title: High Tension

text: Associated with the New French Extremity movement, "High Tension" was picked up by Lions Gate Entertainment following a successful screening at the Midnight Madness section of the 2003 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was re-dubbed in English and re-edited to secure an R rating. Lions Gate then spent $14 million to open the film in wide release in the United States, where it eventually only grossed $3.6 million; Lions Gate later released the original cut on Blu-ray and DVD.


title: High Tension

text: All of the effects were created by Italian horror make-up artist Giannetto De Rossi, a favorite of late director Lucio Fulci.


title: High Tension

text: Marie and Alex are best friends on their way to stay at Alex's parents' house for the weekend to study. When they arrive, Alex gives Marie a tour of her house before they settle down for dinner. After dinner, Marie and Alex get ready to go to bed. As Alex sleeps, Marie lies on her bed listening to music and masturbating. Marie hears a doorbell ring and Alex's father Daniel wakes to answer it. The man at the door is a serial killer, who slashes Daniel's face with a straight razor. His head is pressed between two spindles of the staircase, and the killer shoves a bookcase towards his head, decapitating him. The noise awakens Alex's mother, who finds Daniel dead and is approached by the killer.


title: High Tension

text: Marie, hearing the mother's screams, quickly arranges the guest room to make it appear that no one is staying there, and hides under her bed. The killer inspects Marie's room but does not find her. Marie creeps downstairs and finds Alex chained in her bedroom. Promising to find help, she sneaks into the parents' room to find a phone. After hearing loud thuds, she hides in the closet and through the slats of the door witnesses the killing of Alex's mother as her throat is brutally slashed with a razor.


title: High Tension

text: Alex's younger brother Tom runs from the house to the cornfield, pursued by the killer. Marie returns to Alex, where she witnesses Tom's murder from a window. Marie promises to free Alex, but the killer is heard returning. Marie sneaks into the kitchen and takes a butcher knife. Alex is dragged into the killer's truck. Marie sneaks into the truck with the butcher knife and hides there with Alex. He locks them in and drives off.


title: High Tension

text: When the killer stops at a gas station, Marie gives Alex the knife and sneaks into the gas station shop for help. When the killer comes into the shop, Marie hides and she witnesses the store clerk Jimmy being murdered with an axe. The killer returns to the truck and Marie calls the police, but hangs up in frustration when she's unable to tell them where she is. She takes the clerk's keys and uses his car to follow the killer down a deserted road. The killer notices Marie following him, and rams Marie's vehicle, pushing the car off the road where it wrecks. Exiting on foot, badly injured, Marie runs into the forest as the killer seeks her. Eventually, Marie bludgeons the killer with a fence post covered in barbed wire. As Marie inspects the body, he grabs at her throat, so Marie suffocates him with a plastic sheet and makes her way back to the truck. Alex seems terrified of Marie as she returns to the vehicle. As police investigate the gas station murders via the in-store videotape, the tape shows Marie murdering the store clerk. In retrospect, it is revealed that Marie is murderous, delusional, and in love with Alex and the real killer of Alex's family.


title: High Tension

text: At the truck, Marie unties Alex. As soon as Alex is free, she threatens Marie with the knife and accuses her of butchering her family. Alex slashes Marie's face and stabs her in the stomach before running into the forest. Marie chases Alex with a concrete saw. Alex finds a road and flags down a car. As Alex is climbing into the car, Marie appears brandishing the concrete saw and disembowels the driver. A stray piece of glass slices Alex's Achilles tendon. Alex takes a crowbar from the car's toolbox and crawls along the road. Marie forces Alex to tell her that she loves her, and she kisses her. While engaged in the kiss, Alex plunges the crowbar into Marie's upper-chest as Marie proclaims she'll never let anyone come between them.


title: High Tension

text: Some time later, Marie is in a psychiatric hospital room, with Alex watching her through a one-way mirror. Marie grins and reaches for Alex, evidently aware that she is behind it.


title: High Tension

text: The film was shown at the 2003 Toronto International Film Festival during the Midnight Madness section. After screening at the festival, the film was purchased by Lionsgate Films for North American distribution. In her book "Films of the New French Extremity", Alexandra West described The screening of "High Tension" at Midnight Madness made that section of the film festival an "unintentional bastion for New French Extremity", which still did not have a popular following. Following "High Tensions"'s release there, other films followed at the festival such as "Calvaire" (2004), "Sheitan" (2006) and "Frontier(s)" and "Inside" (2007) and "Martyrs" (2008).


title: High Tension

text: In the United States, Lionsgate released an English-dubbed version of the film in 1323 theaters on 10 June 2005 (with $14 million marketing cost). Several murders scenes were truncated in order to avoid an NC-17 rating. A re-cut theatrical trailer was released by Lionsgate to promote the film, featuring "Superstar" by Sonic Youth.


title: High Tension

text: Some scenes were edited for the American version to achieve an R rating by the MPAA. About one minute of the film was cut in order to avoid the NC-17 rating. The R-rated edition was released in American cinemas, in a less widely circulated fullscreen DVD, and on the streaming service Tubi. This section notes what was deleted from the unrated, original French film to produce the American version.


title: High Tension

text: According to the internet review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 41% approval rating based on 133 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.30/10. The consensus states: "There is indeed a good amount of tension in this French slasher, but the dubbing is bad and the end twist unbelievable." It also received a score of 42 on Metacritic based on 30 critics, classifying it as having received "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: High Tension

text: American film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film only one star, opening his review, "The philosopher Thomas Hobbes tells us life can be 'poor, nasty, brutish and short.' So is this movie." He added that the film had a plot hole "that is not only large enough to drive a truck through, but in fact does have a truck driven right through it."


title: High Tension

text: Lisa Nesselson of "Variety" was more forgiving, saying that the film "deftly juggles gore and suspense," has "unnerving sound design," and "has a sinister, haemoglobin look that fits the story like a glove." James Berardinelli praised the film, writing: "The film revels in blood and gore, but this is not just a run-of-the-mill splatter film. There's a lot of intelligence in both the script and in Alexandre Aja's direction ... For those who enjoy horror films and don't mind copious quantities of red-dyed fluids, this one is not to be missed. It's a triumph of the Grand Guignol." "The Village Voice"s Mark Holcomb wrote that the film resembles "a pastiche of '70s American slasher flicks that seemingly stands to add to the worldwide glut of irono-nostalgic sequels, remakes, and retreads," ultimately seeing it a "gratifyingly gory, doggedly intellectual decon of the likes of "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre", "Halloween" and (surprisingly but aptly) "Duel"."


title: High Tension

text: Several viewers of the film noticed striking similarities between the plot of the film and the plot of Dean Koontz's novel "Intensity". When questioned at the Sundance Festival in 2004, the director acknowledged that he had read the novel and was aware of the similarities. On his website, Koontz stated that he was aware of the comparison but would not sue "because he found the film so puerile, so disgusting, and so intellectually bankrupt that he didn’t want the association with it that would inevitably come if he pursued an action against the filmmaker."


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Night Shift is a 1982 American comedy film directed by Ron Howard. The film centers on a timid night-shift morgue employee whose life is turned upside down by a new co-worker who fancies himself a free-spirited entrepreneur. It stars Howard's "Happy Days" co-star Henry Winkler along with Michael Keaton, in his first starring role, and Shelley Long. Also appearing are Richard Belzer and Clint Howard. There are brief scenes with a young Kevin Costner as "frat boy #1", Shannen Doherty as a Bluebell scout, Vincent Schiavelli as a man who delivers a sandwich, and Charles Fleischer as one of the jail prisoners.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Winkler was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, while Keaton won the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Charles "Chuck" Lumley, formerly a successful stockbroker, has found a refuge from the ulcer-inducing Wall Street rat race in his job as an attendant at a New York City morgue. His displeasure at being "promoted" to night-shift supervisor to make room for his boss' nephew, Leonard, is exacerbated by the irrational exuberance of Bill "Blaze" Blazejowski, his new co-worker. They are inspired by the plight of Chuck's prostitute neighbor, Belinda, to apply Chuck's financial acumen and Bill's entrepreneurial spirit to open a prostitution service headquartered at the morgue.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Chuck falls in love with Belinda, but their relationship becomes complicated when Belinda refuses to quit prostitution. Chuck's passiveness keeps him from telling Belinda he loves her. Meanwhile, Chuck and Bill's foray into the prostitution business draws the ire of dangerous pimps who come to the morgue and threaten to kill Chuck. Bill inadvertently leads two undercover police officers to the morgue where Chuck is being assaulted by the pimps. A shootout ensues. Chuck and Bill are rescued, but are arrested for promoting prostitution. Because their arrest would be a political embarrassment, the two men are offered their old jobs back and a dismissal of all charges. Chuck accepts this, but Bill sees it as an opportunity to bargain with the mayor's office. Chuck and Bill fight and part ways. Chuck's fiancée Charlotte ends their engagement.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Chuck sees Belinda in the hall of their apartment complex, but again fails to express his true feelings for her. Belinda leaves, and Chuck becomes angry with himself for being afraid. With renewed determination, Chuck finds Belinda working in an adult club and professes his love for her. He also finds Bill is employed there, apologizes for his harsh words, and assures Bill of the value of his creative ideas. The three leave the club together and go out on the town.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: The film's opening theme song is "Night Shift" by Quarterflash. The closing theme song, "That's What Friends Are For", performed by Rod Stewart, was written by Burt Bacharach and Carole Bayer Sager.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: The official soundtrack was released in 1982 on the Warner Bros. label, It included ten selected tracks from the film, six of which were written specifically for the film:


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: The soundtrack was released solely on vinyl and cassette. The versions of "Talk Talk" and "Penthouse and Pavement" that are on the soundtrack are different from any other releases of the songs as they were specially mixed for the soundtrack.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: Other songs heard in the film include "You Really Got Me" by Van Halen and a live version of "Jumpin' Jack Flash" by the Rolling Stones, taken from the 1977 live album "Love You Live"; a section of "Cutting Branches for a Temporary Shelter" by the Penguin Cafe Orchestra is also heard.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: "Night Shift" received mostly positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 93% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The site's critics consensus reads, ""Night Shift" bristles with pitch-perfect laughs thanks to Ron Howard's snappy direction and a side-splitting turn from Michael Keaton." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on 11 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Many reviewers praised the performances of the two male leads, particularly Michael Keaton.


title: Night Shift (1982 film)

text: "TV Guide" Movie Guide wrote that "Winkler turns in the best performance of his career, and Keaton is wonderful." The "Chicago Reader" Jonathan Rosenbaum compared "Night Shift" to the subsequent comedy film "Risky Business" (which also dealt with the theme of prostitution), noting that "Night Shift" is not "as snappily directed or as caustically conceived, ... but it's arguably just as sexy and almost as funny." Janet Maslin of "The New York Times", however, deemed "Night Shift" "a halfway funny movie, one that's got loads of good gags in its first half and nothing but trouble in its second." Gene Siskel, writing in the "Chicago Tribune", gave the film two stars out of four but hailed Keaton's "superb comic performance", writing that "based on this one role, I would now pay to see Keaton in just about anything. Anything except "Night Shift.""


title: Npm (software)

text: npm (originally short for Node Package Manager) is a package manager for the JavaScript programming language maintained by npm, Inc. npm is the default package manager for the JavaScript runtime environment Node.js. It consists of a command line client, also called npm, and an online database of public and paid-for private packages, called the npm registry. The registry is accessed via the client, and the available packages can be browsed and searched via the npm website. The package manager and the registry are managed by npm, Inc.


title: Npm (software)

text: codice_1 is officially a "recursive bacronymic abbreviation for 'npm is not a package manager. However, the initial commit of codice_1 referred to it as the "Node Package Manager". The expansion of the name was changed in 2014.


title: Npm (software)

text: npm is written entirely in JavaScript and was developed by Isaac Z. Schlueter as a result of having "seen module packaging done terribly" and with inspiration from other similar projects such as PEAR (PHP) and CPAN (Perl).


title: Npm (software)

text: npm consists of a command line client that interacts with a remote registry. It allows users to consume and distribute JavaScript modules that are available in the registry.


title: Npm (software)

text: Over 1.3 million packages are available in the main npm registry. The registry does not have any vetting process for submission, which means that packages found there can potentially be low quality, insecure, or malicious.


title: Npm (software)

text: Instead, npm relies on user reports to take down packages if they violate policies by being low quality, insecure, or malicious. npm exposes statistics including number of downloads and number of depending packages to assist developers in judging the quality of packages.


title: Npm (software)

text: In npm version 6, the audit feature was introduced to help developers identify and fix security vulnerabilities in installed packages. The source of security vulnerabilities were taken from reports found on the Node Security Platform (NSP) and has been integrated with npm since npm's acquisition of NSP.


title: Npm (software)

text: npm can manage packages that are local dependencies of a particular project, as well as globally-installed JavaScript tools.


title: Npm (software)

text: When used as a dependency manager for a local project, npm can install, in one command, all the dependencies of a project through the codice_15 file.


title: Npm (software)

text: In the codice_15 file, each dependency can specify a range of valid versions using the semantic versioning scheme, allowing developers to auto-update their packages while at the same time avoiding unwanted breaking changes.


title: Npm (software)

text: npm also provides version-bumping tools for developers to tag their packages with a particular version. npm also provides the codice_17 file which has the entry of the exact version used by the project after evaluating semantic versioning in codice_15.


title: Npm (software)

text: There are a number of open-source alternatives to npm for installing modular JavaScript, including codice_19, codice_20, codice_21, and Yarn, the last of which was released by Facebook in October 2016. They are all compatible with the public npm registry and use it by default, but provide different client-side experiences, usually focused on improving performance and determinism compared to the npm client.


title: Npm (software)

text: At JSConf 2019 npm's former CTO announced a new federated package registry, Entropic, which is aimed at decentralisation of JavaScript commons.


title: ML (programming language)

text: ML (Meta Language) is a general-purpose functional programming language. It is known for its use of the polymorphic Hindley–Milner type system, which automatically assigns the types of most expressions without requiring explicit type annotations, and ensures type safetythere is a formal proof that a well-typed ML program does not cause runtime type errors. ML provides pattern matching for function arguments, garbage collection, imperative programming, call-by-value and currying. It is used heavily in programming language research and is one of the few languages to be completely specified and verified using formal semantics. Its types and pattern matching make it well-suited and commonly used to operate on other formal languages, such as in compiler writing, automated theorem proving, and formal verification.


title: ML (programming language)

text: Features of ML include a call-by-value evaluation strategy, first-class functions, automatic memory management through garbage collection, parametric polymorphism, static typing, type inference, algebraic data types, pattern matching, and exception handling. ML uses static scoping rules.


title: ML (programming language)

text: ML can be referred to as an "impure" functional language, because although it encourages functional programming, it does allow side-effects (like languages such as Lisp, but unlike a purely functional language such as Haskell). Like most programming languages, ML uses eager evaluation, meaning that all subexpressions are always evaluated, though lazy evaluation can be achieved through the use of closures. Thus one can create and use infinite streams as in Haskell, but their expression is indirect.


title: ML (programming language)

text: ML's strengths are mostly applied in language design and manipulation (compilers, analyzers, theorem provers), but it is a general-purpose language also used in bioinformatics and financial systems.


title: ML (programming language)

text: ML was developed by Robin Milner and others in the early 1970s at the University of Edinburgh, and its syntax is inspired by ISWIM. Historically, ML was conceived to develop proof tactics in the LCF theorem prover (whose language, "pplambda", a combination of the first-order predicate calculus and the simply-typed polymorphic lambda calculus, had ML as its metalanguage).


title: ML (programming language)

text: Today there are several languages in the ML family; the three most prominent are Standard ML (SML), OCaml and F#. Ideas from ML have influenced numerous other languages, like Haskell, Cyclone, Nemerle, ATS, and Elm.


title: ML (programming language)

text: The following examples use the syntax of Standard ML. Other ML dialects such as OCaml and F# differ in small ways.


title: ML (programming language)

text: This describes the factorial as a recursive function, with a single terminating base case. It is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks. Much of ML code is similar to mathematics in facility and syntax.


title: ML (programming language)

text: Part of the definition shown is optional, and describes the "types" of this function. The notation E : t can be read as "expression E has type t". For instance, the argument n is assigned type "integer" (int), and fac (n : int), the result of applying fac to the integer n, also has type integer. The function fac as a whole then has type "function from integer to integer" (int -> int), that is, fac accepts an integer as an argument and returns an integer result. Thanks to type inference, the type annotations can be omitted and will be derived by the compiler. Rewritten without the type annotations, the example looks like:


title: ML (programming language)

text: The function also relies on pattern matching, an important part of ML programming. Note that parameters of a function are not necessarily in parentheses but separated by spaces. When the function's argument is 0 (zero) it will return the integer 1 (one). For all other cases the second line is tried. This is the recursion, and executes the function again until the base case is reached.


title: ML (programming language)

text: This implementation of the factorial function is not guaranteed to terminate, since a negative argument causes an infinite descending chain of recursive calls. A more robust implementation would check for a nonnegative argument before recursing, as follows:


title: ML (programming language)

text: The function can be improved further by writing its inner loop as a tail call, such that the call stack need not grow in proportion to the number of function calls. This is achieved by adding an extra, "accumulator", parameter to the inner function. At last, we arrive at


title: ML (programming language)

text: The following function "reverses" the elements in a list. More precisely, it returns a new list whose elements are in reverse order compared to the given list.


title: ML (programming language)

text: This implementation of reverse, while correct and clear, is inefficient, requiring quadratic time for execution. The function can be rewritten to execute in linear time:


title: ML (programming language)

text: This function is an example of parametric polymorphism. That is, it can consume lists whose elements have any type, and return lists of the same type.


title: ML (programming language)

text: Modules are ML's system for structuring large projects and libraries. A module consists of a signature file and one or more structure files. The signature file specifies the API to be implemented (like a C header file, or Java interface file). The structure implements the signature (like a C source file or Java class file). For example, the following define an Arithmetic signature and an implementation of it using Rational numbers:


title: ML (programming language)

text: These are imported into the interpreter by the 'use' command. Interaction with the implementation is only allowed via the signature functions, for example it is not possible to create a 'Rat' data object directly via this code. The 'structure' block hides all the implementation detail from outside.


title: UEFA stadium categories

text: UEFA stadium categories are categories for football stadiums laid out in UEFA's Stadium Infrastructure Regulations. Using these regulations, stadiums are rated as category one, two, three, or four (renamed from elite) in ascending ranking order. These categories replaced the previous method of ranking stadiums on one to five star scale in 2006.


title: UEFA stadium categories

text: A stadium must be rated as category four in order to host games in the playoffs of the qualifying stage for the UEFA Champions League, or any game in the main competition. Category four is also required to host any game in the main competition of the UEFA Europa League, UEFA Europa Conference League, UEFA Nations League or the UEFA European Championship final tournament. UEFA does not publish lists of stadiums fulfilling the criteria for any of the categories defined in the UEFA Stadium Infrastructure Regulations.


title: UEFA stadium categories

text: If a retractable roof is present, its use will be directed by consultation between the UEFA delegate and the main assigned referee.


title: UEFA stadium categories

text: Although the minimum stadium capacity for category four is 8,000, it is required to host the UEFA Europa Conference League final, and only one stadium with a capacity less than 60,000 has been selected to host a UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Euro finals and 30,000 for the UEFA Europa League and the UEFA Nations League finals, since these regulations were introduced in 2006.


title: UEFA stadium categories

text: After the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final, UEFA President Michel Platini stated that he wanted European Cup finals to be held at stadiums with an average capacity of 70,000 to solve security issues. The hosts for the finals between 2008 and 2013 (Luzhniki Stadium, Stadio Olimpico, Santiago Bernabéu, Wembley Stadium and Allianz Arena) all had capacities of at least 70,000, but the 2014 and 2020 host (Estádio da Luz) held 65,000 spectators, the 2019 host (Metropolitano Stadium) held 67,000 spectators, the 2021 host (Estádio do Dragão) held just 50,033, with the 2022 host (Stade de France) holding 75,000 spectactors.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Cassandra is a free and open-source, distributed, wide-column store, NoSQL database management system designed to handle large amounts of data across many commodity servers, providing high availability with no single point of failure. Cassandra offers support for clusters spanning multiple datacenters, with asynchronous masterless replication allowing low latency operations for all clients. Cassandra was designed to implement a combination of Amazon's Dynamo distributed storage and replication techniques combined with Google's Bigtable data and storage engine model.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Avinash Lakshman, one of the authors of Amazon's Dynamo, and Prashant Malik initially developed Cassandra at Facebook to power the Facebook inbox search feature. Facebook released Cassandra as an open-source project on Google code in July 2008. In March 2009, it became an Apache Incubator project. On February 17, 2010, it graduated to a top-level project.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Facebook developers named their database after the Trojan mythological prophet Cassandra, with classical allusions to a curse on an oracle.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Cassandra introduced the Cassandra Query Language (CQL). CQL is a simple interface for accessing Cassandra, as an alternative to the traditional Structured Query Language (SQL). CQL adds an abstraction layer that hides implementation details of this structure and provides native syntaxes for collections and other common encodings. Language drivers are available for Java (JDBC), Python (DBAPI2), Node.JS (Datastax), Go (gocql) and C++.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: The keyspace in Cassandra is a namespace that defines data replication across nodes. Therefore, replication is defined at the keyspace level. Below an example of keyspace creation, including a column family in CQL 3.0:


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Up to Cassandra 1.0, Cassandra was not row-level consistent, meaning that inserts and updates into the table that affect the same row that are processed at approximately the same time may affect the non-key columns in inconsistent ways. One update may affect one column while another affects the other, resulting in sets of values within the row that were never specified or intended. Cassandra 1.1 solved this issue by introducing row-level isolation.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Cassandra is wide column store, and, as such, essentially a hybrid between a key-value and a tabular database management system. Its data model is a partitioned row store with tunable consistency. Rows are organized into tables; the first component of a table's primary key is the partition key; within a partition, rows are clustered by the remaining columns of the key. Other columns may be indexed separately from the primary key.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Cassandra cannot do joins or subqueries. Rather, Cassandra emphasizes denormalization through features like collections.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: A column family (called "table" since CQL 3) resembles a table in an RDBMS (Relational Database Management System). Column families contain rows and columns. Each row is uniquely identified by a row key. Each row has multiple columns, each of which has a name, value, and a timestamp. Unlike a table in an RDBMS, different rows in the same column family do not have to share the same set of columns, and a column may be added to one or multiple rows at any time.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Each key in Cassandra corresponds to a value which is an object. Each key has values as columns, and columns are grouped together into sets called column families. Thus, each key identifies a row of a variable number of elements. These column families could be considered then as tables. A table in Cassandra is a distributed multi dimensional map indexed by a key. Furthermore, applications can specify the sort order of columns within a Super Column or Simple Column family.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Cassandra is a Java-based system that can be managed and monitored via Java Management Extensions (JMX). The JMX-compliant "nodetool" utility, for instance, can be used to manage a Cassandra cluster (adding nodes to a ring, draining nodes, decommissioning nodes, and so on). Nodetool also offers a number of commands to return Cassandra metrics pertaining to disk usage, latency, compaction, garbage collection, and more.


title: Apache Cassandra

text: Since Cassandra 2.0.2 in 2013, measures of several metrics are produced via the Dropwizard metrics framework, and may be queried via JMX using tools such as JConsole or passed to external monitoring systems via Dropwizard-compatible reporter plugins.


title: Riley Voelkel

text: Riley Emilia Voelkel (born April 26, 1990) is an American-born Canadian actress. She is known for portraying Freya Mikaelson on The CW television series "The Originals" and "Legacies". Voelkel also played the role of Jenna Johnson on the HBO television series "The Newsroom". In 2013, she played the younger version of Jessica Lange's character, the witch Fiona Goode in the FX series "".


title: Riley Voelkel

text: Just a month away from going to college, a modeling scout came to her town and she decided to try her luck. The scout picked her and she went to Los Angeles where she was very much liked by several agents. She moved to Los Angeles to model, but, soon after, she joined an acting class recommended by an agent.


title: Riley Voelkel

text: Voelkel's first role was of a club girl in "The Social Network", winning the part by audition. Afterwards, she signed with an agent, and booked her first starring role, as Carrie in the independent film, "The Secret Lives of Dorks", released in 2013. In 2012, she joined the HBO series "The Newsroom" only for the pilot episode, but later became the character of Jenna. In 2014, she was cast as one of the leads in the Amazon pilot "Point Of Honor".


title: Riley Voelkel

text: In the fall 2014, Voelkel was cast in an unnamed recurring role on The CW series "The Originals" during its second season. Her character on "The Originals", Freya Mikaelson, was upgraded to a series regular for the show's third season.


title: Homo naledi

text: Along with similarities to contemporary "Homo", they share several characteristics with the ancestral "Australopithecus" and early "Homo" as well (mosaic evolution), most notably a small cranial capacity of 465–610 cm (28.4–37.2 cu in), compared to 1,270–1,330 cm (78–81 cu in) in modern humans. They are estimated to have averaged in height and in weight, yielding a small encephalization quotient of 4.5. Nonetheless, "H. naledi" brain anatomy seems to have been similar to contemporary "Homo", which could indicate comparable cognitive complexity. The persistence of small-brained humans for so long in the midst of bigger-brained contemporaries revises the previous conception that a larger brain would necessarily lead to an evolutionary advantage, and their mosaic anatomy greatly expands the known range of variation for the genus.


title: Homo naledi

text: "H. naledi" anatomy indicates that, though they were capable of long-distance travel with a humanlike stride and gait, they were more arboreal than other "Homo", better adapted to climbing and suspensory behaviour in trees than endurance running. Tooth anatomy suggests consumption of gritty foods covered in particulates such as dust or dirt. Though they have not been associated with stone tools or any indication of material culture, they appear to have been dextrous enough to produce and handle tools, and likely manufactured Early or Middle Stone Age industries. It has also been controversially postulated that these individuals were given funerary rites, and were carried into and placed in the chamber. In December 2022, suggestions that "H. naledi" used fire for light and cooking were reported.


title: Homo naledi

text: On 13 September 2013 while exploring the Rising Star Cave system in the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker found hominin fossils at the bottom of the Dinaledi Chamber. On the 24th, they returned to the chamber and took photos, which they showed to South African palaeoanthropologists Pedro Boshoff and Lee Rogers Berger on October 1. Berger subsequently assembled an excavation team which included Hunter and Tucker, the so-called "Underground Astronauts".


title: Homo naledi

text: The chamber had been entered at least once before, by cavers in the early 1990s. They rearranged some bones and may have caused further damage, although much of the floor in the chamber had not been walked on prior to 2013. It lies about from the main entrance, at the bottom of a vertical drop, and the long main passage is only at its narrowest. In total, more than 1,550 pieces of bone belonging to at least fifteen individuals (9 immature and 6 adults) have been recovered from the clay-rich sediments. Berger and colleagues published the findings in 2015.


title: Homo naledi

text: The fossils represent 737 anatomical elements – including the parts of the skull, jaw, ribs, teeth, limbs, and inner ear bones – from old, adult, young, and infantile individuals. There are also some articulated or near-articulated elements, including the skull with the jaw bone, and nearly complete hands and feet. With the number of individuals of both sexes across several age demographics, it is the richest assemblage of associated fossil hominins discovered in Africa. Aside from the Sima de los Huesos collection and later Neanderthal and modern human samples, the excavation site has the most comprehensive representation of skeletal elements across the lifespan, and from multiple individuals, in the hominin fossil record.


title: Homo naledi

text: The holotype specimen, DH1, comprises a male partial calvaria (top of the skull), partial maxilla, and nearly complete jawbone. The paratypes, DH2 through DH5, all comprise partial calvaria. Berger and colleagues named the species "Homo naledi", the species name meaning "star" in the Sotho language, because the remains came from Rising Star Cave.


title: Homo naledi

text: The remains of at least three additional individuals (two adults and a child) were reported in the Lesedi Chamber of the cave by John Hawks and colleagues in 2017.


title: Homo naledi

text: In 2017, the Dinaledi remains were dated to 335,000–236,000 years ago in the Middle Pleistocene, using electron spin resonance (ESR) and uranium–thorium (U-Th) dating on three teeth, and U-Th and paleomagnetic dating of the sediments they were deposited in. The fossils were previously thought to have dated to 1~2 million years ago because no similarly small-brained hominins had previously been known from such a recent date in Africa (the smaller-brained "Homo floresiensis" of Indonesia lived on an isolated island, and apparently went extinct shortly after the arrival of modern humans.) The ability of such a small-brained hominin to have survived for so long in the midst of bigger-brained "Homo" greatly revises previous conceptions of human evolution and the notion that a larger brain would necessarily lead to an evolutionary advantage. Their mosaic anatomy also greatly expands the range of variation for the genus.


title: Homo naledi

text: "H. naledi" is hypothesised to have branched off very early from contemporaneous "Homo". It is unclear whether they branched off at around the time of "H. habilis", "H. rudolfensis", and "A. sediba"; are a sister taxon to "H. erectus" and the contemporaneous large-brained "Homo"; or are a sister taxon to the descendants of "H. heidelbergensis" (modern humans and Neanderthals). This would mean that they branched off from contemporary "Homo" at latest before 900,000 years ago, and possibly as early as the Pliocene. It is also possible their ancestors speciated after an interbreeding event between "Homo" and late australopithecines. Looking at the skull, "H. naledi" has the closest affinities to "H. erectus".


title: Homo naledi

text: It is unclear if these "H. naledi" were an isolated population in the Cradle of Humankind, or if they ranged across Africa. If the latter, then several gracile hominin fossils across Africa which have traditionally been classified as late "H. erectus" could potentially represent "H. naledi" specimens.


title: Homo naledi

text: Two male "H. naledi" skulls from the Dinaledi chamber had cranial volumes of about , and two female skulls . A male "H. naledi" skull from the Lesedi chamber had a cranial volume of . The Dinaledi specimens are more similar to the cranial capacity of australopithecines; for comparison, "H. erectus" averaged about , and modern humans for males and females respectively. The Lesedi specimen is more within the range of "H. habilis" and "H. e. georgicus". Nonetheless, the encephalization quotient of "H. naledi" was estimated at 3.75, which is the same as the pygmy "H. floresiensis", but notably smaller than all other "Homo". Contemporary "Homo" were all above 6, "H. e. georgicus" at 3.55, and "A. africanus" at 3.81. It is unclear if "H. naledi" inherited small brain size from the last common "Homo" ancestor, or if it was evolved secondarily more recently.


title: Homo naledi

text: The skull shape is more similar to "Homo", with a slenderer shape, the presence of temporal and occipital lobes of the brain, and reduced post-orbital constriction (the skull does not become narrower behind the eye-sockets). The frontal lobe morphology is more or less the same in all "Homo" brains despite size, and differs from "Australopithecus", which has been implicated in the production of tools, the development of language, and sociality.


title: Homo naledi

text: Like modern humans, but unlike fossil hominins (including South African australopithecines, "H. erectus", and Neanderthals), the permanent 2nd molar erupted comparatively late in life, emerging alongside the premolars instead of before, which indicates a slower maturation unusually comparable to modern humans. The tooth formation rate of the front teeth is also most similar to modern humans. The overall size and shape of the molars most closely resemble those of three unidentified "Homo" specimens from the local Swartkrans and East African Koobi Fora Caves, and are similar in size (but not shape) to Pleistocene "H. sapiens". The necks of the molars are proportionally similar to those of "A. afarensis" and "Paranthropus". Unlike modern humans and contemporary "Homo", "H. naledi" lacks several accessory dental features, and has a high frequency of individuals who present main cusps, namely the metacone (midline on the tongue-side) and hypocone (to the right on the lip-side) on the 2nd and 3rd molars, and a Y-shaped hypoconulid (a ridge on the lip-side towards the cheek) on all 3 molars. Nonetheless, "H. naledi" also has many dental similarities with contemporary "Homo".


title: Homo naledi

text: The anvil (a middle ear bone) more resembles those of chimps, gorillas, and "Paranthropus" than "Homo". Like "H. habilis" and "H. erectus", "H. naledi" has a well-developed brow-ridge with a fissure stretching across just above the ridge, and like "H. erectus" a pronounced occipital bun. "H. naledi" has some facial similarities with "H. rudolfensis".


title: Homo naledi

text: The "H. naledi" specimens are estimated to have, on average, stood around and weighed . This body mass is intermediate between what is typically seen in "Australopithecus" and "Homo" species. Like other "Homo", male and female "H. naledi" were likely about the same size, males on average about 20% larger than females. A juvenile specimen, DH7, is skeletally consistent with a growth rate similar to the faster ape-like trajectories of MH1 ("A. sediba") and Turkana boy ("H. ergaster"). However, because dental development is so similar to that of modern humans, a slower maturation rate is not completely out of the question. Using the faster growth rate, DH7 would have died at 8–11 years old, but using the slower growth, DH7 would have died at 11–15 years old.


title: Homo naledi

text: Concerning the spine, only the 10th and 11th thoracic vertebrae (in the chest region) are preserved from presumably a single individual, which are proportionally similar to those of contemporary "Homo", though are the smallest recorded of any hominin. The two transverse processes of the vertebra, which jut out diagonally, are most similar to those of Neanderthals. The neural canals within are proportionally large, similar to modern humans, Neanderthals, and "H. e. georgicus". The 11th rib is straight like that of "A. afarensis", and the 12th rib is robust in cross-section like that of Neanderthals. Like Neanderthals, the 12th rib appears to have supported strong intercostal muscles above, and a strong quadratus lumborum muscle below. However, unlike Neanderthals, there was weak attachment to the diaphragm. Overall, this "H. naledi" specimen appears to have been small-bodied compared to other "Homo", though it is unclear if this single specimen is representative of the species.


title: Homo naledi

text: The shoulders are more similar to those of australopithecines, with the shoulder blade situated higher on the back and farther from the midline, short clavicles, and little or no humeral torsion. Elevated shoulder and clavicle bones indicate a narrow chest. The pelvis and legs have features reminiscent of "Australopithecus", including anterposteriorly compressed (from front to back) femoral necks, mediolaterally compressed (from left to right) tibiae, and a somewhat circular fibular neck; which indicate a wide abdomen. This combination would preclude efficient endurance running in "H. naledi", unlike "H. erectus" and descendants. Instead, "H. naledi" appears to have been more arboreal.


title: Homo naledi

text: The metacarpal bone of the thumb was well-developed, which is used in holding and manipulating large objects, and had strong crests to support its opponens pollicis muscle used in precision-pinch gripping, and its thenar muscles. This is more similar to other "Homo" than "Australopithecus". "H. naledi" appears to have had strong flexor pollicis longus muscles like modern humans, with humanlike palm and finger pads, which are important in forceful gripping between the thumb and fingers. However, unlike "Homo", the "H. naledi" thumb metacarpal joint is comparably small relative to the thumb's length, and the thumb phalangeal joint is flattened. The distal thumb phalanx bone is robust, and proportionally more similar to those of "H. habilis" and "P. robustus".


title: Homo naledi

text: The metacarpals of the other fingers share adaptations with modern humans and Neanderthals to cup and manipulate objects, and the wrist joint is overall comparable to that of modern humans and Neanderthals. Conversely, the proximal phalanges are curved and are almost identical to those of "A. afarensis" and "H. habilis", which is interpreted as an adaptation for climbing and suspensory behaviour. Such curvature is more pronounced in adults than juveniles, suggesting that adults climbed just as much or more so than juveniles, and this behaviour was commonly done. The fingers are also proportionally longer than those of any other fossil hominin (other than the arboreal "Ardipithecus ramidus" and a modern human specimen from Qafzeh cave, Israel) which is also consistent with climbing behaviour.


title: Homo naledi

text: "H. naledi" was a biped and stood upright. Like other "Homo", they had strong insertion for the gluteus muscles, well-defined linea aspera (a ridge running down the back of the femur), thick patellae, long tibiae, and gracile fibulae. These indicate that they were capable of long-distance travel. The "H. naledi" foot was similar to that of modern humans and other "Homo", with adaptations for bipedalism and a humanlike gait. However, the heel bone has a low orientation, comparable to those of non-human great apes, and the ankle bone has a low declination, which possibly indicate the foot would have been subtly stiffer during the stance phase of walking before the foot pushed off the ground.


title: Homo naledi

text: The adult right mandible U.W. 101-1142 has a bony lesion, suggestive of a benign tumour. The individual would have experienced some swelling and localised discomfort, but the tumour's position near the medial pterygoid muscle (likely causing discomfort on the jaw hinge) may have impeded function of the muscle, and changed elevation of the right side of the jaw.


title: Homo naledi

text: Dental defects in "H. naledi" specimens during 1.6–2.8 and 4.3–7.6 months of development were most likely caused by seasonal stressors. This may have been due to extreme summer and winter temperatures causing food scarcity. Also, minimum winter temperatures of the area average about , and can drop below freezing; staying warm for an infant of the small-bodied "H. naledi" would have been difficult, and winters likely increased susceptibility to respiratory diseases. Environmental stressors are consistent with present-day flu seasons in South Africa peaking during winter, and paediatric diarrhoea hospitalisation being most frequent at the height of the rainy season in summer.


title: Homo naledi

text: Local hominins were likely preyed upon by large carnivores, such as lions, leopards, and hyaenas. However, there seems to be a distinct paucity of large carnivore remains from the northern end of the Cradle of Humankind, where Rising Star Cave is located, possibly because carnivores preferred the Blaaubank River to the south which may have offered better hunting grounds with a greater abundance of large prey items. Alternatively, because many more sites are known in the south than the north, carnivore spatial patterns may not be well-represented by the fossil record (preservation bias).


title: Homo naledi

text: Dental chipping and wearing indicates the habitual consumption of small hard objects, such as dirt and dust, and cup-shaped wearing on the back teeth may have stemmed from gritty particles. These could have originated from unwashed roots and tubers. Alternatively, aridity could have stirred up particulates onto food items, coating food in dust. It is possible that they commonly ate larger hard items, such as seeds and nuts, but these were processed into smaller pieces before consumption. Whatever the case, "H. naledi" occupied a seemingly unique niche from previous South African hominins, including "Australopithecus" and "Paranthropus". However, the teeth of all 3 species indicate that they needed to exert high shearing force to chew through perhaps plant or muscle fibres. The teeth of other "Homo" cannot produce such high forces perhaps due to the use of some food processing techniques, such as cooking. In December 2022, suggestions that "H. naledi" used fire for light and cooking were reported.


title: Homo naledi

text: Though "H. naledi" remains are not associated with any stone tools, it is likely they produced Early Stone Age (Acheulean and possibly the earlier Oldawan) or Middle Stone Age industries because they have the same adaptations to the hand as other human species which are implicated in tool production. "H. naledi" is the only identified human species to have existed during the early Middle Stone Age of the Highveld region, South Africa, possibly indicating that this species manufactured and maintained this tradition at least during this time period. Such industries and stone cutting techniques likely evolved independently several times among different "Homo" species and populations, or were transported over long distances by the inventors or apprentices and taught.


title: Homo naledi

text: In 2015, archaeologist Paul Dirks, Berger, and colleagues concluded that the bodies had to have been deliberately carried and placed into the chamber by people because they appear to have been intact when they were first deposited in the chamber (no evidence of trauma by being dropped into the chamber nor of predation, and exceptional preservation), the chamber is inaccessible to large predators, the chamber appears to be an isolated system and has never been flooded (that is, natural forces were not at play), there is no hidden shaft by which people could have accidentally fallen in through, and there is no evidence of some catastrophe which killed all the individuals inside the chamber. They said it is also possible that the bodies were dropped down a chute and fell slowly due to irregularity and narrowness of the path down, or a soft mud cushion to land on. In both scenarios, the morticians would have required artificial light to navigate the cave; and the site was used repeatedly for burials as the bodies were not all deposited at the same time.


title: Homo naledi

text: In 2016, palaeoanthropologist Aurore Val countered that such preservation may have been due to mummification rather than careful burial, and the absence of long bone heads is reminiscent of predation, and she believes that discounting natural forces such as flooding for depositing the bodies is unjustified. Further, there is evidence of damage done by beetles, beetle larvae, and snails (which facilitate decomposition); but, the chamber does not present ideal conditions for snails, nor does it contain snail shells, which would indicate decomposition actually initiated before deposition in the chamber.


title: Homo naledi

text: Nonetheless, in 2017, Dirks, Berger, and colleagues reaffirmed that there is no evidence of water flow into the cave, and that it is more likely that these "H. naledi" were buried in the chamber. They also said it is possible that they were buried by contemporary "Homo", such as the ancestors of modern humans, rather than other "H. naledi", but, nonetheless, that the cultural behaviour of funerary practises is not impossible for "H. naledi", and burial in the chamber may have been done to remove decaying bodies from a settlement, prevent scavengers, or due to social bonding and grief.


title: Homo naledi

text: In 2018, anthropologist Charles Egeland and colleagues echoed Val's sentiments, and stated that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that human species had developed a concept of the afterlife so early in time. They also said that the preservation of the Dinaledi individuals is similar to those of baboon carcasses which accumulate in caves (either by natural death of cave-dwelling baboons or by a leopard dragging in carcasses).


title: Homo naledi

text: In 2021, following the analysis of the bone fragments of an immature individual, Juliet Brophy and Berger once again claimed "We hypothesize that the cranial remains and teeth that we have collected at U.W. 110 have resulted from "in situ" fragmentation of a partial or complete cranium deposited in this remote location. We regard it as likely that some hominin agency was involved in the deposition of the cranial material."


title: YouTube Shorts

text: YouTube Shorts is the short-form section of the video-sharing website YouTube, hosting content much like YouTube's primary service but in a vertical format with a maximum length of 60 seconds. Since being made available to the public in July 2021, YouTube Shorts has accumulated over 5 trillion views.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: In 2019, as a response to competition from TikTok, YouTube started experimenting with showing vertical videos up to a length of 30 seconds in their own section on the homepage. This early beta was released only to a small number of people. Shortly after TikTok was banned in India in September 2020, the YouTube Shorts beta was made available in the country. In March 2021, the beta was released in the U.S. Shorts was globally released on July 13, 2021.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: In January 2022, a study showed that scammers were garnering millions of views by pirating popular videos from TikTok and posting them on YouTube Shorts. They pinned comments on their reposted videos containing commercial links, which generated money for them on a cost per action or cost per lead basis.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: In December 2022, YouTube published its annual blog post documenting the top videos and creators of the year, with Shorts receiving its own section of the post for the first time.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: YouTube Shorts presents user-generated vertical videos up to 60 seconds long. It allows users to add licensed music and captions. Viewers can scroll through an endless queue of videos. YouTube Shorts offers editing capabilities and the ability to interact with viewers by responding to comments with additional videos, the latter being a feature primarily made popular by TikTok. Although intended to be watched on smartphones, YouTube Shorts can be viewed on all other devices.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: In August 2021, YouTube released the YouTube Shorts fund, a system in which the top Shorts creators could get paid for their work. YouTube described this as a way to "monetize and reward creators for their content" and said it would be a $100 million fund distributed throughout 2021 and 2022, similar to TikTok's $1 billion creator fund. YouTube told "The Hollywood Reporter" that the fund is "just a stopgap until YouTube develops a long-term monetization and support tool for short-form creators" that will be "modeled after but differ from" its Partner Program. When the fund was released, YouTube sent offers to over 3,000 creators that ranged from from $100 to $10,000 per month.


title: YouTube Shorts

text: Starting in January 2023, creators who focus on making Shorts will be eligible to apply for the regular Partner Program when they gain 1,000 subscribers and reach 10 million combined views of all their Shorts in a 90-day period (a twist on the usual criteria of non-Shorts creators becoming eligible when they reach 1,000 subscribers and 4,000 hours of combined viewing time across their videos within a 12-month period). The YouTube Shorts fund will be discontinued the following month.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Enoxaparin sodium, sold under the brand name Lovenox among others, is an anticoagulant medication (blood thinner). It is used to treat and prevent deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) including during pregnancy and following certain types of surgery. It is also used in those with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and heart attacks. It is given by injection just under the skin or into a vein. It is also used during hemodialysis.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Common side effects include bleeding, fever, and swelling of the legs. Bleeding may be serious especially in those who are undergoing a spinal tap. Use during pregnancy appears to be safe for the baby. Enoxaparin is in the low molecular weight heparin family of medications.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Enoxaparin was first made in 1981 and approved for medical use in 1993. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Enoxaparin is sold under several brand names and is available as a generic medication. Enoxaparin is made from heparin. In 2020, it was the 350th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 500thousand prescriptions.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Enoxaparin has predictable absorption, bioavailability, and distribution therefore monitoring is not typically done. However, there are instances where monitoring may be beneficial for special populations, for example individuals with kidney insufficiency or those that are obese. In this case, anti-Xa units can be measured and dosing adjusted accordingly.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Protamine sulfate is less effective at reversing enoxaparin compared to heparin, with a maximum neutralization of approximately 60% of the anti-factor Xa effect.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: The FDA issued a revision to the boxed warning for enoxaparin in October 2013. The revision recommends exercising caution regarding when spinal catheters are placed and removed in persons taking enoxaparin for spinal puncture or neuroaxial anesthesia. It may be necessary to delay anticoagulant dosing in these persons in order to decrease the risk for spinal or epidural hematomas, which can manifest as permanent or long-term paralysis. Persons at risk for hematomas may present with indwelling epidural catheters, concurrent use of medications that worsen bleeding states such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or a past medical history of epidural or spinal punctures, spinal injury, or spinal deformations. The FDA recommends that at-risk persons be monitored for bleeding and neurological changes.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Enoxaparin binds to and potentiates antithrombin (a circulating anticoagulant) to form a complex that irreversibly inactivates clotting factor Xa. It has less activity against factor IIa (thrombin) compared to unfractionated heparin (UFH) due to its low molecular weight.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Metabolism: Enoxaparin is metabolized in the liver into low molecular weight species by either or both desulfation and depolymerization.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Elimination: A single dose of a subcutaneous injection of enoxaparin has an elimination half-life of 4.5 hours. Approximately 10–40% of the active and inactive fragments from a single dose are excreted by the kidneys. Dose adjustments based on kidney function are necessary in persons with reduced kidney function.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: Enoxaparin belongs to the class of drugs known as low molecular weight heparins. Other drugs in this class include dalteparin, fondaparinux and tinzaparin.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: In September 2016, Inhixa and Thorinane were approved for use in the European Union. Thorinane was withdrawn from the market in October 2019.


title: Enoxaparin sodium

text: In March 2017, Enoxaparin BECAT, Laboratorios ROVI (Spain) obtained marketing authorization in twenty six countries in Europe. The product is now available in Europe.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social exclusion or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term that has been used widely in Europe and was first used in France in the late 20th century. It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, politics and economics.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social exclusion is the process in which individuals are blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group (e.g., housing, employment, healthcare, civic engagement, democratic participation, and due process).


title: Social exclusion

text: Alienation or disenfranchisement resulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person's social class, race, skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, educational status, childhood relationships, living standards, and or political opinions, and appearance. Such exclusionary forms of discrimination may also apply to disabled people, minorities, LGBTQ+ people, drug users, institutional care leavers, the elderly and the young. Anyone who appears to deviate in any way from perceived norms of a population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion.


title: Social exclusion

text: The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. This may result in resistance in the form of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people.


title: Social exclusion

text: The concept of social exclusion has led to the researcher's conclusion that in many European countries the impact of social disadvantages, that influence the well-being of all people, including with special needs, has an increasingly negative impact.


title: Social exclusion

text: Most of the characteristics listed in this article are present together in studies of social exclusion, due to exclusion's multidimensionality.


title: Social exclusion

text: In an alternative conceptualization, social exclusion theoretically emerges at the individual or group level on four correlated dimensions: insufficient access to social rights, material deprivation, limited social participation and a lack of normative integration. It is then regarded as the combined result of personal risk factors (age, gender, race); macro-societal changes (demographic, economic and labor market developments, technological innovation, the evolution of social norms); government legislation and social policy; and the actual behavior of businesses, administrative organisations and fellow citizens.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social exclusion at the individual level results in an individual's exclusion from meaningful participation in society. An example is the exclusion of single mothers from the welfare system prior to welfare reforms of the 1900s. The modern welfare system is based on the concept of entitlement to the basic means of being a productive member of society both as an organic function of society and as compensation for the socially useful labor provided. A single mother's contribution to society is not based on formal employment, but on the notion that provision of welfare for children is a necessary social expense. In some career contexts, caring work is devalued and motherhood is seen as a barrier to employment. Single mothers were previously marginalized in spite of their significant role in the socializing of children due to views that an individual can only contribute meaningfully to society through "gainful" employment as well as a cultural bias against unwed mothers. When the father's sole task was seen as the breadwinner, his marginalization was primarily a function of class condition. Solo fatherhood brings additional trials due to society being less accepting of males 'getting away with' not working and the general invisibility/lack of acknowledgment of single fathers in society. Acknowledgment of the needs participatory fathers may have can be found by examining the changes from the original clinical report on the father's role published by the American Academy of Pediatrics in May 2004. Eight week paternity leave is a good example of one social change. Child health care providers have an opportunity to have a greater influence on the child and family structure by supporting fathers and enhancing a father's involvement.


title: Social exclusion

text: More broadly, many women face social exclusion. Moosa-Mitha discusses the Western feminist movement as a direct reaction to the marginalization of white women in society. Women were excluded from the labor force and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women should equally participate in the labor force, in the public and private sector, and in the home. They also focused on labor laws to increase access to employment as well as to recognize child-rearing as a valuable form of labor. In some places today, women are still marginalized from executive positions and continue to earn less than men in upper management positions.


title: Social exclusion

text: Another example of individual marginalization is the exclusion of individuals with disabilities from the labor force. Grandz discusses an employer's viewpoint about hiring individuals living with disabilities as jeopardizing productivity, increasing the rate of absenteeism, and creating more accidents in the workplace. Cantor also discusses employer concern about the excessively high cost of accommodating people with disabilities. The marginalization of individuals with disabilities is prevalent today, despite the legislation intended to prevent it in most western countries, and the academic achievements, skills and training of many disabled people.


title: Social exclusion

text: There are also exclusions of sexual minorities because of their sexual orientation, gender identity, and/or sexual characteristics. The Yogyakarta Principles require that the states and communities abolish any stereotypes about LGBT people as well as stereotyped gender roles.


title: Social exclusion

text: Many communities experience social exclusion, such as racial (e.g. black), caste (e.g. untouchables or dalits in India), and economic (e.g. Romani) communities.


title: Social exclusion

text: One example is the Aboriginal community in Australia. The marginalization of Aboriginal communities is a product of colonization. As a result of colonialism, Aboriginal communities lost their land, were forced into destitute areas, lost their sources of livelihood, were excluded from the labor market and were subjected to widespread unpunished massacres. Additionally, Aboriginal communities lost their culture and values through forced assimilation and lost their rights in society. Today, various Aboriginal communities continue to be marginalized from society due to the development of practices, policies and programs that, according to J. Yee, "met the needs of white people and not the needs of the marginalized groups themselves". Yee also connects marginalization to minority communities, when describing the concept of whiteness as maintaining and enforcing dominant norms and discourse. Poor people living in run-down council estates and areas with high crime can be locked into social deprivation.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location, personal habits and appearance, education, religion, and political affiliation.


title: Social exclusion

text: Globalization (global capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the company outsourcing have contributed to job insecurity and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Alphonse, George & Moffat (2007) discuss how globalization sets forth a decrease in the role of the state with an increase in support from various "corporate sectors resulting in gross inequalities, injustices and marginalization of various vulnerable groups" (p. 1). Companies are outsourcing, jobs are lost, the cost of living continues to rise, and the land is being expropriated by large companies. Material goods are made in large abundances and sold at cheaper costs, while in India for example, the poverty line is lowered in order to mask the number of individuals who are actually living in poverty as a result of globalization. Globalization and structural forces aggravate poverty and continue to push individuals to the margins of society, while governments and large corporations do not address the issues (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007).


title: Social exclusion

text: Certain language and the meaning attached to language can cause universalizing discourses that are influenced by the Western world, which is what Sewpaul (2006) describes as the "potential to dilute or even annihilate local cultures and traditions and to deny context-specific realities" (p. 421). What Sewpaul (2006) is implying is that the effect of dominant global discourses can cause individual and cultural displacement, as well as sex safety are jeopardized (p. 422). Insecurity and fear of an unknown future and instability can result in displacement, exclusion, and forced assimilation into the dominant group. For many, it further pushes them to the margins of society or enlists new members to the outskirts because of global-capitalism and dominant discourses (Sewpaul, 2006).


title: Social exclusion

text: With the prevailing notion of globalization, we now see the rise of immigration as the world gets smaller and smaller with millions of individuals relocating each year. This is not without hardship and struggle of what a newcomer thought was going to be a new life with new opportunities. Ferguson, Lavalette, & Whitmore (2005) discuss how immigration has had a strong link to the access of welfare support programs. Newcomers are constantly bombarded with the inability to access a country's resources because they are seen as "undeserving foreigners" (p. 132). With this comes a denial of access to public housing, health care benefits, employment support services, and social security benefits (Ferguson et al., 2005). Newcomers are seen as undeserving, or that they must prove their entitlement in order to gain access to basic support necessities. It is clear that individuals are exploited and marginalized within the country they have emigrated (Ferguson et al., 2005).


title: Social exclusion

text: Welfare states and social policies can also exclude individuals from basic necessities and support programs. Welfare payments were proposed to assist individuals in accessing a small amount of material wealth (Young, 2000). Young (2000) further discusses how "the provision of the welfare itself produces new injustice by depriving those dependent on it of rights and freedoms that others have...marginalization is unjust because it blocks the opportunity to exercise capacities in socially defined and recognized way" (p. 41). There is the notion that by providing a minimal amount of welfare support, an individual will be free from marginalization. In fact, welfare support programs further lead to injustices by restricting certain behaviour, as well the individual is mandated to other agencies. The individual is forced into a new system of rules while facing social stigma and stereotypes from the dominant group in society, further marginalizing and excluding individuals (Young, 2000). Thus, social policy and welfare provisions reflect the dominant notions in society by constructing and reinforcing categories of people and their needs. It ignores the unique-subjective human essence, further continuing the cycle of dominance (Wilson & Beresford, 2000).


title: Social exclusion

text: Whilst recognising the multi-dimensionality of exclusion, policy work undertaken in the European Union focused on unemployment as a key cause of, or at least correlating with, social exclusion. This is because, in modern societies, paid work is not only the principal source of income with which to buy services but is also the fount of individuals' identity and feeling of self-worth. Most people's social networks and a sense of embeddedness in society also revolve around their work. Many of the indicators of extreme social exclusion, such as poverty and homelessness, depend on monetary income which is normally derived from work. Social exclusion can be a possible result of long-term unemployment, especially in countries with weak welfare safety nets. Much policy to reduce exclusion thus focuses on the labour market:


title: Social exclusion

text: The EU's EQUAL Community Initiative investigated ways to increase the inclusiveness of the labor market. Work on social exclusion more broadly is carried out through the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) among the Member State governments. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 is also an example of global initiatives aimed at promoting social inclusion for all by 2030.


title: Social exclusion

text: Some religious traditions recommend excommunication of individuals said to deviate from religious teaching, and in some instances shunning by family members. Some religious organizations permit the censure of critics.


title: Social exclusion

text: Across societies, individuals and communities can be socially excluded on the basis of their religious beliefs. Social hostility against religious minorities and communal violence occur in areas where governments do not have policies restricting the religious practise of minorities. A study by the Pew Research Center on international religious freedom found that 61% of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities. The five highest social hostility scores were for Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Iraq, and Bangladesh. In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but harassment of Jews increased.


title: Social exclusion

text: In gay men, results of psycho-emotional damage from marginalization from a heteronormative society include suicide and drug addiction.


title: Social exclusion

text: Scientists have been studying the impact of racism on health. Amani Nuru-Jeter, a social epidemiologist at the University of California, Berkeley and other doctors have been hypothesizing that exposure to chronic stress may be one way racism contributes to health disparities between racial groups. Arline Geronimus, a research professor at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research and a professor at the School of Public Health, and her colleagues found that psychosocial stress associated with living in extreme poverty can cause early onset of age-related diseases. The 2015 study titled, "Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample" was conducted in order to determine the impact of living conditions on health and was performed by a multi-university team of social scientists, cellular biologists and community partners, including the Healthy Environments Partnership (HEP) to measure the telomere length of poor and moderate-income people of White, African-American and Mexican race.


title: Social exclusion

text: In 2006, there was research focused on possible connections between exclusion and brain function. Studies published by both the University of Georgia and San Diego State University found that exclusion can lead to diminished brain functioning and poor decision making. Such studies corroborate with earlier beliefs of sociologists. The effect of social exclusion have been hypothesized in various past research studies to correlate with such things as substance abuse and addiction, and crime.


title: Social exclusion

text: The problem of social exclusion is usually tied to that of equal opportunity, as some people are more subject to such exclusion than others. Marginalisation of certain groups is a problem in many economically more developed countries where the majority of the population enjoys considerable economic and social opportunities.


title: Social exclusion

text: The marginal, the processes of marginalisation, etc. bring specific interest in postmodern and post-colonial philosophy and social studies. Postmodernism question the "center" about its authenticity and postmodern sociology and cultural studies research marginal cultures, behaviours, societies, the situation of the marginalized individual, etc.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social inclusion, the converse of social exclusion, is affirmative action to change the circumstances and habits that lead to (or have led to) social exclusion.


title: Social exclusion

text: As the World Bank states, social inclusion is the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and worthiness of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society. The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on "The Changing Nature of Work" suggests that enhanced social protection and better investments in human capital improve equality of opportunity and social inclusion.


title: Social exclusion

text: Social Inclusion ministers have been appointed, and special units established, in a number of jurisdictions around the world. The first Minister for Social Inclusion was Premier of South Australia Mike Rann, who took the portfolio in 2004. Based on the UK's Social Exclusion Unit, established by Prime Minister Tony Blair in 1997, Rann established the Social Inclusion Initiative in 2002. It was headed by Monsignor David Cappo and was serviced by a unit within the department of Premier and Cabinet. Cappo sat on the executive committee of the South Australian Cabinet and was later appointed Social Inclusion Commissioner with wide powers to address social disadvantage. Cappo was allowed to roam across agencies given that most social disadvantage has multiple causes necessitating a "joined up" rather than a single agency response. The Initiative drove a big investment by the South Australian Government in strategies to combat homelessness, including establishing Common Ground, building high quality inner city apartments for "rough sleeping" homeless people, the Street to Home initiative and the ICAN flexible learning program designed to improve school retention rates. It also included major funding to revamp mental health services following Cappo's "Stepping Up" report, which focused on the need for community and intermediate levels of care and an overhaul of disability services. In 2007, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd appointed Julia Gillard as the nation's first Social Inclusion Minister.


title: Social exclusion

text: In Japan, the concept and term "social inclusion" went through a number of changes over time and eventually became incorporated in community-based activities under the names "hōsetsu" (包摂) and "hōkatsu" (包括), such as in the "Community General Support Centres" ("chiiki hōkatsu shien sentā" 地域包括支援センター) and "Community-based Integrated Care System" ("chiiki hōkatsu kea shisutemu"　地域包括ケアシステム).


title: Social exclusion

text: Upon defining and describing marginalization as well as the various levels in which it exists, one may explore its implications for social work practice. Mullaly (2007) describes how "the personal is political" and the need for recognizing that social problems are indeed connected with larger structures in society, causing various forms of oppression amongst individuals resulting in marginalization. It is also important for the social worker to recognize the intersecting nature of oppression. A non-judgmental and unbiased attitude is necessary on the part of the social worker. The worker may begin to understand oppression and marginalization as a systemic problem, not the fault of the individual.


title: Social exclusion

text: Working under an anti-oppression perspective would then allow the social worker to understand the lived, subjective experiences of the individual, as well as their cultural, historical and social background. The worker should recognize the individual as political in the process of becoming a valuable member of society and the structural factors that contribute to oppression and marginalization (Mullaly, 2007). Social workers must take a firm stance on naming and labeling global forces that impact individuals and communities who are then left with no support, leading to marginalization or further marginalization from the society they once knew (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007).


title: Social exclusion

text: The social worker should be constantly reflexive, work to raise the consciousness, empower, and understand the lived subjective realities of individuals living in a fast-paced world, where fear and insecurity constantly subjugate the individual from the collective whole, perpetuating the dominant forces, while silencing the oppressed.


title: Social exclusion

text: Some individuals and groups who are not professional social workers build relationships with marginalized persons by providing relational care and support, for example, through homeless ministry. These relationships validate the individuals who are marginalized and provide them a meaningful contact with the mainstream.


title: Social exclusion

text: There are countries, Italy for example, that have a legal concept of "social exclusion". In Italy, ""esclusione sociale"" is defined as poverty combined with social alienation, by the statute n. 328 (11-8-2000), that instituted a state investigation commission named ""Commissione di indagine sull'Esclusione Sociale"" (CIES) to make an annual report to the government on legally expected issues of social exclusion.


title: Social exclusion

text: The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, a document on international human rights instruments affirms that "extreme poverty and social exclusion constitute a violation of human dignity and that urgent steps are necessary to achieve better knowledge of extreme poverty and its causes, including those related to the program of development, in order to promote the human rights of the poorest, and to put an end to extreme poverty and social exclusion and promote the enjoyment of the fruits of social progress. It is essential for States to foster participation by the poorest people in the decision making process by the community in which they live, the promotion of human rights and efforts to combat extreme poverty."


title: Eden Gardens

text: The Eden Gardens is a cricket ground in Kolkata, India. Established in 1864, it is the oldest and second-largest cricket stadium in India and third-largest in the world. The stadium currently has a capacity of 66,000.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens is often referred to as home of Indian cricket and has also been described as "cricket's answer to the Colosseum" and called the "Mecca of Indian cricket", due to it being the first purpose-built ground for the sport. Eden Gardens has hosted matches in major international competitions including the World Cup, World Twenty20 and Asia Cup. In 1987, Eden Gardens became the second stadium to host a World Cup final. The 2016 ICC World Twenty20 final was held at the stadium, with the West Indies beating England in a closely fought encounter. Eden Gardens record crowd 110,564 in 1996 India Vs Sri Lanka Cricket World Cup Semi Final.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The stadium was established in 1864. The origins of its name are uncertain. According to some, the stadium is named after the Eden Gardens park where it is located, itself named after the Eden sisters, Emily and Fanny, of Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India (1836–1842). Initially named the 'Auckland Circus Gardens', the park was renamed to the 'Eden Gardens' in 1841.


title: Eden Gardens

text: However, according to popular culture, Babu Rajchandra Das, the zamindar (landlord) of Kolkata, gifted one of his biggest gardens, Mar Bagan, besides the river Hooghly, to Lord Auckland and his sister Emily Eden in gratitude for their help in saving his third daughter from a fatal disease. The garden was then renamed to the Eden Gardens.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The cricket grounds were built between Babughat and Fort William. The stadium is in the B. B. D. Bagh area of the city, near the State Secretariat and across the Calcutta High Court.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The first Test match at the venue was held in 1934 between England and India, its first One Day International in 1987 between India and Pakistan and its first T20 international in 2011 between India and England. The 1993 Hero Cup semi-final featuring India and South Africa was the first day/night match.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The stadium also hosted matches of the inaugural edition of Nehru Cup in 1982. The Eden Gardens also hosted the India versus Uruguay football match in 1984 Nehru Cup.


title: Eden Gardens

text: 16 people were killed in a stampede and riot inside Eden Gardens during a Mohun Bagan-East Bengal Calcutta Football League (CFL) match on 16 August 1980.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The stadium is the headquarters of the Cricket Association of Bengal. Apart from International matches, the stadium hosts the Bengal cricket team and the Kolkata Knight Riders Indian Premier League franchise. The stadium's Club House is named after former Chief Minister of West Bengal Dr. B. C. Roy.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The stadium's capacity was expanded to 100,000 from 40,000 for the 1987 World Cup. The expansion also included renovations to the press box, club house and television broadcasting infrastructure. 42 columns were added to provide the support for large roofs and multi-tiered covered stands. Even after the renovation, not all seats were covered and many sections lacked individual seats.


title: Eden Gardens

text: However, match day attendance of more than 100,000 spectators has been recorded on at least 6 occasions until the early 2000s.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens underwent renovation for the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Renovation had been undertaken to meet the standards set by the International Cricket Council (ICC) for the 2011 World Cup. The Cricket Association of Bengal hired a consortium of Philadelphia-based Burt Hill and Ahmedabad-based VMS architecture firms for a two-year project to renovate the stadium. The plans for the renovated stadium included a new clubhouse and players' facilities, upgrades of the exterior walls to give the stadium a new look, cladding the existing roof structure with a new metal skin, new/upgraded patron amenities & signage and general infrastructure improvements. The upgrade also meant reduction of the seating capacity to about 68,000 from around 94,000 before the upgrade.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Due to unsafe conditions arising from the incomplete renovations, the ICC withdrew the India vs. England match from the Eden Gardens. This match, scheduled on 27 February 2011, was played in Bengaluru at M.Chinnaswamy Stadium.


title: Eden Gardens

text: The stadium hosted the remaining three scheduled World Cup 2011 Matches on 15, 18 and 20 March 2011. In the last of these three matches (Kenya vs Zimbabwe), the stadium had the lowest ticket-purchasing crowd in its recorded history with 15 spectators having bought tickets.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens stands have been named after prominent local cricketers and soldiers. On 22 January 2017, two stands were named after Indian cricketers - Sourav Ganguly and Pankaj Roy while two more were after cricket administrators - BN Dutt (BCCI President 1988 to 1990) and Jagmohan Dalmiya (BCCI President 2001–04, 2013 - interim, 2015). Dalmiya served as ICC President from 1997 to 2000.


title: Eden Gardens

text: On 27 April 2017, 4 stands were named after Indian soldiers - Colonel Neelakantan Jayachandran Nair, Havildar Hangpan Dada, Lieutenant Colonel Dhan Singh Thapa and Subedar Joginder Singh Sahnan. LC Thapa and Subedar Singh are Param Vir Chakra awardees - the highest wartime military decoration in India while Col Nair and Havildar Dada are Ashok Chakra - the highest peacetime military decoration.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens is renowned for its large and passionate crowds. Former Aussie captain Steve Waugh considers the Eden Gardens as 'Lord's of the subcontinent'. Dileep Vengsarkar called Eden Gardens as the second best after Lords. Former Indian Captain and Kolkata-native Sourav Ganguly confessed once in an interview that the roar of crowd at the stadium he heard when India defeated Australia in the Second Test of 2000–01 Border–Gavaskar Trophy was the loudest he had ever heard.


title: Eden Gardens

text: In 2016, a bell was added to the stadium to ring in the start of day's play for test cricket and start of match for ODI & T20I matches. Kapil Dev was the first person to ring the bell to start the test match between India and New Zealand in September 2016.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens has hosted 15 Cricket World Cup matches hosted in India across formats and men's and women's cricket. Eden Gardens has hosted 6 Cricket World Cup matches in 1987 (2), 1996 (1), 2011 (3). The stadium hosted 5 T20I matches during 2016 ICC World Twenty20. The stadium hosted 2 Women's Cricket World Cup matches - one each in 1978 and 1997 and one Women T20I match during the 2016 ICC Women's World Twenty20 tournament.


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens has hosted 4 finals (1987 ODI CWC, 2016 T20I, 1997 Women's CWC and 2016 Women's T20I) and 1 semi-final (1996 ODI CWC).


title: Eden Gardens

text: Eden Gardens was meant to host a Group B Match between India and England on 27 February 2011. The ICC, however, stripped the stadium of the match after deciding that the renovation of the grounds would not be completed in time.


title: Chichijima incident

text: The Chichijima incident (also known as the Ogasawara incident) occurred in late 1944. Japanese soldiers killed eight American airmen on Chichi Jima, in the Bonin Islands, and cannibalized four of the airmen.


title: Chichijima incident

text: Nine airmen escaped from their planes after being shot down during bombing raids on Chichi Jima, a tiny island south of Tokyo, in September 1944. Eight of the airmen, Lloyd Woellhof, Grady York, James “Jimmy” Dye, Glenn Frazier Jr., Marvell “Marve” Mershon, Floyd Hall, Warren Earl Vaughn, and Warren Hindenlang were captured and eventually executed. The ninth, and only one to evade capture, was future U.S. President George H. W. Bush, also a 20-year-old pilot.


title: Chichijima incident

text: After the war, it was discovered that the captured airmen had been beaten and tortured before being executed. The airmen were beheaded on the orders of Lt Gen. Yoshio Tachibana. Japanese officers then ate parts of the bodies of four of the men.


title: Chichijima incident

text: Tachibana, alongside 11 other Japanese personnel, were tried in August 1946 in relation to the execution of U.S. Navy airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, during August 1944. Because military and international law did not specifically deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and "prevention of honorable burial".


title: Chichijima incident

text: This case was investigated in 1947 in a war crimes trial, and of the 30 Japanese soldiers prosecuted, four officers (General Tachibana, Maj Matoba and Captain Yoshii) were found guilty and hanged. All enlisted men and Probationary Medical Officer Tadashi Teraki were released within 8 years.


title: Chichijima incident

text: Vice Admiral Mori Kunizo, who commanded Chichi-Jima air base at the time of the incident, was of the belief that consumption of human liver had medical benefits. He was initially sentenced to life imprisonment for his involvement in the incident. However, after his subordinates were convicted of slaughtering prisoners during their time on the Southern Front, he was sentenced to death and subsequently hanged in a separate trial organized by the Netherlands for war crimes committed in the Dutch East Indies.


title: Chichijima incident

text: In the best-selling book "", American author James Bradley details several instances of cannibalism of World War II Allied prisoners by their Japanese captors. Bradley claims that this included not only ritual cannibalization of the livers of freshly killed prisoners, but also the cannibalization-for-sustenance of living prisoners over the course of several days, amputating limbs only as needed to keep the meat fresh.


title: Lexicon

text: A lexicon is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word "lexicon" derives from Greek word (), neuter of () meaning 'of or for words'.


title: Lexicon

text: Linguistic theories generally regard human languages as consisting of two parts: a lexicon, essentially a catalogue of a language's words (its wordstock); and a grammar, a system of rules which allow for the combination of those words into meaningful sentences. The lexicon is also thought to include bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone as words (such as most affixes). In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions, collocations and other phrases are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries are lists of the lexicon, in alphabetical order, of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included.


title: Lexicon

text: Items in the lexicon are called lexemes, lexical items, or word forms. Lexemes are not atomic elements but contain both phonological and morphological components. When describing the lexicon, a reductionist approach is used, trying to remain general while using a minimal description. To describe the size of a lexicon, lexemes are grouped into lemmas. A lemma is a group of lexemes generated by inflectional morphology. Lemmas are represented in dictionaries by headwords that list the citation forms and any irregular forms, since these must be learned to use the words correctly. Lexemes derived from a word by derivational morphology are considered new lemmas. The lexicon is also organized according to open and closed categories. Closed categories, such as determiners or pronouns, are rarely given new lexemes; their function is primarily syntactic. Open categories, such as nouns and verbs, have highly active generation mechanisms and their lexemes are more semantic in nature.


title: Lexicon

text: A central role of the lexicon is the documenting of established "lexical norms and conventions". Lexicalization is the process by which new words, having gained widespread usage, enter the lexicon. Since lexicalization may modify lexemes phonologically and morphologically, it is possible that a single etymological source may be inserted into a single lexicon in two or more forms. These pairs, called a doublet, are often close semantically. Two examples are "aptitude" versus "attitude" and "employ" versus "imply".


title: Lexicon

text: Neologisms are new lexeme candidates which, if they gain wide usage over time, become part of a language's lexicon. Neologisms are often introduced by children who produce erroneous forms by mistake. Other common sources are slang and advertising.


title: Lexicon

text: There are two types of borrowings (neologisms based on external sources) that retain the sound of the source language material:


title: Lexicon

text: The following are examples of external lexical expansion using the source language lexical item as the basic material for the neologization, listed in decreasing order of phonetic resemblance to the original lexical item (in the source language):


title: Lexicon

text: The following are examples of simultaneous external and internal lexical expansion using target language lexical items as the basic material for the neologization but still resembling the sound of the lexical item in the source language:


title: Lexicon

text: Another mechanism involves generative devices that combine morphemes according to a language's rules. For example, the suffix "-able" is usually only added to transitive verbs, as in "readable" but not "cryable".


title: Lexicon

text: A compound word is a lexeme composed of several established lexemes, whose semantics is not the sum of that of their constituents. They can be interpreted through analogy, common sense and, most commonly, context. Compound words can have simple or complex morphological structures. Usually, only the head requires inflection for agreement. Compounding may result in lexemes of unwieldy proportion. This is compensated by mechanisms that reduce the length of words. A similar phenomenon has been recently shown to feature in social media also where hashtags compound to form longer-sized hashtags that are at times more popular than the individual constituent hashtags forming the compound. Compounding is the most common of word formation strategies cross-linguistically.


title: Lexicon

text: Comparative historical linguistics studies the evolution of languages and takes a diachronic view of the lexicon. The evolution of lexicons in different languages occurs through a parallel mechanism. Over time historical forces work to shape the lexicon, making it simpler to acquire and often creating an illusion of great regularity in language.


title: Lexicon

text: The term "lexicon" is generally used in the context of a single language. Therefore, multi-lingual speakers are generally thought to have multiple lexicons. Speakers of language variants (Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese, for example) may be considered to possess a single lexicon. Thus a "cash dispenser" (British English) as well as an automatic teller machine or ATM in American English would be understood by both American and British speakers, despite each group using different dialects.


title: Lexicon

text: When linguists study a lexicon, they consider such things as what constitutes a word; the word/concept relationship; lexical access and lexical access failure; how a word's phonology, syntax, and meaning intersect; the morphology-word relationship; vocabulary structure within a given language; language use (pragmatics); language acquisition; the history and evolution of words (etymology); and the relationships between words, often studied within philosophy of language.


title: Lexicon

text: Various models of how lexicons are organized and how words are retrieved have been proposed in psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and computational linguistics.