text: Thomson is a noted art collector and owns works by Rembrandt, J. M. W. Turner, Paul Klee, Hammershoi, Edvard Munch, Patrick Heron, Joseph Beuys, E. L. Kirchner, and Egon Schiele. Thomson owns the world's largest collection of paintings and drawings by the English painter John Constable. In an interview with Geraldine Norman in "The Independent" in 1994, Thomson said he bought his first Constable drawing at 19, giving the seller "an oil painting in exchange and quite a lot of money". Norman described him as a "fanatical collector", and Thomson described how he "fell in love" with Constable's style as a young child. In his twenties, Thomson stunned the art world with two monumental purchases. In 1984, he acquired J. M. W. Turner's spectacular 'Seascape: Folkestone", for a record £7.3 million (£21.8 million in 2017) from the sale of the collection of noted British art historian Kenneth Clark, Lord Clark. The following year, Thomson, 27, broke another world record when he bought Rembrandt's monumental "Christ Presented to the People", from 1655, for a record £561,000 (£1.7 million in 2017) at Christie's London, when the Duke of Devonshire sold the Chatsworth Collection in one of the largest auctions of the time. Thomson sold both masterpieces within a few years during the 1980s financial crisis.


title: David Thomson, 3rd Baron Thomson of Fleet

text: In 2002, Thomson and his father paid a world record price of $76.7 million to acquire Rubens' "Massacre of the Innocents", now the centrepiece of the Thomson Collection at the Art Gallery of Ontario. In 2012, Thomson shattered records buying a painting by Danish artist Vilhelm Hammershøi, "Ida Reading a Letter", paying the highest price ever for a Danish artist. In 2012, Thomson broke the record for the most expensive 18th-century British watercolour when he paid £2.4 million for a small landscape by John Robert Cozens.


text: Thomson has donated upwards of $276 million to the Art Gallery of Ontario's renovation costs, in addition to creating a permanent endowment with an additional $20 million donation.


text: Thomson is an active acquirer of Canadian art. In 2007, Thomson paid $1.8 million for a face mask, the highest price ever paid for a single piece of Native North American art. And in November, 2016 he paid a record C$11.2 million to buy a painting at auction by Group of Seven artist Lawren Harris entitled "Mountain Forms".


text: Thomson operates his collecting activities through his personal Thomson Works of Art. Thomson also funds the Archive of Modern Conflict, based in London. Specialists within the archive purchase photography collections worldwide and also run a book-publishing arm, AMC Books, which has a Canadian imprint, Bone Idle Books, based in Toronto.


text: Thomson is the father of six children from four different mothers. With his first wife, Mary Lou La Prairie, he has two daughters: Thyra Nicole and Tessa Lys. With his second wife, Laurie Ludwick, Thomson has one son, Benjamin, born after Thomson left the marriage. With the actress Kelly Rowan, Thomson has a daughter. With his partner Severine Nackers, an employee of Sotheby's in London, Thomson has two daughters, Ottilie, born in 2015, and Elodie, born in 2018. His two youngest children live with their father and mother. Thomson was estranged from his eldest daughter, Thyra, for five years, with Thyra eventually suing her father over mismanagement of the family trusts. The case was settled out of court in 2017. Three of his children live in London, UK, where Thomson retains several homes.


text: Thomson is a patron of the Art Gallery of Ontario. With the death of his father, he became the 3rd Baron Thomson of Fleet on 12 June 2006, his 49th birthday. He does not use this title in Canada. He is an avid art collector and owns the world's top collection of John Constable.


text: Thomson has rarely given interviews to the press and maintains a low public profile. "The only substantial interview he has given was to James FitzGerald, who wrote a book about the elite private school (Upper Canada College) they both attended in Toronto", according to a July 3, 2006, article in "The New York Times". "In his comments to Mr. FitzGerald 12 years ago, David had little positive to say about many people in the business world". In the interview, Thomson said: "When you try to live a more balanced life, traditional businessmen think that you are not a real man. But who is not the real man? You are telling me? You have not taken a weekend with your wife, you have no spare time that you use constructively, you do not have any hobbies, you do not know how to spell Mozart. And here you are telling me that I am weak?"


text: Thomson lives alone in a private residence that also houses an underground art gallery, in the Rosedale neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The Pontiac G8 is a full-size sedan that was produced by Holden in Australia, and then exported to the United States, where it was sold by Pontiac. The G8, a rebadged Holden Commodore, was released in early 2008 for the 2008 model year in the United States, and in 2008 for the 2009 model year in Canada. Production stopped in mid-2009, following the GM decision to suspend the Pontiac brand. While available, the G8 took the place in the Pontiac lineup of both the Pontiac Bonneville, which ceased production after the 2005 model year, and the Pontiac Grand Prix, which ceased production after the 2008 model year. The G8 was Pontiac's first full-size car since the Bonneville.


title: Pontiac G8

text: By December 2008, the rear wheel drive G8 had not become the expected sales replacement for the previous front-drive models, with 11,000 unsold G8s in the inventory and just 13,000 sold. During the 2009 global economic downturn, market prices had dropped by $3000–5000 below GM's sticker price for the car. By July 2009, there were only 5,000 unsold G8s in inventory, with almost 30,700 sold.


title: Pontiac G8

text: With the imminent demise of the Pontiac brand, a result of GM's Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the 2009 model year marked the end of all Pontiacs, including the G8. However, in July 2009, Bob Lutz made an off-hand comment during a press review that the G8 would be revived as the Chevrolet Caprice. Subsequently, Lutz retracted this statement, citing market conditions. Nevertheless, General Motors announced the Chevrolet Caprice Police Patrol Vehicle (PPV) in 2009, which "Car and Driver" described as a successor to the G8. To fill the gap left by the G8, GM announced the Chevrolet SS, a RWD V8 powered sedan for 2014 based on the Holden Commodore (VF).


title: Pontiac G8

text: The G8 is based on the GM Zeta platform, created by Holden for the VE Commodore in the Australian market. The G8 differs from the Commodore mainly in frontal styling and interior details. At the January 2007 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, GM chairman Bob Lutz confirmed that GM intended to import Holden Commodores into North America as Pontiac G8s. The news was not planned to be officially announced until the Chicago Auto Show in February.


title: Pontiac G8

text: Holden chairman Denny Mooney announced that the G8 is imported from the Elizabeth, South Australia plant, South Australia for the life cycle of the car, but refused to comment on possible future production at GM's Oshawa, Ontario facility. At the 2007 Chicago Auto Show, GM Global Chairman Bob Lutz announced that the G8 was expected in US Pontiac dealerships in "early 2008". On 4 July 2007 the first Pontiac G8 prototypes rolled out of the Elizabeth assembly plant in Australia. General production began 18 December 2007.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The G8 was the first rear-wheel drive four-door sedan sold under the Pontiac name since the 1986 Bonneville and Parisienne. However, at the time of the G8's release, Pontiac did offer the rear-wheel drive Solstice. The then recently discontinued GTO (as well as the Firebird/Trans Am before it), also utilized the rear-wheel drive layout. The GTO was another Holden product, known as the Monaro in Australia, repurposed and rebadged for U.S. consumption. Production was discontinued in 2006 due to new US safety regulations and the architecture being phased out worldwide in favor of the new Zeta platform on which the G8 is based.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The base G8, referred to in Pontiac sales literature as the "G8 Sedan", is available with a 3.6-liter "High Feature" V6 engine, producing . The only transmission available is a five-speed "GM 5L40-E" automatic; fuel economy is officially rated at city/ highway.


title: Pontiac G8

text: Base G8 models come standard with six airbags (including full-length side curtain airbags), traction control, electronic stability control, dual tailpipes, 18-inch alloy wheels (fitted with either all-season or summer performance tires), sports body kit, fog lights, power windows and locks, cruise control, black cloth seats and a seven-speaker audio system, including front center speaker, single-disc CD player, and auxiliary input jack.


title: Pontiac G8

text: A "Comfort And Sound" package is available on V6 powered G8s, which upgrades the seven-speaker audio system and manual HVAC controls to the 11-speaker audio and automatic climate control found in the GT model. The "Premium" package upgrades the Sedan's cloth seats to leather seating surfaces, driver and passenger heated seats, six-way power driver seat adjuster, 6-way power front-passenger seat adjuster, rear center armrest, leather-wrapped shift lever, and the GT's standard leather-wrapped steering wheel. Both the base G8 and the GT utilize the "FE2" suspension package.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The GT comes with a 6.0 L (364 cu in) Generation IV V8, featuring a 6-speed 6L80 automatic and Active Fuel Management, capable of reaching in 5.2 seconds, with quarter-mile times as low as 13.4 seconds. The G8 GT averages a fuel economy of 15/24 mpg (city/highway). A 6-speed manual was being considered as an option on the GT model, but Pontiac decided against offering it, stating that it would instead be offered as an option on the G8 GXP. One change in 2009 was the deletion of the center stack oil pressure and voltage gauges. Midway through the 2009 model year a few changes were made to the G8 GT, including an additional pair of catalytic converters which reduced engine output to , the addition of bluetooth and rear cup holders that pulled out from under the rear seats.


title: Pontiac G8

text: In addition to the larger engine and six-speed transmission, GT models also contain additional equipment, including all of the standard Sedan features plus quad tailpipes, clear taillight lenses (as opposed to the Sedan's traditional red taillights), automatic dual-zone air conditioning, a larger center-console display screen, and an 11-speaker Blaupunkt premium audio system with 2 subwoofers, six-disc CD changer, and auxiliary input jack. Some (but not all) of these features are available as options on the base model. A sports package is available on the GT, adding sport metallic pedals, QS4 19" machine-faced aluminum wheels, summer performance tires and a slightly smaller diameter, leather-wrapped Sport steering wheel.


title: Pontiac G8

text: A G8 GXP version was shown at the New York International Auto Show in March 2008 with a 6.2-liter V8 from the Chevrolet Corvette and a six-speed manual transmission. The production version of the GXP was more powerful with its LS3 V8 producing and of torque. The six-speed automatic was standard while a six-speed Tremec TR-6060 manual transmission was available. The GXP reached from a standstill in 4.5 seconds, a quarter-mile time of 13.0 seconds at , and 0.90"g" (8.8 m/s) of lateral acceleration on a skidpad.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The GXP has an upgraded, Nürburgring-tuned FE3 suspension package, as well as larger, ventilated Brembo disc brakes. It also features a unique front bumper cover and a rear (non-functional) diffuser to differentiate it from the standard Sedan and GT models.


title: Pontiac G8

text: Total sales of the Pontiac G8 GXP were 1,829 units. Only a limited production of G8 GXP were available in Canada. 10 units were shipped to Canada, however, only 4 were sold to customers. The remaining 6 were disposed of through GM's internal system.


title: Pontiac G8

text: In 2014, General Motors released the Chevrolet SS, which was in essence the next generation of the G8 GXP. It was based on the new VF chassis Holden Commodore, the successor to the VE chassis Commodore on which the G8 was based. Both the G8 GXP and the SS shared the same LS3 V8 engine, with the new SS sporting the engine with minor improvements. Horsepower for both remained 415, with 415 lb. ft. of torque.


title: Pontiac G8

text: Following the cancellation of Pontiac brand, it was reported that Holden planned to sell 1,500 limited edition version of the Commodore SS V fitted with the Pontiac G8 front-end fascia and other trimmings. Unlike the G8, which was offered only as a sedan, Holden would be offering utility, sedan and wagon body variants of the G8. They would be sold in Australia in November and December, with production beginning on 2 November.


title: Pontiac G8

text: Production versions are sold as VE Commodore SS V-Series Special Edition (Sedan, Sportwagon, Ute), with the choice of manual or 6-speed automatic transmissions. SS V-Series Special Edition was unveiled in 2009 Deni Ute Muster. Production version for SS V-Series Special Edition went on sale in 2009–11.


title: Pontiac G8

text: In addition to the sedan, a two-seat coupé utility called the G8 ST (for Sport Truck) was shown at the New York International Auto Show in March 2008. Based on the Holden Ute, it was built on the same G8 platform with a cargo bed. The ST had the same , 6.0-liter V8 used in the G8 GT, as well as the 3.6-liter, V6. After a naming contest with more than 18,000 suggestions, the name remained the G8 ST.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The G8 ST, slated for release as a 2010 model, was to be Pontiac's coupe utility, and GM's first coupe utility in the United States since the Chevrolet El Camino was discontinued in 1987. In January 2009, GM announced to Pontiac dealers that the G8 ST was cancelled due to budget cuts and restructuring.


title: Pontiac G8

text: A Pontiac variant of the VE Commodore Sportwagon station wagon was considered as well, but not imported, partially due to poor sales of the market in general, especially of the Dodge Magnum as compared to its Charger sedan counterpart. Unlike the G8 ST, the Sportwagon model was never announced by General Motors.


title: Pontiac G8

text: For the 2008 model year, the Pontiac G8 was initially offered in six colors: Stealth Blue, Liquid Red, Ignition Orange, White Hot, Magnetic Gray, and Panther Black. Stealth Blue was discontinued after the first batch of vehicles were shipped from Australia. First deliveries to dealerships were posted on GM's website in March 2008, with comments that initial sales were brisk. Subsequently, May 2008 monthly sales were reported at 1,832 units against a May 2007 sales volume of 12,230 units for the Grand Prix.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The 2009 model year adds the GXP version powered by a 6.2-liter V8 engine with a standard 6-speed automatic transmission or optional six-speed manual transmission (see above). The GXP is available in all standard G8 colors.


title: Pontiac G8

text: The G8 lineup also adds standard XM Satellite Radio, with Bluetooth connectivity provided later in the year, and four new exterior color choices: Maverick Silver Metallic, Sport Red Metallic, Stryker Blue Metallic and Pacific Slate Metallic. Meanwhile, Stealth Blue and Ignition Orange were unavailable for 2009 (Stealth Blue having already been eliminated during 2008 model year production). Also for 2009, the oil pressure and battery voltage gauges at the top of the center console were eliminated. Heavy criticism among the automotive press of the outdated appearance of these red LED gauges no doubt factored heavily in their removal. The gauges were simply replaced with a small storage compartment.


title: Pontiac G8

text: National Safety Agency Ltd., an Australian company in a joint project with the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) displayed a prototype squad car based on the Pontiac G8, at the APCO 2009 Conference in Sydney in March 2009. The vehicle is fitted with a large portrait format touch screen in the center console, replacing the clutter of controls common in police vehicles.


title: Pontiac G8

text: General Motors heavily promoted the Pontiac G8 on 31 December 2007 into 1 January 2008, by having it as the official sponsor of the Times Square New Year's Eve Ball Drop and Countdown, as well as the Rose Bowl.


title: Pontiac G8

text: In March 2008, a commercial based on the 1980s arcade game "Spy Hunter" ran nationally. In the commercial, the Pontiac G8 GT takes the place of the hero car when it is destroyed by enemies.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Düsseldorf Airport (, ; until March 2013 "Düsseldorf International Airport"; ) is the international airport of Düsseldorf, the capital of the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is about north of downtown Düsseldorf, and some south-west of Essen in the Rhine-Ruhr area, Germany's largest metropolitan area.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Düsseldorf is the fourth largest airport in Germany and handled almost 8 million passengers in 2021. It is a hub for Eurowings and a focus city for several more airlines. The airport has three passenger terminals and two runways and can handle wide-body aircraft up to the Airbus A380.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Düsseldorf Airport is the largest and primary airport for the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region – the largest metropolitan region in Germany and among the largest metropolitan areas of the world. The airport is located in Düsseldorf-Lohausen. The largest nearby business centres are Düsseldorf and Essen; other cities within a radius are Duisburg, Krefeld, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Neuss, and Wuppertal. The airport extends over a compact of land – small in comparison to airports of a similar capacity, but also a reason for Düsseldorf being known as an airport of short distances. The airport has more than 18,200 employees.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: With 18.99 million passengers passing through in 2010, the airport was the third busiest in Germany, after Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, and was the 23rd busiest airport in Europe. Transfer passengers and those travelling on long-haul flights from the airport accounted for around 13% of all passengers in 2010.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: The city of Düsseldorf owns half the airport, with the other half owned by various commercial entitites, including ARI which is itself owned by the Irish Government. Düsseldorf Airport is a public–private partnership with the following owners:


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: The current airport was opened on 19 April 1927, after two years of construction. The first international route was inaugurated by SABENA in 1929 between Brussels, Antwerp, Düsseldorf and Hamburg.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: At the beginning of World War II civil use of the airport ceased in September 1939 and the airfield was used by the military. After the end of the war the airport reopened for civil use in 1948. With the area under British administration, the first international flights were operated by British European Airways to London.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: On 1 April 1955, Lufthansa started services between Düsseldorf, Frankfurt am Main and Munich, which still exist today. In 1959, the first scheduled jet aircraft landed in Düsseldorf on Scandinavian Airlines' route Copenhagen-Khartoum. In 1961, LTU relocated its home base from Cologne Bonn Airport and in the same year, Düsseldorf Airport handled more than 1 million passengers for the first time.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In 1969 the main runway was lengthened to 3000 metres while a new second terminal was under construction. The new Terminal 2, which is today's Terminal B, opened in April 1973. Another addition, today's Terminal A, was opened already in 1977 while the last annex, Terminal C, opened in 1986.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: On 11 April 1996, the Düsseldorf Airport fire, which is the worst structural airport fire worldwide to date, broke out. It was caused by welding work on an elevated road in front of Terminal A above its arrivals area. Insufficient structural fire protection allowed the fire and especially the smoke to spread fast, so these destroyed large parts of the passenger areas of the airport. Seventeen people died, mostly due to smoke inhalation, with many more hospitalised. At the time, the fire was the biggest public disaster in the history of North Rhine-Westphalia. Damage to the airport was estimated to be in the hundreds of millions, Terminals A and B had to be completely reconstructed. While repairs were ongoing, passengers were housed in big tents.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In November 1997, Terminal C was completely redeveloped, with three lightweight construction halls serving as departure areas. Also in 1997 construction began on the new inter-city railway station at the eastern edge of the airport. In 1998 the rebuilt Terminal A was reopened and the airport changed its name from "Rhine Ruhr Airport" to "Düsseldorf International". Reconstruction of the central building and Terminal B began in the same year.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: The first construction stage in the "Airport 2000+" programme commenced in 1998 with the laying of a foundation stone for an underground parking garage under the new terminal.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: The new Düsseldorf Airport station was opened in May 2000, with the capacity of 300 train departures daily. Sixteen million passengers used the airport that year; Düsseldorf is now the third-biggest airport in Germany. The new departures hall and Terminal B were opened in July 2001 after 2½ years of construction time; the rebuilt Gebäude Ost (East Building) was reopened.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In 2002, the inter-terminal shuttle bus service was replaced by the suspended monorail called the "SkyTrain" connecting the terminal building with the InterCity train station. The monorail travels the between the terminal and station at a maximum speed of . The system was developed by Siemens and is based on the similar H-Bahn operating with two lines on Dortmund university campus.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: On 12 November 2006, the first Airbus A380 landed in Düsseldorf as part of a Lufthansa promotional flight.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In March 2013, the Airport received a new corporate design and dropped the phrase "International" from its official name.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In January 2015, Emirates announced it will schedule the Airbus A380 on one of their two daily flights from Dubai to Düsseldorf starting in July 2015. In May 2015, the airport finished construction of the new facilities needed to handle the A380, including a parking position with three jet-bridges, widened taxiways and new ground handling equipment.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In June 2015, Lufthansa announced the closure its long-haul base at Düsseldorf Airport for economic reasons by October 2015. The base consisted of two Airbus A340-300s which served Newark and Chicago-O'Hare. Newark remained a year-round service which is operated in a W-pattern from Munich Airport (Munich - Newark - Düsseldorf - Newark - Munich) while the Chicago service was suspended for the winter 2015/2016 season. A few months later, Lufthansa announced the cancellation of the Düsseldorf-Chicago route. The same route has been served by American Airlines during the summer seasons from 2013 to 2016, when it was discontinued.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In January 2017, the airport's largest hub operator Air Berlin announced a massive downsizing of its operations due to restructuring measures. While some leisure routes were handed to Niki more than a dozen destinations have been cancelled entirely. In August 2017, Air Berlin also announced the termination of all long-haul routes from Düsseldorf to destinations in the Caribbean on short notice due to the ongoing bankruptcy proceedings. However, both Condor and Eurowings announced it would step in and start some of the terminated Caribbean destinations by themselves. Shortly after, Air Berlin also announced the termination of all remaining long-haul operations leading to the loss of several connections to the United States at Düsseldorf Airport. On 9 October 2017, Air Berlin announced the termination of all of its own operations, excluding wetleases, by the end of the month leading to the loss of one of the airport's largest customers.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In February 2018, Eurowings announced the relocatation of all long-haul routes currently served from Cologne Bonn Airport to Düsseldorf by late October 2018 to strengthen their presence there.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In March 2018, Lufthansa announced it would to close its base at Düsseldorf Airport after the 2018/2019 winter schedule which ended in March 2019. When the single remaining long-haul route to Newark was taken over by Eurowings, 400 staff members were offered a relocation to either Frankfurt Airport or Munich Airport. In November 2018, Ryanair also announced they would close their base in Düsseldorf after only a year. Their routes were taken over by Lauda.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: In August 2020, Delta Air Lines removed the Atlanta route from their schedule. Shortly after, Ryanair announced the closure of its base in Düsseldorf - which has been operated on a wetlease basis by Lauda - by 24 October 2020. In September 2020, Singapore Airlines removed the route to Singapore from their schedule.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Düsseldorf Airport has three terminals connected by a central spine, even though the terminals are essentially concourses within a single terminal building. The current terminal buildings are capable of handling up to 22 million passengers per year.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Terminal A was opened in 1977 and has 16 gates (A01–A16) used by Lufthansa and Eurowings, its airline partners and Star Alliance members, All Nippon Airways, Austrian Airlines, Croatia Airlines, LOT Polish Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines, TAP Portugal, and Swiss International Air Lines. Terminal A houses two Lufthansa lounges. It was refurbished fundamentally for two years after the 1996 fire. From 21 July 2016, Singapore Airlines began to use Terminal A.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Terminal B was originally inaugurated in 1973 and has 11 gates (B01–B11) used for domestic and EU-flights by a few Star Alliance members such as Aegean Airlines, but mainly by SkyTeam and Oneworld members like Alitalia, British Airways, KLM, Finnair, Iberia, and Air France. Also located within this terminal are leisure carriers such as TUIfly and Condor. Terminal B houses an observation deck and airline lounges by Air France and British Airways. After the fire in 1996 the whole terminal building was torn down and reconstructed. It was reopened in 2001.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Terminal C was opened in 1986 and has 8 gates (C01–C08) used exclusively for non-Schengen-flights by non-Star Alliance airlines (except Turkish Airlines). These are long-haul flights – among others – by Emirates, Etihad Airways, and Mahan Air. Terminal C has a direct access to Airport City's "Maritim Hotel", part of a German hotel chain, and houses lounges operated by the airport and Emirates. Terminal C was the least affected Terminal after the fire in 1996. It was still reopened in 1996 after intensive maintenance works. Thus it was the only usable Terminal at Düsseldorf Airport for a couple of years. Terminal C features the airport's only parking position equipped with three jet-bridges to handle the Airbus A380.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Düsseldorf has two runways, which are and long. There are plans to extend the runway to , but the town of Ratingen has been blocking the expansion, as it lies within the approach path of the runway. 107 aircraft parking positions are available on the aprons.


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: Since 2003, an area of south-west of the airport terminal has been under redevelopment as Düsseldorf Airport City with an anticipated gross floor area of to be completed by 2016. Already based at Düsseldorf Airport City are corporate offices of Siemens and VDI, a large Porsche centre and showroom, a Maritim Hotel and Congress Centre and a Sheraton Hotel. Messe Düsseldorf is situated in close proximity to Düsseldorf Airport City (some ).


title: Düsseldorf Airport

text: The airport can be reached via its own motorway section which is part of the motorway A44 (Belgium – Kassel, Exit "Düsseldorf-Flughafen") which also connects to motorways A52, A57 and A3. There are also several local bus lines connecting the airport with nearby areas and Düsseldorf city center.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: In anatomy, a polyp is an abnormal growth of tissue projecting from a mucous membrane. If it is attached to the surface by a narrow elongated stalk, it is said to be "pedunculated"; if it is attached without a stalk, it is said to be "sessile". Polyps are commonly found in the colon, stomach, nose, ear, sinus(es), urinary bladder, and uterus. They may also occur elsewhere in the body where there are mucous membranes, including the cervix, vocal folds, and small intestine. Some polyps are tumors (neoplasms) and others are non-neoplastic, for example hyperplastic or dysplastic, which are benign. The neoplastic ones are usually benign, although some can be pre-malignant, or concurrent with a malignancy.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: The name is of ancient origin, in use in English from about 1400 for a nasal polyp, from Latin "polypus" through Greek. The animal of similar appearance called polyp is attested from 1742, although the word was earlier used for an octopus.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: While colon polyps are not commonly associated with symptoms, occasionally they may cause rectal bleeding, and on rare occasions pain, diarrhea or constipation. They are a concern because of the potential for colon cancer being present microscopically, and the risk of benign colon polyps becoming malignant over time. Since most polyps are asymptomatic, they are usually discovered at the time of colon cancer screening. Common screening methods are occult blood test, colonoscopy with a modern flexible endoscope, sigmoidoscopy (usually with the older rigid endoscope), lower gastrointestinal series (barium enema), digital rectal examination (DRE), virtual colonoscopy or Cologuard. The polyps are routinely removed at the time of colonoscopy, either with a wire loop known as a polypectomy snare (first description by P. Deyhle, Germany, 1970), or with biopsy forceps. If an adenomatous polyp is found, it must be removed, since such a polyp is pre-cancerous and has a propensity to become cancerous. For certainty, all polyps which are found by any diagnostic modality, are removed by a colonoscopy. Although colon cancer is usually not found in polyps smaller than 2.5 cm, all polyps found are removed since their removal reduces the likelihood of future colon cancer. When adenomatous polyps are removed, a repeat colonoscopy is usually performed three to five years later.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Adenomatous polyps, or adenomas, are polyps that grow on the lining of the colon and which carry a high risk of cancer. The adenomatous polyp is considered pre-malignant, i.e., likely to develop into colon cancer. The other types of polyps that can occur in the colon are hyperplastic and inflammatory polyps, which are unlikely to develop into colorectal cancer.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: About 5% of people aged 60 will have at least one adenomatous polyp of 1 cm diameter or greater. Multiple adenomatous polyps often result from familial polyposis coli or familial adenomatous polyposis, a condition that carries a very high risk of colon cancer.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Adenomas constitute approximately 10% of digestive polyps. Most polyps (approximately 90%) are small, usually less than 1 cm in diameter, and have a small potential for malignancy. The remaining 10% of adenomas are larger than 1 cm and approach a 10% chance of containing invasive cancer.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: The risks of progression to colorectal cancer increase if the polyp is larger than 1 cm and contains a higher percentage of villous component. Also, the shape of the polyps is related to the risk of progression into carcinoma. Polyps that are pedunculated (with a stalk) are usually less dangerous than sessile polyps (flat polyps). Sessile polyps have a shorter pathway for migration of invasive cells from the tumor into submucosal and more distant structures, and they are also more difficult to remove and ascertain. Sessile polyps larger than 2 cm usually contain villous features, have a higher malignant potential, and tend to recur following colonoscopic polypectomy.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Although polyps do not carry significant risk of colon cancer, tubular adenomatous polyps may become cancerous when they grow larger. Larger tubular adenomatous polyps have an increased risk of malignancy when larger because then they develop more villous components and may become sessile.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: It is estimated that an individual whose parents have been diagnosed with an adenomatous polyp has a 50% greater chance to develop colon cancer than individuals with no family history of colonic polyps. there is no way to establish the risks of colon polyps of patients with a family history of them. Overall, nearly 6% of the population, regardless of family history, is at risk of developing colon cancer.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Screening for colonic polyps as well as preventing them has become an important part of the management of the condition. Medical societies have established guidelines for colorectal screening in order to prevent adenomatous polyps and to minimize the chances of developing colon cancer. It is believed that some changes in the diet might be helpful in preventing polyps from occurring, but there is no other way to prevent the polyps from developing into cancerous growths than detecting and removing them.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Colon polyps as they grow can sometimes cause bleeding within the intestine, which can be detected by an occult blood test. According to American Cancer Society guidelines, people over 50 should have an annual occult blood test. People in their 50s are recommended to have flexible sigmoidoscopies performed once every 3 to 5 years to detect any abnormal growth which could be an adenomatous polyp. If adenomatous polyps are detected during this procedure, a colonoscopy is recommended. Medical societies recommend colonoscopies every ten years starting at age 50 as a necessary screening practice for colon cancer. The screening provides an accurate image of the intestine and also allows the removal of the polyp, if found. Once an adenomatous polyp is identified during colonoscopy, there are several methods of removal, including using a snare or a heating device. Colonoscopies are preferred over sigmoidoscopies because they allow the examination of the entire colon and can detect polyps in the upper colon, where more than half of polyps occur.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: It has been statistically demonstrated that screening programs are effective in reducing the number of deaths caused by colon cancer due to adenomatous polyps. The risk of complications associated with colonoscopies is approximately 0.35 percent, compared to a lifetime risk of developing colon cancer of around 6 percent. As there is a small likelihood of recurrence, surveillance after polyp removal is recommended.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: An endometrial polyp or uterine polyp is a polyp or lesion in the lining of the uterus (endometrium) that takes up space within the uterine cavity. Commonly occurring, they are experienced by up to 10% of women. They may have a large flat base (sessile) or be attached to the uterus by an elongated pedicle (pedunculated). Pedunculated polyps are more common than sessile ones. They range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters. If pedunculated, they can protrude through the cervix into the vagina. Small blood vessels may be present in polyps, particularly large ones.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: A cervical polyp is a common benign polyp or tumor on the surface of the cervical canal. They can cause irregular menstrual bleeding or increased pain but often show no symptoms.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Nasal polyps are polypoidal masses arising mainly from the mucous membranes of the nose and paranasal sinuses. They are overgrowths of the mucosa that frequently accompany allergic rhinitis. They are freely movable and nontender.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Polyps on the vocal folds can take on many different forms, and can sometimes result from vocal abuse, although this is not always the cause. They can occur on one or both vocal folds, and appear as swelling, a bump (similar to a nodule), a stalk-like growth, or a blister-like lesion. Most polyps are larger than nodules, which are more similar to callouses on the vocal folds. Polyps and nodules can exhibit similar symptoms including hoarseness or breathiness, “rough” or “scratchy” voice, harshness in vocal quality, shooting pain from ear to ear, sensation of having “a lump in the back of the throat”, neck pain, decreased pitch range in the voice, and vocal and bodily fatigue.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: If an individual experiences symptoms for more than 2 to 3 weeks, they should see a physician. For a diagnosis, a thorough evaluation of the voice should include a physical examination, preferably by an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat doctor) who specializes in voice, a voice evaluation with a speech-language pathologist (SLP), a neurological examination (in certain cases)


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: The qualities of the voice that will be evaluated include quality, pitch, loudness, and ability to sustain voicing. In some cases, an instrumental examination may be performed with an endoscope into the mouth or nose; this gives a clear look at the vocal folds and larynx in general. In addition to this, a stroboscope (flashing light) may be used to observe the movement of the vocal folds during speech.


title: Polyp (medicine)

text: Polyps may be treated with medical, surgical, or behavioral intervention. Surgical intervention involves removing the polyp from the vocal fold. This approach is only used when the growth(s) are very large or have existed for an extended amount of time. In children, surgical intervention is rare. Existing medical problems may be treated in an effort to reduce the strain and negative impact on the vocal cords. This could include treatment for gastrointestinal reflux disease, allergies, and thyroid problems. Intervention to stop smoking and reduce stress may also be needed. Most people receive behavioral intervention, or vocal therapy, from an SLP. This might involve teaching good vocal hygiene, and reducing or stopping vocal abuse behaviors. Direct voice treatments may be used to alter pitch, loudness, or breathe support to promote good voicing.


title: Concrete slump test

text: The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field conditions.


title: Concrete slump test

text: A separate test, known as the flow table, or slump-flow test, is used for concrete that is too fluid (non-workable) to be measured using the standard slump test, because the concrete will not retain its shape when the cone is removed.


title: Concrete slump test

text: The test is carried out using a metal mould in the shape of a conical frustum known as a slump cone or Abrams cone, that is open at both ends and has attached handles. The tool typically has an internal diameter of at the top and of at the bottom with a height of .The cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times with a 2 ft (600 mm)-long bullet-nosed metal rod measuring in (16 mm) in diameter. At the end of the third stage, the concrete is struck off flush with the top of the mould. The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone.


title: Concrete slump test

text: The concrete then slumps (subsides). The slump of the concrete is measured by measuring the distance from the top of the slumped concrete to the level of the top of the slump cone.


title: Concrete slump test

text: The slumped concrete takes various shapes and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated.


title: Concrete slump test

text: Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which the slump test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes having slump 0 – 25 mm are typically used in constructing pavements or roads, low workability mixes having slump 10 – 40 mm are typically used for foundations with light reinforcement, medium workability mixes with slump 50 – 90 mm, are typically used for normal reinforced concrete placed with vibration, high workability concrete with slump > 100 mm is typically used where reinforcing has tight spacing, and/or the concrete has to flow a great distance.


title: Concrete slump test

text: The slump test is suitable for slumps of medium to low workability, slump in the range of 5 – 260 mm, the test fails to determine the difference in workability in stiff mixes which have zero slump, or for wet mixes that give a collapse slump. It is limited to concrete formed of aggregates of less than 38 mm (1.5 inch).


title: Concrete slump test

text: The slump test is referred to in several testing and building codes, with minor differences in the details of performing the test.


title: Concrete slump test

text: In the United States, engineers use the ASTM C94, standard specification for ready-mixed concrete, and AASHTO specifications, address clump tolerances in detail. For diverse forms of concrete construction, different slumps are required. For example: for walls, slumps typically range from 4-in to 8-in. The American standards explicitly state that the slump cone should have a height of 12-in (300 mm), a bottom diameter of 8-in (200 mm) and an upper diameter of 4-in (100 mm). The soft SI conversions provided in the standard allow using the same dimension slump cones as those described in other standards. The ASTM standards also regulate the rigidity of the cone. It states in the procedure that when the cone is removed, it should be lifted up vertically, without any rotational movement at all. The concrete slump test is known as "Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete" and carries the code (ASTM C 143) or (AASHTO T 119).


title: Concrete slump test

text: In the United Kingdom, the standards specify a slump cone height of 300 mm, a bottom diameter of 200 mm and a top diameter of 100 mm. The British Standards do not explicitly specify that the cone should only be lifted vertically. The slump test in the British standards was first (BS 1881–102) and is now replaced by the European Standard (BS EN 12350-2). The test should be carried out by filling the slump cone in three equal layers with the mixture being tamped down 25 times for each layer.


title: Concrete slump test

text: There are many tests for evaluating slump in concrete: the flow table test (DIN 1048-1) uses similar, but differently-sized, apparatus, but the table on which the slump cone is placed is dropped several times after the slump cone is removed, and the measurement is of the diameter of the sample, not the height. one example is the K-Slump Test (ASTM International C1362-09


title: Concrete slump test

text: Standard Test Method for Flow of Freshly Mixed Hydraulic Cement Concrete). Other tests evaluating consistency are the British compacting factor test, the Vebe consistometer for roller-compacted concrete (ASTM C1170),


title: Concrete slump test

text: Another way of determining slump is to use an automated slump meter. Sensors and controls enable the meters to measure and display slump. Their reliability has by now earned them acceptance in various standard codes such as ASTM International. Some automated slump meters, such as the one by Verifi also can add water to the concrete mix in the delivery truck while in transit. In 2013 ASTM C94/C94M was revised to allow water additions during transit for trucks equipped with automated slump monitoring and measurement systems.


title: The Stylistics

text: The Stylistics are an American, Philadelphia soul group that achieved their greatest chart success in the 1970s. They formed in 1968, with a lineup of singers Russell Thompkins Jr., Herb Murrell, Airrion Love, James Smith and James Dunn. All of their US hits were ballads characterized by the falsetto of Russell Thompkins Jr. and the production of Thom Bell. During the early 1970s, the group had twelve consecutive R&B top ten hits, including "Stop, Look, Listen", "You Are Everything", "Betcha by Golly, Wow", "I'm Stone in Love with You", "Break Up to Make Up" and "You Make Me Feel Brand New", which earned them 5 gold singles and 3 gold albums.


title: The Stylistics

text: The Stylistics were created from two Philadelphia groups, The Percussions and The Monarchs. Russell Thompkins Jr., James Smith and Airrion Love came from the Monarchs, and James Dunn and Herb Murrell came from the Percussions. In 1970, the group recorded "You're a Big Girl Now", a song their road manager Marty Bryant co-wrote with Robert Douglas, a member of their backing band Slim and the Boys, and the single became a regional hit for Sebring Records. Producer Bill Perry spent $400 to record the song in the Virtue Studios in Philadelphia. The larger Avco Records soon signed the Stylistics, and the single eventually climbed to No. 7 on the US "Billboard" R&B chart in early 1971.


title: The Stylistics

text: After signing to Avco, the record label approached producer Thom Bell, who had already produced a catalogue of hits for The Delfonics, to work with the group. The Stylistics auditioned for Bell, but he was initially unimpressed. He ultimately agreed to produce the group because he believed in the potential of lead singer Russell Thompkins, Jr.'s distinctive, nasal high tenor and falsetto voice. Avco gave Bell complete creative control over the Stylistics and he proceeded to focus the group's sound exclusively around Thompkins's voice. On most of the group hits, Bell would have Thompkins sing virtually solo.


title: The Stylistics

text: The first song recorded with Bell and his collaborator, lyricist Linda Creed, was "Stop, Look, Listen".


title: The Stylistics

text: Their hits from this period — distilled from three albums — included "Betcha by Golly, Wow" (U.S. No. 3), "I'm Stone in Love with You", "Break Up to Make Up" (U.S. No. 5), "You Make Me Feel Brand New" featuring Thompkins singing a lead vocal duet with Airrion Love, "Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)", "You Are Everything" and the Top 20 pop chart hit "Rockin' Roll Baby" (U.S. No. 14). "You Make Me Feel Brand New", the group's biggest U.S. hit, holding at No. 2 for two weeks in 1974, was one of the group's five U.S. gold singles.


title: The Stylistics

text: The Stylistics also found a path on to adult contemporary airwaves, and the group made "Billboard" magazine's Easy Listening singles chart twelve times from 1971 to 1976, with three entries ("Betcha by Golly, Wow", "You Make Me Feel Brand New" and "You'll Never Get to Heaven (If You Break My Heart)") reaching the Top 10. Every single that Bell produced for the Stylistics was a Top Ten R&B hit, and several — "You Are Everything", "Betcha by Golly Wow!", "I'm Stone in Love with You", "Break Up to Make Up" and "You Make Me Feel Brand New" — were also Top Ten pop chart hits. The group also enjoyed commercial success with hits with this material throughout Europe.


title: The Stylistics

text: Thom Bell stopped working with the Stylistics in 1974, and the split proved commercially difficult for the group in the U.S. They struggled to find the right material, although their partnership with label owners Hugo & Luigi as producers and arranger Van McCoy started well, with "Let's Put It All Together" (No. 18 pop, No. 8 R&B) and "Heavy Fallin' Out" (No. 4 R&B, No. 41 pop). Later singles were notably less successful, but as U.S. success began to wane, their popularity in Europe, and especially the United Kingdom, increased. Indeed, the lighter 'pop' sound fashioned by McCoy and Hugo & Luigi gave the group a U.K. No. 1 in 1975 with "Can't Give You Anything (But My Love)". Further successes with "Sing Baby Sing", "Na Na Is The Saddest Word", "Funky Weekend" and "Can't Help Falling in Love" consolidated the group's European popularity. The Stylistics recorded "Disco Baby", "Love is the Answer" and "16 Bars" also. They are one of the few U.S. acts to have two chart-topping greatest hits albums in the U.K.


title: The Stylistics

text: The Stylistics switched record labels during this period as Avco Records transitioned into H&L Records in 1976. Notwithstanding this, the band began to struggle with increasingly weak material, and although the singles and albums came out as before, by 1978 chart success had vanished; even a move to Mercury in 1978, for two albums produced by Teddy Randazzo, failed to produce any major success. Russell Thompkins Jr. wrote (in the sleevenotes for the re-issue of the 1976 album, "Fabulous") that the group began to feel that the music they were recording was becoming dated, and not in keeping with the popular disco sound of the late 1970s.


title: The Stylistics

text: In 1979, they had a small part in the movie "Hair", directed by Miloš Forman, where they play conservative army officers. They double Nell Carter in singing a song called "White Boys".


title: The Stylistics

text: In 1980, the group reunited with Thom Bell and signed with Philadelphia International Records subsidiary, TSOP Records. They released the single "Hurry Up This Way Again" that year which brought them back into the R&B Top 20 (peaking at No. 18). Both James Dunn and James Smith departed due to conflicts over the direction of the group; Dunn left before the recording of the album "Hurry Up This Way Again" (1980) and Smith after the recording of "Closer Than Close" in 1981. Nevertheless, the group continued, recruiting new member Raymond Johnson, but Johnson departed in 1985, leaving the group as a trio. Love, Murrell and Thompkins continued to tour until 2000, when Thompkins, Jr. left the group.


title: The Stylistics

text: In 2000, singer Eban Brown (formerly of The Delfonics, The Manhattans, and Ray, Goodman and Brown) replaced Thompkins as lead singer. That same year, tenor singer Van Fields, who had previously sung with the A Cappella group "A Perfect Blend", joined, enabling The Stylistics to grow from a trio back to a quartet. The group was featured live on the DVD "The Stylistics Live at the Convocation Center" (2006), as well as with other artists of the 1970s on the DVD, "70s Soul Jam".


title: The Stylistics

text: In 2004, after having left The Stylistics in 2000, former lead singer Thompkins launched his own group called Russell Thompkins Jr, & The New Stylistics, returning with former member Johnson, plus James Ranton and Jonathan Buckson. They were featured on the DVD "Old School Soul Party Live!," which was part of the PBS "My Music" series.


title: The Stylistics

text: In 2011, Fields departed from the group after 11 years, due to creative differences, and was replaced by singer Jason Sharp.


title: The Stylistics

text: In January 2018, after 18 years with The Stylistics, Brown, who is also a jazz guitarist and composer, announced his departure to concentrate on his solo career. He since performed at venues in the States and overseas as a solo artist. Brown was initially replaced by Michael Muse, and after a few months, he was replaced by former Temptation Barrington "Bo" Henderson.


title: The Stylistics

text: In 2018, The Stylistics celebrated their 50th. anniversary in the music industry. Their milestone was acknowledged at venues throughout the year during their 50th. Anniversary tour in the States and overseas.


title: The Stylistics

text: As of 2020, the remaining members of the original group, Love and Murrell were still performing, continuing the Stylistics' legacy with their unit, while Thompkins and his New Stylistics continue to perform as well.


title: The Stylistics

text: The Tower of Power referenced The Stylistics in their song, "Sexy Soul" from their 1995 album, "Souled Out." The song was written by Emilio Castillo and Steve Kupka.


title: The Stylistics

text: The song 'People Make The World Go Around' was used in a first season episode (#6) of the "Luke Cage" TV series, 'Suckas Need Bodyguards'.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Greek architecture, technically very simple, established a harmonious style with numerous detailed conventions that were largely adopted by Roman architecture and are still followed in some modern buildings. It used a vocabulary of ornament that was shared with pottery, metalwork and other media, and had an enormous influence on Eurasian art, especially after Buddhism carried it beyond the expanded Greek world created by Alexander the Great. The social context of Greek art included radical political developments and a great increase in prosperity; the equally impressive Greek achievements in philosophy, literature and other fields are well known.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The earliest art by Greeks is generally excluded from "ancient Greek art", and instead known as Greek Neolithic art followed by Aegean art; the latter includes Cycladic art and the art of the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures from the Greek Bronze Age. The art of ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods: the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric age is usually dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years, traditionally known as the Greek Dark Ages. The 7th century BC witnessed the slow development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. Around 500 BC, shortly before the onset of the Persian Wars (480 BC to 448 BC), is usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the reign of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC) is taken as separating the Classical from the Hellenistic periods. From some point in the 1st century BC onwards "Greco-Roman" is used, or more local terms for the Eastern Greek world.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and as in any age some artists worked in more innovative styles than others. Strong local traditions, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of works of art found far from their place of origin. Greek art of various kinds was widely exported. The whole period saw a generally steady increase in prosperity and trading links within the Greek world and with neighbouring cultures.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The survival rate of Greek art differs starkly between media. We have huge quantities of pottery and coins, much stone sculpture, though even more Roman copies, and a few large bronze sculptures. Almost entirely missing are painting, fine metal vessels, and anything in perishable materials including wood. The stone shell of a number of temples and theatres has survived, but little of their extensive decoration.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: By convention, finely painted vessels of all shapes are called "vases", and there are over 100,000 significantly complete surviving pieces, giving (with the inscriptions that many carry) unparalleled insights into many aspects of Greek life. Sculptural or architectural pottery, also very often painted, are referred to as terracottas, and also survive in large quantities. In much of the literature, "pottery" means only painted vessels, or "vases". Pottery was the main form of grave goods deposited in tombs, often as "funerary urns" containing the cremated ashes, and was widely exported.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The famous and distinctive style of Greek vase-painting with figures depicted with strong outlines, with thin lines within the outlines, reached its peak from about 600 to 350 BC, and divides into the two main styles, almost reversals of each other, of black-figure and red-figure painting, the other colour forming the background in each case. Other colours were very limited, normally to small areas of white and larger ones of a different purplish-red. Within the restrictions of these techniques and other strong conventions, vase-painters achieved remarkable results, combining refinement and powerful expression. White ground technique allowed more freedom in depiction, but did not wear well and was mostly made for burial.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Conventionally, the ancient Greeks are said to have made most pottery vessels for everyday use, not for display. Exceptions are the large Archaic monumental vases made as grave-markers, trophies won at games, such as the Panathenaic Amphorae filled with olive oil, and pieces made specifically to be left in graves; some perfume bottles have a money-saving bottom just below the mouth, so a small quantity makes them appear full. In recent decades many scholars have questioned this, seeing much more production than was formerly thought as made to be placed in graves, as a cheaper substitute for metalware in both Greece and Etruria.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Most surviving pottery consists of vessels for storing, serving or drinking liquids such as amphorae, kraters (bowls for mixing wine and water), hydria (water jars), libation bowls, oil and perfume bottles for the toilet, jugs and cups. Painted vessels for serving and eating food are much less common. Painted pottery was affordable even by ordinary people, and a piece "decently decorated with about five or six figures cost about two or three days' wages". Miniatures were also produced in large numbers, mainly for use as offerings at temples. In the Hellenistic period a wider range of pottery was produced, but most of it is of little artistic importance.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In earlier periods even quite small Greek cities produced pottery for their own locale. These varied widely in style and standards. Distinctive pottery that ranks as art was produced on some of the Aegean islands, in Crete, and in the wealthy Greek colonies of southern Italy and Sicily. By the later Archaic and early Classical period, however, the two great commercial powers, Corinth and Athens, came to dominate. Their pottery was exported all over the Greek world, driving out the local varieties. Pots from Corinth and Athens are found as far afield as Spain and Ukraine, and are so common in Italy that they were first collected in the 18th century as "Etruscan vases". Many of these pots are mass-produced products of low quality. In fact, by the 5th century BC, pottery had become an industry and pottery painting ceased to be an important art form.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The range of colours which could be used on pots was restricted by the technology of firing: black, white, red, and yellow were the most common. In the three earlier periods, the pots were left their natural light colour, and were decorated with slip that turned black in the kiln.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Greek pottery is frequently signed, sometimes by the potter or the master of the pottery, but only occasionally by the painter. Hundreds of painters are, however, identifiable by their artistic personalities: where their signatures have not survived they are named for their subject choices, as "the Achilles Painter", by the potter they worked for, such as the Late Archaic "Kleophrades Painter", or even by their modern locations, such as the Late Archaic "Berlin Painter".


title: Ancient Greek art

text: During the Protogeometric and Geometric periods, Greek pottery was decorated with abstract designs, in the former usually elegant and large, with plenty of unpainted space, but in the Geometric often densely covering most of the surface, as in the large pots by the Dipylon Master, who worked around 750. He and other potters around his time began to introduce very stylised silhouette figures of humans and animals, especially horses. These often represent funeral processions, or battles, presumably representing those fought by the deceased.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The Geometric phase was followed by an Orientalizing period in the late 8th century, when a few animals, many either mythical or not native to Greece (like the sphinx and lion respectively) were adapted from the Near East, accompanied by decorative motifs, such as the lotus and palmette. These were shown much larger than the previous figures. The Wild Goat Style is a regional variant, very often showing goats. Human figures were not so influenced from the East, but also became larger and more detailed.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The fully mature black-figure technique, with added red and white details and incising for outlines and details, originated in Corinth during the early 7th century BC and was introduced into Attica about a generation later; it flourished until the end of the 6th century BC. The red-figure technique, invented in about 530 BC, reversed this tradition, with the pots being painted black and the figures painted in red. Red-figure vases slowly replaced the black-figure style. Sometimes larger vessels were engraved as well as painted. Erotic themes, both heterosexual and male homosexual, became common.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: By about 320 BC fine figurative vase-painting had ceased in Athens and other Greek centres, with the polychromatic Kerch style a final flourish; it was probably replaced by metalwork for most of its functions. West Slope Ware, with decorative motifs on a black glazed body, continued for over a century after. Italian red-figure painting ended by about 300, and in the next century the relatively primitive Hadra vases, probably from Crete, Centuripe ware from Sicily, and Panathenaic amphorae, now a frozen tradition, were the only large painted vases still made.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Fine metalwork was an important art in ancient Greece, but later production is very poorly represented by survivals, most of which come from the edges of the Greek world or beyond, from as far as France or Russia. Vessels and jewellery were produced to high standards, and exported far afield. Objects in silver, at the time worth more relative to gold than it is in modern times, were often inscribed by the maker with their weight, as they were treated largely as stores of value, and likely to be sold or re-melted before very long.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: During the Geometric and Archaic phases, the production of large metal vessels was an important expression of Greek creativity, and an important stage in the development of bronzeworking techniques, such as casting and repousse hammering. Early sanctuaries, especially Olympia, yielded many hundreds of tripod-bowl or sacrificial tripod vessels, mostly in bronze, deposited as votives. These had a shallow bowl with two handles raised high on three legs; in later versions the stand and bowl were different pieces. During the Orientalising period, such tripods were frequently decorated with figural protomes, in the shape of griffins, sphinxes and other fantastic creatures.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Swords, the Greek helmet and often body armour such as the muscle cuirass were made of bronze, sometimes decorated in precious metal, as in the 3rd-century Ksour Essef cuirass. Armour and "shield-bands" are two of the contexts for strips of Archaic low relief scenes, which were also attached to various objects in wood; the band on the Vix Krater is a large example. Polished bronze mirrors, initially with decorated backs and kore handles, were another common item; the later "folding mirror" type had hinged cover pieces, often decorated with a relief scene, typically erotic. Coins are described below.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: From the late Archaic the best metalworking kept pace with stylistic developments in sculpture and the other arts, and Phidias is among the sculptors known to have practiced it. Hellenistic taste encouraged highly intricate displays of technical virtuousity, tending to "cleverness, whimsy, or excessive elegance". Many or most Greek pottery shapes were taken from shapes first used in metal, and in recent decades there has been an increasing view that much of the finest vase-painting reused designs by silversmiths for vessels with engraving and sections plated in a different metal, working from drawn designs.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Exceptional survivals of what may have been a relatively common class of large bronze vessels are two volute kraters, for mixing wine and water. These are the Vix Krater, c. 530 BC, 1.63m (5'4") high and over 200 kg (450 lbs) in weight, holding some 1,100 litres, and found in the burial of a Celtic woman in modern France, and the 4th-century Derveni Krater, 90.5 cm (35 in.) high. The elites of other neighbours of the Greeks, such as the Thracians and Scythians, were keen consumers of Greek metalwork, and probably served by Greek goldsmiths settled in their territories, who adapted their products to suit local taste and functions. Such hybrid pieces form a large part of survivals, including the Panagyurishte Treasure, Borovo Treasure, and other Thracian treasures, and several Scythian burials, which probably contained work by Greek artists based in the Greek settlements on the Black Sea. As with other luxury arts, the Macedonian royal cemetery at Vergina has produced objects of top quality from the cusp of the Classical and Hellenistic periods.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Jewellery for the Greek market is often of superb quality, with one unusual form being intricate and very delicate gold wreaths imitating plant-forms, worn on the head. These were probably rarely, if ever, worn in life, but were given as votives and worn in death. Many of the Fayum mummy portraits wear them. Some pieces, especially in the Hellenistic period, are large enough to offer scope for figures, as did the Scythian taste for relatively substantial pieces in gold.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (plural "kouroi"), the standing male nude (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore (plural "korai"), or standing clothed female figure, was also common, but since Greek society did not permit the public display of female nudity until the 4th century BC, the kore is considered to be of less importance in the development of sculpture. By the end of the period architectural sculpture on temples was becoming important.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce monumental sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal—beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. "Kouroi" were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Unlike authors, those who practiced the visual arts, including sculpture, initially had a low social status in ancient Greece, though increasingly leading sculptors might become famous and rather wealthy, and often signed their work (unfortunately, often on the plinth, which typically became separated from the statue itself). Plutarch ("Life of Pericles", II) said "we admire the work of art but despise the maker of it"; this was a common view in the ancient world. Ancient Greek sculpture is categorised by the usual stylistic periods of "Archaic", "Classical" and "Hellenistic", augmented with some extra ones mainly applying to sculpture, such as the Orientalizing Daedalic style and the Severe style of early Classical sculpture.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Surviving ancient Greek sculptures were mostly made of two types of material. Stone, especially marble or other high-quality limestones was used most frequently and carved by hand with metal tools. Stone sculptures could be free-standing fully carved in the round (statues), or only partially carved reliefs still attached to a background plaque, for example in architectural friezes or grave stelai.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Bronze statues were of higher status, but have survived in far smaller numbers, due to the reusability of metals. They were usually made in the lost wax technique. Chryselephantine, or gold-and-ivory, statues were the cult-images in temples and were regarded as the highest form of sculpture, but only some fragmentary pieces have survived. They were normally over-lifesize, built around a wooden frame, with thin carved slabs of ivory representing the flesh, and sheets of gold leaf, probably over wood, representing the garments, armour, hair, and other details.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In some cases, glass paste, glass, and precious and semi-precious stones were used for detail such as eyes, jewellery, and weaponry. Other large acrolithic statues used stone for the flesh parts, and wood for the rest, and marble statues sometimes had stucco hairstyles. Most sculpture was painted (see below), and much wore real jewellery and had inlaid eyes and other elements in different materials.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Terracotta was occasionally employed, for large statuary. Few examples of this survived, at least partially due to the fragility of such statues. The best known exception to this is a statue of Zeus carrying Ganymede found at Olympia, executed around 470 BC. In this case, the terracotta is painted. There were undoubtedly sculptures purely in wood, which may have been very important in early periods, but effectively none have survived.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Bronze Age Cycladic art, to about 1100 BC, had already shown an unusual focus on the human figure, usually shown in a straightforward frontal standing position with arms folded across the stomach. Among the smaller features only noses, sometimes eyes, and female breasts were carved, though the figures were apparently usually painted and may have originally looked very different.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of Egypt and Mesopotamia, during the Archaic period the Greeks began again to carve in stone: Greek mercenaries and merchants were active abroad, as in Egypt in the service of Pharaoh Psamtik I (664–610 BC), and were exposed to the monumental art of these countries. It is generally agreed that "Egyptian statuary of the 2nd millennium BC gave the decisive impulse for the innovation of Greek


title: Ancient Greek art

text: sculpture in life-size and in hyper formats in the Archaic Period during the late 7th century." Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660–580 BC, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures, such as these, both male and female, wore the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Three types of figures were used—the standing nude youth (kouros), the standing draped girl (kore) and, less frequently, the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum, London), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Archaic reliefs have survived from many tombs, and from larger buildings at Foce del Sele (now in the museum at Paestum) in Italy, with two groups of metope panels, from about 550 and 510, and the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, with friezes and a small pediment. Parts, all now in local museums, survive of the large triangular pediment groups from the Temple of Artemis, Corfu (c. 580), dominated by a huge Gorgon, and the Old Temple of Athena in Athens (c. 530-500).


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In the Classical period there was a revolution in Greek statuary, usually associated with the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the "kouroi". The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic (see the Charioteer of Delphi for an example of the transition to more naturalistic sculpture), and the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the first public monuments to actual people.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: At the same time sculpture and statues were put to wider uses. The great temples of the Classical era such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, required relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Unfortunately these works survive only in fragments, the most famous of which are the Parthenon Marbles, half of which are in the British Museum.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. They are among the most intimate and affecting remains of the ancient Greeks.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In the Classical period for the first time we know the names of individual sculptors. Phidias oversaw the design and building of the Parthenon. Praxiteles made the female nude respectable for the first time in the Late Classical period (mid-4th century): his Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was said by Pliny to be the greatest statue in the world.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The most famous works of the Classical period for contemporaries were the colossal Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon. Both were chryselephantine and executed by Phidias or under his direction, and are now lost, although smaller copies (in other materials) and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted emperors to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed in fires.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC), Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Thus Greek art became more diverse and more influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: In the view of some art historians, it also declined in quality and originality. This, however, is a judgement which artists and art-lovers of the time would not have shared. Indeed, many sculptures previously considered as classical masterpieces are now recognised as being Hellenistic. The technical ability of Hellenistic sculptors is clearly in evidence in such major works as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities, where the new monarchies were lavish patrons. By the 2nd century the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition—and an increasing proportion of its products as well.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; the interest in depicting extremes of emotion being sometimes pushed to extremes. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the "Boy with Thorn" is an example. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The world of Dionysus, a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs, maenads, nymphs and sileni, had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. Now such works were made, surviving in copies including the Barberini Faun, the Belvedere Torso, and the "Resting Satyr"; the Furietti Centaurs and "Sleeping Hermaphroditus" reflect related themes. At the same time, the new Hellenistic cities springing up all over Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the "Winged Victory of Samothrace" (2nd or 1st century BC), the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the "Venus de Milo" (mid-2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group "Laocoön and His Sons" (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called "baroque", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The reliefs on the Pergamon Altar are the nearest original survivals, but several well known works are believed to be Roman copies of Hellenistic originals. These include the Dying Gaul and Ludovisi Gaul, as well as a less well known "Kneeling Gaul" and others, all believed to copy Pergamene commissions by Attalus I to commemorate his victory around 241 over the Gauls of Galatia, probably comprising two groups.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The "Laocoön Group", the "Farnese Bull", "Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus" ("Pasquino group"), "Arrotino", and the Sperlonga sculptures, are other examples. From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues. Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for the Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC, unusually sensual, detailed and feministic (as opposed to deified) depiction of Isis, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms beginning around the time of Egypt's conquest by Alexander the Great. However this was untypical of Ptolemaic court sculpture, which generally avoided mixing Egyptian styles with its fairly conventional Hellenistic style, while temples in the rest of the country continued using late versions of traditional Egyptian formulae. Scholars have proposed an "Alexandrian style" in Hellenistic sculpture, but there is in fact little to connect it with Alexandria.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), which was the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as other very large works of this period.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Clay is a material frequently used for the making of votive statuettes or idols, even before the Minoan civilization and continuing until the Roman period. During the 8th century BC tombs in Boeotia often contain "bell idols", female statuettes with mobile legs: the head, small compared to the remainder of the body, is perched at the end of a long neck, while the body is very full, in the shape of a bell. Archaic heroon tombs, for local heroes, might receive large numbers of crudely-shaped figurines, with rudimentary figuration, generally representing characters with raised arms.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: By the Hellenistic period most terracotta figurines have lost their religious nature, and represent characters from everyday life. Tanagra figurines, from one of several centres of production, are mass-manufactured using moulds, and then painted after firing. Dolls, figures of fashionably-dressed ladies and of actors, some of these probably portraits, were among the new subjects, depicted with a refined style. These were cheap, and initially displayed in the home much like modern ornamental figurines, but were quite often buried with their owners. At the same time, cities like Alexandria, Smyrna or Tarsus produced an abundance of grotesque figurines, representing individuals with deformed members, eyes bulging and contorting themselves. Such figurines were also made from bronze.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Figurines made of metal, primarily bronze, are an extremely common find at early Greek sanctuaries like Olympia, where thousands of such objects, mostly depicting animals, have been found. They are usually produced in the lost wax technique and can be considered the initial stage in the development of Greek bronze sculpture. The most common motifs during the Geometric period were horses and deer, but dogs, cattle and other animals are also depicted. Human figures occur occasionally. The production of small metal votives continued throughout Greek antiquity. In the Classical and Hellenistic periods, more elaborate bronze statuettes, closely connected with monumental sculpture, also became common. High quality examples were keenly collected by wealthy Greeks, and later Romans, but relatively few have survived.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Architecture (meaning buildings executed to an aesthetically considered design) ceased in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. Since most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mudbrick, nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the surviving buildings of the Late Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods (since ancient Roman architecture heavily used Greek styles), and from late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century BC). This means that there is a strong bias towards temples, the most common major buildings to survive. Here the squared blocks of stone used for walls were useful for later buildings, and so often all that survives are parts of columns and metopes that were harder to recycle.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: For most of the period a strict stone post and lintel system of construction was used, held in place only by gravity. Corbelling was known in Mycenean Greece, and the arch was known from the 5th century at the latest, but hardly any use was made of these techniques until the Roman period. Wood was only used for ceilings and roof timbers in prestigious stone buildings. The use of large terracotta roof tiles, only held in place by grooving, meant that roofs needed to have a low pitch.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Until Hellenistic times only public buildings were built using the formal stone style; these included above all temples, and the smaller treasury buildings which often accompanied them, and were built at Delphi by many cities. Other building types, often not roofed, were the central agora, often with one or more colonnaded stoa around it, theatres, the gymnasium and palaestra or wrestling-school, the ekklesiasterion or bouleuterion for assemblies, and the propylaea or monumental gateways. Round buildings for various functions were called a tholos, and the largest stone structures were often defensive city walls.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Tombs were for most of the period only made as elaborate mausolea around the edges of the Greek world, especially in Anatolia. Private houses were built around a courtyard where funds allowed, and showed blank walls to the street. They sometimes had a second story, but very rarely basements. They were usually built of rubble at best, and relatively little is known about them; at least for males, much of life was spent outside them. A few palaces from the Hellenistic period have been excavated.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Temples and some other buildings such as the treasuries at Delphi were planned as either a cube or, more often, a rectangle made from limestone, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. This was supplemented by columns, at least on the entrance front, and often on all sides. Other buildings were more flexible in plan, and even the wealthiest houses seem to have lacked much external ornament. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt Pentelus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the Parthenon in Athens.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: There were two main classical orders of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic, with the Corinthian order only appearing in the Classical period, and not becoming dominant until the Roman period. The most obvious features of the three orders are the capitals of the columns, but there are significant differences in other points of design and decoration between the orders. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric was the earliest, probably first appearing in stone in the earlier 7th century, having developed (though perhaps not very directly) from predecessors in wood. It was used in mainland Greece and the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was first used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands, probably beginning in the 6th century. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian order was a later development of the Ionic, initially apparently only used inside buildings, and using Ionic forms for everything except the capitals. The famous and well-preserved Choragic Monument of Lysicrates near the Acropolis of Athens (335/334) is the first known use of the Corinthian order on the exterior of a building.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Most of the best known surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, however, is Ionic. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Coins were (probably) invented in Lydia in the 7th century BC, but they were first extensively used by the Greeks, and the Greeks set the canon of coin design which has been followed ever since. Coin design today still recognisably follows patterns descended from ancient Greece. The Greeks did not see coin design as a major art form, although some were expensively designed by leading goldsmiths, especially outside Greece itself, among the Central Asian kingdoms and in Sicilian cities keen to promote themselves. Nevertheless, the durability and abundance of coins have made them one of the most important sources of knowledge about Greek aesthetics. Greek coins are the only art form from the ancient Greek world which can still be bought and owned by private collectors of modest means.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The most widespread coins, used far beyond their native territories and copied and forged by others, were the Athenian tetradrachm, issued from c. 510 to c. 38 BC, and in the Hellenistic age the Macedonian tetradrachm, both silver. These both kept the same familiar design for long periods. Greek designers began the practice of putting a profile portrait on the obverse of coins. This was initially a symbolic portrait of the patron god or goddess of the city issuing the coin: Athena for Athens, Apollo at Corinth, Demeter at Thebes and so on. Later, heads of heroes of Greek mythology were used, such as Heracles on the coins of Alexander the Great.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The first human portraits on coins were those of Achaemenid Empire Satraps in Asia Minor, starting with the exiled Athenian general Themistocles who became a Satrap of Magnesia circa 450 BC, and continuing especially with the dynasts of Lycia towards the end of the 5th century. Greek cities in Italy such as Syracuse began to put the heads of real people on coins in the 4th century BC, as did the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great in Egypt, Syria and elsewhere. On the reverse of their coins the Greek cities often put a symbol of the city: an owl for Athens, a dolphin for Syracuse and so on. The placing of inscriptions on coins also began in Greek times. All these customs were later continued by the Romans.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The most artistically ambitious coins, designed by goldsmiths or gem-engravers, were often from the edges of the Greek world, from new colonies in the early period and new kingdoms later, as a form of marketing their "brands" in modern terms. Of the larger cities, Corinth and Syracuse also issued consistently attractive coins. Some of the Greco-Bactrian coins are considered the finest examples of Greek coins with large portraits with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West".


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The Greeks seem to have valued painting above even sculpture, and by the Hellenistic period the informed appreciation and even the practice of painting were components in a gentlemanly education. The ekphrasis was a literary form consisting of a description of a work of art, and we have a considerable body of literature on Greek painting and painters, with further additions in Latin, though none of the treatises by artists that are mentioned have survived. Unfortunately we have hardly any of the most prestigious sort of paintings, on wood panel or in fresco, that this literature was concerned with.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The contrast with vase-painting is total. There are no mentions of that in literature at all, but over 100,000 surviving examples, giving many individual painters a respectable surviving oeuvre. Our idea of what the best Greek painting was like must be drawn from a careful consideration of parallels in vase-painting, late Greco-Roman copies in mosaic and fresco, some very late examples of actual painting in the Greek tradition, and the ancient literature.


title: Ancient Greek art

text: There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Early painting seems to have developed along similar lines to vase-painting, heavily reliant on outline and flat areas of colour, but then flowered and developed at the time that vase-painting went into decline. By the end of the Hellenistic period, technical developments included modelling to indicate contours in forms, shadows, foreshortening, some probably imprecise form of perspective, interior and landscape backgrounds, and the use of changing colours to suggest distance in landscapes, so that "Greek artists had all the technical devices needed for fully illusionistic painting".


title: Ancient Greek art

text: The most common and respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were panel paintings, individual, portable paintings on wood boards. The techniques used were encaustic (wax) painting and tempera. Such paintings normally depicted figural scenes, including portraits and still-lifes; we have descriptions of many compositions. They were collected and often displayed in public spaces. Pausanias describes such exhibitions at Athens and Delphi. We know the names of many famous painters, mainly of the Classical and Hellenistic periods, from literature (see expandable list to the right). The most famous of all ancient Greek painters was Apelles of Kos, whom Pliny the Elder lauded as having "surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded him."


title: Ancient Greek art

text: Unfortunately, due to the perishable nature of the materials used and the major upheavals at the end of antiquity, not one of the famous works of Greek panel painting has survived, nor even any of the copies that doubtlessly existed, and which give us most of our knowledge of Greek sculpture. We have slightly more significant survivals of mural compositions. The most important surviving Greek examples from before the Roman period are the fairly low-quality Pitsa panels from c. 530 BC, the Tomb of the Diver from Paestum, and various paintings from the royal tombs at Vergina. More numerous paintings in Etruscan and Campanian tombs are based on Greek styles. In the Roman period, there are a number of wall paintings in Pompeii and the surrounding area, as well as in Rome itself, some of which are thought to be copies of specific earlier masterpieces.