title: Cellular differentiation

text: Cellular differentiation is the process in which a stem cell alters from one type to a differentiated one. Usually, the cell changes to a more specialized type. Differentiation happens multiple times during the development of a multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation continues in adulthood as adult stem cells divide and create fully differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover. Some differentiation occurs in response to antigen exposure. Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, membrane potential, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression and are the study of epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. Although metabolic composition does get altered quite dramatically where stem cells are characterized by abundant metabolites with highly unsaturated structures whose levels decrease upon differentiation. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: A specialized type of differentiation, known as terminal differentiation, is of importance in some tissues, for example vertebrate nervous system, striated muscle, epidermis and gut. During terminal differentiation, a precursor cell formerly capable of cell division, permanently leaves the cell cycle, dismantles the cell cycle machinery and often expresses a range of genes characteristic of the cell's final function (e.g. myosin and actin for a muscle cell). Differentiation may continue to occur after terminal differentiation if the capacity and functions of the cell undergo further changes.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Among dividing cells, there are multiple levels of cell potency, the cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A greater potency indicates a larger number of cell types that can be derived. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types, including the placental tissue, is known as "totipotent". In mammals, only the zygote and subsequent blastomeres are totipotent, while in plants, many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called meristematic cells in higher plants and embryonic stem cells in animals, though some groups report the presence of adult pluripotent cells. Virally induced expression of four transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 (Yamanaka factors) is sufficient to create pluripotent (iPS) cells from adult fibroblasts. A multipotent cell is one that can differentiate into multiple different, but closely related cell types. Oligopotent cells are more restricted than multipotent, but can still differentiate into a few closely related cell types. Finally, unipotent cells can differentiate into only one cell type, but are capable of self-renewal. In cytopathology, the level of cellular differentiation is used as a measure of cancer progression. "Grade" is a marker of how differentiated a cell in a tumor is.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body: germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Each of the approximately 37.2 trillion (3.72x10) cells in an adult human has its own copy or copies of the genome except certain cell types, such as red blood cells, that lack nuclei in their fully differentiated state. Most cells are diploid; they have two copies of each chromosome. Such cells, called somatic cells, make up most of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells. Cells differentiate to specialize for different functions.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Germ line cells are any line of cells that give rise to gametes—eggs and sperm—and thus are continuous through the generations. Stem cells, on the other hand, have the ability to divide for indefinite periods and to give rise to specialized cells. They are best described in the context of normal human development.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg and creates a single cell that has the potential to form an entire organism. In the first hours after fertilization, this cell divides into identical cells. In humans, approximately four days after fertilization and after several cycles of cell division, these cells begin to specialize, forming a hollow sphere of cells, called a blastocyst. The blastocyst has an outer layer of cells, and inside this hollow sphere, there is a cluster of cells called the inner cell mass. The cells of the inner cell mass go on to form virtually all of the tissues of the human body. Although the cells of the inner cell mass can form virtually every type of cell found in the human body, they cannot form an organism. These cells are referred to as pluripotent.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Pluripotent stem cells undergo further specialization into multipotent progenitor cells that then give rise to functional cells. Examples of stem and progenitor cells include:


title: Cellular differentiation

text: A pathway that is guided by the cell adhesion molecules consisting of four amino acids, arginine, glycine, asparagine, and serine, is created as the cellular blastomere differentiates from the single-layered blastula to the three primary layers of germ cells in mammals, namely the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm (listed from most distal (exterior) to proximal (interior)). The ectoderm ends up forming the skin and the nervous system, the mesoderm forms the bones and muscular tissue, and the endoderm forms the internal organ tissues.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Dedifferentiation, or integration, is a cellular process often seen in more basal life forms such as worms and amphibians in which a partially or terminally differentiated cell reverts to an earlier developmental stage, usually as part of a regenerative process. Dedifferentiation also occurs in plants. Cells in cell culture can lose properties they originally had, such as protein expression, or change shape. This process is also termed dedifferentiation.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Some believe dedifferentiation is an aberration of the normal development cycle that results in cancer, whereas others believe it to be a natural part of the immune response lost by humans at some point as a result of evolution.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: A small molecule dubbed reversine, a purine analog, has been discovered that has proven to induce dedifferentiation in myotubes. These dedifferentiated cells could then redifferentiate into osteoblasts and adipocytes.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Each specialized cell type in an organism expresses a subset of all the genes that constitute the genome of that species. Each cell type is defined by its particular pattern of regulated gene expression. Cell differentiation is thus a transition of a cell from one cell type to another and it involves a switch from one pattern of gene expression to another. Cellular differentiation during development can be understood as the result of a gene regulatory network. A regulatory gene and its cis-regulatory modules are nodes in a gene regulatory network; they receive input and create output elsewhere in the network. The systems biology approach to developmental biology emphasizes the importance of investigating how developmental mechanisms interact to produce predictable patterns (morphogenesis). However, an alternative view has been proposed recently. Based on stochastic gene expression, cellular differentiation is the result of a Darwinian selective process occurring among cells. In this frame, protein and gene networks are the result of cellular processes and not their cause.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: While evolutionarily conserved molecular processes are involved in the cellular mechanisms underlying these switches, in animal species these are very different from the well-characterized gene regulatory mechanisms of bacteria, and even from those of the animals' closest unicellular relatives. Specifically, cell differentiation in animals is highly dependent on biomolecular condensates of regulatory proteins and enhancer DNA sequences.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Cellular differentiation is often controlled by cell signaling. Many of the signal molecules that convey information from cell to cell during the control of cellular differentiation are called growth factors. Although the details of specific signal transduction pathways vary, these pathways often share the following general steps. A ligand produced by one cell binds to a receptor in the extracellular region of another cell, inducing a conformational change in the receptor. The shape of the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor changes, and the receptor acquires enzymatic activity. The receptor then catalyzes reactions that phosphorylate other proteins, activating them. A cascade of phosphorylation reactions eventually activates a dormant transcription factor or cytoskeletal protein, thus contributing to the differentiation process in the target cell. Cells and tissues can vary in competence, their ability to respond to external signals.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Signal induction refers to cascades of signaling events, during which a cell or tissue signals to another cell or tissue to influence its developmental fate. Yamamoto and Jeffery investigated the role of the lens in eye formation in cave- and surface-dwelling fish, a striking example of induction. Through reciprocal transplants, Yamamoto and Jeffery found that the lens vesicle of surface fish can induce other parts of the eye to develop in cave- and surface-dwelling fish, while the lens vesicle of the cave-dwelling fish cannot.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Other important mechanisms fall under the category of asymmetric cell divisions, divisions that give rise to daughter cells with distinct developmental fates. Asymmetric cell divisions can occur because of asymmetrically expressed maternal cytoplasmic determinants or because of signaling. In the former mechanism, distinct daughter cells are created during cytokinesis because of an uneven distribution of regulatory molecules in the parent cell; the distinct cytoplasm that each daughter cell inherits results in a distinct pattern of differentiation for each daughter cell. A well-studied example of pattern formation by asymmetric divisions is body axis patterning in Drosophila. RNA molecules are an important type of intracellular differentiation control signal. The molecular and genetic basis of asymmetric cell divisions has also been studied in green algae of the genus "Volvox", a model system for studying how unicellular organisms can evolve into multicellular organisms. In "Volvox carteri", the 16 cells in the anterior hemisphere of a 32-cell embryo divide asymmetrically, each producing one large and one small daughter cell. The size of the cell at the end of all cell divisions determines whether it becomes a specialized germ or somatic cell.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Since each cell, regardless of cell type, possesses the same genome, determination of cell type must occur at the level of gene expression. While the regulation of gene expression can occur through cis- and trans-regulatory elements including a gene's promoter and enhancers, the problem arises as to how this expression pattern is maintained over numerous generations of cell division. As it turns out, epigenetic processes play a crucial role in regulating the decision to adopt a stem, progenitor, or mature cell fate. This section will focus primarily on mammalian stem cells.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: In systems biology and mathematical modeling of gene regulatory networks, cell-fate determination is predicted to exhibit certain dynamics, such as attractor-convergence (the attractor can be an equilibrium point, limit cycle or strange attractor) or oscillatory.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: The first question that can be asked is the extent and complexity of the role of epigenetic processes in the determination of cell fate. A clear answer to this question can be seen in the 2011 paper by Lister R, "et al." on aberrant epigenomic programming in human induced pluripotent stem cells. As induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are thought to mimic embryonic stem cells in their pluripotent properties, few epigenetic differences should exist between them. To test this prediction, the authors conducted whole-genome profiling of DNA methylation patterns in several human embryonic stem cell (ESC), iPSC, and progenitor cell lines.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Female adipose cells, lung fibroblasts, and foreskin fibroblasts were reprogrammed into induced pluripotent state with the OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and MYC genes. Patterns of DNA methylation in ESCs, iPSCs, somatic cells were compared. Lister R, "et al." observed significant resemblance in methylation levels between embryonic and induced pluripotent cells. Around 80% of CG dinucleotides in ESCs and iPSCs were methylated, the same was true of only 60% of CG dinucleotides in somatic cells. In addition, somatic cells possessed minimal levels of cytosine methylation in non-CG dinucleotides, while induced pluripotent cells possessed similar levels of methylation as embryonic stem cells, between 0.5 and 1.5%. Thus, consistent with their respective transcriptional activities, DNA methylation patterns, at least on the genomic level, are similar between ESCs and iPSCs.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: However, upon examining methylation patterns more closely, the authors discovered 1175 regions of differential CG dinucleotide methylation between at least one ES or iPS cell line. By comparing these regions of differential methylation with regions of cytosine methylation in the original somatic cells, 44-49% of differentially methylated regions reflected methylation patterns of the respective progenitor somatic cells, while 51-56% of these regions were dissimilar to both the progenitor and embryonic cell lines. In vitro-induced differentiation of iPSC lines saw transmission of 88% and 46% of hyper and hypo-methylated differentially methylated regions, respectively.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Two conclusions are readily apparent from this study. First, epigenetic processes are heavily involved in cell fate determination, as seen from the similar levels of cytosine methylation between induced pluripotent and embryonic stem cells, consistent with their respective patterns of transcription. Second, the mechanisms of reprogramming (and by extension, differentiation) are very complex and cannot be easily duplicated, as seen by the significant number of differentially methylated regions between ES and iPS cell lines. Now that these two points have been established, we can examine some of the epigenetic mechanisms that are thought to regulate cellular differentiation.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Three transcription factors, OCT4, SOX2, and NANOG – the first two of which are used in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) reprogramming, along with Klf4 and c-Myc – are highly expressed in undifferentiated embryonic stem cells and are necessary for the maintenance of their pluripotency. It is thought that they achieve this through alterations in chromatin structure, such as histone modification and DNA methylation, to restrict or permit the transcription of target genes. While highly expressed, their levels require a precise balance to maintain pluripotency, perturbation of which will promote differentiation towards different lineages based on how the gene expression levels change. Differential regulation of Oct-4 and SOX2 levels have been shown to precede germ layer fate selection. Increased levels of Oct4 and decreased levels of Sox2 promote a mesendodermal fate, with Oct4 actively suppressing genes associated with a neural ectodermal fate. Similarly, Increased levels of Sox2 and decreased levels of Oct4 promote differentiation towards a neural ectodermal fate, with Sox2 inhibiting differentiation towards a mesendodermal fate. Regardless of the lineage cells differentiate down, suppression of NANOG has been identified as a necessary prerequisite for differentiation.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: In the realm of gene silencing, Polycomb repressive complex 2, one of two classes of the Polycomb group (PcG) family of proteins, catalyzes the di- and tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 27 (H3K27me2/me3). By binding to the H3K27me2/3-tagged nucleosome, PRC1 (also a complex of PcG family proteins) catalyzes the mono-ubiquitinylation of histone H2A at lysine 119 (H2AK119Ub1), blocking RNA polymerase II activity and resulting in transcriptional suppression. PcG knockout ES cells do not differentiate efficiently into the three germ layers, and deletion of the PRC1 and PRC2 genes leads to increased expression of lineage-affiliated genes and unscheduled differentiation. Presumably, PcG complexes are responsible for transcriptionally repressing differentiation and development-promoting genes.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Alternately, upon receiving differentiation signals, PcG proteins are recruited to promoters of pluripotency transcription factors. PcG-deficient ES cells can begin differentiation but cannot maintain the differentiated phenotype. Simultaneously, differentiation and development-promoting genes are activated by Trithorax group (TrxG) chromatin regulators and lose their repression. TrxG proteins are recruited at regions of high transcriptional activity, where they catalyze the trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) and promote gene activation through histone acetylation. PcG and TrxG complexes engage in direct competition and are thought to be functionally antagonistic, creating at differentiation and development-promoting loci what is termed a "bivalent domain" and rendering these genes sensitive to rapid induction or repression.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Regulation of gene expression is further achieved through DNA methylation, in which the DNA methyltransferase-mediated methylation of cytosine residues in CpG dinucleotides maintains heritable repression by controlling DNA accessibility. The majority of CpG sites in embryonic stem cells are unmethylated and appear to be associated with H3K4me3-carrying nucleosomes. Upon differentiation, a small number of genes, including OCT4 and NANOG, are methylated and their promoters repressed to prevent their further expression. Consistently, DNA methylation-deficient embryonic stem cells rapidly enter apoptosis upon in vitro differentiation.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: While the DNA sequence of most cells of an organism is the same, the binding patterns of transcription factors and the corresponding gene expression patterns are different. To a large extent, differences in transcription factor binding are determined by the chromatin accessibility of their binding sites through histone modification and/or pioneer factors. In particular, it is important to know whether a nucleosome is covering a given genomic binding site or not. This can be determined using a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: DNA-nucleosome interactions are characterized by two states: either tightly bound by nucleosomes and transcriptionally inactive, called heterochromatin, or loosely bound and usually, but not always, transcriptionally active, called euchromatin. The epigenetic processes of histone methylation and acetylation, and their inverses demethylation and deacetylation primarily account for these changes. The effects of acetylation and deacetylation are more predictable. An acetyl group is either added to or removed from the positively charged Lysine residues in histones by enzymes called histone acetyltransferases or histone deacteylases, respectively. The acetyl group prevents Lysine's association with the negatively charged DNA backbone. Methylation is not as straightforward, as neither methylation nor demethylation consistently correlate with either gene activation or repression. However, certain methylations have been repeatedly shown to either activate or repress genes. The trimethylation of lysine 4 on histone 3 (H3K4Me3) is associated with gene activation, whereas trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone 3 represses genes


title: Cellular differentiation

text: During differentiation, stem cells change their gene expression profiles. Recent studies have implicated a role for nucleosome positioning and histone modifications during this process. There are two components of this process: turning off the expression of embryonic stem cell (ESC) genes, and the activation of cell fate genes. Lysine specific demethylase 1 (KDM1A) is thought to prevent the use of enhancer regions of pluripotency genes, thereby inhibiting their transcription. It interacts with Mi-2/NuRD complex (nucleosome remodelling and histone deacetylase) complex, giving an instance where methylation and acetylation are not discrete and mutually exclusive, but intertwined processes.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: A final question to ask concerns the role of cell signaling in influencing the epigenetic processes governing differentiation. Such a role should exist, as it would be reasonable to think that extrinsic signaling can lead to epigenetic remodeling, just as it can lead to changes in gene expression through the activation or repression of different transcription factors. Little direct data is available concerning the specific signals that influence the epigenome, and the majority of current knowledge about the subject consists of speculations on plausible candidate regulators of epigenetic remodeling. We will first discuss several major candidates thought to be involved in the induction and maintenance of both embryonic stem cells and their differentiated progeny, and then turn to one example of specific signaling pathways in which more direct evidence exists for its role in epigenetic change.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: The first major candidate is Wnt signaling pathway. The Wnt pathway is involved in all stages of differentiation, and the ligand Wnt3a can substitute for the overexpression of c-Myc in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells. On the other hand, disruption of β-catenin, a component of the Wnt signaling pathway, leads to decreased proliferation of neural progenitors.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Growth factors comprise the second major set of candidates of epigenetic regulators of cellular differentiation. These morphogens are crucial for development, and include bone morphogenetic proteins, transforming growth factors (TGFs), and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). TGFs and FGFs have been shown to sustain expression of OCT4, SOX2, and NANOG by downstream signaling to Smad proteins. Depletion of growth factors promotes the differentiation of ESCs, while genes with bivalent chromatin can become either more restrictive or permissive in their transcription.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Several other signaling pathways are also considered to be primary candidates. Cytokine leukemia inhibitory factors are associated with the maintenance of mouse ESCs in an undifferentiated state. This is achieved through its activation of the Jak-STAT3 pathway, which has been shown to be necessary and sufficient towards maintaining mouse ESC pluripotency. Retinoic acid can induce differentiation of human and mouse ESCs, and Notch signaling is involved in the proliferation and self-renewal of stem cells. Finally, Sonic hedgehog, in addition to its role as a morphogen, promotes embryonic stem cell differentiation and the self-renewal of somatic stem cells.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: The problem, of course, is that the candidacy of these signaling pathways was inferred primarily on the basis of their role in development and cellular differentiation. While epigenetic regulation is necessary for driving cellular differentiation, they are certainly not sufficient for this process. Direct modulation of gene expression through modification of transcription factors plays a key role that must be distinguished from heritable epigenetic changes that can persist even in the absence of the original environmental signals. Only a few examples of signaling pathways leading to epigenetic changes that alter cell fate currently exist, and we will focus on one of them.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Expression of Shh (Sonic hedgehog) upregulates the production of BMI1, a component of the PcG complex that recognizes H3K27me3. This occurs in a Gli-dependent manner, as Gli1 and Gli2 are downstream effectors of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. In culture, Bmi1 mediates the Hedgehog pathway's ability to promote human mammary stem cell self-renewal. In both humans and mice, researchers showed Bmi1 to be highly expressed in proliferating immature cerebellar granule cell precursors. When Bmi1 was knocked out in mice, impaired cerebellar development resulted, leading to significant reductions in postnatal brain mass along with abnormalities in motor control and behavior. A separate study showed a significant decrease in neural stem cell proliferation along with increased astrocyte proliferation in Bmi null mice.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: An alternative model of cellular differentiation during embryogenesis is that positional information is based on mechanical signalling by the cytoskeleton using Embryonic differentiation waves. The mechanical signal is then epigenetically transduced via signal transduction systems (of which specific molecules such as Wnt are part) to result in differential gene expression.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: In summary, the role of signaling in the epigenetic control of cell fate in mammals is largely unknown, but distinct examples exist that indicate the likely existence of further such mechanisms.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: In order to fulfill the purpose of regenerating a variety of tissues, adult stems are known to migrate from their niches, adhere to new extracellular matrices (ECM) and differentiate. The ductility of these microenvironments are unique to different tissue types. The ECM surrounding brain, muscle and bone tissues range from soft to stiff. The transduction of the stem cells into these cells types is not directed solely by chemokine cues and cell to cell signaling. The elasticity of the microenvironment can also affect the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs which originate in bone marrow.) When MSCs are placed on substrates of the same stiffness as brain, muscle and bone ECM, the MSCs take on properties of those respective cell types.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Matrix sensing requires the cell to pull against the matrix at focal adhesions, which triggers a cellular mechano-transducer to generate a signal to be informed what force is needed to deform the matrix. To determine the key players in matrix-elasticity-driven lineage specification in MSCs, different matrix microenvironments were mimicked. From these experiments, it was concluded that focal adhesions of the MSCs were the cellular mechano-transducer sensing the differences of the matrix elasticity. The non-muscle myosin IIa-c isoforms generates the forces in the cell that lead to signaling of early commitment markers. Nonmuscle myosin IIa generates the least force increasing to non-muscle myosin IIc. There are also factors in the cell that inhibit non-muscle myosin II, such as blebbistatin. This makes the cell effectively blind to the surrounding matrix.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: Researchers have obtained some success in inducing stem cell-like properties in HEK 239 cells by providing a soft matrix without the use of diffusing factors. The stem-cell properties appear to be linked to tension in the cells' actin network. One identified mechanism for matrix-induced differentiation is tension-induced proteins, which remodel chromatin in response to mechanical stretch. The RhoA pathway is also implicated in this process.


title: Cellular differentiation

text: A billion-years-old, likely holozoan, protist, "Bicellum brasieri" with two types of cells, shows that the evolution of differentiated multicellularity, possibly but not necessarily of animal lineages, occurred at least 1 billion years ago and possibly mainly in freshwater lakes rather than the ocean.


title: David Paterson

text: David Alexander Paterson (born May 20, 1954) is an American politician and attorney who served as the 55th governor of New York, succeeding Eliot Spitzer and serving out nearly three years of Spitzer's term from March 2008 to December 2010. A member of the Democratic Party, he is the first legally blind person to be sworn in as governor of a U.S. state, and is the first African American governor of New York.


title: David Paterson

text: Following his graduation from Hofstra Law School, Paterson worked in the District Attorney's office of Queens County, New York, and on the staff of Manhattan borough president David Dinkins. In 1985, he was elected to the New York State Senate to a seat once held by his father, former New York secretary of state Basil Paterson. In 2003, he rose to the position of Senate minority leader. Paterson was selected to be the running mate of Democratic gubernatorial nominee Eliot Spitzer in the 2006 New York gubernatorial election. Spitzer and Paterson were elected with 65% of the vote, and Paterson took office as lieutenant governor on January 1, 2007.


title: David Paterson

text: After Spitzer resigned in the wake of a prostitution scandal, Paterson was sworn in as governor of New York state on March 17, 2008. Paterson held the office of governor during the Great Recession, and he implemented state budget cuts. Paterson also made two significant appointments: In January 2009, he appointed then-U.S. representative Kirsten Gillibrand to a vacant U.S. Senate seat, and in July 2009, he appointed Richard Ravitch as lieutenant governor. Paterson launched a campaign for a full term as governor in the 2010 New York gubernatorial election, but announced on February 26, 2010, that he would bow out of the race. During the final year of his administration, Paterson faced allegations of witness tampering, soliciting improper gifts, and making false statements; he was eventually fined for perjury.


title: David Paterson

text: Since leaving office, Paterson has been a radio talk show host and chairman of the New York Democratic Party from May 2014 to November 2015. In late 2020, he published his first book, entitled "".


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson was born in Brooklyn to Portia Hairston Paterson, a homemaker, and Basil Paterson, a labor law attorney. Basil Paterson was later a New York state senator for Harlem, Secretary of State under Hugh Carey, and deputy mayor of New York City for Ed Koch. According to a "New York Now" interview, Paterson traces his roots on his mother's side of the family to pre-Civil War African American slaves in the states of North Carolina and South Carolina. His paternal grandmother, a Jamaican, Evangeline Rondon Paterson was secretary to Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. His paternal grandfather was Leonard James Paterson, a native of Carriacou who arrived in the United States aboard the S.S. "Vestris" on May 16, 1917. It was reported by The Genetic Genealogist in March 2008 that Paterson had recently undergone genetic genealogy testing. Part of his father's ancestry consists of immigrants from England, Ireland, and Scotland, while his mother's side includes Eastern European Jewish ancestry, as well as ancestors from the Guinea-Bissau region of West Africa.


title: David Paterson

text: At the age of three months, Paterson contracted an ear infection that spread to his optic nerve, leaving him sightless in his left eye and with severely limited vision in his right. Since New York City public schools would not guarantee him an education without placing him in special education classes, his family bought a home in the Long Island suburb of South Hempstead so that he could attend mainstream classes there. Paterson was the first student with a disability in the Hempstead public schools, graduating from Hempstead High School in 1971.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson earned a Bachelor of Arts in history from Columbia College of Columbia University in 1977 and a Juris Doctor from Hofstra Law School in 1983. After law school, he went to work for the Queens District Attorney's Office, but did not pass the New York bar examination, which prevented him from becoming an attorney at law. He claimed that his failing the New York bar was partially the result of insufficient accommodation for his visual impairment, and has since advocated for changes in bar exam procedures.


title: David Paterson

text: On August 6, 1985, state senator Leon Bogues died, and Paterson obtained the Democratic party nomination for the seat. In mid-September, a meeting of 648 Democratic committee members on the first ballot gave Paterson 58% of the vote, giving him the party nomination. That October, Paterson won the virtually uncontested special State Senate election. At the time, the 29th Senate district covered the Manhattan neighborhoods of Harlem, Manhattan Valley and the Upper West Side, the same district that Paterson's father had represented. He was re-elected ten times, and remained in the state senate until 2006, sitting in the 186th, 187th, 188th, 189th, 190th, 191st, 192nd, 193rd, 194th, 195th, and 196th New York State Legislatures.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson briefly ran in the Democratic primary for the office of New York City Public Advocate in 1993, but was defeated by Mark J. Green.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson was elected Minority Leader by the Senate Democratic Conference on November 20, 2002, becoming both the first non-white state legislative leader and the highest-ranking black elected official in the history of New York. Paterson unseated the incumbent minority leader, Martin Connor. Paterson became known for his consensus-building style and sharp political skills.


title: David Paterson

text: Describing Paterson's tenure in the Senate, "The New York Times" cited his "wit, flurries of reform proposals and unusual bursts of candor".


title: David Paterson

text: In 2006, Paterson was selected by New York attorney general and Democratic gubernatorial candidate Eliot Spitzer as his running mate. The news stunned the New York political world, as the Democratic minority was poised to possibly take over the state legislature. Paterson traded the possibility of becoming Senate majority leader for the opportunity to hold the largely ceremonial lieutenant governor post. During their 2006 campaign, Paterson resolved a dispute with Spitzer over turf wars between staff members. The Spitzer–Paterson ticket won a landslide victory in the election, with 65.7% of the vote. It was the largest margin of victory in a gubernatorial race in New York history, and the second-largest for any statewide race in New York history.


title: David Paterson

text: In late December 2006, shortly before being sworn in as lieutenant governor, Paterson said that if he ever succeeded Spitzer as governor, he and Nelson A. Rockefeller would have something besides the governorship in common: great difficulty in reading. Rockefeller was dyslexic, and Paterson compared this to his own blindness.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson led Spitzer's successful 2007 legislative effort to approve a bond issue which will provide at least $1 billion toward stem cell research. Spitzer and Paterson touted the measure partly for its economic development benefits, following California's $3 billion effort, which in turn had been prompted by the U.S. federal government halting funding for such research.


title: David Paterson

text: In September 2007, Paterson weighed in on a proposal before the New York City Council to extend voting rights to noncitizens. He told a crowd gathered at the West Indian American Day Carnival Parade that he believed noncitizens should be granted voting rights. He stressed he was asking for a change in policy, rather than a new law, citing that although 22 states and territories between 1776 and 1920 allowed the practice, none do now. Spitzer issued a statement that he did not agree with Paterson's position, and said he was unaware Paterson would be speaking on the matter. Paterson had tried to introduce legislation granting voting rights to noncitizens as a State Senator fifteen years earlier.


title: David Paterson

text: In February 2008, a U.S. District Judge denied a motion to dismiss a racial discrimination lawsuit naming Paterson.


title: David Paterson

text: In the midst of a prostitution scandal, Governor Eliot Spitzer resigned his position effective March 17, 2008. Upon hearing that Spitzer intended to resign, Paterson called his then-wife Michelle and reportedly said, "I think I'll kill myself". Following Spitzer's resignation, Paterson was sworn in as the 55th governor of New York, at the New York State Capitol on March 17, 2008, by New York chief judge Judith Kaye.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson is the first black governor in the history of the state of New York and the fourth black governor in the history of the United States (the first three being the Reconstruction-era P. B. S. Pinchback of Louisiana, Virginia's Douglas Wilder and Massachusetts's Deval Patrick). The lieutenant governor's office remained vacant until September 22, 2009, when the New York Court of Appeals ruled in a 4–3 decision that Paterson's appointment of Richard Ravitch was constitutional.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson is the second legally blind governor of a U.S. state (the first was Bob C. Riley, who was acting governor of Arkansas for 11 days in January 1975). During his tenure, Paterson's staff read documents to him over voice mail.


title: David Paterson

text: On July 17, 2008, Paterson was the keynote speaker addressing the 99th annual convention of the NAACP in Cincinnati, Ohio.


title: David Paterson

text: On October 24, 2008, Paterson's top aide, Charles J. O'Byrne, resigned from his post following the revelation that he owed nearly $300,000 in back taxes. O'Byrne admitted to having failed to pay taxes for five years.


title: David Paterson

text: Although Paterson is a lifelong Democrat who was considered a liberal in the state Senate, he earned praise from conservatives during his time as governor for making major spending cuts; for providing mandate relief; for enacting an inflation-indexed property tax cap and a school tax "circuit breaker"; and for his appointment of Blue Dog Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand to a vacant seat in the United States Senate.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson ascended to the governor's office during the busiest legislative period of the year. The state is required by law to pass its budget prior to April 1. He had only two weeks to negotiate with lawmakers a proposal to close a $4.7 billion deficit and pass a $124 billion budget from the Spitzer administration. He stated in his inauguration speech that it would be his top priority.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson made reference in his speech to the economic woes being faced in the United States, calling them a "crisis", and promised to "adjust the budget accordingly". Since 1984, New York State has only passed a budget on time once, in 2005, leading Paterson to call for an "end to the dysfunction in Albany" in his speech, echoing a 56-page study from the nonpartisan New York University School of Law's Brennan Center for Justice, which referred to the legislature as "the least deliberative and most dysfunctional in the nation".


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson quickly signed five pieces of legislation on his first day in office: to add the New York State Department of Labor to the New York City Transit Track Safety Task Force; to eliminate a law that discouraged employers from holding blood drives; to change the way in which members are appointed to a state health and research board; to restore eligibility caps to certain senior employment programs; and to grant tax exemptions to several local development corporations in New York State. Paterson appointed Christopher O. Ward to be executive director of the Port Authority on May 22, 2008. Ward was successful in turning around construction at World Trade Center Site, and started the process of turning Farley Post Office into Moynihan Station.""


title: David Paterson

text: One day after Paterson's inauguration as the governor of New York, both he and his wife acknowledged having had extramarital affairs, one with a state employee.


title: David Paterson

text: In May 2008, Paterson informed New York State agencies that they were required to recognize same-sex marriage licenses from other jurisdictions for purposes of employee benefits. The governor's directive was purportedly based upon a decision from New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division's Fourth Department. The governor's directive did not receive widespread public attention until weeks after the directive was given. At that time, the governor's decision provoked public reaction on both sides of the issue. While Paterson's directive received widespread approval from same-sex marriage supporters, it was met with criticism from conservative legislators and from same-sex marriage opponents, one of whom referred to the directive as Paterson's "first major blunder" as governor. Then-Senate Majority Leader Joseph Bruno and others accused Paterson of having overstepped his bounds and usurped the authority of the legislature. Paterson reportedly described same-sex marriage as "beautiful," and contended that his decision was "the right thing to do"; the governor was enthusiastically cheered when he attended the 2008 gay pride parade in Manhattan.


title: David Paterson

text: On June 3, 2008, a lawsuit was filed by the Alliance Defense Fund challenging the governor's directive. On September 2, 2008, Justice Lucy A. Billings of the State Supreme Court in the Bronx issued a decision that Paterson acted within his powers when he required state agencies to recognize same-sex marriages from outside New York State. In her dismissal of the Alliance Defense Fund suit, Justice Billings found that the governor's order was consistent with state laws on the recognition of marriages from outside the state.


title: David Paterson

text: In April 2009, it was revealed that Paterson would propose legislation to legalize same-sex marriage in New York. Paterson later tapped former Senate Majority Leader and former political foe Joseph Bruno to support same-sex marriage in Albany. On December 2, 2009, same-sex marriage legislation was "overwhelmingly" defeated on the floor of the New York State Senate by a vote of 24 to 38; no Republican voted yes, eight Democrats voted no. The "Daily News" described the defeat as a "major blow", while "The New York Times" stated that the defeat "all but ensures that the issue is dead in New York until at least 2011, when a new Legislature will be installed."


title: David Paterson

text: In late 2010, before the January 2011 expiration of his term as governor, Paterson reached out to members of the New York State Senate in an attempt to gauge support for the passage of same-sex marriage legislation during a lame-duck session of the Legislature; however, the governor came to the conclusion that passage of the bill during the lame-duck session was not feasible. When asked what would have to occur for same-sex marriage to be legalized in New York, Paterson responded, "Get rid of the lobbyists," and added that same-sex marriage advocates had "forced" a Senate floor vote prematurely in December 2009.


title: David Paterson

text: In March 2008, Paterson warned that New York state faced its worst fiscal crisis since 2001. On July 29, Paterson gave a rare televised address that was broadcast on all of New York's major news networks, stating that the state budget deficit had gone up $1.4 billion over the 90 days since his original budget submission, citing rising costs due to the poor economy and a struggling Wall Street, and calling the state legislature back to Albany for an emergency session starting on August 19, 2008. He also warned that the budget deficit was estimated to grow 22 percent by 2011. With AIG on the verge of collapse on September 16, 2008, and in the aftermath of Lehman Brothers filing for bankruptcy, Paterson publicly lobbied for a government bailout of the insurance giant. He hit the cable networks early and was quoted by media around the world.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson revised Spitzer's record-size executive budget proposal to cut spending. Budget negotiations carried over past the deadline, causing the new governor to lament that too many lawmakers were "unwilling to make serious cuts to our budget". On April 10, 2008, a $121.7 billion budget package was passed by both houses of the state legislature. The budget closed a projected $4.6 billion deficit with $1.8 billion of spending cuts, $1.5 billion in additional revenue from increased taxes and fees and $1.3 billion of one time transfers, and did not tap into the state's $1.2 billion of reserves or increase the top income tax rate on those earning $1 million or more. Paterson's budget provided property tax relief, delivered aid to municipalities, and restored hundreds of millions in property tax rebates for middle-class homeowners and $1 billion for upstate economic development. The budget provided for a tuition remission program for military veterans, offering them free tuition at both SUNY and CUNY institutions. Paterson called the 2008 budget proposal "too big and too bloated", and he said he would work to convince the legislature to stop what he saw as unsustainable growth.


title: David Paterson

text: In April 2008, Paterson asked the heads of all state agencies to cut their budgets by 3.35%, threatened a hiring freeze, and asked legislative leaders to follow suit.


title: David Paterson

text: At his first State of the State address in January 2009, Paterson said "My fellow New Yorkers: let me come straight to the point—the state of our state is perilous. New York faces an historic economic challenge, the gravest in nearly a century. ... The pillars of Wall Street have crumbled. The global economy is reeling. Trillions of dollars of wealth have vanished." New York faced a budget deficit of $15 billion, and state debt approached $55 billion. Paterson's budget proposal called for dramatic across-the-board cuts to various state agencies; he described those cuts as "deep and painful". Paterson proposed to close the 81-year-old Reynolds Game Farm, in Tompkins county, the state's only remaining pheasant facility, but changed course following criticism from sportsmen's groups.


title: David Paterson

text: After being nominated for the position on December 1, 2008, Senator Hillary Clinton was confirmed as United States Secretary of State by the United States Senate. Clinton resigned her Senate seat on January 21, 2009, to assume the Cabinet post. By mandate of the New York Constitution, Paterson was tasked with appointing a temporary replacement until a special election in 2010 for the conclusion of the term of her Class 1 seat.


title: David Paterson

text: Persons mentioned in the media as potential appointees included U.S. Rep. Gregory Meeks, former State Comptroller H. Carl McCall, William C. Thompson, Jr., Byron Brown, Rep. José E. Serrano, Rep. Nydia M. Velázquez, Rep. Nita Lowey, Rep. Carolyn B. Maloney, former Hillary Clinton aide Leecia Eve, United Federation of Teachers president Randi Weingarten, Rep. Kirsten Gillibrand, and political heiress Caroline Kennedy. While New York Attorney General and former United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Andrew Cuomo refused to publicly declare his interest in the seat, he attracted a plurality of support from polled New Yorkers to take the seat. Cuomo was cited by some analysts as a savvy Senate appointee because his appointment might dissuade him from mounting a primary challenge against Paterson in the 2010 gubernatorial election. Paterson acknowledged on January 20, 2009, that Cuomo was indeed under consideration for the appointment.


title: David Paterson

text: It was reported on December 5, 2008, that Paterson had spoken with Kennedy regarding her interest in the Senate seat. However, Kennedy abruptly withdrew her name from consideration on January 21, 2009. Up until her withdrawal, which Kennedy said was based on "personal reasons", the high-profile, well-connected daughter of former President John F. Kennedy was widely considered the front-runner for the nomination. After Kennedy removed herself from consideration, some reports indicated that Paterson "never intended" to pick Kennedy, having come to consider her "unready" for the seat after a series of media misfires. Some sources and analysts doubted the reports' veracity, calling the Paterson camp's denials of any interest in appointing Kennedy "misdirection".


title: David Paterson

text: On January 23, 2009, Paterson chose Gillibrand—a moderate upstate representative from a largely conservative district—to fill Clinton's vacated seat. The Kennedy family criticized Paterson's handling of the appointment. Although Gillibrand's appointment was praised by some (including Schumer, New York's senior senator; President Obama; and Clinton herself,) others criticized Paterson's choice, calling Gillibrand "sharp-elbowed", "too conservative", and "unliked". Others, including liberal "New York Times" editorialist Maureen Dowd and "New York Magazine" writer Chris Smith, criticized Paterson's "peculiar" and "dithering" handling of the Senate appointment and suggested it was a cynical way of rallying upstate support for re-election. Paterson later admitted that he personally ordered his staff to contest Caroline Kennedy's version of events in the hours after she withdrew from consideration to be United States senator.


title: David Paterson

text: Due to the ongoing leadership crisis in the New York State Senate, in which the Senate tied with 31 Democratic votes and 31 Republican votes, with no presiding officer to break the tie, Paterson announced on July 8, 2009, that he would appoint Richard Ravitch, a former chairman of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, to be lieutenant governor. On August 20, 2009, however, a four-judge panel of the New York State Appellate Division, Second Judicial Department ruled that Paterson had no legal authority to name a lieutenant governor, and that the lieutenant governor position could not be filled in any way other than via an election. On September 23, 2009, the New York Court of Appeals reversed the Appellate Division's decision, holding Paterson's appointment of Ravitch to be constitutional.


title: David Paterson

text: In January 2010, Paterson awarded a contract to operate a 4,500 slot machine racino at the Aqueduct Race Track to Aqueduct Race Track Entertainment Group (AEG) in Queens. The selection AEG led to accusations of favoritism. The New York State inspector general, Joseph Fisch, said the state government showed "militant indifference" to the public's best interest. Fisch criticized Paterson for delegating the process to his aides, who Fisch said did not keep him properly informed.


title: David Paterson

text: On March 9, 2010, Paterson recused himself from the case, saying he was doing so on the advice of his lawyers. On the same day investors Floyd Flake and Jay-Z withdrew from AEG. Flake had a 0.6% share.


title: David Paterson

text: In February 2010, "The New York Times" reported that Paterson may have been involved in witness tampering in a domestic abuse case involving staffer David W. Johnson after New York State Police and Paterson allegedly talked to the complainant in an attempt to persuade her to drop the case. Paterson was said to have asked the woman if she needed any help a day before the case was dropped. On February 26, 2010, Paterson withdrew his bid for a full term as governor of New York.


title: David Paterson

text: In March 2010, the New York State Commission on Public Integrity asked Attorney General Andrew Cuomo to investigate allegations that Paterson had solicited an unlawful gift of free New York Yankees tickets. He also faced allegations that he had lied under oath to the Commission on Public Integrity in 2010 during an investigation about the Yankees tickets.


title: David Paterson

text: Following the "twin scandals", a poll showed that fewer than half of New Yorkers believed Paterson should remain in office. Despite this, Paterson announced on March 5, 2010, that he intended to remain in his post until his term in office concluded at the end of the year.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson was not criminally charged in connection with his witness interaction in the Johnson domestic abuse matter. On December 20, 2010, the Commission on Public Integrity found that Paterson had lied about accepting five free World Series tickets and fined him $62,125.


title: David Paterson

text: After the "Weekend Update" sketch featuring David Paterson aired in 2009 on the NBC show "Saturday Night Live", Paterson was upset by the way the sketch portrayed him, stating that it was an offensive stereotype to those who were visually impaired. On the 36th-season premiere of "Saturday Night Live" (aired September 25, 2010), Paterson appeared in the "Weekend Update" sketch alongside Fred Armisen, who was comedically portraying Paterson.


title: David Paterson

text: In October 2008, Paterson launched a campaign website and announced his intention to run for a full term as governor. Paterson's prime Republican opponent was expected to be former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani. By February 2009, after the prolonged Senate appointment process, a Siena College poll indicated that Paterson was losing popularity among New Yorkers and showed Giuliani with a fifteen-point lead in a hypothetical contest. In April 2009, a Quinnipiac poll found that 60% of voters disapproved of Paterson's performance (the worst-ever rating for a New York governor); 53% believed that Paterson should withdraw his candidacy for the gubernatorial election. In an August 21, 2009, radio interview, Paterson suggested that his low popularity was caused by racism and added that Gov. Deval Patrick of Massachusetts had received a similar reception. Paterson added that President Barack Obama would be the next African-American elected official to suffer from poor approval due to his skin color. The White House asked Paterson to tone down his comments on race, but less than 24 hours later, Paterson said: "[One] very successful minority is permissible; but when you see too many success stories, then some people get nervous." Giuliani never ran for Governor. Eventually, Republicans nominated Carl Paladino.


title: David Paterson

text: On September 18, 2009, advisors to President Barack Obama informed Paterson that the President believed Paterson should withdraw his 2010 gubernatorial candidacy and clear a path for "popular Attorney General Andrew Cuomo" to run. According to "The New York Times", Obama was worried that Paterson's continued unpopularity could hinder the campaigns of New York's Democratic congressmembers and could also topple Democratic control of the state legislature. The "Times" cited a potential gubernatorial run by Giuliani as another reason for the Obama administration's request. On September 19, 2009, Paterson insisted he was still running. He reiterated his position on February 9, 2010, saying, "[The] only way I'm not going to be governor next year is at the ballot box and the only way I'll be leaving office before is in a box". On February 26, 2010, however, Paterson withdrew his bid for a full term as governor of New York "amid crumbling support from his party and an uproar over his administration's intervention in a domestic violence case involving a close aide". Later in 2010, Cuomo became the Democratic nominee for governor of New York and won the election in a landslide over Paladino.


title: David Paterson

text: After leaving office at the end of 2010, Paterson appeared on New York radio station WOR on a number of occasions as a substitute talk show host, filling in for morning host John Gambling. On September 1, 2011, the station announced that Paterson would become the regular weekday afternoon drive-time host beginning on September 6. He replaced Steve Malzberg. In December 2012, Paterson was let go from his radio show at WOR after Clear Channel purchased the station.


title: David Paterson

text: In 2012, then-governor Andrew Cuomo appointed Paterson to the board of the Metropolitan Transit Authority. Paterson was confirmed to this post in June 2012.


title: David Paterson

text: In July 2013, Paterson said that he might run for Congress if U.S. Rep. Charles Rangel retired. In December 2013, however, Paterson stated that he had "no intention of running for Congress in the 13th District, either now or in the future".


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson was appointed in 2013 to be a distinguished professor of health care and public policy, at Touro College, in Harlem, and to advise the Touro College of Osteopathic Medicine on public policy issues. Paterson was a director for investments with Stifel, Nicolaus & Company, a financial services holding company.


title: David Paterson

text: In early 2014, Paterson unveiled his portrait that hangs in the Hall of Governors in the New York State Capitol.


title: David Paterson

text: In May 2014, Andrew Cuomo appointed Paterson chairman of the New York Democratic Party. On October 7, 2015, Paterson announced that he would leave that position following the November elections.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson released his book "" in late 2020. The book discussed not only his life, but the figures around him and the history that affected him.


title: David Paterson

text: In the 2021 New York City Democratic mayoral primary, Paterson endorsed the eventual winner of the primary, Eric Adams.


title: David Paterson

text: In August of 2022, New York Governor Kathy Hochul planted a tree in Paterson's honor at the New York State Executive Mansion. Paterson endorsed Kathy Hochul in the 2022 New York gubernatorial election.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson dated Michelle Paige in college. After he broke up with her, she went on to marry someone else, have a daughter, and get divorced. In 1992, Paterson and Paige married. Two years later, they had a son named Alex. The couple separated in 2012 and divorced in July 2014.


title: David Paterson

text: Paterson reportedly dated a member of his staff, Pamela Bane, from 2012 to 2014. Paterson then began to date Mary Galda, former wife of Curtis Sliwa. Sliwa tweeted out his "approval" of the relationship in 2015. Paterson got engaged to Galda in 2019, and they were married on August 10, 2019, at the Water Club on the East River. The ceremony was officiated by former New York City mayor David Dinkins.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Toyota Aygo is a city car (A-segment) marketed by Toyota mainly in the European market between 2005 and 2021 across two generations. The Aygo was first displayed at the 2005 Geneva International Motor Show. It was built alongside the related Citroën C1 and Peugeot 107/108 at the Toyota Peugeot Citroën Automobile Czech (TPCA) joint venture in Kolín, Czech Republic. The Aygo's production ended in 2021 and was replaced by the crossover-styled Aygo X.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The decision to produce the cars was made on 12 July 2001 when the presidents of Toyota and PSA Peugeot Citroën, Fujio Cho and Jean-Martin Folz respectively, decided to produce a small car to share development costs. This project was called B-Zero. The Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1 are rebadged versions of the same car.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo's starting on the road price was (). The main difference between the Aygo and its siblings are the badges, rear side windows, steering wheel and the easily recognizable front and rear end of the car. The planned production is 300,000 cars annually – 100,000 cars per brand. Sales began in July 2005, and the car was available as a three- or five-door hatchback. There were two engines available, a 1.0 L three cylinder engine rated at , and a 1.4 L HDi Diesel I4 engine rated at .


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo was used on BBC's "Top Gear" in a giant match of football, showcasing its maneuverability. The "Top Gear" presenters deemed the Aygo and its Peugeot and Citroën counterparts to be competent town cars.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: A modified Aygo was also used on "Fifth Gear" to perform a twelve metre high loop the loop on a specially-designed track to determine if a stunt that can be done using Hot Wheels toys can be replicated in real life. The stunt was driven by stuntman Steve Truglia in May 2009.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: In January 2010, the Aygo was part of a worldwide recall by Toyota for a faulty sticking accelerator pedal. It was found that under some circumstances, the pedal could stick in a partially depressed position, or return slowly to the off position. The recall affected the Aygo, Peugeot 107 and Citroën C1 models built between February 2005 and August 2009. Information from Toyota later suggested, however, that only Aygos with automatic gearboxes were affected, and that those with manual gearboxes were not.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo received its first facelift, replacing the front bumper shape from the original, and changing the rear lights to a transparent appearance, from their original red tinted cluster.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo received its second facelift, this time incorporating a much more angular bumper, and space for the inclusion of daytime running lights (DRL).


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Breakdown statistics reported by the German Automobile Club in May 2010 placed the Aygo (which the data grouped with the Citroën C1 and Peugeot 107) at the top of the sub small car class, in respect of the low breakdown rates achieved for cars aged between one and four years.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: In 2008, Toyota created a driveable one off concept car based on the Toyota Aygo. Named the Aygo Crazy, it was unveiled to the public at the July 2008 British International Motor Show in London, before appearing at other motor shows that year based in the United Kingdom.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo Crazy has a mid mounted 1.8 litre VVTi engine from the Toyota MR2 and Celica, mated to an MR2 five speed gearbox and fitted with a Toyota Motorsport turbocharger conversion. The manufacturer claims the engine produces at 6,700 rpm and torque at 3,400 rpm.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Weighing just , this gives it a sprint time of 5.75 seconds and a theoretical top speed of , though the latter has not been tested. Unlike the standard Aygo, it has no driver aids, power steering or anti lock brakes but its rear wheel drive layout helps traction under heavy acceleration.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Exterior modifications include wider arches to accommodate the one inch of extra track, 17 inch alloy wheels with Goodyear tyres and a carbon fibre rear spoiler designed for the American Champ Car series.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Suspension is from the MR2, with adjustable Tein shock absorbers and MacPherson struts front and rear. To cope with the extra power, Toyota upgraded the standard front brake discs to a Brembo conversion, with ventilated rear discs replacing the drums normally found on the Aygo. An uprated Helix clutch is also used.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The interior features a partial roll cage for extra chassis comfort and driver protection. Two specially designed sports seats, trimmed in red and black, and a suede rimmed Sparco steering wheel complete the race-inspired look.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Since 2008, the Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto has produced the BYD F0, an unlicensed clone of the Toyota Aygo.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: Toyota revealed a completely redesigned Aygo at the March 2014 Geneva International Motor Show with the slogan 'go fun yourself'. The design was attributed to Japanese youth culture, inspired by Japanese manga robot Astro Boy and an egg in a box and has aims to make the Aygo more accessible to younger drivers, and allow for a greater level of customisability. It began rolling off the production line on 27 May 2014.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The Aygo also includes numerous safety features such as vehicle stability control (VSC), anti lock braking system (ABS), hill start assist control (HAC) and supplemental restraint system (SRS) with six airbags.


title: Toyota Aygo

text: The refreshed second generation Aygo was unveiled at the March 2018 Geneva International Motor Show. and features a new front bumper, headlights, tail lights and engine.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The show was first broadcast in 2001, and the current 2022 season is the 17th and 18th. Each season, it follows a National Football League (NFL) team through its training camp and covers the team's preparation for the upcoming football season. Starting with the 2021 season there will be an in season version of Hard Knocks following a different team than the training camp version.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The series shows the personal and professional lives of the players, coaches and staff, including their family life, position battles, and even inside jokes and pranks. It particularly focuses on rookies' adjustments to playing in the NFL, usually with emphasis on the team's most recent top draft pick. It usually also chooses to focus on undrafted and journeyman players who are attempting to make the team.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The NFL and HBO have called "Hard Knocks" "the first sports-based reality series" in television history.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The series has been narrated by Liev Schreiber since 2001, with the only exception being the 2007 season which was narrated by Paul Rudd, a fan of the Kansas City Chiefs.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The San Francisco 49ers, Atlanta Falcons, Seattle Seahawks, Houston Texans, and Washington Redskins each declined to be the show's featured team for the 2013 season, while the Cincinnati Bengals accepted, marking their second appearance on the show. NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell subsequently said that he wanted more teams to be featured on the series, on "some kind of formal rotation."


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: Despite the difficulty each year in finding a team willing to participate, NFL Films announced on July 18, 2013, that it had signed a "multiyear" contract extension with HBO to continue producing the show.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: In October 2013 the NFL announced that, in the absence of a team volunteering to participate in "Hard Knocks", the league could force a team to participate. Teams are exempt from being forced to participate in three circumstances: (1) they have appeared in the past ten years, (2) they have a first-year head coach, or (3) they reached the playoffs in "either" of the two preceding seasons. The first two teams to appear after such ruling announced were the Falcons and the Texans, appearing on the series in 2014 and 2015 respectively, after both teams declined to appear in 2013. In the Texans case, their appearance in 2015 was eligible for a "forced" appearance, as they had missed the playoffs the previous two years and were entering the second season of then-head coach Bill O'Brien.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: In September 2021, NFL Network announced that the Indianapolis Colts would become the subject of the first ever in-season edition of the series. The series premiered in November 2021 and would have carried on through the 2021-2022 NFL playoffs, which the Indianapolis Colts did not qualify for.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The series returned on August 8, 2007, featuring the Kansas City Chiefs and their preparations for the 2007 season. It is the only season of the series not narrated by Liev Schreiber. Instead, actor and Chiefs fan Paul Rudd was the narrator.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The Dallas Cowboys were chronicled for the second time on the television series' fourth season, which premiered on August 6, 2008.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The Cincinnati Bengals season premiered on August 12, 2009. Its ratings were higher than any previous season of "Hard Knocks", and it won two Sports Emmy Awards: one for "Outstanding Edited Sports Series or Anthology," and one for "Outstanding Post Produced Audio / Sound."


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The New York Jets were chronicled in the series' sixth season. An official announcement was made on March 25, 2010, and HBO began airing it on August 11, 2010. It won the series' second consecutive Sports Emmy Award for "Outstanding Edited Sports Series or Anthology". The Jets declined another opportunity to appear in the series in 2011.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: At the end of July 2011, NFL Films announced it would not be producing "Hard Knocks" for the 2011 season. No team wanted to commit to the series due to uncertainty with the NFL's labor situation. A retrospective on the series titled "Hard Knocks: A Decade of NFL Training Camps" was made featuring clips from every episode made to that point, and including comments looking back on the series from Brian Billick, Shannon Sharpe, Mike Westhoff, and others.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On May 29, 2012, Miami Dolphins head coach Joe Philbin announced that the team would participate in the 2012 season of "Hard Knocks."


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: The Cincinnati Bengals were featured in the 2013 season, which was the team's second appearance on the show. The first episode of the season premiered on August 6, 2013.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On June 12, 2014, the Atlanta Falcons announced that the team would participate in the 2014 season of "Hard Knocks" premiering on August 5, 2014.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On May 27, 2015, it was announced the Houston Texans would be the team featured for the 2015 season premiering on August 11, 2015.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On March 23, 2016, it was announced the Los Angeles Rams would be the team featured for the 2016 season premiering on August 9, 2016.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On April 19, 2017, it was announced the Tampa Bay Buccaneers would be the team featured for the 2017 season premiering on August 8, 2017.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On May 17, 2018, it was announced the Cleveland Browns would be the team featured for the 2018 season premiering on August 7, 2018.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On June 11, 2019, it was announced the Oakland Raiders would be the team featured for the 2019 season premiering on August 6, 2019.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On April 7, 2020, it was announced that the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers had volunteered to be featured for the 2020 season. It marked the first time two teams were featured, with both teams set to play their inaugural seasons at the new SoFi Stadium. Before the Rams and Chargers volunteered, the Pittsburgh Steelers were heavy favorites to appear due to the team's national appeal and rare position to be "forced" onto the series; the Steelers themselves have long opposed being featured.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On June 18, 2020, it was announced that the 2020 season would premiere on August 11, 2020. The format of the episodes was set to be different, on account of the NFL's cancellation of preseason games due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On July 2, 2021, it was announced that the Dallas Cowboys would be the team featured for the 2021 season premiering on August 10, 2021.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On September 16, 2021, it was announced that the Indianapolis Colts would become the first team to be featured during the regular season.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On March 28, 2022, it was announced that the Detroit Lions would be the team featured for the upcoming 2022 season premiering on August 9, 2022.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: On May 23, 2022, the Cardinals were announced as the next "In Season" team, to premier on November 9, 2022.


title: Hard Knocks (2001 TV series)

text: In 2004, NFL Films produced a training camp documentary series, similar to "Hard Knocks", that featured the Jacksonville Jaguars. Called "Inside Training Camp: Jaguars Summer," it aired on the NFL Network, not HBO, and was narrated by frequent NFL Films narrator Robb Webb.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: Toy Boy is a Spanish drama produced by Atresmedia and Plano a Plano. The show stars Jesús Mosquera, Cristina Castaño and María Pedraza. It premiered first on FesTVal and Atresplayer Premium in September 2019 before its premiere on Antena 3 on 25 September 2019.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: The fiction is set in the Costa del Sol. Hugo Beltrán (Jesús Mosquera) is a young, handsome and carefree stripper. One morning he wakes up on a sailboat, after a night of partying and excesses, next to the burned corpse of a man, allegedly the husband of his lover, Macarena Medina (Cristina Castaño), a mature and powerful woman with whom he maintained a steamy high-voltage sexual relationship. Hugo does not remember anything that happened the night of the crime, but he is sure that he is not the murderer, but the victim of a set-up to accuse him. After a quick trial, he is sentenced to fifteen years in prison.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: Seven years later, he is visited in prison by Triana Marín (María Pedraza), a young lawyer who, representing a major law firm, offers to help him reopen the case and try to prove his innocence in a new trial. Although Hugo distrusts the offer, Triana gets the conviction annulled and Hugo is released from prison, on probation and pending the holding of a new trial in which they will have to be able to prove their innocence.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: Triana and Hugo work together to try to unravel a complex plot that took an innocent person to prison. A relationship that will not be easy, since they belong to diametrically opposite worlds; She is a lawyer with a hard-working, responsible and bright future. He, a master of the night, former prisoner and considered a murderer by everyone except himself.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: Created by César Benítez, Juan Carlos Cueto and Rocío Martínez, "Toy Boy" was produced by Atresmedia Televisión in collaboration with Plano a Plano. Iñaki Mercero and Javier Quintas directed the episodes of the first season. The first season was shot on natural locations of the Costa del Sol: shooting locations included Málaga, Fuengirola, Torremolinos, Mijas, Marbella and Estepona. Filming was wrapped in May 2019. The series premiered on Atresplayer Premium on 8 September 2019, later starting its free-to-air broadcasting run on Antena 3 on 25 September 2019.


title: Toy Boy (TV series)

text: Despite mediocre viewership figures in the domestic run on linear television, the series enjoyed a better international reception in Netflix. Thus, in July 2020, Atresmedia and Netflix decided to bring back the series for a second season. Filming started by March 2021 in Vélez-Málaga. In April 2021 Álex González, Federica Sabatini, Enrique Arce, Paco Marín, Ibrahim Al-Shami, Toni Zenet and Juan Betancourt were announced as additions to the cast, with Javier Quintas and Laura M. Campos as directors. Atresplayer Premium set the season 2 premiere date for 26 September 2021.


title: Reo Hatate

text: Hatate was born in Suzuka, Mie Prefecture and played youth football for FC Yokkaichi before studying at Shizuoka Gakuen High School and later, the Juntendo University. While studying at the Juntendo University, it was announced that Hatate would sign for J1 League side Kawasaki Frontale in 2020, when he graduates. He joined Frontale in 2018 as a designated special player and was approved to continue as a designated player in 2019.


title: Reo Hatate

text: Rated as one of the country's most promising university prospects, Hatate was called up to the Japanese University Team to play at the 2017 Summer Universiade, where he scored three goals, helping Japan to win the title for the sixth time. He also featured at the 2018 AFC U-23 Championship, however he did not score in this competition.


title: Reo Hatate

text: Hatate helped Japan to the 2019 Summer Universiade title in July 2019, scoring two goals, including one against Brazil in the final.


title: Reo Hatate

text: Hatate made his debut at the end of the 2019 J1 League season, coming on as a substitute for Hiroyuki Abe in a 2–1 win over Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo.


title: Reo Hatate

text: The following season, he would go on to establish himself in the Kawasaki Frontale team. Due to his versatility, he was utilised mostly as a left wing-back, but also played as an attacking midfielder, and on both wings. He finished the season with six goals in 38 appearances in all competitions, as Frontale went on to win the 2020 J1 League.


title: Reo Hatate

text: On 31 December 2021, Hatate was announced to have signed a four-and-a-half year deal with Scottish Premiership club Celtic for a fee believed to be in the region of £1.4 million. On 17 January 2022, he made his debut against Hibernian and was awarded man of the match. On 2 February, Hatate recorded two goals and one assist in the Old Firm against Rangers.


title: Reo Hatate

text: In 2019, he gained international recognition for his performances at the Toulon Tournament, where he scored two goals to help Japan to the final, where they were eventually defeated on penalties by Brazil. Hatate missed Japan's final penalty, handing the title to Brazil.


title: Reo Hatate

text: Having represented Japan at youth level, Hatate was called up to the Japan U24 team for the 2020 Olympics. On 29 March 2022, Hatate made his debut for Japan against Vietnam in a World Cup Qualifier.


title: Jauhar

text: Jauhar, sometimes spelled Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu practice of mass self-immolation by women, in the Indian subcontinent, to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by an invading army, when facing certain defeat during a war. Some reports of "jauhar" mention women committing self-immolation along with their children. This practice was historically observed in northwest regions of India, with most famous jauhars in recorded history occurring during wars between Hindu Rajput kingdoms in Rajasthan and the opposing Muslim armies. However jauhar is performed during war, usually when there was no chance of victory. The practice was accompanied by saka, or a last stand in battle.


title: Jauhar

text: The term "jauhar" often connotes both "jauhar"-immolation and "saka" ritual. During Jauhar, Hindu women committed suicide with their children and valuables in a massive fire, to avoid capture and abuse in the face of inescapable military defeat. Simultaneously or thereafter, the men would ritually march to the battlefield expecting certain death, which in the regional tradition is called "saka". This practice was intended to show that their honour was valued more highly than their lives.


title: Jauhar

text: "Jauhar" by Hindu kingdoms has been documented by Muslim historians of the Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire. Among the oft cited example of "jauhar" has been the mass suicide committed in 1303 CE by the women of Chittorgarh fort in Rajasthan, faced with muslim invaders of Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The "jauhar" phenomenon was also observed in other parts of India, such as in the Kampili kingdom of northern Karnataka when it fell in 1327 to Delhi Sultanate armies.


title: Jauhar

text: There is an annual celebration of heroism called the Jauhar Mela in Chittorgarh where the ancestors are commemorated.


title: Jauhar

text: The word "jauhar" is connected to Sanskrit "jatugr̥ha" "house plastered with lac and other combustible materials for burning people alive in". It has also been wrongly interpreted to have been derived from the Persian "gōhar", which refers to "gem, worth, virtue". This confusion, Hawley states, rose from the fact that "jivhar" and "jauhar" were written in the same manner with the same letter used to denote "v" and "u". Thus its meaning also came to wrongly denote the meaning of jauhar.


title: Jauhar

text: The practice of Jauhar is claimed as being culturally not very related to "Sati", with both a form of suicide by women through self-immolation. However, the two are only superficially similar because the underlying reason for both were significantly different. Sati was the custom of a widow to commit suicide by sitting on her husband's funeral pyre. Jauhar was collective self-immolation by women in order to escape capture and forcing into slavery by invaders, when defeat was imminent. Self-immolation was preferred over simple suicide because that would negate the possibility of any defilement of their dead bodies which their husbands, children and/or clansmen might have to watch. Such defilement of the body of the defeated is something that has been a historical tendency in which the savagery prevailing in war results in foregoing of all type of dignified conduct on or off the battlefield, especially by foot-soldiers.


title: Jauhar

text: Kaushik Roy states that the "jauhar" was observed only during Hindu-Muslim wars, but not during internecine Hindu-Hindu wars among the Rajputs. John Hawley however disagrees with this assertion. He links it to the Greek conquerors who also captured Indian women, arguing that it might have started the spread of jauhar. Veena Talwar Oldenburg disagrees as well, saying that "internecine warfare among the Rajput kingdoms almost certainly supplied the first occasions for jauhar, well before the Muslim invasions with which the practice is popularly associated" and that "the geopolitics of the northwest, whence a succession of invaders entered the subcontinent, made of Rajasthan a continual war zone, and its socially most respected community was therefore not the Brahmins but the kshatriya or Rajput castes, who controlled and defended the land. This history predates the coming of the Muslims by more than a millennium. Commemorative stones unearthed and dated in Rajasthan and Vijayanagara mark the deaths of both sexes. Their dates, which can be reliably determined, match perfectly the times and zones of war."


title: Jauhar

text: For obvious reasons, the phenomenon of "jauhar" has been reported by Hindus and Muslims differently. In the Hindu traditions, "jauhar" was a heroic act by women of a community facing certain defeat and abuse by the enemy. For Muslim historians Jauhar was an act forced upon their women. Amir Khusrau the poetic scholar described it, states Arvind Sharma – a professor of Comparative Religion, as "no doubt magical and superstitious; nevertheless they are heroic".


title: Jauhar

text: Among the more cited cases of Jauhar are the three occurrences at the fort of Chittaur (Chittaurgarh, Chittorgarh), in Rajasthan, in 1303, 1535, and 1568 CE. Jaisalmer has witnessed two occurrences of Jauhar, one in the year 1299 CE during the reign of the Alauddin Khalji, and another during the reign of the Tughlaq dynasty in 1326. Jauhar and Saka were considered heroic acts and the practice was glorified in the local ballads and folklore of Rajasthan.


title: Jauhar

text: The mass self-immolation by the Agalassoi tribe of northwest India is mentioned in Book 6 of "The Anabasis of Alexander", Arrian's 2nd-century CE military history of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BCE. Arrian mentions Alexander's army conquering and enslaving peoples of the northwest Indian subcontinent. During a war that killed many in the Macedonian and Agalossoi armies, the civilians despaired of defeat. Some 20,000 men, women and children of an Agalossoi town set fire to the town and cast themselves into the flames.


title: Jauhar

text: The Malli tribe also performed a similar act, which Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont calls jauhar. Arrian states that they started burning their houses with themselves in it though any Indian captured in them was slaughtered by the Greeks.


title: Jauhar

text: In 712, Muhammed bin Qasim with his army attacked kingdoms of western regions of the Indian subcontinent. He laid siege to the capital of Raja Dahir, then the Hindu king in a part of Sind. After Dahir had been killed, the queen (Ladi) coordinated the defense of the capital for several months. As the food supplies ran out, she and the women of the capital refused to surrender, lit pyres and committed "jauhar". The remaining men walked out to their deaths at the hands of the invading army.


title: Jauhar

text: Shams ud-Din Iltutmish of the Delhi Sultanate attacked Gwalior in 1232, then under control of the Rajputs. The Rajput women committed jauhar instead of submitting to Iltutmish's army. The place where the women committed mass suicide is known as Jauhar-tal (or Johar kund, Jauhar Tank) in the northern end of the Gwalior fort.


title: Jauhar

text: In 1301, Alauddin Khalji of Delhi Sultanate besieged and conquered the Ranthambore fort. When faced with a certain defeat, the defending ruler Hammiradeva decided to fight to death with his soldiers, and his minister Jaja supervised the organization of a "jauhar". The queens, daughters and other female relatives of Hammiradeva committed suicide in this jauhar. The "jauhar" at Ranthambore has been described by Alauddin's courtier Amir Khusrau, which makes it the first "jauhar" to be described in a Persian language text.


title: Jauhar

text: According to many scholars, the first jauhar of Chittorgarh occurred during the 1303 siege of the Chittor fort. This "jauhar" became a subject of legendary Rajasthani poems, with Rani Padmini the main character, wherein she and other Rajput women commit "jauhar" to avoid being captured by Alauddin Khalji of Delhi Sultanate. The historicity of the first jauhar of Chittor is based on Rajasthani traditional belief as well as Islamic Sufi literature such as Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi.


title: Jauhar

text: The Hindu women of the Kampili kingdom of northern Karnataka committed "jauhar" when it fell in 1327 to Delhi Sultanate armies of Muhammad bin Tughluq.


title: Jauhar

text: The Hindu Rajput king Medini Rai ruled over Chanderi in northern Madhya Pradesh in early 16th century. He tried to help Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanua against the Muslim armies of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire. In January 1528 CE, his fort was overwhelmed by the invading forces of Babur. The women and children of the Chanderi fort committed "jauhar", the men dressed up in saffron garments and walked the ritual of "saka" on 29 January.


title: Jauhar

text: Rana Sanga died in 1528 CE after the Battle of Khanwa. Shortly afterwards, Mewar and Chittor came under the regency of his widow, Rani Karnavati. The kingdom was besieged by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Rani committed Jauhar with other women on 8 March 1535, while the Rajput army rallied out to meet the besieging Muslim army and committed saka.


title: Jauhar

text: As Chittorgarh faced an imminent attack from the Sultan of Gujarat, Karnavati sought the assistance of the Mughal emperor Humayun to whom she had once offered a "rakhi". Bahadur Shah sacked the fort for the second time. Rani Karnavati with 13,000 women shut themselves with gunpowder, lit it and thus committed mass suicide.


title: Jauhar

text: However, the narrative of Karnawati sending Rakhi to Humayun is a imaginary story which wrongly became a part of folklore based on an unreliable gossip account from the 17th century. (200 years after the event) The contemporary Persian and Hindu authorities did not mentioned this story at all.


title: Jauhar

text: The armies of Mughal Emperor Akbar besieged the Rajput fort of Chittor in September 1567. After his army conquered Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, Hindu women committed "jauhar" in spring of 1568 CE, and the next morning, thousands of Rajput men walked the saka ritual. The Mughal army killed all the Rajputs who walked out the fort. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, who was not an immediate witness, gave a hearsay account of the event as seen by Akbar and his army. Abu'l-Fazl states that the women were victims of Rajput men and unwilling participants, and these Rajputs came out walking to die, throwing away their lives. According to David Smith, when Akbar entered the Chittorgarh fort in 1568, it was "nothing but an immense crematorium".


title: Jauhar

text: According to Lindsey Harlan, the "jauhar" of 1568 is a part of regional legend and is locally remembered on the Hindu festival of Holi as a day of Chittorgarh massacre by the Akbar army, with "the red color signifying the blood that flowed on that day".


title: Jauhar

text: Raisen in Madhya Pradesh was repeatedly attacked by the Mughal Army in the early 16th century. In 1528, the first "jauhar" was led by Rani Chanderi. After the Mughal army left, the kingdom refused to accept orders from Delhi. After a long siege of Raisen fort, that exhausted all supplies within the fort, Rani Durgavati and 700 Raisen women committed the second "jauhar" in 1532, the men led by Lakshman Tuar committed "saka". This refusal to submit to Mughal rule repeated, and in 1543 the third "jauhar" was led by Rani Ratnavali.


title: Jauhar

text: Aurangzeb with three army battalions lay siege to Bundela in Madhya Pradesh in December 1634 CE. The resident women committed "jauhar" as the fort fell. Those who had not completed the ritual and survived the "jauhar" in progress were forced into the harem, men were forced to convert to Islam, those who refused were executed.


title: Jauhar

text: In 1710 CE, Mir Fazlullah, a rebel Mughal amir, invaded Daddanala, a town in the Prakasam District of Andhra Pradesh that was the capital of the Dupati Sayapaneni Nayaks. As Sayapaneni Pedda Venkatadri Nayudu, who was in charge, died during the conflict, all the assembled Sayapaneni women set fire to the houses in the fort and were burnt to death. The five-year-old prince Mallikarjuna Nayudu was saved by a maidservant who had smuggled him out through an orifice in the walls of the fort and was raised by his Kamma relatives.


title: Jauhar

text: Practices like the jauhar however weren't limited to Hindus and Muslim rulers are recorded to have their women killed in order to prevent any further degradation of their honour.


title: Jauhar

text: Jahangir in his memoirs states that his nobleman Khan-i-Jahan ordered his wives to commit "jauhar" during a battle with his enemy named Sher Shah. During a war with the Ahom kingdom, Mirza Nathan ordered all Mughal women in his camp to be killed if he died. He later ordered them to perform jauhar.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Ryan Guno Babel (; born 19 December 1986) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays for TFF First League club Eyüpspor and the Netherlands national team. He can play as a striker or left winger.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Babel began his career at Ajax in 1998, working his way up through the youth team and into the senior squad. He played three seasons for the first team before he was transferred to Liverpool in mid-2007, where under three successive managers he failed to secure a regular first team position. Babel was sold to 1899 Hoffenheim in January 2011, for a sum around half of that which Liverpool paid for him. His time at Hoffenheim was marred with disciplinary problems with three managers at the club. In the summer of 2012, Babel bought out the remaining final year of his contract, making him a free agent, and re-signed a one-year contract with Ajax. He then played for Kasımpaşa, Beşiktaş and Galatasaray in Turkey, Al Ain of the United Arab Emirates, Deportivo La Coruña and brief returns to the Premier League with Fulham and a loan to Ajax.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Babel has been part of the Netherlands national team since 2005, and has represented his country at all youth team levels. He played in two World Cups, 2006 and 2010, reaching the final of the latter.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Babel was born in Amsterdam. Inspired by the local footballing talent, including Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard, Babel played for nearby youth-teams S.V Diemen, then Fortius. In 1997, he attended a youth selection day with AFC Ajax. He made it through the first selection round, but failed to progress any further. However, the next year Ajax accepted him and he played the 1999–2000 season for their D1 team. After having graduated through the C1, B1 and A1 teams, Babel signed his first professional contract in January 2004.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Playing as a striker, on 1 February 2004, just one and a half months after his 17th birthday, Babel made his first-team debut in Ajax's 4–0 home win over ADO Den Haag in the Eredivisie. Ajax went on to win the Dutch league title, but Babel didn't feature again that season. Nine months later, on 20 November 2004 Babel scored his first senior goal against De Graafschap in a 5–0 victory.


title: Ryan Babel

text: In July 2005, Babel signed a new contract with Ajax. He started the new season by scoring the winning goal in Ajax's 2–1 defeat of PSV Eindhoven in the Johan Cruyff Shield. Babel scored in both legs of the Champions League third qualifying round against Brøndby as Ajax made it to the group stage. 2005–06 was a tougher season for Babel in general though as he managed only two league goals. He did however continue to feature for the national team, and scored his second goal against Italy in November. At the end of the season, Babel came on as a second-half substitute in Ajax's 2–1 victory over PSV in the KNVB Cup final.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Babel marked the start of 2006–07 with another Johan Cruyff Shield medal, as Ajax defeated PSV 3–1. Babel was linked with Arsenal and Newcastle United during the January transfer window of the 2006–07 season but no move materialised. Amidst the transfer speculation, Babel agreed to a new three-year deal with Ajax on 2 February 2007. In May, Babel got another Dutch Cup winners medal as Ajax successfully defended the title. The match against AZ went to a penalty shoot-out, but Babel was substituted off after 120 minutes.


title: Ryan Babel

text: On 10 July 2007, it was reported that Liverpool had made a £14 million offer to the Amsterdam club. On 12 July it was reported that Liverpool and Ajax had agreed a fee in the region of £11.5 million, and later Liverpool confirmed that Babel would sign a five-year contract on 13 July. He was unveiled on 13 July with Yossi Benayoun. Babel was handed the number 19 shirt. He made his debut on 17 July against Werder Bremen in a friendly. He was due to play in the first round of the Barclays Asia Trophy 2007 but had a delay in the granting of international clearance. This was sorted out in time for the final against Portsmouth.


title: Ryan Babel

text: He made his Premier League debut in the 2007–08 Premier League curtain raiser against Aston Villa away after coming on off the bench. A week later he made his Anfield debut, coming off the bench against Chelsea. On 1 September Babel scored his first goal for Liverpool against Derby County. Babel scored his first Champions League goal for Liverpool on 6 November against Beşiktaş J.K. after coming on as a substitute. He netted twice in the game and almost completed a hat-trick, with a header from a Harry Kewell cross, but was denied by the crossbar. Babel scored the fourth and last goal in Liverpool's 2007–08 UEFA Champions League group stage match against Olympique de Marseille, which they needed to win. He came off the bench in the second leg of the quarter final against Arsenal in the Champions League and won a penalty and scored a goal, with Liverpool winning the game 4–2 (5–3 on aggregate). He also came on as a substitute against Chelsea in the semi-final and despite scoring a goal, Liverpool lost 3–2 in extra time.


title: Ryan Babel

text: Former Liverpool and Celtic player Kenny Dalglish has said that Babel has the ability to terrorise defenders in the Premier League with his pace and trickery with the ball. On 13 September 2008, Babel came off the bench to score the winner for Liverpool in a 2–1 victory over Manchester United, his first goal of the 2008–09 season Babel scored his second goal of the season in Liverpool's 5–1 victory over Newcastle United on 28 December 2008.


title: Ryan Babel

text: On 20 September 2009, against West Ham, Babel came off the bench for Dirk Kuyt. At this stage the score was 2–2. Babel picked up the ball and did well to beat the full-back and sent in a delightful cross for Fernando Torres to head home the winner. Babel, who has been criticised in the past for his work rate and attitude, earned praise for his efforts in the West Ham game.


title: Ryan Babel

text: On 27 September 2009, Babel scored two goals against Hull City coming off the bench for Fernando Torres to round up a match which ended 6–1 for Liverpool. On 4 November 2009, Babel scored the opening goal against Lyon in a Champions League game, a strike from 25 yards in a 1–1 draw. Former Liverpool player Alan Hansen called upon Babel to play like he did against Lyon, as he still possessed the ability to be a 'top player'.


title: Ryan Babel

text: On 6 January 2010, it was reported that Liverpool rejected an £8 million offer from Birmingham City for Babel. Babel was then disciplined by manager Benitez, over stating on his Twitter page that he had been dropped for the game against Stoke City, and was fined two weeks wages of £120,000. He was frequently linked with a move away from Anfield but Rafael Benitez stated his desire for Babel to stay. On 15 March 2010 he scored against Portsmouth in a 4–1 win. On 1 April 2010, he was sent off for the first time in his Liverpool career in the 30th minute of the first leg of the Europa League quarter-final against S.L. Benfica after an altercation with Luisão. He scored in Liverpool's 4–0 win over Burnley at Turf Moor, subsequently relegating Burnley to the Championship.