title: Eruv

text: In the United States, legal controversies about an eruv in a community often focus on provisions of the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States, which addresses relations between government and religion. Opponents of an eruv typically take the view that the government participation in the eruv process necessary to approve its construction violates the First Amendment's prohibition of governmental establishment of religion. Proponents take the view that it constitutes a constitutionally permissible accommodation of religion rather than an establishment. Proponents have also argued that the Free Exercise Clause affirmatively requires government acceptance, on the grounds that government interference with or failure to accommodate an eruv constitutes discrimination against or inhibition of the constitutional right of free exercise of religion.


title: Eruv

text: In the 2002 decision on "Tenafly Eruv Association v. Borough of Tenafly", Judge Ambro, writing for the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals, held that Eruv Association members had no intrinsic right to add attachments to telephone poles on Borough property and that the borough, if it wished, could enact a general, neutral ordinance against all attachments to utility poles that could be enforced against the eruv. However, Judge Ambro held that in this case, the Borough had not enacted a genuinely general or neutral ordinance because it permitted a wide variety of attachments to utility poles for non-religious purposes, including posting signs and other items. Because it permitted attachments to utility poles for secular purposes, the court held, it could not selectively exclude attachments for religious purposes. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case. It was subsequently cited as precedent by a number of other federal courts deciding disputes between an eruv association and a local government.


title: Eruv

text: In Outremont, a neighbourhood in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, the city adopted a policy of removing eruv wires. In 2001, the Hasidic community obtained an injunction preventing such action by the city authorities.


title: Eruv

text: Between 2015 and 2018, there were ongoing issues with eruv markings extended on utility poles in a section of Bergen County, New Jersey. The adjoining municipalities of Mahwah, Upper Saddle River and Montvale, all border the state line on the other side of which is Rockland County, New York, where there are large communities of Orthodox Jews. After some eruvin were extended into Bergen County, allowing travel in the area, the municipalities took action in 2017 to dismantle the markings. The matter was taken to court, and in January 2018 the presiding judge in the lawsuits made it clear he felt the municipalities did not have a strong case, and urged them to settle. The three municipalities settled with the eruv association, allowing the eruv borders to remain in New Jersey, reimbursed the association's legal fees, received agreement from the association to adjust the color of the mounted on local utility poles, and agreed to work through a few remaining route details.


title: Eruv

text: In general, state law has dealt with whether and to what extent government can permit or assist the erection and maintenance of boundary demarcations on public property. It has not dealt with the nature of the aggregation agreement or recognized an eruv as having legal effect or as implementing a meaningful change in real property ownership or tenancy. For purposes of accident liability, trespass, insurance, and other secular matters occurring on Shabbat, state law treats the properties within an eruv as continuing to be separate parcels.


title: Eruv

text: The term eruv is also used to refer to other, unrelated concepts in halakha. These include the "eruv techumin" which enables one to travel beyond the normal travel restrictions on Shabbat or holidays, and the "eruv tavshilin" which enables one to cook for Shabbat on a holiday which immediately precedes that Shabbat.


title: Eruv

text: An "eruv techumin" () for traveling enables a traditionally observant Jew to travel by foot on Shabbat or a Jewish holiday beyond the 2,000-cubit (one biblical mile) limit imposed by rabbinic restriction.


title: Eruv

text: An "eruv tavshilin" () is made in the home on the eve of a holiday with a work prohibition, if the holiday happens to fall on Friday. Since food cannot be cooked on Shabbat, the only way to eat freshly cooked food on Shabbat is to cook it on Friday, which in this case is a holiday. The "eruv tavshilin" allows this cooking to be done in a way that does not violate the holiday work restrictions.


title: Kantai Collection

text: , abbreviated as , is a Japanese free-to-play web browser game developed by Kadokawa Games and published by DMM.com.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The central theme of the game is the representation of World War II warships personified as teenage girls and young adult women with personality characteristics reflecting the history of each ship. Originally, all of these were Japanese, but ships from other nations have also been added as the game has developed. Gameplay involves all aspects of naval warfare, including not only combat but also maintenance, repair, upgrading, resupply, morale, logistics and mission planning.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The game was launched on April 23, 2013. As of April 2015, the game is available in Japan only and has 3 million registered players. An Android client of the original game was released in 2016. The game has developed into a much larger media franchise; various media including multiple manga series and light novels have been released, in addition to an officially licensed tabletop role-playing game. A PlayStation Vita game was released in February 2016, and an anime television series aired its first season from January to March 2015, with released in November 2016, and a second season that will premiere in November 2022.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The gameplay is centered upon building squadrons composed of individual characters represented as cards with different attributes, and then sending said squadrons out on missions. Each of the characters are moe anthropomorphisms of World War II naval warships which are depicted as cute girls, known as . These personified warships are based on real-life vessels which are explained in detail within the game; the physical characteristics, appearances and personalities of each of the girls correlate in some way to the real-life vessel (for example, ships with a larger displacement tonnage such as cruisers, battleships and aircraft carriers are usually depicted as young women, while smaller ships such as destroyers and coastal defense ships look and behave like pubescent girls, with a few exceptions). The vast majority of these fleet girls were based on the ships of Imperial Japanese Navy along with few that were based on other navies' warships instead, including three from Imperial Japanese Army. So far foreign navies represented in the game are include Kriegsmarine, Regia Marina, United States Navy, Royal Navy, Soviet Navy, Marine Nationale, Svenska Marinen, Royal Australian Navy and Koninklijke Marine. The player takes on the role of an and organizes their fleets in battle in order to win. Combat is largely automated, and manual actions by the player include micromanagement such as building and repairing. The player can organise up to four different fleets.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The player progresses through the game by advancing through maps, gaining experience points through grinding, obtaining new fleet girls whilst repairing and resupplying existing ones, and fulfilling quests to obtain resources. New equipment can be crafted, allowing the fleet girls to equip different armaments depending on the situation. Acquisition of new "kanmusu" by the player can occur via drops on map or via crafting, and is heavily RNG-based; randomization is also a key component of the battle mechanism, map progression and equipment development. Construction, resupply and repair of ships is reliant upon four types of resources, namely fuel, ammunition, steel and bauxite; these supplies will gradually increase automatically as time passes. Players can choose to engage in expeditions, sorties, and quests to further increase their supplies as well.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Ships can be customised through the addition of various equipment within their empty slots, which add attribute bonuses and even provide special effects in some cases; such equipment include naval guns, anti-aircraft guns, torpedoes, torpedo bombers, dive bombers, fighter aircraft, seaplanes, recon planes, radars, steam turbines, special artillery shells, depth charges, sonars, drum canisters, searchlights and anti-torpedo bulges. The effectiveness of ships in combat depend on its attribute parameters, namely hitpoints, armour, evasion, aircraft capacity, speed, attack range, firepower, torpedo, anti-air, anti-submarine, line-of-sight, and luck.


title: Kantai Collection

text: "Kanmusu" are capable of becoming stronger as they gain experience and level up after battles, and can also be remodeled into more advanced models once they reach a certain level. Unwanted "kanmusu" can also be "fed" to other "kanmusu" through a process known as , which grants attribute bonuses to one ship in exchange for losing another. Ships can become fatigued once it accumulates after sorties; fatigued ships have decreased attributes, whilst sparkling ships have increased attributes. Fatigue can be alleviated by allowing ships some time to rest, or by recovering the fleet's morale using . As ships become damaged, their icons begin to blow off smoke and their clothing become visually torn and battered; in the event when a ship's durability drops down to zero, it is considered sunk, and the player will lose the fleet girl. Players cannot resurrect fleet girls that have been lost unless they are in possession of an emergency repair item, and are only able to re-train ships that have been lost from scratch.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Whilst the game is free-to-play, special premium bonuses can be obtained through prepaid game money and credit card microtransactions, such as repair dock expansions, home shipyard furniture tokens, ship possession limit increases, and special consumable items. Although each ship in the game has an experience level cap of Lv.99, the player is able to obtain the "marriage papers and ring" item with a monetary purchase priced at 700 yen or via a one-time special quest, which allows the player to "marry" the girl, thereby breaking the original level cap and allowing a new maximum of Lv.175, in addition to other perks such as stat boosts and decreased operating costs; this process can be repeated as many times as the player wishes, and there is no limit to the number of girls that can be "married".


title: Kantai Collection

text: Players can choose to battle against the fleets of other real-life players on the same game server via the exercise maneuvers menu. Players are also able to compete with each other's scores via in-game ranking boards, with periodical prizes for top ranking players. As of January 2016, there are 20 servers that can be played on, each named after a World War II-era Japanese naval base. The game is currently intended to be played by a Japanese domestic audience only, with the interface exclusively in the Japanese language. As of present, the game cannot be played outside Japan without the use of a VPN; utilisation of such methods to circumvent country IP restrictions and access the game breach the DMM.com online game terms of use, however. From August 2013 onwards, new player registrations were only available via periodic lottery, due to the servers being overloaded by large numbers of new registrants. After July 2015, new registrants were able to join the 20th server without the need to partake in a lottery; due to excessive player numbers, however, the new server has closed on multiple occasions.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Upon the debut of the game, there were a total of 94 different fleet girls available. Within an update introduced May 15–17, 2013, additional fleet girls were added. On September 11, 2013, the first non-Japanese vessel, Soviet destroyer "Verniy" (Верный), was introduced into the game. There were plans during the early stages to eventually bring additional ships from other countries, and in March 2014, three German Kriegsmarine vessels were added. Two Italian ships were added as part of the 2015 Spring event in April 2015, with one more added in August. The first fully non-Axis ship, the American USS Iowa (BB-61), was introduced with KanColle Kai on February 18, 2016, later becoming available in the browser game's 2016 Spring event. Presently there are 164 original girls in addition to 72 upgraded variants, bringing the total number of fleet girls to 236. The game currently holds spaces for 250 different types of fleet girls. Different fleet girls are illustrated by different artists; artists involved in the drawing of various characters include Shibafu, , , Kūrokuro, and 16 other artists. Fumikane Shimada, who was previously the lead character designer for "Strike Witches" and "Girls und Panzer", created the designs and illustrations for Japanese armored aircraft carrier "Taihō" and the five German vessels.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The traits of each fleet girl are based on aspects of the historical ship they are based on; for instance, frequently adds English words and phrases into her dialog as a reference to her British origins, whilst is depicted as a speedy girl in artworks and official print media, since "Shimakaze" was one of the fastest destroyers of World War II. Characters which share particular links also have similar physical traits: ships of the same class may have similar accessories or clothing, whilst all Imperial Japanese Navy submarines are depicted as wearing sukumizu.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Voice actors have been employed to voice the fleet girls, with anywhere around 10 fleet girls being voiced by one actor.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Prior to "Kantai Collection", the majority of games published by DMM.com were R-18+ adult online games. In an effort to attract customers from a wider audience, DMM.com experimented with "Kantai Collection" in partnership with Kadokawa Games; by November 2013, "Kantai Collection" accounted for 30-40% of DMM.com's total online game business.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Unlike other online games in Japan, "Kantai Collection" was designed with the intention of not forcing the player to spend money or participate in "gacha" lotteries. The purpose of this stems from Kadokawa desiring a larger target market and to establish the game as a well-known name, eventually allowing for merchandising and sales of franchise works.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Kensuke Tanaka, who prior to "Kantai Collection" was involved in the production and public relations for "Final Fantasy X", "XI" and "XIII", wished to create a game which involves historical elements while still appealing to the regular fans of DMM.com, namely fans of anime and manga culture, and this led him to the idea of developing a game centered on anthropomorphisms of warships.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A bi-monthly online web manga by Ryōta Momoi began serialization from April 23, 2013, in the "Famitsu Comic Clear". The manga follows a 4koma format, and features a storyline with the fleet girls enrolled in schools, where senior girls teach battle techniques to their juniors. It has been updated weekly since October 2013. Ryōta Momoi's 4koma manga will be released in print book format under the title beginning from December 14, 2013.


title: Kantai Collection

text: "Famitsu Comic Clear" has introduced an additional manga adaptation by under the title beginning from July 9, 2013.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The Famitsu website also hosts a webcomic titled by Tadashi Mizumoto which focuses on gameplay aspects of "Kantai Collection". It began serialization from August 23, 2013. In addition, illustrations column with multiple illustrators at the same time as the manga has also been serialized.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A manga by Kensuke Tanaka and illustrated by titled began serialisation in "Monthly Comic Alive" in the December 2013 issue (released October 28, 2013), with a focus on an original story revolving around Tenryū and Tatsuta.


title: Kantai Collection

text: In addition, another manga series by SASAYUKi featuring the title was serialized in "Comptiq" from the December 2013 issue (released November 9, 2013) onwards, with a story based on the adventures of battleship Kongō. It began serialisation within the May 2014 issue of "Comptiq" (released April 10, 2014) and was later terminated within the November 2014 issue (released October 10, 2014).


title: Kantai Collection

text: A manga titled and illustrated by began serialisation in the January 2014 issue (released November 9, 2013) of "Comp Ace", with the plot focusing on the Akatsuki sisters.


title: Kantai Collection

text: "Age Premium" featured a manga publication by titled starting from the January 2014 issue (delivered December 9, 2013), with Inazuma as the main character. It was serialized until the May 2014 issue (delivered April 9, 2014).


title: Kantai Collection

text: A manga series titled by Kazuma Yamazaki, Hyōbu Madoka later Kaname Yokoshima and illustrated by Kazuma Yamazaki began serialisation within the "Dengeki Maoh" magazine in the February 2014 issue (released December 27, 2013).


title: Kantai Collection

text: A manga series by titled began serialisation in the July 2014 issue (released May 27, 2014) of "Dengeki Daioh", focusing on a storyline revolving around the heavy cruisers Kumano and Suzuya.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Kadokawa website also hosts a webcomic titled by Sau Nitō and illustrated by Sōta Wakui which focuses on gameplay aspects of "Kantai Collection". It began serialization from March 22, 2014, in Comic Walker.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A manga series by titled began serialization in the December 2018 issue (released November 10, 2018) of "Comptiq", focusing on a storyline where Gambier Bay, Tashkent, and Commandant Teste discover an old bar on the naval base they're stationed at, eventually learning the skills of being bartenders and the history of cocktails. Gambier Bay uses the opportunity as a way of learning to get over her fear of the Kurita Fleet, as well to pull herself out of being too self-deprecating. Two volumes of the collected chapters have been released, and the third volume is scheduled to be released in September 2020. Currently it's also available on Comic Walker since July 10, 2019.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Kadokawa has also announced a manga series titled , created by Ōto Taguchi who was previously responsible for the "Mobile Suit Gundam 00" manga. However, the project was cancelled after a disagreement between the author and publisher.


title: Kantai Collection

text: "Famitsu Comic Clear", "DNA Comics", "Comptiq" and "Dengeki Comics" have also published numerous series of comic compilation books which each contain a collection of various one-shot manga.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A short story series featuring aircraft carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku written by and illustrated by Matarō, titled , began serialization within the January 2014 issue (released November 20, 2013) of "Dragon Magazine".


title: Kantai Collection

text: A light novel based on the game with the title , written by Toshihiko Tsukiji and illustrated by NOCO, was released on November 30, 2013.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A novel project featuring aircraft carriers Kaga and Akagi involving the illustrator Koruri and the authors Kei Shiide, and Dai Akagane has been announced, with the title . It was serialized in "Comptiq" between the January 2014 (released November 9, 2013) and August 2014 (released July 10, 2014) issues. A novel to share the view of the world, written by Kazuyuki Takami and illustrated by was released on November 2, 2014.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A novel series featuring light aircraft carriers Zuihō written by and illustrated by Satoru Arikawa, titled was released on February 1, 2015.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A single-player turn-based strategy game titled was announced for the PlayStation Vita during Kadokawa Games' 2013 Autumn media briefing, and following two launch delays, was finally released on February 18, 2016. The game is the second title independently created by Kadokawa Game Studio, after "Natural Doctrine". "KanColle Kai" introduces various strategy elements such as hexagonal world maps, a new resource transfer system involving the escorting of supply ships over each game turn, player-selected difficulty settings, enemy counterattacks against the player's bases, control of over up to eight fleets on the world map, and the ability to simultaneously operate two separate fleets within some sortie maps. Existing functions from the original web browser game are also present, with major user interface changes. Menu screens feature Live2D character animations, and the player will encounter a "game over" state if all of their territories are destroyed by the enemy. The Vita game contained the original debut of USS "Iowa" (BB-61) as a playable ship, prior to her seasonal event implementation within the browser game.


title: Kantai Collection

text: In March 2014, financial analyst Fukuda Sōichirō of Citigroup Global Markets Japan made the prediction in a stock investor report that the PS Vita game would ship 500,000 copies, and expects that a profit of 1 billion yen be made. He also cites the ability to charge players for in-game premium items on the PS Vita platform as an upside for Kadokawa Corporation business-wise. "Famitsu" gave the game a review score of 29/40. The game sold 140,757 physical retail copies within the first week of release in Japan, placing first within the Japanese software sales rankings for that particular week; "Dengeki Online" and "Famitsu" both report that between 80-100% of the initial retail batch stock was sold out within the first week.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Kadokawa Games has announced that the game will be no longer sold physically in retail stores or digitally in the PlayStation Store by the end of January 2017.


title: Kantai Collection

text: is a trading card arcade game developed by Sega AM2 and launched on April 26, 2016. The game features fully modeled 3D characters, and involves the player taking control of the direction and speed of their ship in combat against Abyssal ships, in addition to collecting different shipgirls. The game charges players with a GP system akin to that of "Border Break", where money is converted into GP at a specific rate, with these points consumed for each second of play or converted in exchange for various other game elements. The game is controlled using a steering wheel and speed lever, and the player is able to organize their fleet using "kanmusu" cards ejected by the arcade machine. While in combat, the player can choose between using primary and secondary armaments, torpedoes and airstrikes against foes.


title: Kantai Collection

text: An official KanColle tabletop RPG has been developed; the introductory rulebook for the game was published by Kadokawa and Fujimi Shobo, and released on 18 March 2014. A first rule book written by and illustrated by , titled was released on March 18, 2014.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A replay series written by Shiei Akatoki and illustrated by Yebisu Daikanyama, titled was released on July 19, 2014.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A lonely replay series written by Tōichiro Kawashima and illustrated by , titled was released on January 20, 2015.


title: Kantai Collection

text: An anime television series aired from January to March 2015. The series is animated by Diomedéa, and features as the main character, with the storyline based on her point of view. The show is directed by Keizou Kusakawa, with the script written by Jukki Hanada. The anime series features the voice cast from the original game.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A second season that features Japanese destroyer Shigure as the main character was announced on January 4, 2019. The series is produced by ENGI and directed by Kazuya Miura, with scripts written by Kensuke Tanaka, the game's original writer, character designs handled by Chika Nomi, and music composed by Kaori Ohkoshi. It premiered in November 2022 and will run for 8 episodes.


title: Kantai Collection

text: An original game soundtrack was released on August 3, 2014. Second original game soundtrack was released on August 5, 2015.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Limited edition versions of the "side:Kongō" and "Torpedo Squadron Chronicles" manga series "tankōbon" were bundled with drama CDs featuring original dialogue stories from the characters' original voice actors, titled and .


title: Kantai Collection

text: An anime television soundtrack was released on March 25, 2015. An anime television vocal music collection CD was released on March 25, 2015.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Whilst the original game does not have a particular storyline, and largely focuses on "gameplay", each of the official media works feature various settings with separate and differing canons. Not only do the stories differ, but also the depictions and interpretations of fleet girls and the manner in which they engage in combat. The game does not strictly define anything relating to its setting, allowing for a greater diversity of secondary literary adaptation works which cater to different audiences, and more artistic freedom among secondary works which can approach the setting of "Kantai Collection" differently.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Kadokawa has not officially announced whether any secondary work is absolute canon, nor have they released significant quantities of canonical material, with some official works even contradicting one another. For instance, some manga anthology depictions show the ship girls as ship-sized giants, while other serialized manga show them as human-sized. The television animation explains the ship girls as humans born with the ability to possess the spirits of World War II warships, while within the "Bonds of the Wings of Cranes" light novel, the girls refer to themselves as actual warships, and that their origin is unknown.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Within the story of the light novel "Bonds of the Wings of Cranes", the setting is within an alternate universe where World War II never took place. The fleet of the Abyss, consisting of monster ships, lock down access to the seas and indiscriminately fire upon vessels and aircraft, and feed on the corpses of dead sailors in the water. The large number of abyssals, along with their regenerating ability, allowed them to easily defeat the conventional navies and modern militaries of the world. Ship girls are the guardians of humanity and human-weapon hybrids that are summoned using , with female forms as the ships they represent have female souls. "Zuikaku", having taken a humanoid form, remembers a time where she was once a ship, however, does not know the reason behind her human form.


title: Kantai Collection

text: The fleet girls live within an old-fashioned Japanese-style hotel which doubles as the girls' dormitory and is close to a nearby factory which services combat equipment. The admiral of the fleet is a young man who behaves like a pervert, fond of groping the ship girls and playing with their skirts, although his personality does become serious when commanding the fleet. As the ship girls and abyssal fleets engage in combat, both sides are guarded by a protective barrier. The aircraft carriers "Akagi" and "Kaga" are depicted as firing archery arrows from a bow which then transform into fighter planes. Armaments are detachable equipment, and when not in combat gear the ships otherwise appear as ordinary girls.


title: Kantai Collection

text: This light novel is set within a universe based on the real world, where normal girls undergo training to become ship girls. Hundreds of warships were destroyed by abyssal forces which spontaneously emerge from anywhere under the sea, and as a result, ship girls are employed to counter the threat.


title: Kantai Collection

text: A series of mini-arcs connecting a ship girl to her existing counterpart by gradually introducing characters and rotating the leads. Within this manga, ship girls are depicted as flying on the water surface whilst in combat against the abyss fleet of monster ships, and launch aircraft managed by tiny fairies in a conventional takeoff manner from their body attachments. Artillery and torpedo combat is shown to be performed at long range, whilst anti-submarine warfare takes place in close quarters.


title: Kantai Collection

text: This manga adaptation focuses on the adventures of the Tenryū class and Akatsuki class, as it follows the newly assigned Tenryū and her new squadron in solving the mystery of the Abyssal Fleet.


title: Kantai Collection

text: This manga depicts the story of a newly appointed, rookie officer by the name of Ensign Akai who arrives at the Maizuru Naval Base for duty as the assistant to the vice-admiral, however has to deal with a stubborn and difficult "Shimakaze" who spends most of her time alone, and does not have any friends. Multiple nations around the world have developed ship girls for their navy power, and Maizuru is one of the major bases of Japan responsible for managing them.


title: Kantai Collection

text: This slice of life 4koma depicts the everyday life of the ship girls at the fleet training school, where newly manufactured ship girls spend one year learning knowledge before setting out to sea. Most of the scenarios are taken from the point of view of "Fubuki", and feature the girls doing fun things with one another, which include attending school, drinking tea, celebrating various holidays like Tanabata, Halloween and Christmas, in addition to the occasional sortie. The ship girls retain memories of their previous lives from World War II, at times displaying signs of post-traumatic stress disorder. References to their personal histories and characteristics are common and usually used to comedic effect. This manga depicts the ship girls as being able to walk on the surface of the water in a manner akin to ice-skating, just like in the anime series.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Merchandise based on the game have been launched as a result of the success of the online game, proliferation of derivative works, and strong interest in the franchise. PVC figurines have been released, including Nendoroid and Figma figurines of both Shimakaze and Akagi, in addition to a 1/7 scale PVC display figurine of a severely damaged Kongō designed and manufactured by Max Factory. An expansion for a trading card game Weiß Schwarz based on Kancolle theme was released on March 28, 2014, and reportedly sold 1.7 million packets within its first shipment.


title: Kantai Collection

text: In September 2013, a collaborative project between "Kantai Collection" and the "Arpeggio of Blue Steel" anime was announced. Illustrators for "Kantai Collection" are responsible for drawing some of the anime end cards for "Arpeggio of Blue Steel", which feature crossovers with "Kantai Collection" characters. An "Arpeggio of Blue Steel" in-game special event for "Kantai Collection" also took place from December 24, 2013, to January 8, 2014.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Due to the high popularity of the game within Japan, game operators created larger numbers of servers in early 2013 to cope with the influx of players. During August 2013, the number of new players spiked by 100,000 people within one week, to a total of 600,000 people, with 350,000 daily active players. By September 2013, it was reported that there were more than 800,000 players regularly active. The total number of players broke 1,000,000 on 9 October 2013. As of April 2015, there were 3 million players. One commonly cited explanation behind the success of the game is that players aren't forced to spend money to play, unlike other popular Japanese online games; the free-to-play nature of "Kantai Collection" makes in-game purchases optional, and not a necessity. It is estimated that on average, "Kantai Collection" players spend less money on the game compared to the popular Japanese games "Puzzle & Dragons", "The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls" and "Love Live! School Idol Festival".


title: Kantai Collection

text: Interest in "Kantai Collection" has significantly risen over the months following its release, to the point where it has often been compared with the fandom of "Touhou Project" as an emerging viral fandom. There has been a large increase in online activity and fan-created material relating to the game, such as fan-made artworks, doujinshi and other derivative content. As of April 2015, there are over 345,000 different artworks on Pixiv tagged with "KanColle" created by 67,000 individual artists, and KanColle-related videos on Niconico were watched 460 million times. During Comiket 85, there were 1,136 dōjin circles producing works for "Kantai Collection", placing third behind "Touhou Project" (2,272 circles) and "Kuroko's Basketball" (1,462 circles), and ahead of "The Idolmaster" and "Vocaloid"; this is a significant increase over the previous Comiket 84 event, which only had just over 100 circles with "Kantai Collection" works. Dōjin material relating to the game have also gained traction overseas; KanColle-exclusive dōjin events have been held in Shanghai on 22 February 2014, and Taipei on 29 March 2014.


title: Kantai Collection

text: On 12 December 2013, Twitter officially released the top hashtags of 2013; #艦これ was the most used hashtag among Japanese Twitter users. The game was also the eighth most searched term within Japan on Google in 2013. On 30 December 2013, GameSpark named "Kantai Collection" as the online game category title for its game of the year awards of 2013, ahead of runners-up "League of Legends", "World of Tanks" and "". A survey of 151 different prominent Japanese game developers conducted by 4gamer asked what each developer considered to be the best game of 2013; nine of these developers selected "Kantai Collection". Among these developers, Naoki Yoshida of Square Enix, who produced and directed "Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn", stated that "Kantai Collection" is Japan's answer to "World of Tanks", and that he was impressed by the business model; meanwhile, "" director Seiji Hayashi of Sega referred to the game as "innovative". "Kantai Collection" was named "Rookie of the Year" during the 2013 Awards, as a new entrant to the games market.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Speaking at a symposium held by Kadokawa ASCII Research Institute on 27 September 2013, the chairman of the board of directors of Kadokawa Group Holdings, , stated that despite the game's popularity, "Kantai Collection" is nearly unprofitable for the company, in part due to the game being funded by various company partnerships, such as the profit-sharing agreement made between Kadokawa Group and DMM Group, given that none of the game's development fees were paid for by Kadokawa. Kadokawa's stock price rose by 1000 yen within June 2013, following the initial rise of the game. It is expected that Kadokawa will need to rely on sales of intellectual property media works such as books and manga in order to raise profits. Kadokawa Games president Yoshimi Yasuda affirms that the free-to-play business model of the game will not change despite reports of a lack of revenue gain.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Meanwhile, game distributor DMM Corporation gained 7 billion yen from the game as of June 2014, which is equivalent to 140 times the value of the game's development costs.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Toshihiko Tsukiji's light novel "Kantai Collection: Kagerō, Setting Sail!" sold 16,624 copies within its first week of release, placing 11th place within the Oricon book ranking charts. Also debuting the same week were the "Sasebo Naval District Compilation Vol.1" and "Maizuru Naval District Compilation Vol.1" comic anthologies, which sold 59,552 copies and 58,110 copies respectively. In mid-November 2013, "Yokosuka Naval District Compilation Vol.1" sold 48,909 copies during its first week, placing 10th place among all comic sales. The first manga volume of "Fubuki, Ganbarimasu!" sold 28,324 copies within its first week in December 2013. The "KanColle White Paper" official book published by Kadokawa placed third overall within the Oricon book charts during its debut week in October 2013, selling 46,039 copies.


title: Kantai Collection

text: An editorial within the South Korean "Hankook Ilbo" on 4 November 2013 accuses that the strong popularity of the game is due to a conservative political shift amongst young people in Japan following long-term economic recession and political instability, and that the game glorifies the wartime Imperial Japanese Navy. Addressing the "Hankook Ilbo" allegation, Akky Akimoto writing for "The Japan Times" disagrees with the idea that the game's design deliberately facilitates any political shift, and argues that the 1970s anime series "Space Battleship Yamato" was subject to similar criticisms despite having little effect on domestic politics.


title: Kantai Collection

text: Another opinion piece from the "Asahi Shimbun" suggests that the game's unforgiving mechanics, such as ships permanently sinking, with some of them even tracing their grandparents' military service history, help players understand the brutality of war given the desperate situations, so that they can gain a more positive understanding of history or even oppose conflict itself.


title: Kantai Collection

text: In January 2015, allegations arose that the company Beijing Longzhu Digital Technology (), which runs an unofficial pirated KanColle server in Mainland China, spent () in purchasing various Chinese-language KanColle internet forums such as the KanColle subforum on Baidu Tieba; online discussion boards intended for discussing the original Japanese game were closed down or placed under new management, while the forums of the pirated bootleg Chinese KanColle remained online. This led to widespread unrest amongst Chinese players of the original game, resulting in large-scale internet raids on forums and social media, distributed denial-of-service attacks, and website defacing via SQL injection by hackers against those running the bootleg server. An article published by China Central Television referred to the incident as the largest online mass boycott and protest against intellectual property infringement in China, and a wake-up call for the Chinese gaming industry as a whole to strive for integrity and refrain from creating copycat works.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-gray, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. Rhenium has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling point of any stable element at 5869 K. Rhenium resembles manganese and technetium chemically and is mainly obtained as a by-product of the extraction and refinement of molybdenum and copper ores. Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.


title: Rhenium

text: Discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke and Otto Berg in 1925, rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered. It was named after the river Rhine in Europe, from which the earliest samples had been obtained and worked commercially.


title: Rhenium

text: Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a catalyst: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization, and is used for example in catalytic reforming of naphtha for use in gasoline (rheniforming process). Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is expensive, with price reaching an all-time high in 2008/2009 of US$10,600 per kilogram (US$4,800 per pound). Due to increases in rhenium recycling and a drop in demand for rhenium in catalysts, the price of rhenium had dropped to US$2,844 per kilogram (US$1,290 per pound) as of July 2018.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium ( meaning: "Rhine") was the last-discovered of the elements that have a stable isotope (other new elements discovered in nature since then, such as francium, are radioactive). The existence of a yet-undiscovered element at this position in the periodic table had been first predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Other calculated information was obtained by Henry Moseley in 1914. In 1908, Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it "nipponium" (Np) after Japan ("Nippon" in Japanese). However, recent analysis indicated the presence of rhenium (element 75), not element 43, although this reinterpretation has been questioned by Eric Scerri. The symbol Np was later used for the element neptunium, and the name "nihonium", also named after Japan, along with symbol Nh, was later used for element 113. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium is generally considered to have been discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite. It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the United States was used for research and the development of refractory metal alloys. It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium is a silvery-white metal with one of the highest melting points of all elements, exceeded by only tungsten and carbon. It also has one of the highest boiling points of all elements, and the highest among stable elements. It is also one of the densest, exceeded only by platinum, iridium and osmium. Rhenium has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, with lattice parameters "a" = 276.1 pm and "c" = 445.6 pm.


title: Rhenium

text: Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing and sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere. This procedure yields a compact solid having a density above 90% of the density of the metal. When annealed this metal is very ductile and can be bent, coiled, or rolled. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10 K; tungsten-rhenium alloys are also superconductive around 4–8 K, depending on the alloy. Rhenium metal superconducts at .


title: Rhenium

text: In bulk form and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, the element resists alkalis, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and aqua regia. It will however, react with nitric acid upon heating.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium has one stable isotope, rhenium-185, which nevertheless occurs in minority abundance, a situation found only in two other elements (indium and tellurium). Naturally occurring rhenium is only 37.4% Re, and 62.6% Re, which is unstable but has a very long half-life (≈10 years). A kilogram of natural rhenium emits 1.07 MBq of radiation due to the presence of this isotope. This lifetime can be greatly affected by the charge state of the rhenium atom. The beta decay of Re is used for rhenium–osmium dating of ores. The available energy for this beta decay (2.6 keV) is one of the lowest known among all radionuclides. The isotope rhenium-186m is notable as being one of the longest lived metastable isotopes with a half-life of around 200,000 years. There are 33 other unstable isotopes that have been recognized, ranging from Re to Re, the longest-lived of which is Re with a half-life of 70 days.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium compounds are known for all the oxidation states between −3 and +7 except −2. The oxidation states +7, +6, +4, and +2 are the most common. Rhenium is most available commercially as salts of perrhenate, including sodium and ammonium perrhenates. These are white, water-soluble compounds. Tetrathioperrhenate anion [ReS] is possible.


title: Rhenium

text: The most common rhenium chlorides are ReCl, ReCl, ReCl, and ReCl. The structures of these compounds often feature extensive Re-Re bonding, which is characteristic of this metal in oxidation states lower than VII. Salts of [ReCl] feature a quadruple metal-metal bond. Although the highest rhenium chloride features Re(VI), fluorine gives the d Re(VII) derivative rhenium heptafluoride. Bromides and iodides of rhenium are also well known.


title: Rhenium

text: Like tungsten and molybdenum, with which it shares chemical similarities, rhenium forms a variety of oxyhalides. The oxychlorides are most common, and include ReOCl, ReOCl.


title: Rhenium

text: The most common oxide is the volatile yellow ReO. The red rhenium trioxide ReO adopts a perovskite-like structure. Other oxides include ReO, ReO, and ReO. The sulfides are ReS and ReS. Perrhenate salts can be converted to tetrathioperrhenate by the action of ammonium hydrosulfide.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium diboride (ReB) is a hard compound having a hardness similar to that of tungsten carbide, silicon carbide, titanium diboride or zirconium diboride.


title: Rhenium

text: Dirhenium decacarbonyl is the most common entry to organorhenium chemistry. Its reduction with sodium amalgam gives Na[Re(CO)] with rhenium in the formal oxidation state −1. Dirhenium decacarbonyl can be oxidised with bromine to bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I):


title: Rhenium

text: Methylrhenium trioxide ("MTO"), CHReO is a volatile, colourless solid has been used as a catalyst in some laboratory experiments. It can be prepared by many routes, a typical method is the reaction of ReO and tetramethyltin:


title: Rhenium

text: Analogous alkyl and aryl derivatives are known. MTO catalyses for the oxidations with hydrogen peroxide. Terminal alkynes yield the corresponding acid or ester, internal alkynes yield diketones, and alkenes give epoxides. MTO also catalyses the conversion of aldehydes and diazoalkanes into an alkene.


title: Rhenium

text: A distinctive derivative of rhenium is nonahydridorhenate, originally thought to be the "rhenide" anion, Re, but actually containing the anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is +7.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust with an average concentration of 1 ppb; other sources quote the number of 0.5 ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth's crust. Rhenium is probably not found free in nature (its possible natural occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to 0.2% in the mineral molybdenite (which is primarily molybdenum disulfide), the major commercial source, although single molybdenite samples with up to 1.88% have been found. Chile has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of 2005. It was only recently that the first rhenium mineral was found and described (in 1994), a rhenium sulfide mineral (ReS) condensing from a fumarole on Kudriavy volcano, Iturup island, in the Kuril Islands. Kudriavy discharges up to 20–60 kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide. Named rheniite, this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors.


title: Rhenium

text: Approximately 80% of rhenium is extracted from porphyry molybdenum deposits. Some ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium. Roasting the ore volatilizes rhenium oxides. Rhenium(VII) oxide and perrhenic acid readily dissolve in water; they are leached from flue dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with potassium or ammonium chloride as the perrhenate salts, and purified by recrystallization. Total world production is between 40 and 50 tons/year; the main producers are in Chile, the United States, Peru, and Poland. Recycling of used Pt-Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of another 10 tons per year. Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008, from $1000–$2000 per kg in 2003–2006 to over $10,000 in February 2008. The metal form is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures:


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that are used to make jet engine parts, using 70% of the worldwide rhenium production. Another major application is in platinum–rhenium catalysts, which are primarily used in making lead-free, high-octane gasoline.


title: Rhenium

text: The nickel-based superalloys have improved creep strength with the addition of rhenium. The alloys normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium. Second-generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines for the F-15 and F-16, whereas the newer single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in the F-22 and F-35 engines. Rhenium is also used in the superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd gen) and CMSX-10 (3rd gen) that are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium can cause superalloys to become microstructurally unstable, forming undesirable topologically close packed (TCP) phases. In 4th- and 5th-generation superalloys, ruthenium is used to avoid this effect. Among others the new superalloys are EPM-102 (with 3% Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6% Ru), as well as TMS-138 and TMS-174.


title: Rhenium

text: For 2006, the consumption is given as 28% for General Electric, 28% Rolls-Royce plc and 12% Pratt & Whitney, all for superalloys, whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%. In 2006, 77% of rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys. The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content. For example, the newer CFM International CFM56 high-pressure turbine (HPT) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1.5% instead of Rene N5 with 3%.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium improves the properties of tungsten. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature, allowing them to be more easily machined. The high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit. Tungsten-rhenium wire was originally created in efforts to develop a wire that was more ductile after recrystallization. This allows the wire to meet specific performance objectives, including superior vibration resistance, improved ductility, and higher resistivity. One application for the tungsten-rhenium alloys is X-ray sources. The high melting point of both elements, together with their high atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact. Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as thermocouples to measure temperatures up to 2200 °C.


title: Rhenium

text: The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good wear resistance and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning electrical contacts. In particular, the discharge that occurs during electrical switching oxidizes the contacts. However, rhenium oxide ReO is volatile (sublimes at ~360 °C) and therefore is removed during the discharge.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to tantalum and tungsten. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing atmosphere. Those filaments are widely used in mass spectrometers, ion gauges and photoflash lamps in photography.


title: Rhenium

text: Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for catalytic reforming, which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery naphthas with low octane ratings into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium. The olefin metathesis is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally ReO on alumina is used for this process. Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to chemical poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.


title: Rhenium

text: The isotopes Re and Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of liver cancer. They both have similar penetration depth in tissue (5 mm for Re and 11 mm for Re), but Re has advantage of longer lifetime (90 hours vs. 17 hours).


title: Rhenium

text: Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium "Listeria monocytogenes". The Re isotope is also used for the rhenium-SCT (skin cancer therapy). The treatment uses the isotope's properties as a beta emitter for brachytherapy in the treatment of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin.


title: Rhenium

text: Related by periodic trends, rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of technetium; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the technetium-99m isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half-life.


title: Rhenium

text: Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used in very small amounts. Soluble salts, such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates, could be hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself. Only a few compounds of rhenium have been tested for their acute toxicity; two examples are potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride, which were injected as a solution into rats. The perrhenate had an LD value of 2800 mg/kg after seven days (this is very low toxicity, similar to that of table salt) and the rhenium trichloride showed LD of 280 mg/kg.


title: Talking Book

text: Talking Book is the fifteenth studio album by American singer, songwriter, and musician Stevie Wonder, released on October 27, 1972, by Tamla, a subsidiary of Motown Records. This album and "Music of My Mind", released earlier the same year, are generally considered to mark the start of Wonder's "classic period". The sound of the album is sharply defined by Wonder's use of keyboards and synthesizers.


title: Talking Book

text: The album peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Top LPs chart and finished at number three on "Billboard"s year-end chart for 1973. "Superstition" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and Hot Soul Singles charts, and "You Are the Sunshine of My Life" hit number one on the Hot 100 and Easy Listening charts. "Talking Book" earned Wonder his first Grammy Award, with "You Are the Sunshine of My Life" winning Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 16th Grammy Awards; "Superstition" also won Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. Often included in lists of the greatest albums of all time, "Talking Book" was voted number 322 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000), and "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 59 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Talking Book

text: As "Talking Book" saw Wonder enjoying more artistic freedom from Motown and relying less on Motown's head Berry Gordy for musical direction and expression, it is often seen as the beginning of his transition from a youthful prodigy into an independent and experimental artist. Speaking of the album in 2000, Wonder said: "It wasn't so much that I wanted to say anything except where I wanted to just express various many things that I felt—the political point of view that I have, the social point of view that I have, the passions, emotion and love that I felt, compassion, the fun of love that I felt, the whole thing in the beginning with a joyful love and then the pain of love."


title: Talking Book

text: The sound of the album is sharply defined by Wonder's keyboard work, especially synthesizers. While the synthesizers give a funky edge to tracks like "Maybe Your Baby", the Hohner Clavinet embellishments on "Big Brother" evoke a six-string acoustic guitar, and the note-bending harmonica work on several tracks touches on some folk and blues influences. Wonder's use of the Clavinet Model C on "Superstition" is widely regarded as one of the definitive tracks featuring the instrument. Wonder played the majority of the instruments on the album himself, but he received some support from such guest musicians as Jeff Beck, Ray Parker Jr., David Sanborn, and Buzz Feiten.


title: Talking Book

text: Robert Margouleff and Malcolm Cecil collaborated with Wonder on four of his "classic" albums: "Music of My Mind", "Talking Book", "Innervisions" and "Fulfillingness' First Finale", as well as several albums by the Isley Brothers and others. Their unusual production technique of using multiple layers of instruments like the Clavinet, Fender Rhodes electric piano, and Arp and Moog synthesizers, rather than the more-typical string orchestra, helped to give "Talking Book" and these other three albums their distinctive sound.


title: Talking Book

text: The cover of the album features a picture of Wonder with cornrows, wearing Indian jewelry and a velvet kaftan.


title: Talking Book

text: The packaging of original pressings of the album incorporated both the album's title and Wonder's name embossed in braille (as well as being printed in English), along with a message that was only embossed in braille until the 2000 release of the album. The message reads:


title: Talking Book

text: Released after Wonder toured with The Rolling Stones in 1972, "Talking Book" became a major hit, peaking at number three on the "Billboard" Pop Albums chart in February 1973, and became the first album by Wonder to reach the top of the Top R&B Albums chart, where it remained for three weeks. The popular appeal of the recording helped destroy the myth that R&B artists were incapable of creating music that could be appreciated by rock audiences, and marked a unique period for R&B artists (especially Motown artists). Wonder won three awards for "Talking Book" at the 1974 Grammys: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "You Are the Sunshine of My Life", and both Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song for "Superstition". Incidentally, at the same ceremony, Wonder's next album, "Innervisions", won Album of the Year, and "Talking Book"s associate producers, Malcolm Cecil and Robert Margouleff, won the Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical award for their work on that album.


title: Talking Book

text: Reviewing the album for "Rolling Stone" at the time of its release, Vince Aletti called "Talking Book" "ambitious" and "richly-textured", writing that "even at its dreamiest, the music has a glowing vibrancy" and makes for an altogether "exceptional, exciting album, the work of a now quite matured genius". Writing a few years later in "The Village Voice" about Wonder's "Songs in the Key of Life" (1976), Robert Christgau said that ""Talking Book" is closer to a perfect album", as "a more complex and satisfying delight—a delight that combines the freewheeling energy of Dylan and the Stones with the softer accessibility of a Carole King—is provided by an artist with the ambition to ride his own considerable momentum and the talent to do more than just hang on while doing so." In "" (1981), Christgau said the album found Wonder taking artistic control and breaking through, continuing his "wild multi-voice experiments" and writing better ballads without losing "his endearing natural bathos"; Christgau also highlighted "Superstition" as a translation of Wonder's "way of knowledge into hard-headed, hard-rocking political analysis". J. D. Considine, in "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), called the album "a pop tour de force".


title: Talking Book

text: "Talking Book" has frequently appeared in professional rankings of the greatest albums of all time. It was voted number 322 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000). In 2003, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 90 on the magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time; it maintained that ranking on the 2012 version of the list, and was number 59 on the 2020 edition. Based on such rankings, the review aggregator website Acclaimed Music lists "Talking Book" as the 146th most acclaimed album of all time.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine is a medication which, when excreted by the kidneys into the urine, has a local analgesic effect on the urinary tract. It is often used to help with the pain, irritation, or urgency caused by urinary tract infections, surgery, or injury to the urinary tract. Phenazopyridine was discovered by Bernhard Joos, the founder of Cilag.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine is prescribed for its local analgesic effects on the urinary tract. It is sometimes used in conjunction with an antibiotic or other anti-infective medication at the beginning of treatment to help provide immediate symptomatic relief. Phenazopyridine does not treat infections or injury; it is only used for symptom relief. It is recommended that it be used for no longer than the first two days of antibacterial treatment as longer treatment may mask symptoms.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine is also prescribed for other cases requiring relief from irritation or discomfort during urination. For example, it is often prescribed after the use of an in-dwelling Foley catheter, endoscopic (cystoscopy) procedures, or after urethral, prostate, or urinary bladder surgery which may result in irritation of the epithelial lining of the urinary tract.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: This medication is not used to treat infection and may mask symptoms of inappropriately treated UTI. It provides symptom relief during a UTI, following surgery, or injury to the urinary tract. UTI therapy should be limited to 1–2 days. Long-term use of phenazopyridine can mask symptoms.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine produces a vivid color change in urine, typically to a dark orange to reddish color. This effect is common and harmless, and indeed a key indicator of the presence of the medication in the body. Users of phenazopyridine are warned not to wear contact lenses, as phenazopyridine has been known to permanently discolor contact lenses and fabrics. It also tends to leave an orange-yellow stain on surfaces it comes in contact with. Some may be mistakenly concerned that this indicated blood in the urine.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine can also cause headaches, upset stomach (especially when not taken with food), or dizziness. Less frequently it can cause a pigment change in the skin or eyes, to a noticeable yellowish color. This is due to a depressed excretion via the kidneys causing a buildup of the medication in the skin, and normally indicates a need to discontinue usage. Other such side effects include fever, confusion, shortness of breath, skin rash, and swelling of the face, fingers, feet, or legs. Long-term use may cause yellowing of nails.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine should be avoided by people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, because it can cause hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells) due to oxidative stress. It has been reported to cause methemoglobinemia after overdose and even normal doses. In at least one case the patient had pre-existing low levels of methemoglobin reductase, which likely predisposed her to the condition. It has also been reported to cause sulfhemoglobinemia.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine is an azo dye. Other azo dyes, which were previously used in textiles, printing, and plastic manufacturing, have been implicated as carcinogens that can cause bladder cancer. While phenazopyridine has never been shown to cause cancer in humans, evidence from animal models suggests that it is potentially carcinogenic.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: This medication is pregnancy category B. This means that the medication has shown no adverse events in animal models, but no human trials have been conducted. It is not known if phenazopyridine is excreted in breast milk.


title: Phenazopyridine

text: The full pharmacokinetic properties of phenazopyridine have not been determined. It has mostly been studied in animal models, but they may not be very representative of humans. Rat models have shown its half-life to be 7.35 hours, and 40% is metabolized hepatically (by the liver).


title: Phenazopyridine

text: Phenazopyridine's mechanism of action is not well known, and only basic information on its interaction with the body is available. It is known that the chemical has a direct topical analgesic effect on the mucosa lining of the urinary tract. It is rapidly excreted by the kidneys directly into the urine. Hydroxylation is the major form of metabolism in humans, and the azo bond is usually not cleaved. On the order of 65% of an oral dose will be secreted directly into the urine chemically unchanged.


title: Natacha Karam

text: Natacha Karam is a Northern Irish and French Lebanese actress. She is best known for her roles as Jasmine "Jaz" Khan in "The Brave" and Marjan Marwani in "".


title: Natacha Karam

text: Karam was born in Jeddah where her family was stationed to a Northern Irish mother and a French-Lebanese father. Her family moved around while Karam was growing up; places she lived included Ireland, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Bahrain, and Dubai. Karam completed her A Levels at Dubai College in 2012. She went on to study at the City Literary Institute in London, graduating in 2014.


title: Natacha Karam

text: Karam began her acting career in 2017, with one-off appearances in television series "Silent Witness" and "Homeland", along with an appearance in the TV film "Valentine's Again". She landed her first major role later that year, when she was cast as Sergeant Jasmine "Jaz" Khan on the military action drama series "The Brave", which ran for one season consisting of 13 episodes on NBC.


title: Natacha Karam

text: In 2018, Karam made an appearance in the film "The Hurricane Heist", and in 2019, she appeared in an episode of the 34th season of the TV series "Casualty". Since 2020, she has been part of the main cast of the procedural drama series "" on Fox, playing the role of firefighter Marjan Marwani. Karam also appeared in the 2020 Netflix film "The Old Guard", in which she played the role of Dizzy.


title: Wes Brown

text: Wesley Michael Brown (born 13 October 1979) is an English former professional footballer who played as a defender.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown began his career with Manchester United, joining the club's academy at the age of 12 in 1992. After turning professional in 1996, he made his senior debut in 1998 and became a semi regular first team player during the 1998–99 season, when the club won the Treble. After a year-long hiatus due to injury, Brown became a regular fixture in the first team from 2000 onwards. Over the next eight years, he won numerous honours, including four more Premier League titles, an FA Cup, a League Cup and another Champions League. Former United manager Sir Alex Ferguson has stated that Brown is "without question the best natural defender this club has had for years". After 15 years with Manchester United, Brown was allowed to leave for Sunderland.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown earned his first England cap in 1999 and was selected to play at the 2002 World Cup. He played in the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers but England failed to progress to the final tournament. He scored his first international goal in 2008 against the Czech Republic. Brown announced his retirement from international football on 8 August 2010, just a day after being recalled to the England squad by Fabio Capello.


title: Wes Brown

text: Born in Longsight, Manchester, Brown began his football career as a schoolboy playing for the Burnage High School and Fletcher Moss Rangers, a Greater Manchester youth side, and was a former student of the Lilleshall Hall FA School of Excellence, as well as spending time at United's football Academy, which he joined at the age of 12. Brown showed talent and maturity at an early age, signing full professional terms with boyhood club Manchester United on 4 November 1996 at the age of 17.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown went on to success with the reserve and youth sides, winning the FA Youth Cup and a Lancashire Division One medal with the reserves. He also added two Jimmy Murphy (Young Player of the Year) awards to his collection, becoming only the second player to receive the award for a second time (the other being Ryan Giggs).


title: Wes Brown

text: On 4 May 1998, Brown made his full first team FA Premier League debut against Leeds United, coming on as a substitute. His breakthrough would occur the next year, the 1998–99 season, where he made several first-team appearances at right-back as well as his more natural position of centre-back. The season could not have gone any better for Brown, as United completed the treble, winning the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown suffered the first of what would be a string of injuries while training for the 1999–2000 campaign. As a result, he did not play a single competitive game all season, while United went on to seal their sixth Premier League title in eight seasons.


title: Wes Brown

text: His strong comeback the following year prompted praise from all corners, with club manager Sir Alex Ferguson making waves by proclaiming Brown to be Manchester United's most talented defender.


title: Wes Brown

text: A fine 2000–01 campaign was followed by another solid year in 2001–02. His reputation grew even greater during the 2002–03 season, but again, his performances were marred by injury. Brown tore a knee ligament on the final day of the season, and did not return until midway through the 2003–04 season. Brown finished the season in good form, notably giving an imperious, man of the match-winning performance in the FA Cup semi-final win over Arsenal. It was after this fine display that Ferguson re-iterated his confidence in Brown's abilities.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown was a member of the side that won the FA Cup that year, against Millwall at Cardiff, and later went on to collect runners-up medals in the 2005 and 2007 finals.


title: Wes Brown

text: The signing of Nemanja Vidić in January 2006, who would go on to forge a highly successful partnership with Rio Ferdinand, along with Brown's continuing injury problems, meant the defender continued to struggle to hold down a place in United's starting line-up. In the 2007–08 season, however, Brown established himself as the club's first-choice right-back. He ended the season by assisting Cristiano Ronaldo's goal in the 2008 Champions League final, which United eventually won on penalty kicks to complete a league and European double.


title: Wes Brown

text: After nearly three years without scoring a Premier League goal for United, Brown scored on 23 March 2008 against Liverpool, the first in a 3–0 win.


title: Wes Brown

text: After initially rejecting a new contract offer in December 2007, Brown signed a new five-year contract along with fellow defender Rio Ferdinand and midfielder Michael Carrick in April 2008, which was to keep him at Old Trafford until 2013.


title: Wes Brown

text: On 4 October 2008, Brown scored only the fourth goal of his Manchester United career when he headed in Wayne Rooney's cross in United's 2–0 win away to Blackburn Rovers. The goal was controversial, however, as Blackburn's players believed that Nemanja Vidić had impeded their goalkeeper, Jason Brown, allowing Brown to head in at the far post.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown was ruled out of first team action for around five weeks in November 2008, following an exploratory ankle operation. Brown made his first start in eight months away against Hull City on 24 May 2009.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown started the following season, featuring throughout August in the league, but between September and October only appeared in United's League Cup campaign, before injury to both Rio Ferdinand and Nemanja Vidić saw Brown return to Premier League action as he partnered Jonny Evans in central defence against Blackburn, and both men produced an assured and professional display. This was Brown's first Premier League start since the 2–1 victory against Arsenal, at the end of August.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown captained the League Cup game against Wolverhampton Wanderers in which they won 3–2. On 19 February, he scored his first FA Cup goal in Manchester United's 1–0 win over Crawley Town. He also captained United again in the Crawley match.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown joined Sunderland on 7 July 2011 on a four-year contract for an undisclosed fee. Brown made his debut on the opening day of the season at Liverpool, where he was awarded man of the match as Sunderland drew 1–1. On 5 November 2011, Brown scored an own goal in a match against his former club, Manchester United. Brown's first goal for Sunderland came on 21 December 2011, when he scored the winning goal with two minutes remaining in a 3–2 victory away to Queens Park Rangers. Brown's season ended through injury in the FA Cup Fourth Round tie with Middlesbrough in January 2012.


title: Wes Brown

text: He made his Premier League comeback on 2 November 2013 in a 1–0 defeat against Hull. On 23 November 2013, Brown was sent off during a 2–0 defeat against Stoke City, a decision that was overturned on appeal on 26 November 2013. Brown was sent off again on 21 December 2013, in a 0–0 draw against Norwich City. Brown was given his third red card of the season in the fourth minute of Sunderland's 2–0 defeat to Hull City.


title: Wes Brown

text: On 28 February 2015, Brown was sent off during a match against Manchester United, which Sunderland lost 2–0, though it was John O'Shea who actually committed the foul. Referee Roger East insisted he got the decision right. The red card was later rescinded after Sunderland won an appeal.


title: Wes Brown

text: At the end of the 2014–15 season, Brown was named as one of several Sunderland players available on a free transfer at the end of his contract in June 2015. On 12 June 2015, however, manager Dick Advocaat signed Brown to a one-year contract extension.


title: Wes Brown

text: On 21 September 2016, following a number of injury set-backs and three-and-a-half months training with the club to regain fitness, Brown signed a short-term contract with Blackburn Rovers, lasting until the end of the season. As part of the deal, Brown would also take up a coaching role with the club's development squad, a team for which he had played a number of games while regaining fitness. He worked alongside existing coaches Damien Johnson and David Dunn and offered guidance and advice to the club's younger players. He made his debut and scored his first goal for Blackburn against Reading on 17 December 2016.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown reunited with former Manchester United coach René Meulensteen in August 2017, joining Meulensteen at Indian Super League club Kerala Blasters.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown was part of the Blackburn Rovers Under-23s and Academy coaching setup during his time with the club. He holds the UEFA 'A' Licence, which he achieved with the Irish Football Association.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown has represented England at international level, making 23 appearances since debuting in 1999. He was notably part of the England squad at the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown made his debut in 1999 against Hungary and booked a place in Sven-Göran Eriksson's squad for the 2002 World Cup, although he spent his time on the bench.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown performed consistently well in the 2005–06 season which led to his recall to the England squad for the friendly game against Uruguay. Although he played no part in this fixture, he hoped to make it into the final England squad for the 2006 World Cup, though he was ultimately not selected.


title: Wes Brown

text: He was once again recalled to the England squad by coach Steve McClaren, and played in a defeat of Andorra in UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying on 2 September, partnering John Terry at the heart of the England defence in place of injured Manchester United teammate Rio Ferdinand. He replaced Terry in a friendly against Brazil on 1 June 2007, but he slipped up with his first touch of the ball and nearly scored an own goal.


title: Wes Brown

text: Fabio Capello named Brown as a starter in both of his first two games in charge of the national team, against Switzerland and France. He also played 56 minutes in England's 2–0 win over the United States on 28 May 2008.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown scored his sole senior international goal in a friendly against the Czech Republic on 20 August 2008 at Wembley Stadium, heading in a David Beckham corner in the 45th minute.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown made three appearances for England in their qualification for the 2010 World Cup in wins over Croatia (4–1), Kazakhstan (5–1) and Belarus (3–1).


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown was called up for the England squad to face Slovenia in a friendly match on 5 September 2009, but was an unused substitute. He was then called up for a friendly against Brazil to be played Khalifa International Stadium in Qatar, where he played the full 90 minutes.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown also played in England's 3–1 win over Egypt on 3 March 2010. He did not, however, make the England squad for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa after an injury-hit season.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown retired from international football on 8 August 2010, one day after being selected for a friendly against Hungary.


title: Wes Brown

text: Brown is married to Leanne Wassell, with whom he lives with their three daughters, Halle, Lilia and Lola. His father, Bancroft Brown, died in February 2008. His half-sister, Claire Fallows, died on 19 July 2008 during pregnancy. Brown's younger brother, Reece, played for Bury having joined the Manchester United Academy at the age of nine, also plays at centre-back and is an England under-20 international. Another brother, Clive, was on the books of Manchester City as a youth player in the late 1990s, before going on to play for Hyde United, Bangor City, Mossley, Woodley Sports and currently plays for New Mills.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: The Alaskan Klee Kai is a spitz-type breed of dog, developed in the late 20th century as a companion-sized dog resembling the larger Alaskan Malamute and Siberian Husky. It is an energetic, intelligent dog with an appearance that reflects its northern heritage. Bred in three sizes, its weight range is from 5 to 22 pounds as an adult, depending on whether its a standard, toy, or miniature.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: The name Klee Kai comes from the Athabaskan words meaning “little dog”. The breed was originally developed in Alaska by Linda Spurlin in the 1970s. The breed was created using the Alaskan Husky, a small amount of Siberian Husky, a slightly larger amount of American Eskimo Dog, and some Schipperkes. Spurlin’s “hardcore approach” to breeding might be considered harsh to some, as she “used the best and culled the rest” in order to create the breed.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: The average Alaskan Klee Kai's temperament is curious, agile, aloof, and intelligent. They can be so intelligent that they can become stubborn, which is considered an unwanted trait. They excel at agility, and even though they are small dogs, they are thick-boned and can withstand high jumps. Their small size can be advantageous to agility training, allowing them to move with ease and gracefulness.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: They come in four colors: red and white; black and white; gray and white; and all white. There are subdivisions within each color, such as wolf gray and silver gray, cinnamon red and dark red, jet black and white, and salt and pepper black and white. Albinism in Alaskan Klee Kai's may disqualify dogs from show rings and breeding programs, as it is stated in the breed standard that all-white is not a recognized color.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: The Toy Alaskan Klee Kai can be up to 13 inches tall and weighs less than 10 pounds. The Miniature Alaskan Klee Kai can be 13–15 inches tall and weigh 10–15 pounds. The Standard size Alaskan Klee Kai can be 15–17 inches tall (17-17.5 inches is still considered a standard size Alaskan Klee Kai, but is a fault) and weigh 15–20 lbs. Specific weight


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: ranges were included in the Original AKKAOA Standards 1993, but subsequent revisions call only for weight to be proportional to the height of the dog.


title: Alaskan Klee Kai

text: Alaskan Klee Kais are prone to developing juvenile cataracts, liver disease, factor VII deficiency and heart problems. Thyroid problems have also been observed. Due to the relatively young age of the breed in general, it is possible that not enough time has elapsed to fully determine the prevalence of genetic disease in this breed, although it is believed that this breed is relatively healthy.


title: Rebreather

text: A rebreather is a breathing apparatus that absorbs the carbon dioxide of a user's exhaled breath to permit the rebreathing (recycling) of the substantially unused oxygen content, and unused inert content when present, of each breath. Oxygen is added to replenish the amount metabolised by the user. This differs from open-circuit breathing apparatus, where the exhaled gas is discharged directly into the environment. The purpose is to extend the breathing endurance of a limited gas supply, and, for covert military use by frogmen or observation of underwater life, eliminating the bubbles produced by an open circuit system and in turn not scaring wildlife being filmed. A rebreather is generally understood to be a portable unit carried by the user. The same technology on a vehicle or non-mobile installation is more likely to be referred to as a life-support system.


title: Rebreather

text: Rebreather technology may be used where breathing gas supply is limited, such as underwater or in space, where the environment is toxic or hypoxic, as in firefighting, mine rescue and high-altitude operations, or where the breathing gas is specially enriched or contains expensive components, such as helium diluent or anaesthetic gases.


title: Rebreather

text: Rebreathers are used in many environments: Underwater, diving rebreathers are a type of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus which have provisions for both a primary and emergency gas supply. On land they are used in industrial applications where poisonous gases may be present or oxygen may be absent, firefighting, where firefighters may be required to operate in an atmosphere immediately dangerous to life and health for extended periods, in hospital anaesthesia breathing systems to supply controlled concentrations of anaesthetic gases to patients without contaminating the air that the staff breathe, and at high altitude, where the partial pressure of oxygen is low, for high altitude mountaineering. In aerospace there are applications in unpressurised aircraft and for high altitude parachute drops, and above the earth's atmosphere, in space suits for extra-vehicular activity. Similar technology is used in life-support systems in submarines, submersibles, atmospheric diving suits, underwater and surface saturation habitats, spacecraft, and space stations, and in gas reclaim systems used to recover the large volumes of helium used in saturation diving.


title: Rebreather

text: The recycling of breathing gas comes at the cost of technological complexity and specific hazards, some of which depend on the application and type of rebreather used. Mass and bulk may be greater or less than open circuit depending on circumstances. Electronically controlled diving rebreathers may automatically maintain a partial pressure of oxygen between programmable upper and lower limits, or set points, and be integrated with decompression computers to monitor the decompression status of the diver and record the dive profile.


title: Rebreather

text: As a person breathes, the body consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. Base metabolism requires about 0.25 L/min of oxygen from a breathing rate of about 6 L/min, and a fit person working hard may ventilate at a rate of 95 L/min but will only metabolise about 4 L/min of oxygen The oxygen metabolised is generally about 4% to 5% of the inspired volume at normal atmospheric pressure, or about 20% of the available oxygen in the air at sea level. Exhaled air at sea level contains roughly 13.5% to 16% oxygen.


title: Rebreather

text: The situation is even more wasteful of oxygen when the oxygen fraction of the breathing gas is higher, and in underwater diving, the compression of breathing gas due to depth makes the recirculation of exhaled gas even more desirable, as an even larger proportion of open circuit gas is wasted. Continued rebreathing of the same gas will deplete the oxygen to a level which will no longer support consciousness, and eventually life, so gas containing oxygen must be added to the breathing gas to maintain the required concentration of oxygen.


title: Rebreather

text: However, if this is done without removing the carbon dioxide, it will rapidly build up in the recycled gas, resulting almost immediately in mild respiratory distress, and rapidly developing into further stages of hypercapnia, or carbon dioxide toxicity.


title: Rebreather

text: A high ventilation rate is usually necessary to eliminate the metabolic product carbon dioxide (CO). The breathing reflex is triggered by CO concentration in the blood, not by the oxygen concentration, so even a small buildup of CO in the inhaled gas quickly becomes intolerable; if a person tries to directly rebreathe their exhaled breathing gas, they will soon feel an acute sense of suffocation, so rebreathers must remove the CO in a component known as a carbon dioxide scrubber.


title: Rebreather

text: By adding sufficient oxygen to compensate for the metabolic usage, removing the carbon dioxide, and rebreathing the gas, most of the volume is conserved.


title: Rebreather

text: There are two basic arrangements controlling the flow of breathing gas inside the rebreather, known as the pendulum and loop systems.


title: Rebreather

text: In the pendulum configuration, the user inhales gas from the counterlung through a breathing hose, and exhaled gas returns to the counter lung by flowing back through the same hose. The scrubber is usually between the breathing hose and the counterlung bag, and gas flow is bi-directional. All of the flow passages between the user and the active absorbent in the scrubber are dead space – volume containing gas which is rebreathed without modification by the rebreather. The dead space increases as the absorbent is depleted. Breathing hose volume must be minimised to limit dead space.


title: Rebreather

text: In the loop configuration, the user inhales gas through one hose, and exhales through a second hose. Exhaled gas flows into the scrubber from one side, and exits at the other side. There may be one large counterlung, on either side of the scrubber, or two smaller counterlungs, one on each side of the scrubber. Flow is in one direction, enforced by non-return valves, which are usually in the breathing hoses where they join the mouthpiece. Only the flow passage in the mouthpiece before the split between inhalation and exhalation hoses is dead space, and this is not affected by hose volume.


title: Rebreather

text: There are some components that are common to almost all personal portable rebreathers. These include the ambient pressure breathing volume components, usually called the breathing loop in a circulating flow rebreather, and the make-up gas supply and control system.


title: Rebreather

text: The counterlung is an airtight bag of strong flexible material that holds the volume of the exhaled gas until it is inhaled again. There may be a single counterlung, or one on each side of the scrubber, which allows a more even flow rate of gas through the scrubber, which can reduce work of breathing and improve scrubber efficiency by a more consistent .


title: Rebreather

text: The scrubber is a container that has an inlet on one side and an outlet on the other side, filled with carbon dioxide absorbent material, mostly strong bases, through which the exhaled gas passes to remove the carbon dioxide. The absorbent may be granular or in the form of a moulded cartridge. Granular sorb may be manufactured by breaking up lumps of lime and sorting the granules by size, or by moulding granules at a consistent size and shape. Gas flow through the scrubber may be in one direction in a loop rebreather, or both ways in a pendulum rebreather.


title: Rebreather

text: A typical absorbent is Sodalime, which is made up of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH), potassium hydroxide KOH, and/or sodium hydroxide NaOH. (Either or both of these may be present). The main component of soda lime is calcium hydroxide, which is relatively cheap and easily available. Other components may be present in the absorbent. Sodium hydroxide is added to accelerate the reaction with carbon dioxide. Other chemicals may be added to prevent unwanted decomposition products when used with standard halogenated inhalation anaesthetics. An indicator may be included to show when carbon dioxide has dissolved in the water of the soda lime and formed carbonic acid, changing the pH from basic to acid, as the change of colour shows that the absorbent has reached saturation with carbon dioxide and must be changed.


title: Rebreather

text: The carbon dioxide combines with water or water vapor to produce a weak carbonic acid: CO + HO –> H2CO. This reacts with the hydroxides to produce carbonates and water in an exothermic reaction:


title: Rebreather

text: In the intermediate reaction, the carbonic acid reacts exothermically with sodium hydroxide to form sodium carbonate and water: HCO + 2NaOH –> NaCO + 2HO + heat. In the final reaction, the sodium carbonate reacts with the slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) to form calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide:: HCO + Ca(OH) –> CaCO + 2HO. The sodium hydroxide is then available again to react with more carbonic acid. of this absorbent can remove about of carbon dioxide at standard atmospheric pressure This process also heats and humidifies the air, which is desirable for diving in cold water, or climbing at high altitudes, but not for working in hot environments.


title: Rebreather

text: Other reactions may be used in special circumstances. Lithium hydroxide and particularly lithium peroxide may be used where low mass is important, such as in space stations and space suits. Lithium peroxide also replenishes the oxygen during the scrubbing reaction.


title: Rebreather

text: Another method of carbon dioxide removal occasionally used in portable rebreathers is to freeze it out, which is possible in a cryogenic rebreather which uses liquid oxygen. The liquid oxygen absorbs heat from the carbon dioxide in a heat exchanger to convert the oxygen to gas, which is sufficient to freeze the carbon dioxide. This process also chills the gas, which is sometimes, but not always, desirable.


title: Rebreather

text: A breathing hose or sometimes "breathing tube" on a rebreather is a flexible tube for breathing gas to pass through at ambient pressure. They are distinguished from the low-, intermediate-, and high-pressure hoses which may also be parts of rebreather apparatus. They have a wide enough bore to minimise flow resistance at the ambient pressure in the operational range for the equipment, are usually circular in cross section, and may be corrugated to let the user's head move about without the tube collapsing at kinks.


title: Rebreather

text: Each end has an airtight connection to the adjacent component, and they may contain a one-way valve to keep the gas circulating the right way in a loop system. Depending on the service, they may be made of a flexible polymer, an elastomer, a fibre or cloth reinforced elastomer, or elastomer covered with a woven fabric for reinforcement or abrasion resistance. If the woven layer is bonded to the outside surface it protects the rubber from damage from scrapes but makes it more difficult to wash off contaminants.


title: Rebreather

text: Breathing hoses are usually long enough to connect the apparatus to the user's head in all attitudes of their head, but should not be unnecessarily long, which will cause additional weight, hydrodynamic drag, risk snagging on things, or contain excess dead space in a pendulum rebreather. Breathing hoses can be tethered down to a diver's shoulders or ballasted for neutral buoyancy to minimise loads on the mouthpiece.


title: Rebreather

text: A mouthpiece with bite-grip, an oro-nasal mask, a full-face mask, or a sealed helmet is provided so that the user can breath from the unit hands-free.


title: Rebreather

text: A store of oxygen, usually in a high pressure cylinder, but sometimes as liquid oxygen, that feeds gaseous oxygen into the ambient pressure breathing volume, either continuously, or when the user operates the oxygen addition valve, or via a demand valve in an oxygen rebreather, when the volume of gas in the breathing circuit becomes low and the pressure drops, or in an electronically controlled mixed gas rebreather, after a sensor has detected insufficient oxygen partial pressure, and activates a solenoid valve.


title: Rebreather

text: Valves are needed to control gas flow in the breathing volume, and gas feed from the storage container. They include:


title: Rebreather

text: Oxygen sensors may be used to monitor partial pressure of oxygen in mixed gas rebreathers to ensure that it does not fall outside the safe limits, but are generally not used on oxygen rebreathers, as the oxygen content is fixed at 100%, and its partial pressure varies only with the ambient pressure.


title: Rebreather

text: Rebreathers can be primarily categorised as diving rebreathers, intended for hyperbaric use, and other rebreathers used at pressures from slightly more than normal atmospheric pressure at sea level to significantly lower ambient pressure at high altitudes and in space. Diving rebreathers must often deal with the complications of avoiding hyperbaric oxygen toxicity, while normobaric and hypobaric applications can use the relatively trivially simple oxygen rebreather technology, where there is no requirement to monitor oxygen partial pressure during use providing the ambient pressure is sufficient.


title: Rebreather

text: This is the earliest type of rebreather and was commonly used by navies for submarine escape and shallow water diving work, for mine rescue, high altitude mountaineering and flight, and in industrial applications from the early twentieth century. Oxygen rebreathers can be remarkably simple and mechanically reliable, and they were invented before open-circuit scuba. They only supply oxygen, so there is no requirement to control the gas composition other than removing the carbon dioxide.


title: Rebreather

text: In some rebreathers the oxygen cylinder has oxygen supply mechanisms in parallel. One is constant flow; the other is a manual on-off valve called a bypass valve; both feed into the same hose which feeds the counterlung. Others are supplied via a demand valve on the counterlung. This will add gas at any time that the counterlung is emptied and the diver continues to inhale. Oxygen can also be added manually by a button which activates the demand valve. Some simple oxygen rebreathers had no automatic supply system, but only the manual feed valve, and the diver had to operate the valve at intervals to refill the breathing bag as the volume of oxygen decreased below a comfortable level.


title: Rebreather

text: All rebreathers other than oxygen rebreathers may be considered mixed gas rebreathers, as the breathing gas is a mixture of oxygen and metabolically inactive diluent gas. These can be divided into semi-closed circuit, where the supply gas is a breathable mixture containing oxygen and inert diluents, usually nitrogen and helium, and which is replenished by adding more of the mixture as the oxygen is used up, sufficient to maintain a breathable partial pressure of oxygen in the loop, and closed circuit rebreathers, where two parallel gas supplies are used: the diluent, to provide the bulk of the gas, and which is recycled, and oxygen, which is metabolically expended. Carbon dioxide is considered a waste product, and in a correctly functioning rebreather, is effectively removed when the gas passes through the scrubber.


title: Rebreather

text: There have been a few rebreather designs (e.g. the Oxylite) which use potassium superoxide, which gives off oxygen as it absorbs carbon dioxide, as the carbon dioxide absorbent: 4KO + 2CO = 2KCO + 3O. A small volume oxygen cylinder is needed to fill and purge the loop at the start of the dive. This technology may be applied to both oxygen and mixed gas rebreathers, and can be used for diving and other applications.


title: Rebreather

text: A liquid oxygen supply can be used for oxygen or mixed gas rebreathers. If used underwater, the liquid-oxygen container must be well insulated against heat transfer from the water. Industrial sets of this type may not be suitable for diving, and diving sets of this type may not be suitable for use out of water due to conflicting heat transfer requirements. The set's liquid oxygen tank must be filled immediately before use. Examples of the type include:


title: Rebreather

text: A cryogenic rebreather removes the carbon dioxide by freezing it out in a "snow box" by the low temperature produced as liquid oxygen evaporates to replace the oxygen used.


title: Rebreather

text: The widest variety of rebreather types is used in diving, as the consequences of breathing under pressure complicate the requirements, and a large range of options are available depending on the specific application and available budget. A diving rebreather is safety-critical life-support equipment – some modes of failure can kill the diver without warning, others can require immediate appropriate response for survival.