title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: This department is responsible for collecting intelligence for national security. Its role is to collect security intelligence related to both domestic and external threats, intercept subversive activities by extremist groups and individuals which could threaten the nation's stability. Also, it is in charge of obtaining, processing, evaluating and disseminating information to other departments and organisations. This department is divided into several branches: Technical Intelligence, Social Intelligence, External Intelligence, Political Intelligence, Economic Intelligence And Security Intelligence.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: This department's main function is to investigate, arrest, and prosecute offenders committing white-collar crimes such as fraud, breach of trust, cyber-crimes, forgery, counterfeiting etc. The department was divided several branches:


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Traffic Investigation and Enforcement Department was officially established on 25 March 2016 in conjunction with the 209th Police Day Celebration by the then Prime Minister Dato' Seri Najib Razak announced that the Traffic Branch will be separated from the Internal Security and Public Order Department into a new department, the "Traffic Investigation and Enforcement Department". He also personally presided over the inauguration ceremony.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: This department's main function is leading traffic management department with the following main service core:-


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Non-governmental organisations continued to press the government to create an Independent Police Complaints and Misconduct Commission (IPCMC). In 2005 a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the police had recommended a wide range of reforms, including the establishment of an IPCMC by May 2006. Draft legislation to establish an IPCMC remained under consideration by the Attorney General at the end of the year. A range of other reform recommendations, including repeal or review of laws allowing for detention without trial or requiring police permits for public assemblies, were not implemented.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: As of 2021, Chinese and Indian constituted around 1.9% and 3% of the 123,000 officers and personnel in the country respectively while the majority rest are populated by the Malays and other natives. Among the reasons of the low Chinese enrollment are the stigma in the community where the children that join the police forces are not considered as good children. Meanwhile, some were restricted from joining due to their inability to achieve a credit score for Bahasa Malaysia during SPM examination. Social campaign and short-term rules relaxation was thrown to encourage more enrollment from the two communities.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Prior to 1994, police officer was worn light blue uniform and worn along khaki/brown pants. On 17 January 1994, the new police uniform was introduced, dark navy blue long/short sleeve shirts are worn along with dark navy blue cargo pants.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: A personal name tag is worn on the right side together with the police shield above it while the word "Polis" ("police" in Malay) is emblazoned in the other side. A police service number is under the name tag and a rank insignia on the right arm.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The Sam Browne belt was replaced by the brand new ballistic nylon police duty belt equipped with a standard issue Walther P99 or Px4 Storm handgun, two extra 10 round magazines, a pair of Hiatt Speedcuffs, a T-baton, a pepper spray, an LED torch and a walkie-talkie. Sometimes they are equipped with a Heckler & Koch MP5 sub-machine-gun during special situations.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Traffic officers wears white helmet or dark navy blue cap while on duty, a white long sleeve shirt with a reflective yellow vest, black riding pants with a yellow stripe and riding boots. Their equipment is the same as constables except that they have a whistle in their left pocket.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: ² "Royal Malaysia Police has been acquired with new sub machine gun next generation from CZ Company from Czech Republic. The New CZ Scorpion EVO 3 A1 9mm caliber is the latest generation Scorpion Sub Machine gun as part new market from Eastern Europe and it will replace the existing MP5."


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: "¹ In early June, the Royal Malaysian Police (PDRM) began taking delivery of the first of its 425 new Honda Civic 1.8 S patrol cars which are equipped with RMPNeT communication equipment, dashboard cameras and digital video recorders, in order to replace Proton Wira and Proton Waja police cars in stages and will take on patrol and enforcement duties. The force is also set to add another 850 vehicles consist of 653 Civic 1.8s sedans and 197 units of Proton X70 SUV, bringing the total replacement of the vehicles to 1,275 units to completely modernise its patrol vehicle fleet."


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: In 2019, a national inquiry held by the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia's (SUHAKAM) concluded that agents of the Special Branch, Bukit Aman, were responsible for the abduction of Amri Che Mat in 2016 and Raymond Koh in 2017.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: In 2022, the internet company Meta Platforms reported that the Royal Malaysia Police were behind a troll farm. The allegation was denied.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Following the Sulu militants intrusion, a military standoff commenced on 11 February 2013 and ended after conflict about 24 March 2013. 235 militants, most of whom were armed, arrived by boat in Lahad Datu district from Philippines territory and occupied the village of Tanduo. They were sent by Jamalul Kiram III, a claimant to the throne of the Sultanate of Sulu. His stated goal was to assert the Philippine territorial claim to eastern Sabah as part of the North Borneo dispute. In response, Malaysian security forces surrounded the village. Attempts by the Malaysian and the Philippine governments to reach a peaceful solution with Kiram's supporters were unsuccessful and the standoff escalated into an armed conflict on 1 March 2013. At the end of the standoff, around 56 militants were killed along with six civilians and 10 Malaysian security forces (of which eight were Malaysian police members). The rest of the militants were either captured or escaped back to the Philippines.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: A schoolboy, Aminulrasyid Amzah, was shot dead by police after allegedly trying to escape from a car accident which he was involved in. Aminulrasyid was driving his sister's car without a valid driver's licence after midnight on 3 May 2010, together with his friend, Azamuddin, who was the passenger. He had been trying to flee a number of motorcyclists who were chasing both boys after their vehicle had sideswiped a car earlier that night. After Aminulrasyid was shot, his friend Azamuddin was assaulted and beaten by the police but managed to escape. The IGP and the police have made many statements to the press saying that Aminulrasyid was trying to ram a police roadblock as well as carrying a weapon in the car. Azamuddin and Aminulrasyid's family has refuted many of the police claims. Many members of the public and the opposing politicians have criticised the police's response, alluding to the fact that the police are trying to cover up the incident and fabricate evidence. The boy's family has rejected calls for an inquest into the shooting because they did not believe they would receive a fair and transparent investigation, especially from the police. Instead, they have called on the government to establish a royal commission of inquiry to investigate Aminulrasyid's death. A special eight-member panel has been formed to scrutinise the investigation of the shooting; however, opposing politicians and the boy's family have derided the formation of the panel as a publicity stunt by the government. On 24 March 2016, the High Court in Selangor awarded more than MYR400,000 in damages to the family of the victim to alleviate their pain and suffering.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The escaped terrorist, Mas Selamat Kastari, who escaped detention in Singapore in 2008, was nabbed by Bukit Aman and Johore Police while he was asleep in a secluded village house in Skudai, northwest of Johor Bahru, Johore. He found a traditional kampung house on stilts in Kampung Tawakal, a tiny village with a population of less than 100. Located about 10 km away from the North-South Expressway near the Kempas exit, it is almost impossible to locate for those not familiar with the area. The Singaporean terrorist, who captured world attention when he escaped from the republic's maximum security Whitley Detention Centre in February last year, could barely put up a fight in his shorts and T-shirt when caught during a dawn raid in April. At 6 am, about 30 armed policemen surrounded the kampung house and ordered Mas Selamat to come out. Police broke through two doors and rushed in when he refused to surrender. He was arrested together with two others, Abdul Matin and Johar Hassan, by a PGK and police Special Branch officers following intelligence sharing with the police forces of Indonesia and Singapore. Police also seized documents and other paraphernalia that allegedly revealed their planned operation. This report was later confirmed by both the Singapore and Malaysian governments, with the date of capture given as 1 April 2009.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The Home Minister of Malaysia, Dato' Seri Hishammuddin Hussein, and Inspector-General of Police Tan Sri Musa Hassan at Putrajaya confirmed Mas Selamat was arrested and detained under the Internal Security Act. Hishammuddin declined to give details since the case is sensitive as it involves intelligence agencies of Singapore and Indonesia, as well as Malaysia. Musa said the arrest was made possible as police in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia had been sharing intelligence reports over the past year. It is learnt that Special Branch officers had been working on various leads since March and upon confirming his whereabouts planned the dawn raid that resulted in his arrest.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: Nur Misuari who is the main leader and founder of one of the breakaway faction in the Philippines was arrested on 23 November 2001 together with six of his followers in Jampiras Island off Sabah after intruding past the Malaysian border illegally. Misuari is wanted in the Philippines for leading a failed rebellion against the Philippine government, which he was later extradited to the Philippine authorities in December 2001 to face legal action in his country although Malaysia and the Philippines have no extradition treaty.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: In the early morning on 2 July 2000, 21 members of the militant group visited the outpost and camp of Bn 304 Rejimen Askar Wataniah under the guise of a surprise inspection and confiscated the soldiers' weapons and carted the weapons away from the armoury. They took away a huge cache of firearms and ammunition, including 97 M16 assault rifles, four GPMGs, five grenade launchers, 9,095 rounds of 5.56 mm and 60 rounds of 40 mm ammunition. The group was later cornered in the village of Sauk, Perak and involved in a stand-off with the Malaysian Army and Royal Malaysian Police forces. The Malaysian Special Forces threw a containment cordon around Bukit Jenalik. Tpr Matthew anak Medan from 21 Commando was murdered by this militant group and was awarded Pahlawan Gagah Berani. The leader and militant group surrendered to the Malaysian Special Forces and later they were handed over to the police.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The Al-Mau'nah group later surrendered, and the leaders were brought to trial for "waging war upon the King". Mohamed Amin Mohamed Razali and his group were brought to trial for charges of "waging war against the King" and became the first group of people convicted of such charges in Malaysia. Mohamed Amin Mohamed Razali and his two lieutenants, Zahit Muslim and Jamaluddin Darus, were sentenced to death. Sixteen others were given life sentences. Police Detective Corporal Sanghadevan was murdered during the incident. Assistant Superintendent Police Abdul Razak Mohd. Yusof was awarded the Seri Pahlawan Gagah Perkasa for his role in resolving the stand-off.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The Memali Incident occurred in the remote village of Memali, Baling in the state of Kedah on 19 November 1985. A task force of 200 policemen under orders from the Acting Prime Minister and Home Minister Musa Hitam, laid siege to kampung (village) houses in Memali. The houses were occupied by an Islamic sect of about 400 people led by Ibrahim Mahmud a.k.a. Ibrahim Libya.


title: Royal Malaysia Police

text: The Bukit Kepong Incident was an armed encounter which took place on 23 February 1950 between the police and the Malayan Communists during pre-independence Malaya. This conflict took place in an area surrounding the Bukit Kepong police station in Bukit Kepong, a wooden station located on the banks of the Muar River, about 59 km from Muar town, Johor.


title: Adi Shankar

text: Aditya Shankar (born January 8, 1985) is an Indian-American film producer, screenwriter, film director, television program creator, television showrunner, and occasional actor. He is best known for "Dredd", "Castlevania", and his "Bootleg Universe" One-Shot series of unauthorized pop culture satire films which include "", "Venom: Truth in Journalism", and "Power/Rangers". He is also known for being the youngest producer to have a number one film at the North American box office with "The Grey".


title: Adi Shankar

text: In 2014, Shankar ranked number 20 on "GQ" magazine's list of "Most Influential Global Indian Men". He co-founded the production company 1984 Private Defense Contractors. In 2015, upon signing a three-picture deal with Disney's Maker Studios, Shankar was proclaimed the "Quentin Tarantino of the digital generation" by Maker executives.


title: Adi Shankar

text: Aditya Shankar was born in Kolkata, West Bengal, India, to a banking executive and an educator. His family spent his formative years relocating among Chennai, Mumbai, Hong Kong, Rhode Island, and Singapore. Shankar studied communications, business, and theater at Northwestern University and graduated in June 2007.


title: Adi Shankar

text: For his controversial "Bootleg Universe" Shankar cites British street artist Banksy as a major influence. In addition, Shankar frequently cites rapper Eminem, writer Warren Ellis, artist Takashi Murakami, wrestler Diamond Dallas Page, and "Final Fantasy VII" character Sephiroth as artistic and stylistic influences.


title: Adi Shankar

text: In April 2018, Shankar started a script contest which he hoped would encourage people to rewrite "The Simpsons" character Apu Nahasapeemapetilon "that takes the character of Apu and in a clever way subverts him, pivots him, intelligently writes him out, or evolves him". He stated that, in the event that the show's producers will not take on the winning script, he would produce and distribute the episode as part of his, "Bootleg Universe" fan films.


title: Adi Shankar

text: On October 26, 2018, Shankar leaked during an interview with IndieWire that Apu was going to be written out of the show, stating that he got the information from two people who work for "The Simpsons" and a third source who works directly with creator Matt Groening. A representative for the show at Fox responded, saying, "Apu appeared in the 10/14/18 episode My Way or the Highway to Heaven." In the episode, Apu makes an appearance as one of dozens of characters gathered around God in Heaven. On October 28, Simpsons executive producer and show runner Al Jean responded on Twitter by saying "Adi Shankar is not a producer on the Simpsons. I wish him the best but he does not speak for our show."


title: Michael Rainey Jr.

text: Michael Rainey Jr. (born September 22, 2000) is an American actor best known for the role of Tariq St. Patrick on "Power" and "". He also starred as Michael Burset in "Orange Is the New Black" and Jalen in "".


title: Michael Rainey Jr.

text: Rainey Jr. was born in Louisville, Kentucky, the son of Michael Rainey Sr. and Shauna Small. Through his mother, he is of Jamaican descent. His father is from New York, with Rainey Jr. being raised in Brooklyn, New York from the age of 1. Rainey Jr. supports ‘Find and Feed’, an Indiana based organization that cares for the homeless.


title: Michael Rainey Jr.

text: Rainey Jr. began his career at the age of ten when featured in Un Altro Mundo, and followed it with appearances in a variety of movies and shows such as Orange is the New Black, Barbershop, Amateur, 211 and Power.


title: Michael Rainey Jr.

text: Rainey Jr. currently stars as Tariq St. Patrick on the expanded Power franchise, , for which he plays the shows leading character.


title: Michael Rainey Jr.

text: In March 2022, Rainey Jr., along with Power co-star Gianni Paolo, launched Twenty Two Entertainment. The first project is the self-hosted podcast, The Crew Has It. Twenty Two Entertainment is fully funded by Artists For Artists, launched in December 2021 by Kenan Thompson and John Ryan Jr.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The iPad Mini 4 (stylized and marketed as iPad mini 4) is the fourth-generation iPad Mini tablet computer designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. It was announced along with the iPad Pro on September 9, 2015, and released the same day. The iPad Mini 4, which replaced the iPad Mini 3, was discontinued on March 18, 2019, when it was replaced by the fifth-generation iPad Mini. It features most of the hardware similar to the iPad Air 2 including its laminated display and design.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The iPad Mini 4 was announced during the "Hey Siri" Apple Special Event on September 9, 2015, alongside other new or refreshed products, including the iPad Pro, the iPhone 6s, and the Apple TV. However, there was minimal focus directly on the new device, with only a brief mention at the end of the iPad Pro portion of the keynote.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The iPad Mini 4 ships with the iOS 9 operating system pre-installed, and was the first device to do so. With an additional 1 GB of RAM compared to the previous generations' Mini, the iPad Mini 4 is capable of utilizing the Slide Over, Split View and Picture in Picture multitasking functions in iOS 9.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The device is compatible with iOS 9.1, which was released on October 21, 2015, which adds the News app for the UK and Australia as well as additional emoji and other bug fixes.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: It was revealed at WWDC 2019 that the iPad Mini 4 would support iPadOS, despite rumours saying that it wouldn't. It does lack the support for some features though such as Memoji Stickers, Apple's ARKit based applications and support for Sidecar in macOS Catalina, due to it having the Apple A8 Processor. Apart from this, most of the features that were introduced in iPadOS will work with this iPad, including support for external USB drives (using the camera connection kits), the redesigned split screen and multitasking interface (with support for two apps to be open at once) and support for Haptic Touch (no haptic feedback will be felt as the iPad family don't have Taptic Engines). iPadOS 14 and 15 was also supported, albeit with less features. It was revealed in WWDC 2022 that iPadOS 16 won't be on the Mini 4, along with the iPad Air 2.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The iPad Mini 4 was the first major redesign of the iPad Mini line, with a slightly taller and wider body (though with no increase in screen size) compared to the iPad Mini 2 and Mini 3. There is also a much thinner design, with the device mirroring the depth of the iPad Air 2 at 6.1 millimeters. This device is also lighter than the previous generation by 33.2 grams.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: Due to the redesign, this device is incompatible with cases that would otherwise work with the iPad Mini 2 or iPad Mini 3. To compensate for this, Apple released a Smart Cover and Silicone Case for the Mini 4, which can be used separately or together as a fully protective case. Unlike the iPad Air 2, there is no leather Smart Case made by Apple for the device. The mute switch was removed, as was done for the iPad Air 2.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: While the iPad Air 2 and iPad Mini 3 were both released in October 2014, the Mini 3 carried over the Mini 2's internals including the A7 processor in place of the hardware found in the iPad Air 2. The iPad Mini 4 features upgraded hardware closer in specs to the iPad Air 2. However, the Mini 4 supports a dual-core A8 processor in place of the tri-core A8X. Apple claims that this processor is "1.3x faster" at CPU tasks and "1.6x faster" at graphics tasks over the A7 processor found in previous Mini models. Along with the iPad Air 2, there are 2 GB of RAM, allowing the device to support the advanced multitasking features made available with the iOS 9 operating system.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: Like the iPad Mini 3 that came before it, the iPad Mini 4 is capable of making mobile payments via Apple Pay in combination with the Touch ID sensor, although this can only be done in apps as the device lacks the NFC antenna required for payments at a merchant terminal. With iOS 10, Apple Pay is supported within the Safari app.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: The device shares the same camera module as the iPad Air 2 with an 8 megapixel camera with a ƒ/2.4 aperture. The screen is the same Retina Display that has featured since the iPad Mini 2, although it is fully laminated (also like the iPad Air 2) and contains an anti-reflective coating, resulting in drastically improved picture quality compared to its predecessors. The iPad Mini 4 display features much improved color accuracy due to the increase to 101% sRGB Color Gamut compared to poor ~62% on the previous models.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: It has a slightly smaller battery compared to the previous generations though Apple claims the runtime to be the same 10 hours as its predecessor.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: There is also an updated wireless module adding support for 802.11ac Wi-Fi and Bluetooth 4.2. As with its predecessor, the iPad Mini 4 was available with storage options of 16, 32, 64 or 128 GB, although upon the introduction of the iPad (5th generation) in March 2017, only the 128 GB variation remained available.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: Although the Apple Pencil was released alongside the iPad Mini 4 in September 2015, it was exclusively compatible with the iPad Pro released at the same time. Pencil support on the iPad Mini did not arrive until the 5th generation in 2019.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: Reviews have generally been positive, with "The Verge" giving the iPad Mini 4 a 9/10, praising the display, fast performance, great camera, and multitasking but disappointed with the speakers and chamfered edges.


title: IPad Mini 4

text: CNET also praised the new "more vivid" display and the slimmer design as well as the new features in iOS 9 that the device can utilize. However, they also criticized it for being more expensive than other 8-inch tablets and the multitasking features not working as well on the smaller screen. There was also criticism of the iPad Mini 4's A8 processor which was a year old, regarded as a "step down" from the iPad Air 2's A8X and iPhone 6S's A9 processors. This contrasts with the iPad Mini 2 which featured the A7 processor used in the iPad Air and iPhone 5S when they were released in Fall 2013.


title: Juju

text: Juju or ju-ju () is a spiritual belief system incorporating objects, such as amulets, and spells used in religious practice in West Africa by the people of Nigeria and Cameroon. The term has been applied to traditional African religions.


title: Juju

text: In a general sense, the term "juju" can be used to refer to magical properties dealing with good luck.


title: Juju

text: The term "juju" appeared in connection with the Priest-Kings of towns in West Africa, upon whom the prosperity of towns was believed to depend. This is recorded by Sir James George Frazer in "Folk-Lore" (Vol. XXVI), under the title, "A Priest-King in Nigeria", a communication received from Mr. P. A. Talbot, District Commissioner in S. Nigeria. The writer states that the dominant Ju-Ju of Elele, a town in the N.W. of the Degema district, is a Priest-King, elected for a term of seven years. "The whole prosperity of the town, especially the fruitfulness of farm, byre, and marriage-bed, was linked with his life. Should he


title: Juju

text: Juju is a folk magic in West Africa; within juju, a variety of concepts exist. Juju charms and spells can be used to inflict either bad or good juju. According to some authors, "It is neither good nor bad, but it may be used for constructive purposes as well as for nefarious deeds." Juju charms can at times employ Arabic texts written by Islamic religious leaders. A "juju man" is any man vetted by local traditions and well versed in traditional spiritual medicines.


title: Juju

text: Juju is sometimes used to enforce a contract or ensure compliance. In a typical scenario, the witch doctor casting the spell requires payment for this service.


title: Juju

text: The word "Juju" is used in the African Diaspora to describe all forms of charms made in African Diaspora Religions and African Traditional Religions.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Brazilian Navy () is the naval service branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, responsible for conducting naval operations. The Brazilian Navy is the largest navy in Latin America and the second largest navy in the Americas after the United States Navy.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The navy was involved in Brazil's war of independence from Portugal. Most of Portugal's naval forces and bases in South America were transferred to the newly independent country. In the initial decades following independence, the country maintained a large naval force and the navy was later involved in the Cisplatine War, the River Plate conflicts, the Paraguayan War as well as other sporadic rebellions that marked Brazilian history.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: By the 1880s the Brazilian Imperial Navy was the most powerful in South America. After the 1893–1894 naval rebellion, there was a hiatus in the development of the navy until 1905, when Brazil acquired two of the most powerful and advanced dreadnoughts of the day which sparked a dreadnought race with Brazil's South American neighbours. The Brazilian Navy participated in both World War I and World War II, engaging in anti-submarine patrols in the Atlantic.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The modern Brazilian Navy includes British-built guided missile frigates (FFG), locally built corvettes (FFL), coastal diesel-electric submarines (SSK) and many other river and coastal patrol craft.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In addition to the roles of a traditional navy, the Brazilian Navy also carries out the role of organizing the merchant navy and other operational safety missions traditionally conducted by a coast guard. Other roles include:


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The origins of the Brazilian Navy date back to the Portuguese naval forces based in Brazil. The transfer of the Portuguese monarchy to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars also resulted in the transfer of a large part of the structure, personnel and ships of the Portuguese Navy. These became the core of the Navy of Brazil.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Brazilian Navy came into being with the independence of the country. Some of its members were native-born Brazilians, who under Portuguese rule had been forbidden to serve, while other members were Portuguese born who adhered to the cause of independence and foreign mercenaries. A number of establishments previously created by King João VI of Portugal were incorporated into the navy such as the Department of Navy, Headquarters of the Navy, the Intendancy and Accounting Department, the Arsenal (Shipyard) of the Navy, the Academy of Navy Guards, the Naval Hospital, the Auditorship, the Supreme Military Council, the powder plant, and others. The Brazilian-born Captain Luís da Cunha Moreira was chosen as the first minister of the Navy on 28 October 1822.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: British naval officer Lord Thomas Alexander Cochrane was made the commander of the Brazilian Navy and received the rank of "First Admiral". At that time, the fleet was composed of one ship of the line ("Pedro I"), four frigates, and smaller ships for a total of 38 warships. The Secretary of Treasury Martim Francisco Ribeiro de Andrada created a national subscription to generate capital in order to increase the size of the fleet. Contributions were sent from all over Brazil. Even Emperor Pedro I acquired a merchant brig at his own expense (renamed "Caboclo") and donated it to the Navy. The navy fought in the north and also south of Brazil where it had a decisive role in the independence of the country. After the suppression of the revolt in Pernambuco in 1824 and prior to the Cisplatine War, the navy increased significantly in size and strength. Starting with 38 ships in 1822, eventually the navy had 96 modern warships of various types with over 690 cannon.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Navy blocked the estuary of the Río de la Plata hindering the contact of the United Provinces (as Argentina was then called) with the Cisplatine rebels who wanted Uruguay to join Argentina again or become an independent country, and the outside world. Several battles had occurred between Brazilian and Argentine ships, with Irish-born Argentine admiral William Brown temporarily leading a successful campaign, which had included a significant victory at Juncal. Eventually however, a Brazilian fleet led by English admiral James Norton scored a decisive victory near the island of Santiago in mid 1827, rendering the United Provinces navy combat ineffective and ensuring that the blockade would proceed uncontested. The war came to a stalemate and in 1828, Brazil accepted the resolution guaranteeing the independence of Uruguay. When Pedro I abdicated in 1831, he left a powerful navy made up of two ships of the line and ten frigates in addition to corvettes, steamships, and other ships for a total of at least 80 warships in peacetime.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the 58-year reign of Pedro II the Brazilian Navy achieved its greatest strength in relation to navies around the world. The Arsenal, Navy department, and the Naval Jail were improved and the Imperial Marine Corps was created. Steam navigation was adopted. Brazil quickly modernized its fleet acquiring ships from foreign sources while also constructing ships locally. Brazil's Navy substituted the old smoothbore cannon for new ones with rifled barrels, which were more accurate and had longer ranges. Improvements were also made in the Arsenals (shipyards) and naval bases, which were equipped with new workshops. Ships were constructed in the Naval Arsenal of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Recife, Santos, Niterói and Pelotas. The Navy also successfully fought against all revolts that occurred during the Regency where it conducted blockades and transported the Army troops; including Cabanagem, Ragamuffin War, Sabinada, Balaiada, amongst others.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: When Emperor Pedro II was declared of legal age and assumed his constitutional prerogatives in 1840, the Armada had over 90 warships: six frigates, seven corvettes, two barque-schooners, six brigs, eight brig-schooners, 16 gunboats, 12 schooners, seven armed brigantine-schooners, six steam barques, three transport ships, two armed luggers, two cutters and thirteen larger boats.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the 1850s the State Secretary, the Accounting Department of the Navy, the Headquarters of the Navy and the Naval Academy were reorganized and improved. New ships were purchased and the ports administrations were better equipped. The Imperial Mariner Corps was definitively regularized and the Marine Corps was created, taking the place of the Naval Artillery. The Service of Assistance for Invalids was also established, along with several schools for sailors and craftsmen.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The conflicts in the Platine region did not cease after the war of 1825. The anarchy caused by the despotic Rosas and his desire to subdue Bolívia, Uruguay and Paraguay forced Brazil to intercede. The Brazilian Government sent a naval force of 17 warships (a ship of the line, 10 corvettes and six steamships) commanded by the veteran John Pascoe Grenfell. The Brazilian fleet succeeded in passing through the Argentine line of defence at the Tonelero Pass under heavy attack and transported the troops to the theater of operations. The Brazilian Armada had a total of 59 vessels of various types in 1851: 36 armed sailing ships, 10 armed steamships, seven unarmed sailing ships and six sailing transports.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: More than a decade later the Armada was once again modernized and its fleet of old sailing ships was converted to a fleet of 40 steamships armed with more than 250 cannons. In 1864 the navy fought in the Uruguayan War and immediately afterwards in the Paraguayan War where it annihilated the Paraguayan navy in the Battle of Riachuelo. The navy was further augmented with the acquisition of 20 ironclads and six fluvial monitors. At least 9,177 navy personnel fought in the five years' conflict. Brazilian naval constructors such as Napoleão Level, Trajano de Carvalho and João Cândido Brasil planned new concepts for warships that allowed the country's Arsenals to retain their competitiveness with other nations. All damage suffered by ships was repaired and various improvements were made to them. In 1870, Brazil had 94 modern warships and had the fifth most powerful navy in the world.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the 1870s, the Brazilian Government strengthened the navy as the possibility of a war against Argentina over Paraguay's future became quite real. Thus, it acquired a gunboat and a corvette in 1873; an ironclad and a monitor in 1874; and immediately afterwards two cruisers and another monitor. The improvement of the Armada continued during the 1880s. The Arsenals of the Navy in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Pará and Mato Grosso continued to build dozens of warships. Also, four torpedo boats were purchased.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On November 30, 1883, the Practical School of Torpedoes was created along with a workshop devoted to constructing and repairing torpedoes and electric devices in the Arsenal of Navy of Rio de Janeiro. This Arsenal constructed four steam gunboats and one schooner, all with iron and steel hulls (the first of these categories constructed in the country). The Imperial Armada reached its apex with the incorporation of the ironclad battleships and (both equipped with torpedo launchers) in 1884 and 1885, respectively. Both ships (considered state-of-the-art by experts from Europe) allowed the Brazilian Armada to retain its position as one of the most powerful naval forces. By 1889, the navy had 60 warships and was the fifth or sixth most powerful navy in the world.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In the last cabinet of the monarchic regime, the Minister of the Navy, Admiral José da Costa Azevedo (the Baron of Ladário), left the reorganization and modernization of the navy unfinished. The coup that ended the monarchy in Brazil in 1889 was not well accepted by the Armada. Imperial Mariners were attacked when they tried to support the imprisoned Emperor in the City Palace. The Marquis of Tamandaré begged Pedro II to allow him to fight back the coup; however, the Emperor refused to allow any bloodshed. Tamandaré would later be imprisoned by order of the dictator Floriano Peixoto under the accusation of financing the monarchist military in the Federalist Revolution.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Baron of Ladário remained in contact with the exiled Imperial Family, hoping to restore the monarchy, but ended up ostracized by the republican government. Admiral Saldanha da Gama led the Revolt of the Armada with the objective of restoring the Empire and allied himself with other monarchists who were fighting in the Federalist Revolution. However, all the attempts at restoration were violently crushed. High-ranking Monarchist officers were imprisoned, banished or executed by firing squad without due process of law and their subordinates also suffered harsh punishments.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The military coup that led to the proclamation of the Brazilian Republic (1889), accentuated the decline of shipbuilding in the country. For four decades, between 1890 and 1930 no new ships were built in Brazil. The focus of republican governments was to equip the army to fight internal uprisings in the new regime's early years. The Navy was perceived as a threat to the new republican regime, as it had been more loyal to the Monarchy.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The situation became precarious in just over a decade as the Naval Battalion was reduced to 295 soldiers and Imperial Marines to 1,904 men. The equipment and vessels acquired were considered outdated by Navy officials, who criticized the abandonment of repair shops. Naval officers participated in two riots, known as Naval Riots. The second, avowedly monarchist, cost the officers their careers and their lives, without entering the military justice process. The sailors who obeyed orders and took part in the attempt to restore monarchy suffered cruelly.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Brazil's navy fell into disrepair and obsolescence in the aftermath of the 1889 revolution, which deposed Emperor Pedro II, after naval officers led a revolt in 1893–94. Meanwhile, the Argentine and Chilean navies were flush with modern warships after the conclusion of a naval arms race between the two. As a result, at the turn of the 20th century the Brazilian Navy lagged far behind its Argentine and Chilean counterparts in quality and total tonnage.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Rising demand for coffee and rubber brought Brazil an influx of revenue in the early 1900s. Simultaneously, there was a drive on the part of prominent Brazilians, most notably Pinheiro Machado and the Baron of Rio Branco, to have the country recognized as an international power. A strong navy was seen as crucial to this goal. The National Congress of Brazil drew up and passed a large naval acquisition program in late 1904, but it was two years the Minister of the Navy, Admiral Júlio César de Noronha, signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for three small battleships.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: After construction began, a new presidential administration took office and the new government reconsidered their chosen battleship design. This was wrought by the debut of the United Kingdom's new dreadnought concept, especially its "all-big-gun" armament that utilized many more heavy-caliber weapons than previous battleships. This warship type would have rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete before they were completed.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: As a result, the Brazilian government redirected its naval funds towards three dreadnoughts, of which only two would be built immediately. This move was made with the large-scale support of Brazilian politicians, including Pinheiro Machado and a nearly unanimous vote in the Senate; the navy, now with the large-ship advocate Rear Admiral in the influential post of minister of the navy; and the Brazilian press. It made Brazil was the third country to have a dreadnought under construction, behind the United Kingdom and the United States, and before France, the German Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Empire of Japan. As dreadnoughts were quickly equated with international status, somewhat similar to nuclear weapons today—that is, regardless of a state's need for such equipment, simply ordering and possessing a dreadnought increased the owner's prestige—the order caused .


title: Brazilian Navy

text: This order led to a naval arms race between Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, which was ended only by the advent of the First World War. Brazil's first two dreadnoughts, "Minas Geraes" and "São Paulo", would be delivered in 1910. The third dreadnought was redesigned multiple times in response to advancing naval technology and financial concerns; it would eventually be sold to the Ottoman Empire and serve with the British as HMS "Agincourt". A larger super-dreadnought was ordered shortly before the war, but little was accomplished prior to the beginning of the conflict.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In late 1910, a major rebellion known as the Revolt of the Lash, or "Revolta da Chibata", broke out on four of the newest ships in the Brazilian Navy. The initial spark was provided on 21 November when Afro-Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination. Many Afro-Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves, or were former slaves freed under the "Lei Áurea" (abolition) but forced to enter the navy. They had been planning a revolt for some time, and Menezes became the catalyst. Further preparations were needed, so the rebellion was delayed until 22 November. The crewmen of "Minas Geraes", "São Paulo", the twelve-year-old , and the new quickly took their vessels with only a minimum of bloodshed: two officers on "Minas Geraes" and one each on "São Paulo" and "Bahia" were killed.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The ships were well-supplied with foodstuffs, ammunition, and coal, and the only demand of mutineers—led by João Cândido Felisberto—was the abolition of "slavery as practiced by the Brazilian Navy". They objected to low pay, long hours, inadequate training for incompetent sailors, and punishments including "bôlo" (being struck on the hand with a ferrule) and the use of whips or lashes ("chibata"), which eventually became a symbol of the revolt. By 23 November, the National Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a general amnesty for the sailors. Senator Ruy Barbosa, long an opponent of slavery, lent a large amount of support, and the measure unanimously passed the Federal Senate on 24 November. The measure was then sent to the Chamber of Deputies.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Humiliated by the revolt, naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to amnesty, so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships. The former believed such an action was necessary to restore the service's honor. Late on 24 November, the President ordered the naval officers to attack the mutineers. Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiser , "Bahia"s sister ship with ten guns. They planned to attack on the morning of 25 November, when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay. When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared passage in the Chamber of Deputies, the order was rescinded. After the bill passed 125–23 and the president signed it into law, the mutineers stood down on 26 November.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the revolt, the ships were noted by many observers to be well-handled, despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: After the declaration of war on the Central Powers in October 1917 the Brazilian Navy participated in the war. On 21 December 1917 the British government requested that a Brazilian naval force of light cruisers be placed under Royal Navy control and a squadron comprising the cruisers "Rio Grande do Sul" and "Bahia", the destroyers "Paraíba", "Rio Grande do Norte", "Piauí", and "Santa Catarina", and the support ship "Belmonte" and the ocean-going tugboat "Laurindo Pitta" was formed, designated the "Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra" ("Naval Division in War Operations"). The DNOG sailed on 31 July 1918 from Fernando de Noronha for Sierra Leone, arriving at Freetown on 9 August, and sailing onwards to its new base of operations, Dakar, on 23 August. On the night of 25 August the division believed it had been attacked by a U-boat when the auxiliary cruiser "Belmonte" sighted a torpedo track. The purported submarine was depth-charged, fired on, and reportedly sunk by "Rio Grande do Norte", but the sinking was never confirmed.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The DNOG patrolled the Dakar–Cape Verde–Gibraltar triangle, which was suspected to be used by U-boats waiting on convoys, until 3 November 1918 when it sailed for Gibraltar to begin operations in the Mediterranean Sea, with the exception of "Rio Grande do Sul", "Rio Grande do Norte", and "Belmonte". The Division arrived at Gibraltar on 10 November; while passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, they mistook three United States Navy subchasers for U-boats but no damage was caused.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Initiating the armed uprising in the State of São Paulo in July 1932, one of the first actions of the legalist forces was the blockade of the Port of Santos, the objective being to prevent the São Paulo state insurgents from obtaining supplies and weapons from abroad. The Brazilian Navy formed a fleet of ships led by the cruiser "Rio Grande Do Sul", including destroyers "Mato Grosso", "Pará" and "Sergipe".


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, the cruiser Rio Grande do Sul became the first Brazilian Navy ship to shoot down an aircraft, in this case a Constitutionalist Curtiss Falcon on September 24, 1932. Throughout the conflict, the port of Santos was blocked by the Brazilian Navy, making it impossible for the rebels to receive reinforcements there, the naval ships also carried out naval bombardment of the rebel troops stationed there.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Despite U-boat operations in the region (centred in the Atlantic Narrows between Brazil and West Africa) beginning autumn 1940, only in the following year did these start to raise serious concern in Washington. This perceived threat caused the US to decide that the introduction of US forces along Brazil's coast would be valuable. After negotiations with Brazilian Foreign Minister Osvaldo Aranha (on behalf of dictator Getúlio Vargas), these were introduced in second half of 1941.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Germany and Italy subsequently extended their submarine attacks to include Brazilian ships wherever they were, and from April 1942 were found in Brazilian waters. On 22 May 1942, the first Brazilian attack (although unsuccessful) was carried out by Brazilian Air Force aircraft on the . After a series of attacks on merchant vessels off the Brazilian coast by , Brazil officially entered the war on 22 August 1942, offering an important addition to the Allied strategic position in the South Atlantic.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In World War II, Brazil's navy was obsolete. In early 1942, German submarines aimed to interdict supplies from reaching Britain and the Soviet Union. Between 1942 and 1944, Brazil's navy was supported by the United States Navy. During this period several naval bases were established in the North and Northeast of Brazil, becoming the headquarters of the Allied Command Atlantic South.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Within their limitations and with the refitting and reorganization promoted with American resources, the Brazilian Navy participated actively in the fight against U-boats in the South, Central Atlantic and also the Caribbean. They guarded Allied convoys bound for North Africa and the Mediterranean. Between 1942 and 1945 the navy was responsible for conducting 574 convoy operations protecting 3,164 merchant ships of various nationalities. Enemy submarines managed to sink only three vessels. According to German documentation the Brazilian Navy made over sixty-six attacks against German submarines.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: A total of nine U-boats known German submarines were destroyed along the Brazilian coast. Those were: , , , , , , , , and


title: Brazilian Navy

text: About 1,100 Brazilians died during the Battle of the Atlantic as a result of the sinking of 32 Brazilian merchant vessels and a naval warship. Among the 972 dead from the merchant vessels, 470 were crew and 502 were civilian passengers. Besides these, 99 sailors died in the sinking of "Vital de Oliveira" when she was attacked by German submarines, in addition to some 350 deaths in accidents that resulted in the sinking of the corvette "Camaquã" on 21 July 1944. The cruiser "Bahia" was sunk by an explosion on 4 July 1945 which resulted in the deaths of over 300 men.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In 1961, some groups of French fishermen who were operating very profitably off the coast of Mauritania extended their search to the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, settling on a spot off the coast of Brazil where lobsters are found on submerged ledges at depths of . Local fishermen complained that large boats were coming from France to catch lobster off the state of Pernambuco, so the Brazilian Admiral Arnoldo Toscano ordered two corvettes to sail to the area where the French fishing boats were located. Seeing that the fishermen's claim was justifiable, the captain of the Brazilian vessel then demanded that the French boats retreat to deeper water, leaving the continental shelf to smaller Brazilian vessels. The situation became very tense once the French rejected this demand and radioed a message asking for the French government to send a destroyer to accompany the lobster boats, which prompted the Brazilian government to put fleet in a state of alert.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The French Government dispatched a on 21 February to watch over the French fishing boats. The French vessel withdrew after the arrival of a Brazilian warship and the aircraft carrier .


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Although corporal punishment was officially abolished after the Revolt of the Lash, or Revolta da Chibata, at the end of 1910, improvement in working conditions and career plans were still contentious in early 1960. The dissatisfaction with officialdom and conservative politicians, coupled with the lack of vision and inability of the general policy of then president João Goulart, led the sailors, encouraged by leaders such as Corporal Anselmo, to the military coup of 1964.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The purges carried out later (not just the navy but for all the armed forces), and the establishment of certain criteria for selection of its new members were a military term in the Brazilian tradition among its members openly harboring various currents of political thought.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The carrier was commissioned as NAeL "Minas Gerais" (named for Kubitschek's home state) on 6 December 1960. She departed Rotterdam for Rio de Janeiro on 13 January 1961. The duration of the refit meant that while the carrier was the first purchased by a Latin American nation, she was the second to enter service, after another "Colossus"-class carrier entered service with the Argentine Navy as in July 1959.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Flight 447 was due to pass from Brazilian airspace into Senegalese airspace at approximately 02:20 (UTC) on 1 June, and then into Cape Verdean airspace at approximately 03:45. Shortly after 04:00, when the flight had failed to contact air traffic control in either Senegal or Cape Verde, the controller in Senegal attempted to contact the aircraft. When he received no response, he asked the crew of another Air France flight (AF459) to try to contact AF447; this also met with no success.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Brazilian Navy also moved three vessels initially, being the patrol vessel "Grajaú", the frigate and the corvette "Caboclo" to aid in the searches. Subsequently, the tanker and the frigate "Bosisio" were sent, increasing the search force of the navy to five boats.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: During the search period, 51 bodies were recovered, more than 600 pieces of the aircraft, as well as passengers' luggage. A total of 1,344 officers of the Brazilian Navy and eleven vessels, 35,000 miles, were directly involved in the search, rescue and support.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 15 November 2017, the submarine "San Juan" in service with the Argentine Navy, stopped communicating during a routine patrol in the South Atlantic off the coast of Argentina. A multi-nation search operation was mounted to try to locate the submarine, which was believed to have suffered an electrical malfunction. Within hours of "San Juan"s last transmission, reports describe an explosive noise, detected in the vicinity of the vessel's last known location.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The frigate "Rademaker", the submarine relief ship NSS "Felinto Perry" and the polar ship NPo "Almirante Maximiano" of the Brazilian Navy participated in the multinational search for the lost submarine.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 28 May 2004 four Brazilian Navy ships (, , , ) departed from Rio de Janeiro bound for Haiti on a peace mission coordinated by the United Nations (UN). The ships transported part of the military contingent that was involved in Haitian reconstruction. In addition to 150 Marines and Army troops, the ships carried most of the materiel for the Brazilian stabilization force — approximately 120 vehicles, 26 trailers of various types, and 81 containers loaded with equipment and supplies. On 28 February 2010, the Brazilian Navy ship sailed from Rio de Janeiro with 900 tons of cargo, including humanitarian aid supplies to earthquake victims in Haiti as well as equipment for the Brazilian military that operates in that country.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Ammunition was brought for Brazilian soldiers in addition to 14 power generators and 30 vehicles, including trucks, ambulances and armored vehicles. The ship's crew consisted of 350 mariners.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 15 February 2011, Brazil assumed command of the Maritime Task Force (MTF) of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 4 October the Brazilian Ministries of Defence and Foreign Relations informed authorities that Brazil was sending a Navy vessel with up to 300 crew members, equipped with an aircraft, to join the fleet in Lebanon and the vessel was authorized by the National Congress. On 25 November 2011 the frigate "União" with 239 officers and sailors aboard joined the task force, bringing to nine the number of vessels assisting the Lebanese Navy in monitoring Lebanese territorial waters.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The frigate served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Luiz Henrique Caroli of Brazil who had been Commander of UNIFIL-MTF since February.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 10 April 2012 the frigate "Liberal" left Rio de Janeiro bound for Lebanon to join the force. It was relieved in January 2013 by the frigate "Constituição" which joined a multinational group comprising nine ships; three from Germany, two from Bangladesh, one from Greece, one from Indonesia and one from Turkey. The crew comprised 250 military officials. The return to Rio was scheduled for August 2013.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On 8 August 2015 the corvette "Barroso" left Rio de Janeiro to replace "União" and later that month carried out maritime interdiction operations and provided training to the Lebanese Navy. On 4 September 2015 it rescued 220 Syrian migrants in the Mediterranean Sea, as reported by the Ministry of Defense in a statement released on its website. The Brazilian ship was sailing towards Beirut in Lebanon when it received an alert from the Italian Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) about a sinking vessel taking immigrants to Europe.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On June 9, 2021, the Brazilian Navy assumed command of the Combined Task Force (CTF) 151, a multinational task force to combat piracy and which provides protection for the global maritime trade in an area covering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden, Somali coast and southern Red Sea.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: As of 2020, the Brazilian Navy has a reported strength of 80,500 active personnel, of which approximately 16,000 are naval infantry. The current Navy Commander is Admiral Almir Garnier Santos.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: As of 2012, the Brazilian Navy had about 100 commissioned ships, with others undergoing construction, acquisition and modernization. Between 1996 and 2005 the Navy retired 21 ships. The Brazilian Navy operated one , , formerly the French Navy's . It was retired in 2017. Its possible replacements are presently in the early stage of planning and are not expected to be in service until at least 2025.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Four "Tupi"-class and one "Tikuna"-class Type 209 submarines are in the fleet. The "Tupi"-class submarines will be upgraded by Lockheed Martin at a cost of $35 million. The modernization includes the replacement of existing torpedoes with new MK 48 units. On 14 March 2008, the Navy purchased four s from France. The Navy is currently developing its first nuclear submarine. The Navy planned to have the Scorpène-class submarines in service in 2017, and their first nuclear-powered submarine commissioned in 2023.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In August 2008 the Navy incorporated the corvette , which was designed and built in Brazil at a cost of $263 million. In August 2012 the Navy requested four new ships based on the "Barroso" class but using a stealth design.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The PROSUPER program plans to acquire, firstly, five new 6,000-ton frigates, five new offshore patrol vessels and one Logistics Support Vessel.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In January 2012 BAE Systems contracted to supply three patrol vessels that were s. The contract is worth £133m. The offshore patrol vessels are already built, originally ordered by the government of Trinidad and Tobago in a contract which was terminated in 2010. The first vessel was commissioned at the end of June 2012, the second was scheduled for December 2012 and the last for April 2013.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: In March 2014, the Brazilian Navy announced plans to domestically build an aircraft carrier, to enter service around 2029. Originally, "São Paulo" was to be modernized until its introduction, but escalating repair costs forced its retirement in February 2017. The carrier will likely be based on an existing project and be built with a foreign partner. French company DCNS has a strong presence in Brazil and is already engaged in building five submarines and a naval base in the country. The company has been showcasing their DEAC Aircraft Carrier project based on the carrier 's design and aviation systems including launching conventional take-off aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicle integration, advanced conventional propulsion, and platform stabilization systems. American company General Atomics is marketing their Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) to Brazil. Possible aircraft to be operated by the carrier may include the Saab Sea Gripen, given that the Air Force has chosen the land-based version as their new jet fighter.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Brazilian Navy stated in 2018 that they had purchased the helicopter carrier ship from their British counterparts. Rechristened as PHM "Atlântico", this multi-purpose helicopter carrier is presently the flagship of Brazilian Navy.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: As of 2011, the Naval Aviation arm of the Navy operates around 85 aircraft. All the aircraft, with the exception of the A-4 Skyhawks, are helicopters.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Brazilian Marine Corps (Portuguese: Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais; CFN) is the land combat branch of the Brazilian Navy.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: The Navy has a large number of active and planned projects, under the modernization plans of the Brazilian Armed Forces, defined in the "National Defense White Paper".


title: Brazilian Navy

text: On top of the naval chain of command stands the Commander of the Navy ("Comandante da Marinha" - "CM") with his directly subordinated administrative units. He also relies on the expertise of the Admiralty ("Almirantado"), which is a collective board without operational functions, but advises the Commander on day to day matters and planning of the service. The Naval Staff ("Estado-Maior da Armada -" "EMA") is the administrative oversight body of the service. The operational forces of the Brazilian Navy are organized in the Naval Operations Command ("Comando de Operações Navais - ComOpNav"). The structure of the "Marinha do Brasil" completes with five General Directorates and the Marines General Command. These are support organizations in charge of personnel, supply, navigation infrastructure and other tasks not directly connected to naval combat operations.


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Naval Control Center for Maritime Traffic ("Comando do Controle Naval do Tráfego Marítimo - COMCONTRAM")


title: Brazilian Navy

text: General Directorate for Nuclear and Technological Development of the Navy ("Diretoria-Geral de Desenvolvimento Nuclear e Tecnológico da Marinha - DGDNTM")


title: Brazilian Navy

text: Marine Corps General Command ("Comando-Geral do Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais - CGCFN") - the service support formation of the Brazilian Marines


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodox Judaism (also Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law with the secular, modern world.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy draws on several teachings and philosophies, and thus assumes various forms. In the United States, and generally in the Western world, "Centrist Orthodoxy" underpinned by the philosophy of "Torah Umadda" ("Torah and secular knowledge") is prevalent. In Israel, Modern Orthodoxy is dominated by Religious Zionism; however, although not identical, these movements share many of the same values and many of the same adherents.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy comprises a fairly broad spectrum of movements; each movement draws upon several distinct, though related, philosophies, which (in some combination) provide the basis for all variations of the movement today.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: In general, Modern Orthodoxy's "overall approach ... is the belief that one can and should be a full member of modern society, accepting the risks to remaining observant, because the benefits outweigh those risks". Jews should engage constructively with the world that they are in to foster goodness and justice within both themselves and the larger community, such as by avoiding sin in their personal lives while also caring for the unfortunate.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Thus, Modern Orthodoxy holds that Jewish law is normative and binding, while simultaneously attaching a positive value to interaction with the modern world. In this view, as expressed by Rabbi Saul Berman, Orthodox Judaism can "be enriched" by its intersection with modernity; further, "modern society creates opportunities to be productive citizens engaged in the Divine work of transforming the world to benefit humanity". At the same time, in order to preserve the integrity of halakha, any area of "powerful inconsistency and conflict" between Torah and modern culture must be filtered out.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy also assigns a central role to the "People of Israel". Here two characteristics are manifest: in general, Modern Orthodoxy places a high national, as well as religious, significance on the State of Israel, and institutions and individuals are, typically, Zionist in orientation; relatedly, involvement with non-orthodox Jews will extend beyond "outreach" to include institutional relations and cooperation; see further under "Torah Umadda".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Other "core beliefs" are a recognition of the value and importance of secular studies, a commitment to equality of education for both men and women, and a full acceptance of the importance of being able to financially support oneself and one's family.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: The specific expression of Modern Orthodoxy, however, takes many forms, and particularly over the past 30–40 years, describes a political spectrum. Among the issues have been the extent to which Modern Orthodoxy should cooperate with the more liberal denominations, support secular academic pursuits combined with religious learning, and embrace efforts to give women a larger role in Jewish learning and worship; the acceptability of modern textual criticism as a tool for Torah study is also debated.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: To the ideological right, the line between Haredi and Modern Orthodox has blurred in recent years; some have referred to this trend as "haredization". In addition to increasing stringency in adherence to Halakha, many Modern Orthodox Jews express a growing sense of alienation from the larger, secular culture. ("Western civilisation has moved from what was once called the Judeo-Christian ethic to a consumer-driven, choice-fixated culture... Such a world is not "chol", but "chiloni", not secular, but secularist. It is impermeable to the values of "kedushah"." ) Here, "the balance has tipped heavily in favor of Torah over madda (secular studies) ... [and many] have redefined 'madda' as support for making one's livelihood in the secular world, not culturally or intellectually engaging with it." Although defining themselves as "centrist", institutions here include the Orthodox Union (Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America), the Rabbinical Council of America, and the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Adherents on the ideological left have begun to develop new institutions that aim to be outward looking while maintaining a discourse between modernity and halakhah. The resultant "Open Orthodoxy" seeks to re-engage with secular studies, Jews of all denominations and global issues. Some within this movement have experimented with orthodox egalitarianism where gender equality solutions are found through halakhah. This has led to women taking on more leadership roles. Others in this movement are increasingly re-engaging with social justice issues from a halakhic point of view. See Yeshivat Chovevei Torah, Shalom Hartman Institute, Hebrew Institute of Riverdale, Partnership minyan, Shira Hadasha, Maharat.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: It is also noted that many Modern Orthodox are "behaviorally modern" as opposed to "ideologically modern", and, in truth, fall outside of "Modern" Orthodoxy, at least in the philosophical sense; see below. This phenomenon is sometimes termed "Social Orthodoxy".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: The distinction is as follows: The ideologically modern are "meticulously observant of Halakha", and their interaction with the secular comprises a tangible expression of their ideology, wherever it may lie on the spectrum described. The "behaviorally modern", on the other hand, define themselves as "Modern Orthodox" only in the sense that they are neither Haredi ("Ultra-Orthodox") nor Conservative: these, in other words, are "not deeply concerned with philosophical ideas", and, often, are not as careful in their observance.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: This "Orthodoxy of convenience" has maintained a certain stability over time: as long as these don't seek to legitimize their behaviour in halakhic terms, the leadership of the (Modern) Orthodox world have no particular difficulty with them.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Various highly differing views (or non views) – ranging from traditionalist to revisionist – are thus offered under the banner of "Modern Orthodoxy". In fact, even among its leadership, there is limited agreement "on the philosophical parameters of modern Orthodoxy". The boundaries here, with respect to Haredi and Conservative Judaism, have therefore become increasingly indistinct. At the same time, some elements of Haredi Judaism appear to be more receptive to messages that have traditionally been part of the Modern-Orthodox agenda. Similarly, at Modern Orthodoxy's left, many appear to align with more traditional elements of Conservative Judaism. In discussing "Modern Orthodoxy", it is thus also important to clarify its position with reference to other movements in Judaism: see § Comparison with other movements below. Further, given this wide range of views, some see the possibility that, in fact, "[t]here is no longer a cohesive, singular Modern Orthodoxy"; see further below.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy traces its roots to the works of Rabbis Azriel Hildesheimer (1820–1899) and Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–1888). While Hildesheimer's role is not disputed—comprising distinct philosophic and pragmatic contributions—Hirsch's role is less clear, with some Hirsch scholars arguing that his "Torah im Derech Eretz" philosophy is in fact at odds with that of Modern Orthodoxy; see further below and in the Hildesheimer article. Today, the movement is additionally, and particularly, influenced by the philosophy of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik and the closely related Torah Umadda, as well as by the writings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook. (Religious Zionism, strictly speaking a distinct philosophy, has an indirect influence.)


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Hirsch's "Torah im Derech Eretz" ( – "Torah with the 'Way of the World'/Society") is a philosophy of Orthodox Judaism that formalizes a relationship between halakhically observant Judaism and the modern world. Hirsch held that Judaism requires the application of Torah philosophy to all human endeavor and knowledge compatible with it. Thus, secular education becomes a positive religious duty. "Judaism is not a mere adjunct to life: It comprises all of life ... in the synagogue and the kitchen, in the field and the warehouse, in the office and the pulpit ... with the pen and the chisel." Hirsch's vision, although not unqualified, extended to the sciences as well as to (German) literature, philosophy and culture. Torah im Derech Eretz remains influential to this day in all branches of Orthodox Judaism.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: , the movement descended from Hirsch's Frankfurt community, regards itself as positioned, ideologically, outside of contemporary Modern Orthodoxy; see further below.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer, along with Rabbi Hirsch, was insistent that Orthodox Jews living in the west should not segregate themselves behind ghetto walls. On the contrary, modern Jewish education must teach Jews how best to confront and deal with modernity in all of its aspects. His approach, "Cultured Orthodoxy", was defined as representing "unconditional agreement with the culture of the present day; harmony between Judaism and science; but also unconditional steadfastness in the faith and traditions of Judaism".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: He was, however, "the pragmatist rather than the philosopher", and it is his actions, rather than his philosophy, which have become institutionalized in Modern Orthodoxy, and through which his influence is still felt.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: "Torah Umadda" ( – "Torah and secular knowledge") is a philosophy concerning the secular world and Judaism, and in particular secular knowledge and Jewish knowledge. It envisions a personal—"as opposed to" philosophic—"synthesis" between Torah scholarship and Western, secular scholarship, entailing, also, positive involvement with the broader community. Here, the "individual has absorbed the attitudes characteristic of science, democracy, and Jewish life, and responds appropriately in diverse relations and contexts". The resultant mode of Orthodox Judaism is referred to as "Centrist Orthodoxy".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: This philosophy, as formulated today, is to a large extent a product of the teachings and philosophy of Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik (1903–1993), Rosh Yeshiva at Yeshiva University. In Rav Soloveitchik's thought, Judaism, which believes that the world is "very good", enjoins man to engage in "tikkun olam". "Halakhic Man" must therefore attempt to bring the sanctity and purity of the transcendent realm into the material world. Centrist Orthodoxy is the dominant mode of Modern Orthodoxy in the United States, while "Torah Umadda" remains closely associated with Yeshiva University.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: "Torah Umadda" is related to Hirsch's "Torah im Derech Eretz", but see below for a comparison between the two.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy draws on the teachings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1864–1935), as well as the writings and interpretations of his son Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook (1891–1982), both as regards their views on Jewish peoplehood and as they regard the (related) interaction with the secular world.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: In Israel, the Religious Zionism of the "Dati Leumi" (, "National Religious") dominates Modern Orthodoxy. Here too, the ideological basis is largely drawn from the teachings of Rav Kook, and there is therefore much overlap; philosophical differences, as well as other "non-modern" forms of Religious Zionism, are discussed below.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: See also "Mizrachi"; "Bnei Akiva"; "National Religious Party"; "Hesder"; "Mechina"; "Gush Emunim"; "Torat Eretz Yisrael".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: As above, Modern Orthodoxy comprises various approaches, ranging from traditionalist to revisionist, and the movement apparently overlaps with Conservative Judaism and with Haredi Judaism at its respective boundaries. At its centre too, the movement appears to share practices and values with Neo Orthodoxy and with Religious Zionism. Therefore, in clarifying what Modern Orthodoxy in fact entails, its positioning must be discussed with reference to these movements.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Although there is some question as how precisely to define the distinction between Modern Orthodoxy and Haredi Judaism, there is basic agreement that they may be distinguished on the basis of three major characteristics:


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: A fourth difference suggested, relates to the acceptability of moderation within Jewish law. Both Modern Orthodoxy and Ultra Orthodoxy regard "Halakha" as divine in origin, and as such, no position is assumed without justification in the Shulchan Aruch and in the Acharonim. The movements differ, however, in their approach to strictures ("chumras") and leniencies ("kulas").


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy holds that strictures are not normative, rather, these are a matter of personal choice; "severity and leniency are relevant only in circumstances of factual doubt, not in situations of debate or varied practice. In the latter situations, the conclusion should be based solely on the legal analysis."


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Note though, that in recent years, many Modern Orthodox Jews are described as "increasingly stringent in their adherence to Jewish law".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: As to the contention that Modern Orthodoxy's standards of observance of halakha are "relaxed", as opposed to moderate, see below under "Criticism".


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: In the Haredi view, on the other hand, "the most severe position ... is the most likely basis for unity and commonality of practice within Orthodox community, and is therefore to be preferred". Further, "such severity ... results in the greatest certainty that God's will is being performed". "Haredi" Judaism thus tends to adopt "chumras" as a norm.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Related to this is the acceptance of the concept of Da'as Torah - the extent to which Orthodox Jews should seek the input of rabbinic scholars not just on matters of Jewish law, but on all important life matters.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Most rabbinic leaders from Haredi communities view the concept as inextricably linked to the centuries of Jewish tradition. Within Modern Orthodox Judaism, many rabbis and scholars view the matter as a modern development that can be traced to changes in Jewish communal life in the nineteenth century.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Thus, while the notion of da'as Torah is viewed by Haredi rabbis as a long-established tradition within Judaism, Modern Orthodox scholars argue that the Haredi claim is a revisionist one. According to Modern Orthodox scholars, although the term "da'as Torah" has been used in the past, the connotations of absolute rabbinic authority under this banner occurs only in the decades that follow the establishment of the Agudas Yisrael party in Eastern Europe.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy's efforts to encourage religious observance among non-Orthodox Jews has been likened to similar efforts by the Chabad movement. The similarity between the two groups in their relationships towards the non-Orthodox, and its adoption by some Haredi groups, has blurred the lines between the modern and Haredi segments of Orthodoxy.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Both Modern Orthodoxy and , the movement directly descended from Hirsch's Frankfurt community, have combined Torah and secular knowledge with participation in contemporary western life, and thus some maintain that there is a degree of practical and philosophical overlap between the two. The movements are nevertheless distinct, and in general, Neo-Orthodoxy has taken a more qualified approach than Modern orthodoxy, emphasizing that followers must exercise caution in engagements with the secular world.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Differences between the movements may be more than a question of degree: some Hirsch scholars argue that Hirschian philosophy is at odds with that of Modern Orthodoxy, while some Modern Orthodox scholars maintain that Modern Orthodoxy accords with Hirsch's worldview. These philosophical distinctions (though subtle), manifest in markedly divergent religious attitudes and perspectives. For example, Shimon Schwab, second rabbi of the Torah Im Derech Eretz community in the United States, has been described as being "spiritually very distant" from Yeshiva University and Modern Orthodoxy.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: From the viewpoint of Neo-Orthodoxy, that movement differs from Modern Orthodoxy (and particularly Centrist Orthodoxy) on three main counts.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Broadly defined, Religious Zionism is a movement that embraces the idea of Jewish national sovereignty, often in connection with the belief in the ability of the Jewish people to bring about a redemptive state through natural means, and often attributing religious significance to the modern State of Israel. The spiritual thinkers who started this stream of thought include Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (1795–1874) and Rabbi Yitzchak Yaacov Reines (1839–1915). (This attitude is rejected by most Haredim—but not all, particularly the Hardal movement.) Thus, in this sense, Religious Zionism in fact encompasses a wide spectrum of religious views including Modern Orthodoxy.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Note, however, that Modern Orthodoxy, in fact, overlaps to a large extent with "Religious Zionism" in its narrower form ("Throughout the world, a 'religious Zionist day school' is a synonym for a 'modern Orthodox day school'"). At the least, the two are not in any direct conflict, and generally coexist, sharing both values and adherents. Further, in practice, except at their extremes, the differences between Religious Zionism and Modern Orthodoxy in Israel are not pronounced, and they are often identical, especially in recent years and for the younger generation.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Applying the above distinction, in Israel today, Modern Orthodoxy—as distinct from (right-wing) Religious Zionism—is represented by only a select group of institutions: the Religious Kibbutz Movement, Ne'emanei Torah Va'Avodah, the Meimad political party, and the Shalom Hartman Institute, Yeshivat Har Etzion / Migdal Oz and Yeshivat Hamivtar/Ohr Torah Stone Institutions/Midreshet Lindenbaum (some would include Yeshivat Hesder Petach Tikva, Yeshivat Ma'ale Gilboa, and the Tzohar Foundation).


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: In some areas, Modern Orthodoxy's left wing appears to align with more traditional elements of Conservative Judaism, and in fact some on the left of Modern Orthodoxy have allied with the formerly Conservative Union for Traditional Judaism. Nonetheless, the two movements are generally described as distinct. Rabbi Avi Weiss, from the left of Modern Orthodoxy, stresses that Orthodox and Conservative Judaism are "so very different in ... three fundamental areas: "Torah mi-Sinai", rabbinic interpretation, and rabbinic legislation". Weiss argues as follows:


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: In general, Modern Orthodoxy does not, therefore, view the process by which the Conservative movement decides "halakha" as legitimate—or with the non-normative weighting assigned to halakha by the Conservative movement. In particular, Modern Orthodoxy disagrees with many of Conservative Judaism's "halakhic" rulings, particularly as regards issues of egalitarianism. See further on the Orthodox view and the Conservative view.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Modern Orthodoxy clearly differs from the approach of Reform Judaism and Humanistic Judaism, which do not consider "halakha" to be normative.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: This section deals with criticism relating to standards of observance and to social issues. See "Criticism" under Torah Umadda for discussions of philosophy.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: There is an often repeated contention that Modern Orthodoxy—beyond its approach to "chumrahs" ("strictures") described above—has lower standards of observance of traditional Jewish laws and customs than other branches of Orthodox Judaism. This view is largely anecdotal, and is based on individual behaviour, as opposed to any formal, institutional position; see above re "the behaviorally modern":


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Additionally, whereas the Modern Orthodox position is (generally) presented as "unquestioned allegiance to the primacy of Torah, and that the apprehension of all other intellectual disciplines must be rooted and viewed through the prism of Torah", "Haredi" groups have sometimes compared Modern Orthodoxy with early Reform Judaism in Germany: Modern Orthodox rabbis have been criticised for attempting to modify Jewish law, in adapting Judaism to the needs of the modern world.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Note that claims of this nature have been commonplace within Orthodox Judaism since the first "reforms" of Samson Raphael Hirsch and Azriel Hildesheimer. Thus, in Europe of the early 19th century, all of Judaism that differed from the strictest forms present at the time was called "Reform". Then, as now, Modern Orthodoxy took pains to distance its "reforms", which were consistent with the Shulkhan Arukh and poskim, from those of the Reform movement (and the Conservative movement), which were not.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Some observe that the ability of Modern Orthodoxy to attract a large following and maintain its strength as a movement is inhibited by the fact that it embraces modernity—its "raison d'être"—and that it is highly rational and intellectual.


title: Modern Orthodox Judaism

text: Many Orthodox Jews find the intellectual engagement with the modern world as a virtue. Examples of Orthodox rabbis who promote or have promoted this worldview include:


title: South Africa and weapons of mass destruction

text: From the 1960s to the 1990s, South Africa pursued research into weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons under the apartheid government. Six nuclear weapons were assembled. South African strategy was, if political and military instability in Southern Africa became unmanageable, to conduct a nuclear weapon test in a location such as the Kalahari desert, where an underground testing site had been prepared, to demonstrate its capability and resolve—and thereby highlight the peril of intensified conflict in the region—and then invite a larger power such as the United States to intervene.


text: Before the anticipated changeover to a majority-elected African National Congress–led government in the 1990s, the South African government dismantled all of its nuclear weapons, the first state in the world which voluntarily gave up all nuclear arms it had developed itself. The country has been a signatory of the Biological Weapons Convention since 1975, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons since 1991, and the Chemical Weapons Convention since 1995. In February 2019, South Africa ratified the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, becoming the first country to have had nuclear weapons, disarmed them and gone on to sign the treaty.


text: The Republic of South Africa's ambitions to develop nuclear weapons began in 1948 after giving commission to South African Atomic Energy Corporation (SAAEC), the forerunner corporation to oversee the nation's uranium mining and industrial trade. In 1957, South Africa reached an understanding with the United States after signing a 50-year collaboration under the U.S.-sanctioned programme, Atoms for Peace. The treaty concluded the South African acquisition of a single nuclear research reactor and an accompanying supply of highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuel, located in Pelindaba.


text: In 1965, the U.S. subsidiary, the Allis-Chalmers Corporation, delivered the 20 MW research nuclear reactor, "SAFARI-1", along with ~90% HEU fuel to South African nuclear authority. In 1967, South Africa decided to pursue plutonium capability and constructed its own reactor, "SAFARI-2" reactor also at Pelindaba, that went critical using 606 kg of 2% enriched uranium fuel, and 5.4 tonnes of heavy water, both supplied by the United States.


text: The "SAFARI-2" reactor was intended to be moderated by heavy water, fuelled by natural uranium while the reactor's cooling system used molten sodium. In 1969, the project was abandoned by the South African government because the reactor was draining resources from the uranium enrichment program that had begun in 1967. South Africa began to focus on the success of its uranium enrichment programme which was seen by its scientists as easier compared to plutonium.


text: South Africa was able to mine uranium ore domestically, and used aerodynamic nozzle enrichment techniques to produce weapons-grade material. In 1969, a pair of senior South African scientists met with Sültan Mahmoud, a nuclear engineer from Pakistan based at the University of Birmingham, to conduct studies, research and independent experiments on uranium enrichment. The South African and Pakistani scientists studied the use of aerodynamic-jet nozzle process to enrich the fuel at the University of Birmingham, later building their national programs in the 1970s.


text: South Africa gained sufficient experience with nuclear technology to capitalise on the promotion of the U.S. government's Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE) program. Finally in 1971, South African minister of mines Carl de Wet gave approval of the country's own PNE programme with the publicly stated objective of using PNEs in the mining industry. The date when the South African PNE programme transformed into a weapons program is a matter of some dispute. The possibility of South Africa collaborating with France and Israel in the development of nuclear weapons was the subject of speculation during the 1970s.


text: South Africa developed a small finite deterrence arsenal of gun-type fission weapons in the 1980s. Six were constructed and another was under construction at the time the program ended.


text: South Africa only produced an operational weapon after Armscor took over production. In 1982, Armscor built the first operational weapon, code-named Hobo and later called Cabot. This device reportedly had a yield of 6 kilotons of TNT. It was eventually disassembled and the warhead reused in a production model bomb. Armscor then built a series of pre-production and production models under the code-name Hamerkop (a bird). While Hobo/Cabot were not functional, the Hamerkop series were smart television-guided glide bombs.


text: The South African Atomic Energy Board (AEB) selected a test site in the Kalahari Desert at the Vastrap weapons range north of Upington. Two test shafts were completed in 1976 and 1977. One shaft was 385 metres deep, the other, 216 metres. In 1977, the AEB established its own high-security weapons research and development facilities at Pelindaba, and during that year the program was transferred from Somchem to Pelindaba. In mid-1977, the AEB produced a gun-type device—without a highly enriched uranium (HEU) core. Although the Y-Plant was operating, it had not yet produced enough weapons-grade uranium for a device. As has happened in programmes in other nations, the development of the devices had outpaced the production of the fissile material.


text: Atomic Energy Commission officials say that a "cold test" (a test without uranium-235) was planned for August 1977. An Armscor official who was not involved at the time said that the test would have been a fully instrumented underground test, with a dummy core. Its major purpose was to test the logistical plans for an actual detonation.


text: How that test was cancelled has been well publicised. Soviet intelligence detected test preparations and in early August alerted the United States; US intelligence confirmed the existence of the test site with an overflight of a Lockheed SR-71 spy plane. On 28 August, "The Washington Post" quoted a US official: "I'd say we were 99 percent certain that the construction was preparation for an atomic test."


text: The Soviet and Western governments were convinced that South Africa was preparing for a full-scale nuclear test. During the next two weeks in August, the Western nations pressed South Africa not to test. The French foreign minister warned on 22 August of "grave consequences" for French-South African relations. Although he did not elaborate, his statement implied that France was willing to cancel its contract to provide South Africa with the Koeberg nuclear power reactors.


text: In 1993, Wynand de Villiers said that when the test site was exposed, he ordered its immediate shutdown. The site was abandoned and the holes sealed. One of the shafts was temporarily reopened in 1988 in preparation for another test, which did not take place; the move was intended to strengthen South Africa's bargaining position during negotiations to end the war with Angola and Cuba.


text: The warheads were originally configured to be delivered from one of several aircraft types then in service with the South African Air Force (SAAF), including the Canberra B12 and the Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer. Concerns about the vulnerability of the ageing aircraft to the Cuban anti-aircraft defence network in Angola subsequently led the SADF to investigate missile-based delivery systems.


text: The missiles were to be based on the RSA-3 and RSA-4 launchers that had already been built and tested for the South African space programme. According to Al J Venter, author of "How South Africa built six atom bombs," these missiles were incompatible with the available large South African nuclear warheads. Venter claims that the RSA series, being designed for a 340 kg payload, would suggest a warhead of some 200 kg, "well beyond SA's best efforts of the late 1980s." Venter's analysis is that the RSA series was intended to display a credible delivery system combined with a separate nuclear test in a final diplomatic appeal to the world powers in an emergency even though they were never intended to be used in a weaponized system together.


text: Three rockets had already been launched into suborbital trajectories in the late 1980s in support of development of the RSA-3 launched Greensat Orbital Management System (for commercial satellite applications of vehicle tracking and regional planning). Following the decision in 1989 to cancel the nuclear weapons program, the missile programs were allowed to continue until 1992, when military funding ended, and all ballistic missile work was stopped by mid-1993. In order to join the Missile Technology Control Regime, the government had to allow American supervision of the destruction of key facilities applicable to both the long-range missile and the space launch programmes.


text: David Albright and Chris McGreal reported that South African projects to develop nuclear weapons during the 1970s and 1980s were undertaken with long-term cooperation from Israel. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 of 4 November 1977 introduced a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa, also requiring all states to refrain from "any co-operation with South Africa in the manufacture and development of nuclear weapons".


text: According to the Nuclear Threat Initiative, in 1977 Israel traded 30 grams of tritium for 50 tonnes of South African uranium, and in the mid-1980s assisted with the development of the RSA-3 and RSA-4 ballistic missiles, which are similar to the Israeli Shavit and Jericho missiles. Also in 1977, according to foreign press reports, it was suspected that South Africa signed a pact with Israel that included the transfer of military technology and the manufacture of at least six nuclear bombs.


text: In September 1979, a US Vela satellite detected a double flash over the Indian Ocean that was suspected, but never confirmed, to be a nuclear test, despite extensive air sampling by WC-135 aircraft of the United States Air Force. If the Vela incident was a nuclear test, South Africa is virtually the only possible country, potentially in collaboration with Israel, which could have carried it out. No official confirmation of its being a nuclear test has been made by South Africa. In 1997, South African Deputy Foreign Minister Aziz Pahad stated that South Africa had conducted a test, but later retracted his statement as being a report of rumours.


text: In February 1994, Commodore Dieter Gerhardt, former commander of South Africa's Simon's Town naval base who was later convicted of spying for the USSR, was reported to have said:Although I was not directly involved in planning or carrying out the operation, I learned unofficially that the flash was produced by an Israeli-South African test code-named "Operation Phoenix". The explosion was clean and was not supposed to be detected. But they were not as smart as they thought, and the weather changedso the Americans were able to pick it up.In 2000, Gerhardt said that Israel agreed in 1974 to arm eight Jericho II missiles with "special warheads" for South Africa.


text: In 2010, "The Guardian" released South African government documents that confirmed the existence of Israel's nuclear arsenal. According to "The Guardian", the documents were associated with an Israeli offer to sell South Africa nuclear weapons in 1975. Israel categorically denied these allegations and claimed the documents do not indicate any offer for a sale of nuclear weapons. Israeli President Shimon Peres claimed that "The Guardian" article was based on "selective interpretation... and not on concrete facts." Avner Cohen, author of "Israel and the Bomb" and "The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's Bargain with the Bomb", said "Nothing in the documents suggests there was an actual offer by Israel to sell nuclear weapons to the regime in Pretoria."


text: According to David Albright and Andrea Strickner South Africa also engaged in close, long-term cooperation with Taiwan, which at the time was controlled by the autocratic KMT regime, sometimes along with the Israelis. Taiwan bought 100 tons of uranium metal from South Africa which was delivered between 1973 and 1974. In 1980 the Taiwanese contracted for 4,000 tons of uranium metal although it is not known how much of this order was ever delivered. In 1983 Taiwan and South Africa agreed to cooperate on laser enrichment, chemical enrichment, and building a small reactor. The South African reactor program was slowed down in 1985 due to budget cuts and was cancelled completely half a decade later. The enrichment programs also likely ended around this time.


text: South African forces feared the threat of a "domino effect" in favour of communism, represented in southern Africa by Cuban forces in Angola, aiding Angolan Marxist-Leninist revolutionary groups against rivals supported by South African forces, and threatening Namibia. In 1988, South Africa signed the Tripartite Accord with Cuba and Angola, which led to the withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola and independence for Namibia. The pre-emptive elimination of nuclear weapons was expected to make a significant contribution toward regional stability and peace, and also to help restore South Africa's credibility in regional and international politics. F.W. de Klerk saw the presence of nuclear weapons in South Africa as a problem. F. W. de Klerk disclosed the information about his weapons to the United States in an effort to get the weapons removed.


text: South Africa ended its nuclear weapons programme in 1989. All the bombs (six constructed and one under construction) were dismantled and South Africa acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons when South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz acceded to the treaty in 1991. On 19 August 1994, after completing its inspection, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) confirmed that one partially completed and six fully completed nuclear weapons had been dismantled. As a result, the IAEA was satisfied that South Africa's nuclear programme had been converted to peaceful applications. Following this, South Africa joined the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a full member on 5 April 1995. South Africa played a leading role in the establishment of the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (also referred to as the Treaty of Pelindaba) in 1996, becoming one of the first members in 1997. South Africa also signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1996 and ratified it in 1999.