fashioned reactionary".


title: William D. Leahy

text: On the day after Truman won the presidential election on November 2, 1948, Leahy asked to be retired in January. In December, doctors diagnosed Leahy with a partial blockage of the kidneys. On December 28, he met with Truman as chief of staff for the last time. Truman officially accepted his resignation as his chief of staff on March 2, 1949, although as an officer with five-star rank, Leahy technically remained on active service as an advisor to the Secretary of the Navy.


title: William D. Leahy

text: The following year, Leahy published his war memoirs, "I Was There". His unemotional, unexciting and unenlightening style did his publisher no favors. Orville Prescott the book reviewer for "The New York Times" wrote: "As the personal confidant of President Roosevelt and President Truman, Admiral Leahy ought to have a good story to tell. Unfortunately, he hasn't... its stiff official manner, its elaborate discretion, its desperate need of editing and its lack of any exciting new information make it dull and dusty fare... writes in a prose style as rigid as a naval cadet standing at attention in his review." The book sold poorly, and when Leahy subsequently proposed a book about his time in Puerto Rico, the publisher turned it down.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy died at the U.S. Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, on July 20, 1959, at the age of eighty-four. At the time of his death, he was the oldest officer on active duty in the history of the U.S. Navy. He was given an Armed Forces military funeral. His body was viewed at the Bethlehem Chapel at the Washington National Cathedral from noon on July 22 until noon on July 23. A funeral service was then held in the cathedral at 14:00, followed by the burial in Arlington National Cemetery. Honorary pallbearers were Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Admiral Thomas C. Hart, Admiral Charles P. Snyder, Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Vice Admiral Edward L. Cochrane, and Rear Admiral Henry Williams, all retired from service. Active military servicemen who were honorary pallbearers were Admiral Jerauld Wright, Admiral Robert L. Dennison, Rear Admiral Joseph H. Wellings, and close friend, William D. Hassett.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy's papers are in the Naval History and Heritage Command and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; some personal correspondence is held by the Wisconsin Historical Society. The , the lead ship of the s, was named in his honor.


title: William D. Leahy

text: Leahy was portrayed by John McKee in MacArthur (1977 film), Byron Morrow in War and Remembrance (miniseries), and George R. Robertson in Hiroshima (1995 film).


title: Grandfather clause

text: A grandfather clause, also known as grandfather policy, grandfathering, or grandfathered in, is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases. Those exempt from the new rule are said to have grandfather rights or acquired rights, or to have been grandfathered in. Frequently, the exemption is limited, as it may extend for a set time, or it may be lost under certain circumstances; for example, a grandfathered power plant might be exempt from new, more restrictive pollution laws, but the exception may be revoked and the new rules would apply if the plant were expanded. Often, such a provision is used as a compromise or out of practicality, to allow new rules to be enacted without upsetting a well-established logistical or political situation. This extends the idea of a rule not being retroactively applied.


title: Grandfather clause

text: The term originated in late nineteenth-century legislation and constitutional amendments passed by a number of Southern U.S. states, which created new requirements for literacy tests, payment of poll taxes and residency and property restrictions to register to vote. States in some cases exempted those whose ancestors (i.e., grandfathers) had the right to vote before the American Civil War or as of a particular date from such requirements. The intent and effect of such rules was to prevent former African-American enslaved persons and their descendants from voting but without denying poor and illiterate whites the right to vote. Although these original grandfather clauses were eventually ruled unconstitutional, the terms "grandfather clause" and "grandfather" have been adapted to other uses.


title: Grandfather clause

text: The original grandfather clauses were contained in new state constitutions and Jim Crow laws passed between 1890 and 1908 by white-dominated state legislatures including Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Virginia. They restricted voter registration, effectively preventing African Americans from voting. Racial restrictions on voting in place before 1870 were nullified by the Fifteenth Amendment.


title: Grandfather clause

text: After Democrats took control of state legislatures again before and after the Compromise of 1877, they began to work to restrict the ability of blacks to vote. Paramilitary groups such as the White League, Red Shirts, and rifle clubs had intimidated blacks or barred them from the polls in numerous elections before what they called the Redemption (restoration of white supremacy). Nonetheless, a coalition of Populists and Republicans in fusion tickets in the 1880s and 1890s gained some seats and won some governor positions. To prevent such coalitions in the future, the Democrats wanted to exclude freedmen and other blacks from voting; in some states they also restricted poor whites to avoid biracial coalitions.


title: Grandfather clause

text: White Democrats developed statutes and passed new constitutions creating restrictive voter registration rules. Examples included imposition of poll taxes and residency and literacy tests. An exemption to such requirements was made for all persons allowed to vote before the American Civil War, and any of their descendants. The term "grandfather clause" arose from the fact that the laws tied the then-current generation's voting rights to those of their grandfathers. According to Black's "Law Dictionary", some Southern states adopted constitutional provisions exempting from the literacy requirements descendants of those who fought in the army or navy of the United States or of the Confederate States during a time of war.


title: Grandfather clause

text: After the U.S. Supreme Court found such provisions unconstitutional in "Guinn v. United States" (1915), states were forced to stop using the grandfather clauses to provide exemption to literacy tests. Without the grandfather clauses, tens of thousands of poor Southern whites were disenfranchised in the early 20th century. As decades passed, Southern states tended to expand the franchise for poor whites, but most blacks could not vote until after passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Ratification in 1964 of the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited the use of poll taxes in federal elections, but some states continued to use them in state elections.


title: Grandfather clause

text: The 1965 Voting Rights Act had provisions to protect voter registration and access to elections, with federal enforcement and supervision where necessary. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled in "Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections" that poll taxes could not be used in any elections. This secured the franchise for most citizens, and voter registration and turnout climbed dramatically in Southern states.


title: Grandfather clause

text: There is also a rather different, older type of "grandfather clause", perhaps more properly a "grandfather principle" in which a government blots out transactions of the recent past, usually those of a predecessor government. The modern analogue may be repudiating public debt, but the original was Henry II's principle, preserved in many of his judgments, "Let it be as it was on the day of my grandfather's death", a principle by which he repudiated all the royal grants that had been made in the previous 19 years under King Stephen.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: Vishal Dadlani (born 28 June 1973) is an Indian singer, songwriter and music composer. He is one half of the duo Vishal–Shekhar, Front Man and vocalist of one of India's leading rock bands called Pentagram.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: As a singer he has sung various hit songs for various genre's notably "Dhoom Again", "Kurban Hua", "Jee le Zara", "Marjaiyann", "I feel Good", "Jab Mila Tu", "Tu Meri", "Swag Se Swagat", "Bala", "Har funn Maula", "Khuda Hafiz". In an interview he admitted that he can sing from Rock to Romantic, any genre as he has particular voice texture for kind of genre.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: As a vocalist of band Pentagram, notable works are "Voice, Tomorrow's Decided, Must I, Love Drug Climbdown" and more to go.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: As music director, he has composed some Songs for Films such as Om Shanti Om, Anjana Anjani, Dostana, I Hate Luv Storys, Bang Bang, Sultan, Student of the Year, Befikre, War etc.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: Dadlani has been in collaboration with many international artists like Imogen Heap, Diplo, The Vamps and Akon.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: Dadlani was born and raised in a Sindhi Hindu family in Bandra, West Bombay. He went to Hill Grange High School in Pedder Road, Cumbala Hill, South Bombay and subsequently attended Jai Hind College, University of Mumbai for two years (1989–90), after which he went to H.R. College of Commerce and Economics, HSNC University, both in Churchgate, South Bombay. He graduated in 1994 with a bachelor's degree in commerce.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: Dadlani's musical journey started in 1994 with the Mumbai-based electronica/indie-rock band Pentagram, which he fronted. Pentagram has gained recognition as one of the pioneers of Indian independent music.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: While active with the band, Dadlani found fame as a Bollywood music composer, singer, and lyricist, with movies like Jhankaar Beats, Bluff Master, and Salaam Namaste.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: In 1999, Vishal–Shekhar, the Bollywood composing/producing and performing music duo, was formed. Dadlani and Shekhar Ravjiani have worked together on Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, and Marathi films. Their notable works include "Jhankaar Beats" (2003), "Dus" (2005), "Bluffmaster" (2005), "I See You" (2006), "Om Shanti Om" (2007), "Bachna Ae Haseeno" (2008), "Dostana" (2008), "Anjaana Anjaani" (2010), "Ra.One" (2011), "Student of the Year" (2012), "Chennai Express" (2013), "Bang Bang!" (2014), "Happy New Year" (2014), "Sultan" (2016), and "Befikre" (2016). The duo has gained nationwide recognition, and today are credited with being amongst the architects of the modern Bollywood sound, having composed music for over 60 films, released over 300 songs, and performed over 1,000 shows worldwide. The two rose to prominence in 2003 when they wrote the score for the film "Jhankaar Beats", which included the song "Tu Aashiqui Hai". They won the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent for their work on the film.


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: Dadlani got his first break as a playback singer when Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy asked him to sing "Kiss Of Love" for the movie "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom". But because of some reasons the track delayed and he had recorded a track called "Dhoom Again" for Pritam as asked by Aditya Chopra which came out before "Kiss of Love".


title: Vishal Dadlani

text: The following is a list of awards and nominations received by Vishal Dadlani alone. A list of awards and nominations received by Vishal—Shekhar can be seen here.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: Kim Sae-ron (; born July 31, 2000) is a South Korean actress. She began her career when she was nine years old and became a popular child star through the films "A Brand New Life" (2009) and "The Man From Nowhere" (2010). As Kim reached her teenage years, she was cast in more leading roles, notably in the film "A Girl at My Door" (2014). She has also starred in television drama series, including "Listen to My Heart" (2011), "The Queen's Classroom" (2013) and "Hi! School-Love On" (2014). Her first adult lead role was in the television drama "Secret Healer" (2016).


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: Kim has two younger sisters, Ah-ron and Ye-ron, who are also actresses. She attended Miyang Elementary School in Seoul, and graduated from Yang-il Middle School in Ilsan in February 2016. She then began attending School of Performing Arts Seoul. In 2018, Kim was admitted to Chung-Ang University, the Department of Performing Arts and Film Studies.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: Kim's first acting role was in the 2009 film "A Brand New Life", directed by the French-Korean filmmaker Ounie Lecomte and loosely based on her life. Kim played the main character, a nine-year-old girl named Jin-hee, who is abandoned by her father at an orphanage after he remarries, and is later adopted by a French couple. Kim attended the Cannes Film Festival when the film was shown there in a special screening, becoming the youngest actress to be invited to the festival. She then co-starred with Won Bin in "The Man From Nowhere", which was the highest-grossing film in South Korea in 2010. She played Jung So-mi, the daughter of a heroin addict who is kidnapped by an organized crime ring. During filming, she was only allowed to watch her own scenes on the monitor. Kim won several awards for her first two roles, including Best New Actress at the Korean Film Awards and Buil Film Awards.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In 2011, Kim was in another crime film, "I Am a Dad", playing the daughter of Kim Seung-woo. She had her first television role in the drama series "Listen to My Heart", playing the younger version of Hwang Jung-eum's character. She appeared in the first four episodes, and her performance was praised by TV critics. Her next role was in the drama film "", alongside her sister Ah-ron. The film is about international adoption, and was the first Korean film to win Best Film at the Giffoni International Film Festival in 2012. Kim then had a dual role in the thriller film "The Neighbor", playing a murder victim and the serial killer's next target. In 2013, she played a student in the television drama "The Queen's Classroom", which won her a Best Young Actress Award at the 2013 MBC Drama Awards (shared with three fellow cast members).


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In a 2014 interview, Kim's manager said Kim had "a great eye for good scripts which made it possible for her to choose her own projects at a very young age". Kim also stated that she never had difficulty accepting difficult roles and was able to slowly immerse herself in the characters. Her first role of the year was in the documentary-drama film "Manshin: Ten Thousand Spirits", reenacting the teenage version of shamanist Kim Geum-hwa. She then played a victim of bullying and domestic violence in the film "A Girl at My Door". She accepted the role because she liked the script was attracted to the character. Kim attended the Cannes Film Festival for the second time when the film premiered there as an Un Certain Regard official selection. Her performance was praised by critics—"Variety" called it "mesmerizing" and Twitch Film noted she had shown more layers and depth compared to her previous roles. She was nominated for many awards, winning Best New Actress at the 35th Blue Dragon Film Awards and . Also in 2014, she starred in the teen fantasy-romance television series "" as an angel who becomes human, and the thriller film "Manhole", playing a hearing impaired girl who is kidnapped by a serial killer.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In 2015, Kim had a lead role in the "Drama City" television special, "Snowy Road". The two-part drama series is about the "comfort women" in Korea under Japanese rule during World War II, and was later released as a film in theaters. Kim's performance as a 15-year-old comfort woman was praised by both critics and viewers, and she was awarded Best Actress in a Foreign Film at the Golden Rooster and Hundred Flowers Film Festival. She then played the main character in the television series "To Be Continued" and the younger version of Choi Kang-hee's character in "Glamorous Temptation". She was cast in her first adult role in the 2016 television drama series, "Secret Healer", playing a cursed Joseon-era princess. Her character has a fictional romance with Heo Jun, played by Yoon Shi-yoon, who is 14 years Kim's senior.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In November 2016, Kim signed with YG Entertainment. In 2018, Kim starred in the thriller film "The Villagers". In 2019, Kim starred in the fourth season of the campus web drama "Love Playlist". The same year she starred in the thriller drama "Leverage", based on the American drama of the same name.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In November 2019, it was reported that Kim's contract with YG Entertainment has expired, and that she would be leaving the company. In January 2020, Kim signed with Gold Medalist along with actors Kim Soo-hyun and Seo Yea-ji.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In May 2021, Kim was confirmed to take the female lead role in the upcoming 12-episode web series "Excellent Shaman Ga Doo-shim", with Nam Da-reum portraying the male main lead.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In April 2022, she was cast in the SBS drama "Trolley". However, later in May 2022, she left the project after crashing her vehicle and subsequently having drunk driving charges filed against her.


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: In May 2022, Kim Sae-ron was driving under the influence in Gangnam-gu, Seoul around 8:00 am, she crashed into several structures including transformers, guard rails and street trees. In the accident, the transformer broke down, and the electricity supply was cut off for about 3 hours at 57 places including nearby shops, causing damage to merchants. The following day, her agency, Gold Medalist released a statement saying that, "Kim Sae-ron is deeply reflecting on her apparent mistake. The damage caused by the accident is being compensated as much as possible. I will do my best to take responsibility until the end."


title: Kim Sae-ron

text: Following a series of similar accusations, Kim Sae-ron posted a hand-written apology to her Instagram account on May 19, 2022. She stated:It was later reported that she left the project in the television series "Trolley." On November 4, 2022, it was reported all the money that Kim Sae-ron had accumulated during her activities was used as compensation in the accident handling and settlement process, and she had a part-time job. Later, Gold Medalist confirmed that Kim Sae-ron had a part-time job because her life was difficult, but currently has stopped.


title: 1998 Indian general election

text: General elections were held in India on 16, 22 and 28 February 1998 to elect the members of the 12th Lok Sabha. The elections were held three years ahead of schedule after the government led by Inder Kumar Gujral collapsed when the Indian National Congress (INC) withdrew its support in November 1997.


title: 1998 Indian general election

text: The result was another hung parliament, with no party or alliance able to muster a majority. However, Atal Bihari Vajpayee of the Bharatiya Janata Party was able to form a coalition government led by the National Democratic Alliance with the support of the Telugu Desam Party. He was sworn in as Prime Minister with support from 272 of 543 MPs. However, his government collapsed on 17 April 1999 when the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam withdrew their support. This led to fresh elections in 1999.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt (, ) is an independent city on the Danube in Upper Bavaria with 139,553 inhabitants (as of June 30, 2022). Around half a million people live in the metropolitan area. Ingolstadt is the second largest city in Upper Bavaria after Munich and the fifth largest city in Bavaria after Munich, Nuremberg , Augsburg and Regensburg. The city passed the mark of 100,000 inhabitants in 1989 and has since been one of the major cities in Germany. After Regensburg, Ingolstadt is the second largest German city on the Danube.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The city was first mentioned in 806. In the late Middle Ages, the city was one of the capitals of the Bavarian duchies alongside Munich, Landshut and Straubing, which is reflected in the architecture. On March 13, 1472, Ingolstadt became the seat of the first university in Bavaria, which later distinguished itself as the center of the Counter-Reformation. The freethinking Illuminati order was also founded here in 1776 . The city was also a Bavarian state fortress for more than 400 years. The historic old town has been preserved.


title: Ingolstadt

text: There are two colleges in the city. The place is one of the three regional centers in Bavaria. The city is mainly characterized by the manufacturing industry, such as automobile and mechanical engineering. The unemployment rate was 3.3% in February 2022.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Covering an urban area of , Ingolstadt is geographically Bavaria's fourth-largest city after Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg. At its largest point the city is about from east to west and from north to south about . The city boundary has a length of .


title: Ingolstadt

text: The city boundary is about away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately above sea level and the highest point, located in the district of Pettenhofen, is . The lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany; the average time lag is 14 minutes.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a wide flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland. In the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second-largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube. The Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near the Altstadt.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as "Ingoldes stat", the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut. Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle as well as the Church of Our Lady (Münster zur Schönen Unseren Lieben Frau), also known as "Upper Parish" (Obere Pfarr), whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture.


title: Ingolstadt

text: In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University. In 1800 it was moved to Landshut and in 1826 eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, led by such notable scholars as Johann Eck.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516.


title: Ingolstadt

text: In the Battle of Ingolstadt in May 1525, the Black Company – a unit of Franconian farmers and knights fighting on the side of the peasants during the German Peasants' War – took their last stand at Ingolstadt against the Swabian League, all eventually being defeated and killed.


title: Ingolstadt

text: On 30 April 1632, the German field marshal Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly died at Ingolstadt during a Swedish siege of the city. The field marshal had been badly wounded in a previous engagement with the Swedes under King Gustavus Adolphus. Ingolstadt proved to be the first fortress in Germany that held out for the entire length of the Swedish siege, and the Swedes eventually withdrew.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The remains of Gustavus Adolphus' horse can be seen in the City Museum. The horse was shot from under the king by one of the cannons inside the fortress, a cannon known as "The Fig". When the Swedes withdrew, the city preserved the remains of the king's horse, eventually putting the on display. It has remained thus for almost 400 years. In 1748, Adam Weishaupt, the founder of the Order of Illuminati, was born in Ingolstadt. After the French invasion in 1799, the fortress was demolished and the university was relocated to Landshut.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Originally a fortress city, Ingolstadt is enclosed by a medieval defensive wall. The Bavarian fortress (1537–1930) now holds the museum of the Bavarian army. During World War I, future French president Charles de Gaulle was detained there as a prisoner of war. A sappers' drill ground lies next to the river, and two military air bases are located nearby, one used for testing aircraft. The long military tradition of the city is reflected in today's civil and cultural life. Former "off-limit" military training areas have been converted into well-used public parks.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Adolf Scherzer composed the "Bayerischen Defiliermarsch". Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" was set at the "Ingolstädter Alte Anatomie" (Old Anatomy Building), now a museum for medical history. Marieluise Fleißer set her play "Pioneers in Ingolstadt" (1928) in the city.


title: Ingolstadt

text: In 1945, the car manufacturer Auto Union first arrived in the city. The company's original factories in Chemnitz and Zwickau (both then in Soviet-controlled East Germany) were shattered during the war, and were seized by the Soviets as reparations. Auto Union executives initially started a spare parts operation in Ingolstadt in the immediate post-war period, with a view to relocating the entire company to the region. With the help of Marshall Plan aid, Auto Union was formally re-founded in Ingolstadt in 1949, ultimately evolving into the modern-era Audi company, after it was taken over by Volkswagen in 1964. Today, Audi is the region's largest employer and now dominates the economy of the city.


title: Ingolstadt

text: As one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria—besides Landshut, Munich, Straubing and Burghausen—the city of Ingolstadt features many Gothic buildings, such as the "Herzogskasten" ('old ducal castle', ca. 1255) and the New Castle, which was built from 1418 onwards. The largest church is the Gothic hall church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenmunster), which was begun in 1425. The church was built to serve as a second parish church beside Saint Maurice as well as the burial place for Louis and his family and intended to be the official burial place for the future Dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Its peculiar and rare angle of footprint was emulated in the 20th century built Cathedral of Newark. Also, the churches of Saint Maurice (1235) and of the Gnadenthal and Franciscan monasteries date from the Gothic era. The Kreuztor (1385) is one of the remaining gates of the old city wall and to this day the key landmark of the city. The Gothic Old City Hall was constructed in the 14th century and later altered several times.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The Baroque era is represented by the Old Anatomy Building of the university (1723–1736, designed by Gabriel de Gabrieli) and the church St. Maria de Victoria, which was built by the Asam brothers (1732–1736). The church of the Augustinians of Johann Michael Fischer (1736) was completely destroyed in World War II.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Many buildings of the neo-classical fortification of Leo von Klenze have been preserved, such as the "Reduit Tilly" and the towers "Baur" and "Triva".


title: Ingolstadt

text: As well as being the home of the headquarters of the car manufacturer Audi, the town is also home to Audi's museum mobile, which is open to the public and presents historic exhibits and offers guided tours.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is a green city with numerous parks, green spaces and forests. The most prominent of these is the "Glacis", formerly an open space in front of the city walls, now surrounding the historic city centre. It functions as a "green belt" and a buffer area between traffic, residential areas and schools. It is possible to traverse it using spacious paths for pedestrians and cyclists, with a good view of the site of the former fortifications, including a well-preserved section of the ditch. Spanning about of the Glacis is , the biggest park in the city. It contained the former and was the site of the Landesgartenschau in 1992. Klenzepark is south of the Danube river, opposite the Ingolstadt old town. In the warm seasons, about 100,000 visitors use the park every month, mostly young people. While about 75% of the park visitors come from Ingolstadt and the surrounding area, the remaining approximately 25% travel from more distant places.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The biggest forest in Ingolstadt is the Auwald ("riverside forest", also called "Schüttel"). It is found on both the northern and southern banks of the Danube, and is one of the biggest well-preserved river forests in Germany, extending mainly from Neuburg to Ingolstadt with extensions to the city centre. The forest serves as a natural reserve, with parts containing unique vegetation or acting as a wildlife reserve.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The Danube river runs through Ingolstadt, flowing west to east. In the area of Ingolstadt, the Danube is between 80 and 100 metres wide and flows past Ingolstadt's old town.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is home to the Ingolstadt School of Management, which is the department of business administration and economics of the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. In national rankings, the business school regularly scores among the top ten. The faculty maintains a large network of partner universities for international educational exchange.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The Ingolstadt School of management offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration. Among the academic programs offered are also executive MBA and doctoral degrees.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt (THI) is a university for technology, computer sciences and business administration. With approximately 6,000 students, it is the biggest educational institution in Ingolstadt.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Several scholarship programmes supported by companies such as Siemens and Conti Temic (Continental AG) provide gifted students with financial assistance during their studies. These students deepen their practical experience by working at these organizations.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The sports life of the city is based on the 83 registered sports clubs. The biggest sports club is the MTV 1881 Ingolstadt, with over 3000 registered members in 16 branches. In total, the sports clubs in Ingolstadt have more than 41,000 members.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is especially known for ice hockey and association football. ERC Ingolstadt, founded in 1964, plays in the German Ice Hockey League since the 2002–03 season. With the exception of its season of debut and 2007–08, the club has reached the national playoffs every year , and has reached the semi-finals three times. They won the German Ice Hockey League Championship in 2014.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The football club FC Ingolstadt 04 came into existence in 2004 after the merger of the football branches of MTV Ingolstadt and ESV Ingolstadt. In the 2007–08 season, it was promoted from the third-highest division at the time, Regionalliga Süd to 2. Bundesliga. In the 2008–09 season, it was relegated to the penultimate place, but was promoted again in 2010-11 and remained in 2. Bundesliga till 2015. In 2015, Ingolstadt won the 2. Bundesliga and were promoted to the country's highest league, the Bundesliga. During their first season in the Bundesliga, Ingolstadt finished in 11th place. They were relegated to 2. Bundesliga by the end of the 2016–17 season.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is one of the many settings in Mary Shelley's novel "Frankenstein". Primarily, Victor Frankenstein attends university in Ingolstadt. It is also widely regarded as the place where the un-named monster was created. The musical version of the novel, "Frankenstein – A New Musical" has many scenes set in Ingolstadt.


title: Ingolstadt

text: Ingolstadt is also a pivotal location in "The Illuminatus! Trilogy" by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.


title: Ingolstadt

text: The sixth scene of "Mother Courage and Her Children" by "Bertolt Brecht" is set in Ingolstadt, when count Tilly died in 1632, during the "Thirty Years War".


title: Ingolstadt

text: "The X-Files" episode "The Post-Modern Prometheus" makes a reference to the University of Ingolstadt. This was an allusion to "Frankenstein", as the episode contained numerous Frankenstein references, and the full title of "Frankenstein" is ""Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus"".


title: Dune II

text: Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty (titled Dune II: Battle for Arrakis in Europe and Dune: The Battle for Arrakis for the North American Mega Drive/Genesis port respectively) is a real-time strategy "Dune" video game developed by Westwood Studios and released by Virgin Games in December 1992. It is based upon David Lynch's 1984 film "Dune", an adaptation of Frank Herbert's science fiction novel of the same name.


title: Dune II

text: While not the first real-time strategy (RTS) video game, "Dune II" established the format that would be followed for years to come. As such, "Dune II" is the archetypal real-time strategy game. Striking a balance between complexity and innovation, it was a huge success and laid the foundation for "Warcraft", "Command & Conquer", "Age of Empires", "StarCraft" and many other RTS games that followed.


title: Dune II

text: Emperor Frederick IV of House Corrino is desperate for the harvesting of the valuable drug melange (also known as "the spice"), found only on the planet Arrakis, to pay off all of his debt incurred on internecine wars with family members. To achieve this, he offers the sole governorship of Arrakis to whichever of the three Houses (Atreides, Harkonnen, and the non-canon Ordos) delivers the most spice for him. War begins as deputations from all three Houses arrive on Arrakis.


title: Dune II

text: The player is a military commander from a House of their choice. In the first few missions, the objectives are to successfully establish a base on an unoccupied territory of Arrakis, to harvest spice, and to defeat intruders. Later, when the three Houses divide Arrakis among them, the player has to assault and capture enemy territories. When the player dominates Arrakis on the world map, the two other enemy factions ally against their common enemy. The final showdown is the battle between the player's House against three enemy sides, among them Frederick's forces the Sardaukar (an unplayable elite force whose heavy infantry are particularly powerful). The introductory, mission briefing and endgame cutscenes are different for each House, in keeping with their very disparate world views. The weaponry and units also vary from house to house.


title: Dune II

text: The player takes the role of the commander of one of the three interplanetary houses, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos, with the objective of wresting control of Arrakis from the other two houses. House Ordos is not featured in the "Dune" novels and is mentioned only in the non-canon "The Dune Encyclopedia". The basic strategy in the game is to harvest spice from the treacherous sand dunes using a harvester vehicle, convert the spice into credits via a refinery, and to build military units with these acquired credits in order to fend off and destroy the enemy.


title: Dune II

text: The game map initially starts with a fog of war covering all area which is not covered by the player's units range of view. As the units explore the map, the darkness is removed. Unlike later games such as "", the fog of war is lifted forever with initial exploration; it does not become dark once more when units leave the area.


title: Dune II

text: In addition to enemy incursions, there are other dangers such as the marauding, gigantic sandworm, capable of swallowing vehicles and infantry whole but blocked by rocky terrain. The player can only build on rocky terrain and must build concrete foundations to avoid deterioration of the structures due to the harsh weather conditions. Structures will still gradually decay over time regardless of the presence of those concrete slabs, but they save repair costs in the long run. Spice fields are indicated by orange coloration on the sand, darker orange indicating high concentration. Some spice may be concealed as bumps on the terrain (a "spice bloom") that become spice fields when they are shot at, or when a unit runs over them (the unit is destroyed in the ensuing "spice blow").


title: Dune II

text: A map of the planet Arrakis is shown before most missions, where they can choose the next territory to play in among two or three. This affects primarily the enemy house fought in the next mission, as all missions except the first two require the destruction of the enemy. Nine territories must be fought, irrespective of house, to reach the endgame.


title: Dune II

text: Completing higher missions gives authorization to use improved technology and higher-order weaponry unique to each House, ensuring varied game play. For example, House Harkonnen may be able to construct their Devastator tanks with heavy armor and ordnance but cannot build the similarly impressive Atreides Sonic Tank. The Ordos have access to the Deviator - a specialized tank firing a nerve gas that switches the allegiance of targeted units to Ordos for a limited period of time. The three Houses also are restricted in their production capabilities—House Ordos cannot build Atreides-style trikes, instead making the faster "Raider" trikes, while House Harkonnen constructs heavier but more expensive quad bikes.


title: Dune II

text: A player can gain access to other Houses' special units by capturing an enemy Factory and manufacturing the desired units at the captured Factory.


title: Dune II

text: Buildings may only be built in rocky zones and connected to another existing building. To protect them from constant wear, the player must first place concrete slabs in the construction areas. Production buildings can be upgraded at a cost several times, allowing the production of more advanced units or buildings.


title: Dune II

text: The final prize for the commander is the building of the House Palace from where superweapons may be unleashed on opponents in the final closing chapters of the game. The House Harkonnen superweapon is a long-range powerful but inaccurate finger of missiles called the Death Hand, whereas House Atreides may call upon the local Fremen infantry warriors, over which the player has no control, to engage enemy targets. House Ordos may unleash a fast-moving Saboteur whose main purpose is the destruction of buildings.


title: Dune II

text: The AI of "Dune II" was one of the first used in RTS games, and while better than that of "Herzog Zwei", it has various drawbacks. Examples include only attacking the side of the player's base facing its own, general inability to perform flanking maneuvers, and not rebuilding defenses. Research into the game's engine revealed that the AI is in fact capable of more advanced strategy, but that a large part of these capabilities is unused due to consistently repeated errors in all of the game's mission scripts.


title: Dune II

text: According to Virgin Interactive vice president Stephen Clarke-Willson in 1998, the development of "Dune II" began when Virgin Interactive planned to cancel the production of Cryo Interactive's adventure game "Dune", after which he was given the task of figuring out what to do with the "Dune" license. After reading the original "Dune" novel, he decided that "from a gaming point-of-view the real stress was the battle to control the spice", so a resource-based strategy video game would be a good idea. It was around this time that employee Graeme Devine (who later founded Trilobyte) introduced to everyone at the Virgin office a real-time strategy game on the Sega Genesis / Mega Drive console called "Herzog Zwei" (1989). Clarke-Willson described it as a game where the player "kept clicking on stuff and then zooming off to another part of the screen. It was very hard to keep track of what was going on as an observer. Still, everyone liked it, it had fast action, and it was a strategy game". Virgin staff, including Clarke-Willson and Seth Mendelsohn (who later worked on the "Ultima" series), then went to Westwood Studios to talk about making a "Dune" game. According to Clarke-Willson, "Westwood agreed to make a resource strategy game based on "Dune", and agreed to look at "Herzog Zwei" for design ideas". It later turned out that Cryo's game of the same name was not cancelled, and Westwood's real-time strategy game was called "Dune II" as a result.


title: Dune II

text: Westwood Studios co-founder and "Dune II" producer Brett Sperry said in 2008 that conceptualization for the game began when Virgin president Martin Alper approached him with the offer of using their "Dune" license to produce a game, with the understanding that Cryo's "Dune" had been cancelled. In terms of video game design, Sperry said: "The inspiration for "Dune II" was partly from "Populous", partly from my work on "Eye Of The Beholder" and the final and perhaps most crucial part came from an argument I once had with Chuck Kroegel, then vice president of Strategic Simulations Inc ... The crux of my argument with Chuck was that wargames sucked because of a lack of innovation and poor design. Chuck felt the category was in a long, slow decline, because the players were moving to more exciting genres ... I felt that the genre had a lot of potential – the surface was barely scratched as far as I as [sic] concerned, especially from a design standpoint. So I took it as a personal challenge and figured how to harness realtime dynamics with great game controls into a fast-paced wargame". He also stated that, while ""Herzog Zwei" was a lot of fun", the "other inspiration for "Dune II" was the Mac software interface", referring to the "design/interface dynamics of mouse clicking and selecting desktop items" which got him thinking: "Why not allow the same inside the game environment? Why not a context-sensitive playfield? To hell with all these hot keys, to hell with keyboard as the primary means of manipulating the game!" During production, he found out that Cryo rushed to finish their game first, leading to Virgin publishing their game as "Dune" and Westwood's game as "Dune II", despite Sperry protesting against this decision.


title: Dune II

text: Louis Castle said in 1998 that the game's influence on the real-time strategy genre was unplanned, and that the team's goal was simply "to include all of the excitement and intensity of a war game, but with action-packed gameplay".


title: Dune II

text: Other influences cited by Joseph Bostic (also known as Joe Bostic), the co-designer and lead programmer, and Mike Legg, one of the game's programmers, include the turn-based strategy games "Military Madness" (1989) and "Civilization" (1991), along with "Herzog Zwei". According to Bostic, a "benefit over "Herzog Zwei" is that we had the advantage of a mouse and keyboard. This greatly facilitated precise player control, which enabled the player to give orders to individual units. The mouse, and the direct control it allowed, was critical in making the RTS genre possible".


title: Dune II

text: Originally released for DOS in 1992, "Dune II" was one of the first PC games to support the recently introduced General MIDI standard. The game audio was programmed with the middleware Miles audio library which handled the dynamic conversion of the game's MIDI musical score, originally composed on the Roland MT-32, to the selected soundcard. At initial release, the game's setup utility lacked the means to support separate output devices for the musical score and speech/sound-effects. This limitation was frustrating to owners of high-quality MIDI synthesisers (such as the Roland Sound Canvas), because users could not play the game with both digital sound effects (which MIDI synthesisers lacked) and high-quality MIDI score. Westwood later published a revised setup utility to enable users select a different soundcard for each type of game audio: digital speech, music, and sound effects.


title: Dune II

text: In 1993, it was ported to the Amiga and Mega Drive/Genesis. The Amiga floppy disk port is nearly identical in interface and game play to the PC version, albeit with less detailed graphics and frequent disk swapping (the game came on five disks). Save games are stored on a specially formatted disk and the game could also be installed to hard drive. In the Amiga version the player is limited to 32 units, but patches exist to allow the DOS version to have 255 units created and managed.


title: Dune II

text: The Mega Drive/Genesis port has fairly different building and unit graphics, a full-screen menu-less user interface suited for gamepad control, and no save game support, relying on access codes for accessing each level. Other additions include a music test option and a tutorial that replaces the "mentat" screen. Several ideas from this version, including the music track listing and the replacement of sidebar command buttons by a context-sensitive cursor, were used in Westwood's next strategy game, "Command & Conquer".


title: Dune II

text: The game was ported to Android in 2013; also a fan-made port for Pandora became available based on the reverse engineered game engine.


title: Dune II

text: According to Westwood Studios, "Dune II" was a commercial success, with global sales in excess of 250,000 units by November 1996.


title: Dune II

text: "Computer Gaming World" in 1993 stated that the PC version of "Dune II" "easily outshines its predecessor in terms of game play ... a real gem", with "arguably the most outstanding sound and graphics ever to appear in a strategy game of its kind". A February 1994 survey of space war games gave it a grade of B+, stating that without online play, there was little replayability once each House conquered the planet, but a May 1994 survey of strategic space games set in the year 2000 and later gave the game five stars out of five, describing it as "a wargame "par excellance"; superb graphics and sound make an enjoyable gaming experience". The magazine hoped that "Command & Conquer" would be its sequel. "Electronic Games" gave the game a 92% score.


title: Dune II

text: When the Amiga version of "Dune II" was released in 1993, it was met with positive reviews. "CU Amiga" magazine rated the game highly with 85%, praising the smooth gameplay and controls. "Dune II" received "Amiga User International" Game of the Month award when it was reviewed in September 1993.


title: Dune II

text: "GamePro" rated the Genesis version 17 out of 20, dubbing it "one of the best war strategy carts for the Genesis" while praising the controls, digitized speech, music, and fun gameplay. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" scored the Genesis version 32 out of 40, commenting that the gameplay is not only addictive, but easy to learn, which they stated is highly unusual for a strategy game. "Game Informer" rated it 8.25 out of 10.


title: Dune II

text: In 1993 "Computer Gaming World" named "Dune II" Strategy Game of the Year. The game was ranked the 11th best game of all time by "Amiga Power" in 1996. In 1996, "Computer Gaming World" declared "Dune 2" the 70th-best computer game ever released. In 2004, this "legendary" game entered the GameSpy Hall of Fame. In Poland, it was included in the retrospective lists of the best Amiga games by Wirtualna Polska (ranked eight) and "CHIP" (ranked fourth). In 2012, "Time" named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time. In 1994, "PC Gamer US" named "Dune II" the 49th best computer game ever. That same year, "PC Gamer UK" named it the 21st best computer game of all time, calling it "a wargame for those who don't like wargames". In 1996, GamesMaster listed the Mega Drive version 8th in its "The Gamesmaster Mega Drive Top 10". In the same issue, they also ranked the PC version 21st on their "Top 100 Games of All Time".


title: Dune II

text: "Dune II" was one of the most influential games in the real-time strategy genre, particularly in Westwood's own "Command & Conquer" series. Though not every feature was unique, its specific combination of a fog of war, mouse-based military micromanagement, and an economic model of resource-gathering and base-building became the hallmark of the RTS genre. It served as the template for subsequent real-time strategy games. Chris Taylor has stated that "Dune II" and "Command & Conquer" were great inspirations, driving him to leave Electronic Arts to create "Total Annihilation".


title: Dune II

text: "Dune II" also led to direct sequels: Westwood released a semi-remake for Windows in 1998 as "Dune 2000", along with a PlayStation port in the same year. Westwood subsequently released "" in 2001. There are also fan-made game engine recreations, like "Dune Legacy", which aims for improved usability and controls while not changing the gameplay.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B is a long-range carrier-based interceptor aircraft that was planned to be a follow-on to the F-4 Phantom II for the United States Navy (USN).


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The F-111B was developed in the 1960s by General Dynamics in conjunction with Grumman for the U.S. Navy as part of the joint Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) with the United States Air Force (USAF) to produce a common fighter for the services that could perform a variety of missions. It incorporated innovations such as variable-geometry wings, afterburning turbofan engines, and a long-range radar and missile weapons system.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: Designed in parallel with the F-111 "Aardvark", which was adopted by the Air Force as a strike aircraft, the F-111B suffered development issues and changing Navy requirements for an aircraft with maneuverability for dogfighting. The F-111B was not ordered into production and the F-111B prototypes were used for testing before being retired. The F-111B would be replaced by the smaller and lighter Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which carried over the engines, AWG-9/Phoenix weapons system, and similar swing-wing configuration.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The F-111B was part of the 1960s TFX program. The USAF's Tactical Air Command (TAC) was largely concerned with the fighter-bomber and deep strike/interdiction roles; their version of the aircraft would be a follow-on to the F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bomber. In June 1960, the USAF issued a specification for a long-range interdiction and strike aircraft able to penetrate Soviet air defenses at very low altitudes and very high speeds to deliver tactical nuclear weapons against crucial targets.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy sought a long-range, high-endurance interceptor to defend its aircraft carrier battle groups against long-range anti-ship missiles launched from Soviet jet bombers, such as the Tupolev Tu-16, Tupolev Tu-22, and Tupolev Tu-22M, along with submarines. The Navy needed a Fleet Air Defense (FAD) aircraft with a more powerful radar, and longer range missiles than the F-4 Phantom II to intercept both enemy bombers and missiles.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The Air Force and Navy requirements appeared to be different. However, on 14 February 1961, the new U.S. Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, formally directed that the services study the development of a single aircraft that would satisfy both requirements. Early studies indicated the best option was to base the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) on the Air Force requirement and a modified version for the Navy. In June 1961, Secretary McNamara ordered the go ahead on TFX despite Air Force and the Navy efforts to keep their programs separate.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The USAF and the Navy could only agree on swing-wing, two seat, twin engine design features. The USAF wanted a tandem seat aircraft for low level penetration, while the Navy wanted a shorter, high altitude interceptor with side by side seating. Also, the USAF wanted the aircraft designed for 7.33 g with Mach 2.5 speed at altitude and Mach 1.2 speed at low level with a length of approximately . The Navy had less strenuous requirements of 6 g with Mach 2 speed at altitude and high subsonic speed (approx. Mach 0.9) at low level with a length of . The Navy also wanted a radar dish for long range and a maximum takeoff weight of . So McNamara developed a basic set of requirements for TFX based largely on the Air Force's requirements. He changed to a dish for compatibility and increased the maximum weight to approximately for the Air Force version and for the Navy version. Then on 1 September 1961 he ordered the USAF to develop it.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: A request for proposal (RFP) for the TFX was provided to industry in October 1961. In December of that year Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell, North American and Republic submitted their proposals. The proposal evaluation group found all the proposals lacking, but the best should be improved with study contracts. Boeing and General Dynamics were selected to enhance their designs. Three rounds of updates to the proposals were conducted with Boeing being picked by the selection board. Instead Secretary McNamara selected General Dynamics' proposal in November 1962 due to its greater commonality between Air Force and Navy TFX versions. The Boeing aircraft versions shared less than half of the major structural components. General Dynamics signed the TFX contract in December 1962. A Congressional investigation followed but did not change the selection.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The Air Force F-111A and Navy F-111B variants used the same airframe structural components and TF30-P-1 turbofan engines. They featured side by side crew seating in an escape capsule as required by the Navy, versus individual ejection seats. The F-111B's nose was shorter due to its need to fit on existing carrier elevator decks, and had longer wingspan to improve on-station endurance time. The Navy version would carry an AN/AWG-9 Pulse-Doppler radar and six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. The Air Force version would carry the AN/APQ-113 attack radar and the AN/APQ-110 terrain-following radar and air-to-ground ordnance.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: Lacking experience with carrier-based fighters, General Dynamics teamed with Grumman for assembly and test of the F-111B aircraft. In addition, Grumman would also build the F-111A's aft fuselage and the landing gear. The first test F-111A was powered by YTF30-P-1 turbofans and used a set of ejection seats, since the escape capsule was not yet available. It first flew on 21 December 1964. The first F-111B was also equipped with ejection seats and first flew on 18 May 1965. To address stall issues in certain parts of the flight regime, the F-111's engine inlet design was modified in 1965–66, ending with the "Triple Plow I" and "Triple Plow II" designs. The F-111A achieved a speed of Mach 1.3 in February 1965 with an interim intake design.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The weight goals for both F-111 versions proved to be overly optimistic. Excessive weight plagued the F-111B throughout its development. The prototypes were far over the requirement weight. Design efforts reduced airframe weight but were offset by the addition of the escape capsule. The additional weight made the aircraft underpowered. Lift was improved by changes to the wing control surfaces. A higher thrust version of the engine was planned.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: With the F-111B program in distress, Grumman began studying improvements and alternatives. In 1966, the Navy awarded Grumman a contract to begin studying advanced fighter designs. Grumman narrowed down these designs to its Model 303 design. With this the F-111B's end appeared near by mid-1967. During March 1968 congressional hearings for the aircraft, Vice Admiral Thomas F. Connolly, then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air Warfare, responded to a question from Senator John C. Stennis as to whether a more powerful engine would cure the aircraft's woes, saying, "There isn't enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want!" By May 1968 both Armed Services committees of Congress voted not to fund production and in July 1968 the DoD ordered work stopped on F-111B. A total of seven F-111Bs were delivered by February 1969.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The F-111B's replacement, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which derived from Grumman's initial Model 303 design, reused the TF30 engines from the F-111B, though the Navy planned on replacing them with an improved engine later. Although lighter than the F-111B, it was still the largest and heaviest U.S. fighter to takeoff and land from an aircraft carrier. Its size was a consequence of the requirement to carry the large AWG-9 radar and AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, both from the F-111B, while exceeding the F-4's maneuverability. While the F-111B was armed only for the interceptor role, the Tomcat incorporated an internal M61 Vulcan cannon, provisions for Sidewinder and Sparrow air-to air missiles, and provisions for bombs. While the F-111B did not reach service, land-based, non-fighter F-111 variants were in service with the U.S. Air Force for many years, and with the Royal Australian Air Force until 2010.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The F-111B was an all-weather interceptor aircraft intended to defend U.S. Navy carrier battle groups against bombers and anti-ship missiles. The F-111 features variable geometry wings, an internal weapons bay and a cockpit with side by side seating. The cockpit is part of an escape crew capsule. The wing sweep varies between 16 degrees and 72.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep). The airframe consisted mostly of aluminum alloys with steel, titanium and other materials also used. The fuselage is a semi-monocoque structure with stiffened panels and honeycomb sandwich panels for skin. The F-111B was powered by two Pratt & Whitney TF30 afterburning turbofan engines and included the AN/AWG-9 radar system for controlling the AIM-54 Phoenix air-to-air missiles. Poor visibility over the nose made the aircraft more difficult to handle for carrier operations.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: The F-111 offered a platform with the range, payload, and Mach-2 performance to intercept targets quickly, but with swing wings and turbofan engines, it could also loiter on station for long periods. The F-111B would carry six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, its main armament. Four of the Phoenix missiles mounted on wing pylons and two in the weapons bay. The missile pylons added significant drag when used.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: Flight tests on the F-111B continued at NAS Point Mugu, California and NAWS China Lake, California even after the program had been terminated. In July 1968, the pre-production F-111B Bureau Number 151974, was used for carrier trials aboard . The evaluation was completed without issue.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: Hughes continued Phoenix missile system development with four F-111Bs. In all, two F-111Bs were lost in crashes and a third seriously damaged. The F-111B's last flight was with "151792" from California to New Jersey in mid-1971. The seven F-111Bs flew 1,748 hours over 1,173 flights.


title: General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B

text: F-111B numbers 1 to 3 were initial prototypes; and No. 4 and 5 were prototypes with lightened airframes. No. 6 and 7 had lightened airframes and improved TF30-P-12 engines and were built to near production standard. These were also approximately longer due to an added section between the cockpit and radome. The first five aircraft included Triple Plow I intakes. The last two had Triple Plow II intakes. The first three B-models were fitted with ejection seats and the remainder included the escape crew capsule.


title: BeiDou

text: The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS; ) is a Chinese satellite navigation system. It consists of two separate satellite constellations. The first BeiDou system, officially called the BeiDou Satellite Navigation Experimental System and also known as BeiDou-1, consisted of three satellites which, beginning in 2000, offered limited coverage and navigation services, mainly for users in China and neighboring regions. BeiDou-1 was decommissioned at the end of 2012.


title: BeiDou

text: The second generation of the system, officially called the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and also known as COMPASS or BeiDou-2, became operational in China in December 2011 with a partial constellation of 10 satellites in orbit. Since December 2012, it has been offering services to customers in the Asia-Pacific region.


title: BeiDou

text: In 2015, China launched the third generation BeiDou system (BeiDou-3) for global coverage. The first BDS-3 satellite was launched on 30 March 2015. On 27 December 2018, BeiDou Navigation Satellite System started providing global services. The 35th and the final satellite of BDS-3 was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020. It was said in 2016 that BeiDou-3 will reach millimeter-level accuracy (with post-processing). On 23 June 2020, the last BeiDou satellite was successfully launched, the launch of the 55th satellite in the Beidou family. The third iteration of the Beidou Navigation Satellite System provides full global coverage for timing and navigation, offering an alternative to Russia's GLONASS, the European Galileo positioning system, and the US's GPS.


title: BeiDou

text: According to "China Daily", in 2015, fifteen years after the satellite system was launched, it was generating a turnover of $31.5 billion per annum for major companies such as China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation, AutoNavi Holdings Ltd., and China North Industries Group Corp. The industry has grown an average of over 20% in value annually to reach $64 billion in 2020 according to Xinhua citing data.


title: BeiDou

text: Domestic industry reports forecast the satellite navigation service market output value, directly generated and driven by the Beidou system, will be worth 1 trillion yuan ($156.22 billion) by 2025, and $467 billion by 2035.


title: BeiDou

text: The official English name of the system is "BeiDou Navigation Satellite System". It is named after the Big Dipper asterism, which is known in Chinese as (). The name literally means "Northern Dipper", the name given by ancient Chinese astronomers to the seven brightest stars of the Ursa Major constellation. Historically, this set of stars was used in navigation to locate the North Star. As such, the name BeiDou also serves as a metaphor for the purpose of the satellite navigation system.


title: BeiDou

text: The original idea of a Chinese satellite navigation system was conceived by Chen Fangyun and his colleagues in the 1980s.


title: BeiDou

text: The risk of denied access to GPS during the Yinhe incident in 1993 and including an alleged case in 1996 during the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, gave impetus to the creation of BeiDou which officially began in 1994.


title: BeiDou

text: According to the China National Space Administration, in 2010, the development of the system would be carried out in three steps:


title: BeiDou

text: The first satellite, "BeiDou-1A", was launched on 30 October 2000, followed by "BeiDou-1B" on 20 December 2000. The third satellite, "BeiDou-1C" (a backup satellite), was put into orbit on 25 May 2003. The successful launch of "BeiDou-1C" also meant the establishment of the BeiDou-1 navigation system.


title: BeiDou

text: On 2 November 2006, China announced that from 2008 BeiDou would offer an open service with an accuracy of 10 metres, timing of 0.2 microseconds, and speed of 0.2 metres/second.


title: BeiDou

text: In February 2007, the fourth and last satellite of the BeiDou-1 system, "BeiDou-1D" (sometimes called "BeiDou-2A", serving as a backup satellite), was launched. It was reported that the satellite had suffered from a control system malfunction but was then fully restored.


title: BeiDou

text: In April 2007, the first satellite of BeiDou-2, namely "Compass-M1" (to validate frequencies for the BeiDou-2 constellation) was successfully put into its working orbit. The second BeiDou-2 constellation satellite "Compass-G2" was launched on 15 April 2009.


title: BeiDou

text: On 15 January 2010, the official website of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System went online, and the system's third satellite ("Compass-G1") was carried into its orbit by a Long March 3C rocket on 17 January 2010.


title: BeiDou

text: The fifth orbiter was launched into space from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by an LM-3I carrier rocket on 1 August 2010.


title: BeiDou

text: Another satellite, the Beidou-2/Compass IGSO-5 (fifth inclined geosynchronous orbit) satellite, was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center by a Long March 3A on 1 December 2011 (UTC).


title: BeiDou

text: In September 2003, China intended to join the European Galileo positioning system project and was to invest €230 million (US$296 million, £160 million) in Galileo over the next few years. At the time, it was believed that China's "BeiDou" navigation system would then only be used by its armed forces.


title: BeiDou

text: In October 2004, China officially joined the Galileo project by signing the "Agreement on the Cooperation in the Galileo Program between the "Galileo Joint Undertaking" (GJU) and the "National Remote Sensing Centre of China" (NRSCC)". Based on the Sino-European Cooperation Agreement on Galileo program, China Galileo Industries (CGI), the prime contractor of the China's involvement in Galileo programs, was founded in December 2004. By April 2006, eleven cooperation projects within the Galileo framework had been signed between China and EU.


title: BeiDou

text: However, the Hong Kong-based "South China Morning Post" reported in January 2008 that China was not satisfied with its role in the Galileo project and was to compete with Galileo in the Asian market.


title: BeiDou

text: BeiDou-1 was an experimental regional navigation system, which consisted of four satellites (three working satellites and one backup satellite). The satellites themselves were based on the Chinese DFH-3 geostationary communications satellite and had a launch weight of 1000 kg each.


title: BeiDou

text: Unlike the American GPS, Russian GLONASS, and European Galileo systems, which use medium Earth orbit satellites, BeiDou-1 used satellites in geostationary orbit. This means that the system does not require a large constellation of satellites, but it also limits the coverage to areas on Earth where the satellites are visible. The area that can be serviced is from longitude 70° E to 140° E and from latitude 5° N to 55° N. A frequency of the system is 2491.75 MHz.


title: BeiDou

text: The first satellite, BeiDou-1A, was launched on 31 October 2000. The second satellite, BeiDou-1B, was successfully launched on 21 December 2000. The last operational satellite of the constellation, BeiDou-1C, was launched on 25 May 2003.