title: More Life

text: The cover art of the project features a photo of Drake's father, Dennis Graham, taken in the 1970s. The photo is surrounded by a black border with the subtitle "A Playlist By October Firm" written below the photo. The original version of the cover art released in October 2016 on Drake's Instagram did not feature the black border or subtitle. "Billboard"s Tatiana Cirisano listed the album cover as one of the best of 2017.


title: More Life

text: "More Life" was preceded by three singles: "Fake Love", "Sneakin'" featuring 21 Savage, and "Two Birds, One Stone". The songs premiered on October 23, 2016, during Drake's thirtieth birthday edition of "OVO Sound Radio". The episode also housed Drake's collaboration with Dave on "Wanna Know (Remix)".


title: More Life

text: Drake further previewed two additional songs on February 17, 2017, during appearances at the Paper Soho Club in London. On March 11, he announced the release date as March 18, via commercials released through Instagram. It initially premiered on the 39th episode of "OVO Sound Radio" at 6:30 pm. EST.


title: More Life

text: The mixtape's lead single, "Fake Love", was released for digital download on October 29, 2016. The song was produced by Vinylz and Frank Dukes. The song peaked at number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: More Life

text: The mixtape's second single, "Passionfruit", was released to rhythmic contemporary radio on March 28, 2017. The song was produced by Nana Rogues. The song peaked at number eight on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: More Life

text: The mixtape's third single, "Free Smoke", was released to rhythmic contemporary radio on April 18, 2017. The song was produced by Boi-1da, with additional production by Allen Ritter, while the additional music by Akira Woodgrain. The song peaked at number 18 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: More Life

text: The mixtape's fourth single, "Portland", was released to rhythmic contemporary radio on May 16, 2017. The song features guest appearances from American rappers Quavo and Travis Scott, while the production was handled by Murda Beatz, with co-production by Cubeatz. The song peaked at number nine on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: More Life

text: The mixtape's fifth single, "Glow", was released to urban contemporary radio on June 6, 2017. The song features a guest appearance from American rapper Kanye West, while the production was handled by 40 and Kanye West himself, with additional production by Noah Goldstein. The song peaked at number 54 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: More Life

text: "More Life" was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the mixtape received an average score of 79, based on 25 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.5 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: More Life

text: Dan Weiss of "Consequence" said, "The singing and melodies are massaged with a care unheard in the prior Drake discography; this album flows as improbably as "The Life of Pablo", with more assured lyrics and smoother sequencing, to offset the lack of a certifiable genius at the helm". Erin Lowers of "Exclaim!" said, "Excluding its minor gaffes, "More Life" cements a place for genres long-overlooked by mainstream media; dancehall, grime, Afrobeat, house, trap and, of course, rap, and takes Toronto on a world tour to celebrate life—"More life"". David Turner of "The Guardian" said, "Even if the album lacks the humor of the "Views" songs "9" or "Childs Play"—no line here bests "Why you gotta fight with me at Cheesecake / You know I love to go there"—the breadth of styles recalls his 2012–2015 SoundCloud that found space for both Fetty Wap and James Blake remixes". Clayton Purdom of "The A.V. Club" said, ""More Life" is light, often weightless. Despite its playlist tag, it is unmistakably a Drake album—it even has a "Blueprint" highball closer like each of its predecessors—and as an album, it is probably Drake's worst. But as a collection of totally atomized songs and ideas, it's up there with anything he's released". Preezy of "XXL" said, "While fans and critics argue over whether or not he's one of the greatest MCs of his generation, let alone among the greatest of all-time, Drake continues to prove his worth as an elite talent with "More Life", another blockbuster from rap's golden child with the midas touch".


title: More Life

text: Andy Gill of "The Independent" said, "Pleasingly, two of the best [guests] are British, Sampha capping "4422" with an emotive outburst, and Skepta getting an entire "Skepta Interlude" to himself to muse about how he "died and came back as Fela Kuti". Elsewhere, the likes of Giggs, Young Thug and 2 Chainz add furtive but menacing sketches of thug life to tracks like "No Long Talk" and "Sacrifices", the latter offering Drake's most elegant mea culpa for past transgressions". Jayson Greene of "Pitchfork" said, "The more voices he lets into the frame, the fuller and richer the results, and "More Life" bursts with energy and lush sounds—more guests, more genres, more producers, more life. It is as confident, relaxed, and appealing as he's sounded in a couple of years". Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" said, ""More Life" is his finest longform collection in years, cheerfully indulgent at 22 tracks and 82 minutes, a masterful tour of all the grooves in his head, from U.K. grime ("No Long Talk") to Caribbean dancehall ("Blem") to South African house ("Get It Together") to Earth, Wind & Fire ("Glow"). Yet the more expansive he gets, the more himself he sounds—and the further he roams around the globe, the deeper he taps into the heart of Drakeness". Scott Glaysher of "HipHopDX" said, "Other than the Yeezy collab "Glow" being a bit lackluster, primarily for being slow and sonically off-putting, "More Life" has very few stumbles and a plethora of exciting moments that will ensure this project's shelf life". Kitty Empire of "The Observer" said, "By definition, "More Life" has sprawl in-built, so judicious use of the skip function is required, but this is high-quality filler".


title: More Life

text: Worldwide, on the day of its release, "More Life" broke streaming records on both Spotify and Apple Music. The tracks of the album achieved a total of 61.3 million streams on Spotify in a single day, breaking the previous record of 56.7 million for "÷" by Ed Sheeran, in early March 2017. On Apple Music, the tracks of the album achieved a total of 89.9 million streams on the day of release (not including the number of listeners during the "OVO Sound Radio" debut of the album on Beats 1), setting the record of most streams of an album in a single day on Apple Music, as well as any single streaming service, and beating Spotify's number by almost 30 million streams.


title: More Life

text: On the chart dated April 8, "More Life" topped the US "Billboard" 200 and set a streaming record, earning 505,000 album-equivalent units, of which 226,000 were pure sales. The project achieved these sales figures in only five and a half days of sales as it dropped late on a Saturday. By the end of 2017, "More Life" had accumulated 2,227,000 album-equivalent units in the United States, with 363,000 being pure sales.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Repulsion is a 1965 British psychological horror film directed by Roman Polanski, and starring Catherine Deneuve. Based on a story written by Polanski and Gérard Brach, the plot follows Carol, a withdrawn, disturbed young woman who, when left alone in the apartment she shares with her sister, is subject to a number of nightmarish experiences. The film focuses on the point of view of Carol and her vivid hallucinations and nightmares as she comes into contact with men and their desires for her. Ian Hendry, John Fraser, Patrick Wymark, and Yvonne Furneaux appear in supporting roles.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Shot in London, it is Polanski's first English-language film and second feature-length production, following "Knife in the Water" (1962).


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The film debuted at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival before receiving theatrical releases internationally. Upon its release, "Repulsion" received considerable critical acclaim and currently is considered one of Polanski's greatest works. The film was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Gilbert Taylor's cinematography.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Carol Ledoux, a beautiful and shy Belgian manicurist, lives in London with her older sister Helen. Carol is remarkably detached and struggles in her daily interactions. A suitor, Colin, is enamoured with her and makes fervent attempts to court her, but Carol seems uninterested. Carol is troubled by Helen's relationship with a married man named Michael, whom Carol seems to dislike. She is bothered by his habit of leaving his razor and toothbrush in her glass in the bathroom, and at night struggles to sleep, bothered by the sounds of her sister and Michael having sex.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: When Carol walks home from work one day, she is bothered by a crack in the pavement. Colin happens upon her and she struggles to converse with him. He drives her home and tries to kiss her several times, but she pulls away, running upstairs and vigorously brushing her teeth before weeping. That night, Helen questions Carol for dumping Michael's toothbrush and shaver in the bathroom trash bin. At the salon, Carol becomes increasingly distant, barely talking to her coworkers and customers, so much so that her boss decides to send her home for the day.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: That night, Helen and Michael depart for Italy on holiday, leaving Carol alone in the apartment. Carol takes a rabbit out of the fridge for dinner. Instead of cooking it, she is distracted by a number of Michael's possessions left around the apartment, including an unwashed shirt whose odour makes her vomit. After trying on one of her sister's dresses, Carol sees a dark figure in the mirror. That night, she hears footsteps outside her bedroom. Carol's isolation begins to take its toll on her, and she misses three days of work. One morning, she runs a bath and walks away, causing it to overflow. As she turns on a light, the wall cracks open. She locks herself in her room and again hears footsteps. This time, she hallucinates that a man breaks into her room and rapes her. She is awakened in the hallway by a phone call from Colin, but she hangs up.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: After returning to the salon, Carol finds the uncooked rabbit's head in her purse. While she is giving a manicure, she cuts her client's finger and is sent home early. At the apartment, Carol stares at an old family photo and the wall behind the photograph shatters like a mirror. Colin subsequently arrives at the apartment, but Carol refuses to open the door so he breaks in. He declares his love for her, and she responds by bludgeoning him to death with a candlestick. She cleans the blood, barricades the front door, and places Colin's corpse in the bathtub. In bed, she experiences the same rape hallucination. She wakes up the next morning, naked on the floor. In a subsequent scene, she walks down the dark hallway of her apartment where hands appear out of the walls and grab her. Later, the angry wife of Michael calls looking for Helen, causing Carol to cut the wire of the telephone.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The landlord arrives to collect Carol and Helen's rent. After he is unable to get in due to the barricade, he breaks into the apartment and sees Carol. She pays him the rent, but he is disgusted by the state of the apartment. He sees the uncooked rabbit, still sitting out, rotting. He propositions Carol, offering to forget about the rent if she "takes care of him", and tries to rape her when she doesn't respond. She pushes him off and then hacks him to death with Michael's straight razor. She then sinks deeper into hallucination.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: When Helen and Michael arrive home, Helen is dismayed at the state of the place. Michael happens on Helen hyperventilating and finds Colin's dead body in the bath. Helen finds Carol under her bed in a catatonic state. Her neighbours flood in as Michael picks her up and carries her out, smiling. In the living room, a family photo—the one Carol pondered earlier—shows Carol as a child, staring at an older male family member in the photograph with a look of loathing, while others in the photo smile for the camera.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The film is unusual for being a scary film that features a female killer. It explores the repulsion Carol feels about human sexuality in general and her suitors' pursuit of her in particular.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: It has been suggested that the film hints that her father may have sexually abused her as a child, which is the basis of her neuroses and breakdown. Other critics have observed Carol's repeated usage of items related to her sister's boyfriend Michael, and his presence greatly provoking Carol at the beginning of the film.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The film also approaches the theme of boundary breaking, with Tamar McDonald stating that she saw Carol as refusing to conform to the expected "path of femininity". It increasingly adopts the perspective of its protagonist. The dream sequences are particularly intense.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Repulsion was considered the first instalment in Polanski's "Apartment Trilogy", followed by "Rosemary's Baby" (1968) and "The Tenant" (1976), both of which are horror films that also take place primarily inside apartment buildings.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The story for "Repulsion" was conceived by Roman Polanski and Gérard Brach, who wrote an outline of the script in Paris. Polanski, who had recently relocated from his native Poland to the United Kingdom, decided to set the film in London. According to Polanski, the inspiration for the screenplay was derived from a woman of whom he and Brach were mutual acquaintances, and who Polanski later learned suffered from schizophrenia.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Polanski and Brach pitched the film to numerous English studios, including British Lion Films and Paramount Pictures, but each passed on the project. They eventually proposed the project to Compton Films, a small English-based studio known for making exploitation films and softcore pornography. The two leading executives at Compton Films, Michael Klinger and Tony Tenser, were impressed by the screenplay, and agreed to help produce and distribute the film.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Deneuve, had just finished a starring role in Umbrellas of Cherbourg the year before, was cast in the lead role of Carol.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: According to Polanski, the film was shot on a modest budget of £65,000. The film's exterior sequences were shot in the South Kensington district of London, while interiors of Carol and Helen's mansion flat were constructed on a small lot at Twickenham Studios. In order to capture an authentic appearance the film's art director, Seamus Flannery, and the cinematographer, Gilbert Taylor, photographed the interiors of a number of real local flats shared by young women in a seedy section of South Kensington. Commenting on the appearance of the flat, Polanski biographer Christopher Sandford notes: "Unlike the usual heavy-handed representation of a London pad, the detail and observations of the place are exactly right; you can believe that two foreign girls would end up there."


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Filming was challenging for Polanski as he was unfamiliar with the London shooting locations, and both he and star Deneuve were not fluent in English. Additionally, Polanski was meticulous about shots: Michael Klinger recalled witnessing Polanski shoot a simple frame of Deneuve's hand twenty-seven times. The production eventually went over-budget, partly due to Polanski's perfectionistic tendencies, totaling approximately £95,000 as opposed to the budgeted £65,000.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Tensions flared between Polanski and some of the cast during the shoot, including Yvonne Furneaux, whom Polanski treated harshly. Klinger recounted that, after remonstrating with Polanski for his treatment of Furneaux, he responded: "I know she's a nice girl. She's too bloody nice. She's supposed to be playing a bitch. Every day I have to make her into a bitch." Additionally, Ian Hendry, who portrayed Michael, would frequently return to the set after lunch intoxicated, making him difficult to direct.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The film was scored by Chico Hamilton. The official "soundtrack" was issued on CD in 2008 by British label Harkit, which specialised in British soundtracks from the 60s. Some songs on the soundtrack, are not even heard in the film, such as "Seduction in the Dark" and "Repulsion Nocturne."


title: Repulsion (film)

text: The main track from the film is called "Carol's Walk". The song also features on Hamilton's album "Chic Chic Chico".


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Film critic Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" gave the film a positive review stating, "An absolute knockout of a movie in the psychological horror line has been accomplished by Roman Polanski in his first English-language film." Jim Emerson, filling in for Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times", included the film in his list entitled "102 Movies You Must See Before...".


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Upon the film's release to DVD, Dave Kehr reviewed the film for "The New York Times" praising the film's techniques and themes, saying, "Mr. Polanski uses slow camera movements, a soundtrack carefully composed of distracting, repetitive noises (clocks ticking, bells ringing, hearts thumping) and, once Carol barricades herself in the cramped, dark apartment, explicitly expressionistic effects (cracks suddenly ripping through walls, rough hands reaching out of the darkness to grope her) to depict a plausible schizophrenic episode."


title: Repulsion (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 95% of 64 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 8.87/10. The website's critics consensus states, "Roman Polanski's first English film follows a schizophrenic woman's descent into madness, and makes the audience feel as claustrophobic as the character." As of June 2019, the film is number 52 on Rotten Tomatoes' list of best rated films. Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 91 based on 8 reviews.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: At the 15th Berlin International Film Festival in 1965, "Repulsion" won both the FIPRESCI Prize and the Silver Berlin Bear-Extraordinary Jury Prize. The film was also nominated for a BAFTA for Best Black and White Cinematography.


title: Repulsion (film)

text: In 2009, the film was released as part of The Criterion Collection on DVD and Blu-ray. Both releases contain two documentary featurettes, audio commentary by Roman Polanski and Catherine Deneuve, original trailers, and a 16-page booklet.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German sentiment (also known as Anti-Germanism, Germanophobia or Teutophobia) is opposition to or fear of Germany, its inhabitants, its culture, or its language. Its opposite is Germanophilia.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German sentiment largely began with the mid-19th-century unification of Germany, which made the new nation a rival to the great powers of Europe on economic, cultural, geopolitical, and military grounds. However, the German atrocities during World War I and World War II greatly strengthened anti-German sentiment.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the 19th century, the mass influx of German immigrants made them the largest group of Americans by ancestry today. This migration resulted in nativist reactionary movements not unlike those of the contemporary Western world. These would eventually culminate in 1844 with the establishment of the American Party, which had an openly xenophobic stance. One of many incidents described in a 19th century account included the blocking of a funeral procession in New York by a group who proceeded to hurl insults at the pallbearers. Incidents such as these led to more meetings of Germans who would eventually establish fraternal groups such as the Sons of Hermann in 1840, having been founded as a means to "improve and foster German customs and the spread of benevolence among Germans in the United States".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the 1860s, Russia experienced an outbreak of Germanophobia, mainly restricted to a small group of writers in St. Petersburg who had united around a left-wing newspaper. It began in 1864 with the publication of an article by a writer (using the pseudonym "Shedoferotti") who proposed that Poland be given autonomy and that the privileges of the Baltic German nobility in the Baltic governorates and Finland be preserved. Mikhail Katkov published a harsh criticism of the article in the "Moscow News", which in turn caused a flood of angry articles in which Russian writers expressed their irritation with Europeans, some of which featured direct attacks on Germans.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The following year, 1865, the 100th anniversary of the death of Mikhail Lomonosov was marked throughout the Russian Empire. Articles were published mentioning the difficulties Lomonosov had encountered from the foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences, most of whom had been of German descent. The authors then criticized contemporary German scholars for their neglect of the Russian language and for printing articles in foreign languages while receiving funds from the Russian people. It was further suggested by some writers that Russian citizens of German origin who did not speak Russian and follow the Orthodox faith should be considered foreigners. It was also proposed that people of German descent be forbidden from holding diplomatic posts as they might not have "solidarity with respect to Russia".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Despite the press campaign against Germans, Germanophobic feelings did not develop in Russia to any widespread extent, and died out, due to the Imperial family's German roots and the presence of many German names in the Russian political elite.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Negative comments about Germany had begun to appear in Britain in the 1870s, following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. The British war planners considered how to stop a possible invasion.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: According to Alfred Vagts "The Battle of Dorking": appeared first in "Blackwood's Magazine" in the summer of 1871, at a time when the German Crown Prince and his English wife [the daughter of Queen Victoria] were visiting England. Impressed by the late German victories, the author, a Colonel Chesney, who remained anonymous for some time, told the story of how England, in 1875, would be induced by an insurrection of the natives in India, disturbances in Ireland, and a conflict with the United States threatening Canadian security, to employ her navy and standing army far from her own shores; in spite of this dangerous position England, on account of a quarrel with Germany over Denmark, would declare war on Germany. The latter would land an army in England which would conquer the remaining parts of the British army and the Volunteers, who would join it at Dorking, and would force upon England a disastrous peace.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Newspaper publisher Lord Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe in 1894 commissioned author William Le Queux to write the serial novel "The Great War in England in 1897", which featured France and Russia combining forces to crush Britain. Happily German intervention on Britain's side turned back France and Russia. Twelve years later, however, Harmsworth asked him to reverse enemies, making Germany the villain. The result was the bestselling "The Invasion of 1910", which originally appeared in serial form in the "Daily Mail" in 1906. Harmsworth now used his newspapers like "Daily Mail" or "The Times" to attack Berlin, inducing an atmosphere of paranoia, mass hysteria and Germanophobia that would climax in the Naval Scare of 1908–09.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: German food such as the sausage was deprecated by Germanophobes. In the late 19th century, the label "Made in Germany" was introduced. The label was originally introduced in Britain by the "Merchandise Marks Act 1887", to mark foreign produce more obviously, as foreign manufactures had been falsely marking inferior goods with the marks of renowned British manufacturing companies and importing them into the United Kingdom. Most of these were found to be originating from Germany, whose government had introduced a protectionist policy to legally prohibit the import of goods in order to build up domestic industry (Merchandise Marks Act - Oxford University Press).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the 1890s, German immigrants in Britain were the target of "some hostility". Joseph Bannister believed that German residents in Britain were mostly "gambling-house keepers, hotel-porters, barbers, 'bullies', runaway conscripts, bath-attendants, street musicians, criminals, bakers, socialists, cheap clerks, etc". Interviewees for the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration believed that Germans were involved in prostitution and burglary, and many people also viewed Germans working in Britain as threatening the livelihood of Britons by being willing to work for longer hours.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German hostility deepened since early 1896 after the Kruger telegram of Kaiser Wilhelm II, in which he congratulated President Kruger of the Transvaal on repelling the British Jameson Raid. Attacks on Germans in London were reported in the German press at the time but do not appear to have actually occurred. The "Saturday Review" suggested "be ready to fight Germany, as "Germania delenda est"" ("Germany is to be destroyed"), a reference to the coda against the Carthaginians used by Cato the Elder during the Roman Republic. The Kaiser's reputation was further degraded by his angry tirade and the Daily Telegraph Affair.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Following the signing of the Entente Cordiale alliance in 1904 between Britain and France, official relationships cooled as did popular attitudes towards Germany and German residents in Britain. A fear of German militarism replaced a previous admiration for German culture and literature. At the same time, journalists produced a stream of articles on the threat posed by Germany. In the Daily Telegraph Affair of 1908–1909, the Kaiser--although he was a grandson of Queen Victoria-- humiliated himself and further soured relations by his intemperate attacks on Britain.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Articles in Harmsworth's "Daily Mail" regularly advocated anti-German sentiments throughout the 20th century, telling their readers to refuse service at restaurants by Austrian or German waiters on the claim that they were spies and told them that if a German-sounding waiter claimed to be Swiss that they should demand to see the waiter's passport. In 1903, Erskine Childers published "The Riddle of the Sands: A Record of Secret Service" a novel in which two Englishmen uncover a plot by Germany to Invade England; it was later made into a 1979 film The Riddle of the Sands.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: At the same time, conspiracy theories were concocted combining Germanophobia with antisemitism, concerning the supposed foreign control of Britain, some of which blamed Britain's entry into the Second Boer War on international financiers "chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race". Most of these ideas about German-Jewish conspiracies originated from right-wing figures such as Arnold White, Hilaire Belloc, and Leo Maxse, the latter using his publication the "National Review" to spread them.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In 1914, when Germany invaded neutral Belgium and northern France, its army officers accused many thousands of Belgian and French civilians of being francs-tireurs and executed 6,500 of them. These acts were used to encourage anti-German sentiments and the Allied Powers produced propaganda depicting Germans as "Huns" capable of infinite cruelty and violence.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Great Britain, anti-German feeling led to infrequent rioting, assaults on suspected Germans and the looting of stores owned by people with German-sounding names, occasionally even taking on an antisemitic tone.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Increasing anti-German hysteria even threw suspicion upon the British royal family. King George V was persuaded to change his German name of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor and relinquish all German titles and styles on behalf of his relatives who were British subjects. Prince Louis of Battenberg was not only forced to change his name to Mountbatten, he was forced to resign as First Sea Lord, the most senior position in the Royal Navy.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The German Shepherd breed of dog was renamed to the euphemistic "Alsatian"; the English Kennel Club only re-authorised the use of 'German Shepherd' as an official name in 1977. The German biscuit was re-named the Empire biscuit.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Several streets in London which had been named after places in Germany or notable Germans had their names changed. For instance, "Berlin Road" in Catford was renamed "Canadian Avenue", and "Bismarck Road" in Islington was renamed "Waterlow Road".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Attitudes to Germany were not entirely negative among British troops fighting on the Western Front; the British writer Nicholas Shakespeare quotes this statement from a letter written by his grandfather during the First World War in which he says he would rather fight the French and describes German bravery:


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Robert Graves who, like the King, also had German relatives, wrote shortly after the war during his time at Oxford University as an undergraduate that:


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Canada, there was some anti-German sentiment in Germanic communities, including Berlin, Ontario (Kitchener, Ontario) in Waterloo County, Ontario, before and the First World War and some cultural sanctions. There were anti-German riots in Victoria, British Columbia, and Calgary, Alberta, in the first years of the war.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: It was this anti-German sentiment that precipitated the Berlin to Kitchener name change in 1916. The city was named after Lord Kitchener, famously pictured on the "Lord Kitchener Wants You" recruiting posters. Several streets in Toronto that had previously been named for Liszt, Humboldt, Schiller, Bismarck, etc., were changed to names with strong British associations, such as Balmoral.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The Governor General of Canada, the Duke of Connaught, while visiting Berlin, Ontario, in May 1914, had discussed the importance of Canadians of German ethnicity (regardless of their origin) in a speech: "It is of great interest to me that many of the citizens of Berlin are of German descent. I well know the admirable qualities – the thoroughness, the tenacity, and the loyalty of the great Teutonic Race, to which I am so closely related. I am sure that these inherited qualities will go far in the making of good Canadians and loyal citizens of the British Empire".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Some immigrants from Germany who considered themselves Canadians but were not yet citizens, were detained in internment camps during the War. In fact, by 1919 most of the population of Kitchener, Waterloo, and Elmira in Waterloo County, Ontario, were Canadian.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The German-speaking Mennonites were pacifist so they could not enlist and the few who had immigrated from Germany (not born in Canada) could not morally fight against a country that was a significant part of their heritage.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: News reports during the war years indicate that "A Lutheran minister was pulled out of his house ... he was dragged through the streets. German clubs were ransacked through the course of the war. It was just a really nasty time period." Someone stole the bust of Kaiser Wilhelm II from Victoria Park and dumped it into a lake; soldiers vandalized German stores. History professor Mark Humphries summarized the situation:


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: A document in the Archives of Canada makes the following comment: "Although ludicrous to modern eyes, the whole issue of a name for Berlin highlights the effects that fear, hatred and nationalism can have upon a society in the face of war."


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Internment camps across Canada opened in 1915 and 8,579 "enemy aliens" were held there until the end of the war; many were German speaking immigrants from Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Ukraine. Only 3,138 were classed as prisoners of war; the rest were civilians.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Built in 1926, the Waterloo Pioneer Memorial Tower in rural Kitchener, Ontario, commemorates the settlement by the Pennsylvania Dutch (actually "Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch" or "German") of the Grand River area in the 1800s in what later became Waterloo County, Ontario.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Australia, an official proclamation of 10 August 1914 required all German citizens to register their domiciles at the nearest police station and to notify authorities of any change of address. Under the later Aliens Restriction Order of 27 May 1915, enemy aliens who had not been interned had to report to the police once a week and could only change address with official permission. An amendment to the Restriction Order in July 1915 prohibited enemy aliens and naturalized subjects from changing their name or the name of any business they ran. Under the War Precautions Act of 1914 (which survived the First World War), publication of German language material was prohibited and schools attached to Lutheran churches were forced to abandon German as the language of teaching or were closed by the authorities. German clubs and associations were also closed.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The original German names of settlements and streets were officially changed. In South Australia, "Grunthal" became "Verdun" and "Krichauff" became "Beatty". In New South Wales "Germantown" became "Holbrook" after the submarine commander Norman Douglas Holbrook. This pressure was strongest in South Australia where 69 towns changed their names, including Petersburg, South Australia, which became Peterborough (see Australian place names changed from German names).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Most of the anti-German feeling was created by the press that tried to create the idea that all those of German birth or descent supported Germany uncritically. This is despite many Germans and offspring such as Gen. John Monash serving Australia capably and honorably. A booklet circulated widely in 1915 claimed that "there were over 3,000 German spies scattered throughout the states". Anti-German propaganda was also inspired by several local and foreign companies who were keen to take the opportunity to eliminate Germany as a competitor in the Australian market. Germans in Australia were increasingly portrayed as evil by the very nature of their origins.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: After the revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram partly sparked the American declaration of war against Imperial Germany in April 1917, German Americans were sometimes accused of being too sympathetic to Germany. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced "hyphenated Americanism", insisting that dual loyalties were impossible in wartime. A small minority of Americans, usually of German-American descent, came out for Germany. Similarly, Harvard psychology professor Hugo Münsterberg dropped his efforts to mediate between America and Germany, and threw his efforts behind the German cause.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The Justice Department attempted to prepare a list of all German aliens, counting approximately 480,000 of them, more than 4,000 of whom were imprisoned in 1917–18. The allegations included spying for Germany, or endorsing the German war effort. Thousands were forced to buy war bonds to show their loyalty. The Red Cross barred individuals with German last names from joining in fear of sabotage. One person was killed by a mob; in Collinsville, Illinois, German-born Robert Prager was dragged from jail as a suspected spy and lynched.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: When the United States entered the war in 1917, some German Americans were looked upon with suspicion and attacked regarding their loyalty. Some aliens were convicted and imprisoned on charges of sedition, for refusing to swear allegiance to the United States war effort.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Chicago, Frederick Stock was forced to step down as conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra until he finalized his naturalization papers. Orchestras replaced music by German composer Wagner with French composer Berlioz.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Nashville, Tennessee, Luke Lea, the publisher of "The Tennessean", together with "political associates", "conspired unsuccessfully to have the German-born Major Stahlman declared an "alien enemy" after World War I began." Stahlman was the publisher of a competing newspaper, the "Nashville Banner".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The town, Berlin, Michigan, was renamed Marne, Michigan (in honor of those who fought in the Battle of the Marne). The town of Berlin, Shelby County Ohio changed its name to its original name of Fort Loramie, Ohio. The city of Germantown in Shelby County Tennessee temporarily changed its name to Neshoba during the war.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the offices of a pro-German, Socialist newspaper, the Philadelphia Tageblatt, were visited by federal agents after war broke out to investigate the citizenship status of its staff and would later be raided by federal agents under the powers of the Espionage Act of 1917, and six members of its organization would eventually be arrested for violations of the Espionage Act among other charges after publishing a number of pieces of pro-German propaganda.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: German street names in many cities were changed. German and Berlin streets in Cincinnati became English and Woodward. In Chicago Lubeck, Frankfort, and Hamburg Streets were renamed Dickens, Charleston, and Shakespeare Streets. In New Orleans, Berlin Street was renamed in honor of General Pershing, head of the American Expeditionary Force. In Indianapolis, Bismarck Avenue and Germania Street were renamed Pershing Avenue and Belleview Street, respectively in 1917, Brooklyn’s Hamburg Avenue was renamed Wilson Avenue.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Many businesses changed their names. In Chicago, German Hospital became Grant Hospital; likewise the German Dispensary and the German Hospital in New York City were renamed Lenox Hill Hospital and Wyckoff Heights Hospital respectively. In New York, the giant Germania Life Insurance Company became Guardian. At the US Customs House in Lower Manhattan, the word "Germany" which was on a shield that one of the building’s many figures was holding was chiseled over.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Many schools stopped teaching German-language classes. The City College of New York continued to teach German courses, but reduced the number of credits that students could receive for them. Books published in German were removed from libraries or even burned. In Cincinnati, the public library was asked to withdraw all German books from its shelves. In Iowa, in the 1918 Babel Proclamation, the governor of Iowa, William L. Harding, prohibited the use of all foreign languages in schools and public places. Nebraska banned instruction in any language except English, but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the ban was illegal in 1923 ("Meyer v. Nebraska").


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Some words of German origin were changed, at least temporarily. Sauerkraut came to be called "liberty cabbage", German measles became "liberty measles", hamburgers became "liberty sandwiches" and dachshunds became "liberty pups".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In parallel with these changes, many German Americans elected to anglicize their names (e.g. Schmidt to Smith, Müller to Miller) and limit the use of the German language in public places, especially in churches.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Ethnic German Medal of Honor winners were American USAAS ace pilots Edward Rickenbacker and Frank Luke; German-ethnicity DSC winners who also served with the USAAS in Europe included Joseph Frank Wehner and Karl John Schoen.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In 1940, the Ministry of Information launched an "Anger Campaign" to instill "personal anger ... against the German people and Germany", because the British were "harbouring little sense of real personal animus against the average German". This was done to strengthen British resolve against the Germans. Sir Robert Vansittart, the Foreign Office's chief diplomatic advisor until 1941, gave a series of radio broadcasts in which he said that Germany was a nation raised on "envy, self-pity and cruelty" whose historical development had "prepared the ground for Nazism" and that it was Nazism that had "finally given expression to the blackness of the German soul".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The British Institute of Public Opinion (BIPO) tracked the evolution of anti-German/anti-Nazi feeling in Britain, asking the public, via a series of opinion polls conducted from 1939 to 1943, whether "the chief enemy of Britain was the German people or the Nazi government". In 1939, only 6% of respondents held the German people responsible; however, following the Blitz and the "Anger Campaign" in 1940, this increased to 50%. This subsequently declined to 41% by 1943. It also was reported by Home Intelligence in 1942 that there was some criticism of the official attitude of hatred towards Germany on the grounds that such hatred might hinder the possibility of a reasonable settlement following the war.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: This attitude was expanded upon by J.R.R. Tolkien. In 1944, he wrote in a letter to his son Christopher:


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: [I]t is distressing to see the press grovelling in the gutter as low as Goebbels in his prime, shrieking that any German commander who holds out in a desperate situation (when, too, the military needs of his side clearly benefit) is a drunkard, and a besotted fanatic. ... There was a solemn article in the local paper seriously advocating systematic exterminating of the entire German nation as the only proper course after military victory: because, if you please, they are rattlesnakes, and don't know the difference between good and evil! (What of the writer?) The Germans have just as much right to declare the Poles and Jews exterminable vermin, subhuman, as we have to select the Germans: in other words, no right, whatever they have done.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the same year Mass Observation asked its observers to analyse the British people's private opinions of the German people and it found that 54% of the British population was "pro-German", in that it expressed sympathy for the German people and stated that the war was "not their fault". This tolerance of the German people as opposed to the Nazi regime increased as the war progressed. In 1943, Mass Observation established the fact that up to 60% of the British people maintained a distinction between Germans and Nazis, with only 20% or so expressing any "hatred, vindictiveness, or need for retribution". The British film propaganda of the period similarly maintained the division between Nazi supporters and the German people.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Between 1931 and 1940, 114,000 Germans and thousands of Austrians moved to the United States, many of whomincluding, e.g., Nobel prize winner Albert Einstein, Lion Feuchtwanger, Bertold Brecht, Henry Kissinger, Arnold Schönberg, Hanns Eisler and Thomas Mannwere either Jewish Germans or anti-Nazis who were fleeing Nazi oppression. About 25,000 people became paying members of the pro-Nazi German American Bund during the years before the war. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required 300,000 German-born resident aliens who had German citizenship to register with the Federal government and restricted their travel and property ownership rights. Under the still active Alien Enemy Act of 1798, the United States government interned nearly 11,000 German citizens between 1940 and 1948. An unknown number of "voluntary internees" joined their spouses and parents in the camps and were not permitted to leave. With the war ongoing in Europe but the U.S. neutral, a massive defense buildup took place, requiring many new hires. Private companies sometimes refused to hire any non-citizen, or American citizens of German or Italian ancestry. This threatened the morale of loyal Americans. President Franklin Roosevelt considered this "stupid" and "unjust". In June 1941, he issued Executive Order 8802 and set up the Fair Employment Practice Committee, which also protected Black Americans.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: President Roosevelt sought out Americans of German ancestry for top war jobs, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, and General Carl Andrew Spaatz. He appointed Republican Wendell Willkie as a personal representative. German Americans who had fluent German language skills were an important asset to wartime intelligence, and they served as translators and as spies for the United States. The war evoked strong pro-American patriotic sentiments among German Americans, few of whom by then had contacts with distant relatives in the old country.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The October 1939 seizure by the German pocket battleship "Deutschland" of the US freighter SS "City of Flint", as it had 4000 tons of oil for Britain on board, provoked much anti-German sentiment in the US.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Following its entry into the War against Nazi Germany on 11 December 1941, the US Government interned a number of German and Italian citizens as enemy aliens. The exact number of German and Italian internees is a subject of debate. In some cases their American-born family members volunteered to accompany them to internment camps in order to keep the family unit together. The last to be released remained in custody until 1948.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In 1944, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. put forward the strongest proposal for punishing Germany to the Second Quebec Conference. It became known as the Morgenthau Plan, and was intended to prevent Germany from having the industrial base to start another world war. However this plan was shelved quickly, the Western Allies did not seek reparations for war damage, and the United States implemented the Marshall Plan that was intended to and did help West Germany's post war recovery to its former position as a pre-eminent industrial nation.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: After Brazil's entry into the war on the Allied side in 1942, anti-German riots broke out in nearly every city in Brazil in which Germans were not the majority population. German factories, including the Suerdieck cigar factory in Bahia, shops, and hotels were destroyed by mobs. The largest demonstrations took place in Porto Alegre in Rio Grande do Sul. Brazilian police persecuted and interned "subjects of the Axis powers" in internment camps similar to those used by the US to intern Japanese-Americans. Following the war, German schools were not reopened, the German-language press disappeared completely, and use of the German language became restricted to the home and the older generation of immigrants.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: There was also anti-German sentiment in Canada during World War II. Under the War Measures Act, some 26 POW camps opened and were filled with those who had been born in Germany, Italy, and particularly in Japan, if they were deemed to be "enemy aliens". For Germans, this applied especially to single males who had some association with the Nazi Party of Canada. No compensation was paid to them after the war. In Ontario, the largest internment centre for German Canadians was at Camp Petawawa, housing 750 who had been born in Germany and Austria. Although some residents of internment camps were Germans who had already immigrated to Canada, the majority of Germans in such camps were from Europe; most were prisoners of war.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: On 25 July 1937, NKVD Order No. 00439 led to the arrest of 55,005 German citizens and former citizens in the Soviet Union, of whom 41,898 were sentenced to death.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Later during the war Germans were suggested to be used for forced labour. The Soviet Union began deporting ethnic Germans in their territories and using them for forced labour. Although by the end of 1955, they had been acquitted of criminal accusations, no rights to return to their former home regions were granted, nor were the former self-determination rights returned to them.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In state-sponsored genocides, millions of people were murdered by Germans during World War II. That turned families and friends of the victims anti-German.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: American General George S. Patton complained that the US policy of denazification following Germany's surrender harmed American interests and was motivated simply by hatred of the defeated German people. Even the speed of West German recovery following the war was seen as ominous by some, who suspected the Germans of planning for World War III. In reality, most Nazi criminals were unpunished, such as Heinz Reinefarth, who was responsible for the Wola massacre. Many Nazis worked for the Americans as scientists (Wernher von Braun) or intelligence officers (Reinhard Gehlen).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Nakam was a group of about fifty Holocaust survivors that in 1945 sought to kill Germans and Nazis in revenge for the murder of six million Jews during the Holocaust.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: After WWII ended, about 11 million to 12 million Germans fled or were expelled from Germany's former eastern provinces or migrated from other countries to what remained of Germany, the largest transfer of a single European population in modern history. Estimates of the total number of dead range from 500,000 to 2,000,000, and the higher figures include "unsolved cases" of persons reported missing and presumed dead. Many German civilians were sent to internment and labor camps, where they died. Salomon Morel and Czesław Gęborski were the commanders of several camps for Germans, Poles and Ukrainians. The German-Czech Historians Commission, on the other hand, established a death toll for Czechoslovakia of 15,000–30,000. The events are usually classified as population transfer, or ethnic cleansing.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Felix Ermacora was one a minority of legal scholars to equate ethnic cleansing with genocide, and stated that the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans was therefore genocide.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: During the Allied occupation of Germany, Germans were used as forced laborers after 1945. Some of the laborers, depending on the country occupying, were prisoners of war or ethnic German civilians.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the 21st century, the long debate about whether the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra should play the works of Richard Wagner is mostly considered as a remnant of the past. In March 2008, German Chancellor Angela Merkel became the first foreign head of government invited to deliver a speech in the Israeli parliament, which she gave in German. Several members of parliament left in protest during the speech and claimed the need to create a collective memory that "will create a kind of electric wave when Jews will hear the sounds of the German language, they'll remember the Holocaust."


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In an October 2008 interview, the researcher Hanan Bar (חנן בר) summed up the ambiguous Israeli attitude to Germany: "If the average Israeli happens to see a football match between Germany and Holland [sic], he would automatically root for the Dutch. But the same person, when buying a washing machine, would prefer a German model, considering it to be the best."


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: After the separation into two countries after World War II, West Germany generally had good relationships with its western neighboring states (such as France and the Netherlands), and East Germany to some degree had similar relationships with its eastern neighbors (such as Poland). Many of the relationships continued after the end of the Cold War with the unified Germany. West Germany was a cofounder of the European Union and the reunified Germany continues as a leading member. During the process of European unification, Germany and France forged a strong relationship, ending the longstanding French–German enmity, which had peaked during and after World War I.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Much of today's anti-German sentiment is particularly strong in East European countries occupied by Germany during the war and those that were at war with Germany and the other European Axis Powers.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Although views fluctuate somewhat in response to geopolitical issues such as Berlin's refusal to support the invasion of Iraq, Washington regards modern Germany as an ally. Few Americans are strongly anti-German. Occasionally, Germans are stereotyped as being "ruthlessly efficient" and having no sense of humour in some parts of American media, as well as in the UK and other countries. Richard Wagner's music was not performed in Israel until 1995 (radio) and 2001 (concert) and was for many years unpopular in Poland. That can be explained at least partially by Wagner's anti-Semitism and the Nazi appropriation of Wagner's music based on Hitler's personal affection for his operas.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In a poll carried out in 2008 for the BBC World Service in which people in 34 countries were asked about the positive and negative influence of 13 countries, Germany was the most popular, ahead of Japan, France and Britain; only 18 percent across all countries surveyed thought Germany had a mainly negative influence. Mainly negative views were most widespread in Turkey (47 percent) and Egypt (43 percent).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In 2014, the BBC World Service published the "Country Rating Poll", which included surveyed opinion from 24 participating countries concerning the influence of 16 countries and the European Union; 12 of the influential countries participated. Results were released at the end of May. The table shows the "Views of Germany's Influence" overall (line 1) and by country. "Germany has kept its position of the most favourably viewed nation in 2014." That is, Germany is the one whose influence is most commonly (60%) viewed positively; among the 17 Germany stands second to Canada as the ones least commonly (18%) viewed negatively. In the first ten polls, annual from 2005, Germany had been the country with world influence most commonly viewed positively at least in 2008 as well as 2013 and 2014.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: An updated "Country Rating Poll" was published in 2017 by the BBC. Germany was the second-most positively-viewed country in the 2017 edition, with 59 per cent of respondents in the survey viewing Germany favourably. However, approximately 20 per cent of respondents had negative opinions about the country.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the modern British press, newspaper headlines and articles often express anti-German sentiment when reporting on German affairs, and frequently resort to references to World War II and stereotypical associations of modern Germany with the violent actions of Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s. These headlines are frequently coupled with Eurosceptic views which express fears of German dominance in Europe, mostly in publications whose editorial line favours Brexit.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German sentiment is a common theme in football culture among supporters of the England national football team. In fan gatherings around football matches between England and Germany, England fans will often sing anti-German football chants which associate football rivalry between England and Germany with historic military conflicts between the United Kingdom and the German Reich; "Two World Wars and One World Cup" links the military defeat of Germany in 1918 and 1945 with the defeat of West Germany in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, while "Ten German Bombers" makes reference to Luftwaffe operations against Britain during World War II. "Ten German Bombers" is now considered offensive and UEFA and the Football Association (FA) have banned England fans from singing the song.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The sentiment of reconciliation in the Postwar Era was satirised in the popular BBC Television sitcom, "Fawlty Towers". In the 1975 episode, "The Germans", the central character Basil Fawlty (John Cleese) attempts to treat his German hotel guests carefully by avoiding any war references, but as the result of a head injury, loses his self-inhibition and offends them instead. Fawlty's panic-stricken catchphrase, "Don't mention the war!", has entered into British culture as a humorous symbol of the discomfort of postwar detente among British people. Cleese has stated that his intention was "to make fun of English Basil Fawltys who are buried in the past".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: According to a 2008 poll, the British people have a rather positive image of Germany, with 62 percent believing that Germany has a mainly positive influence in the world and only 20 percent believing that Germany's influence is mainly negative, slightly better than Germans' views of Britain (60 percent and 27 percent, respectively).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Many Poles perceive Germans as their long-time oppressors. This notion is based on a long history of conflict with ethnic Poles, first by the German-language and culture Prussians then by the united German state, starting with three partitions of Poland, Germanization in the 19th and 20th centuries, and culminating in the Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 and the brutal occupation that followed.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Several issues have also strained recent Polish-German relations, although Poland and post-reunification Germany overall have had mostly positive relations. The proposed Russo-German pipeline through the Baltic Sea is seen by Poles as aimed at cutting off Poland's natural gas supplies from Russia without damaging supply to Germany, and was even compared to the ignominious Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by Radosław Sikorski, Polish foreign minister.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Polish elections have repeatedly featured anti-German campaigns by the Law and Justice party, which is considered to use anti-German rhetoric as an effective tactic for winning votes.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German sentiment was already prevalent in France centuries before the unification of Germany and establishment of imperial Germany, completed 1871.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Anti-German sentiment was already prevalent in the Netherlands centuries before the unification of Germany and establishment of imperial Germany, completed 1871. The Dutch are thought to have developed a low opinion of Germans during the 17th century, also known in the Netherlands as the "Gouden Eeuw" (literally: "Golden Century"), when the Dutch Republic was one of the world's most advanced and powerful countries while modern Germany was still a patchwork of warring fiefs.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In the first half of the 17th century, the Republic saw a major spike in German immigrants including common laborers (so-called hannekemaaiers), persecuted Lutherans and Jews, and all sorts of war refugees fleeing the violence of the Thirty Years' War. A culture clash soon followed, and German immigrants were often discriminated against by the native Dutch. It was likely around this time that the earliest variations of the word mof were first used to refer to lower class German migrants. There are known joke books in which these Germans are featured prominently and stereotypically as dumb, arrogant and filthy. During the Second Boer War anti-German sentiment waned, as both countries were known supporters of the Boers, and allowed their citizens to volunteer to fight alongside them. During WWI (in which the Netherlands was neutral), the so-called Wire of Death, a lethal 2000 volts electric fence built along the southern Dutch border by the Germans occupying Belgium caused a large number of fatalities among the Dutch people, renewing anti-German sentiment in the Netherlands. This sentiment was reborn as hatred when, in 1940, Nazi Germany launched its invasion of the Netherlands despite earlier promises from Germany to respect Dutch neutrality. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to their deaths during the subsequent Nazi occupation, and starvation afflicted much of the country during the "Hunger Winter" of 1944–45. Most elderly Dutch people remember these events including the Rotterdam Blitz bitterly, and some still refuse to set foot on German soil.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: A sociological study from 1998 showed that still two generations after it had ended, World War II remained influential, and "present-day parents and young people are negatively biased against Germany." Aspeslagh and Dekker reported in 1998 that "more than half of the cohort born after 1950 answered 'sometimes' or


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: 'often' when asked whether they harbored anti-German feelings". Reviewing three large-scale academic studies from the 1990s, they concluded:


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Newer studies also consistently show that Dutch anti-German sentiment has been falling steadily for years, and that most Dutch people today show a positive view towards both Germany and the German people.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Rapid increase of German immigration to Switzerland since 2000 has given rise to "Germanophobia" in German-speaking Switzerland.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: During the European debt crisis, many countries embarked on, or were arguably pushed into, austerity programs. Germany was blamed for the resulting economical, social and political consequences.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: The ongoing Greek government-debt crisis and EU-driven austerity measures imposed on the country have revived anti-German sentiments. The Greek media have been making comments critical of the German policy, often mentioning, and drawing parallels with the Axis occupation of Greece, with some commentators emphasizing a genetic heritage from "Goths" or "Huns". A poll in 2012 by VPRC noted the existence of an anti-German sentiment in Greece, and that the majority of the respondents connected Germany with negative notions such as "Hitler", "Nazism" and "3rd Reich".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: A main argument has been that, despite its rhetoric, Germany has made profits during the Greek debt crisis (due to falling borrowing rates – as Germany, along with other strong Western economies, was seen as a safe haven by investors during the crisis – investment influx, and exports boost due to the Euro's depreciation, with estimates reaching 100bn Euros, as well as other profits through loans).


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: Another key issue, has been the claim for still owed War reparations, with estimates reaching 279b Euros.


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: In August 2012, Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti warned that escalating arguments over how to resolve the Euro debt crisis are turning countries against each other and threatening to rip Europe apart. Resentment in Italy is growing against Germany, the European Union and chancellor Merkel, he said, adding that "the pressures already bear the traits of a psychological break-up of Europe".


title: Anti-German sentiment

text: A survey took place in the summer of 2017 among ten members of the EU. Most expressed scepticism about German influence on European matters; the Greeks (89%) express most of the skepticism followed by the Italians (69%) and the Spanish (68%). Greeks also come with the most negative opinion (84%) about Angela Merkel, and with the least positive opinion about the German people (24%), among the questioned ten states.


title: Bacardi 151

text: Bacardi 151 is a discontinued brand of highly alcoholic rum made by Bacardi Limited of Hamilton, Bermuda. It is named for its alcohol concentration level of 151 U.S. proof, that is, 75.5% alcohol by volume. This is much higher than typical rum, which averages around 35%–40% alcohol by volume. Bacardi 151 was sold in the United States and Canada from at least 1963 until 2016, when its production was discontinued.


title: Bacardi 151

text: Because of its high alcohol content, Bacardi 151 was particularly flammable among liquors. For this reason it was often used as the ignition source for "flaming shots" and even for at-home pyrotechnic stunts. The bottle carried a warning label advising consumers, among other things, "do not use this product for flaming dishes or other drinks." Bottles were also equipped with a stainless steel flame arrester crimped onto the neck of the bottle to prevent the rum inside the bottle from igniting. Nevertheless, Bacardi faced at least two lawsuits from consumers who claimed to have been badly injured by the product's flames. While the company never issued a formal statement regarding the product's discontinuation, it has been speculated that "it's a pretty good guess that Bacardi got sick of being sued."


title: Bacardi 151

text: Bacardi 151 was typically used in sweet drinks, such as the Hurricane and Caribou Lou, which combine rum and fruit juices.


title: Christology

text: In Christianity, Christology (from the Greek and ), translated literally from Greek as "the study of Christ", is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions like whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God, and in the salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin.


title: Christology

text: The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God", versus adoptionism – that Jesus was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection.


title: Christology

text: From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism.


title: Christology

text: "Christology" (from the Greek and ), literally "the understanding of Christ", is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus Christ. It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation.


title: Christology

text: "Ontological Christology" analyzes the nature or being of Jesus Christ. "Functional Christology" analyzes the works of Jesus Christ, while "soteriological Christology" analyzes the "salvific" standpoints of Christology.


title: Christology

text: Several approaches can be distinguished within Christology. The term "Christology from above" or "high Christology" refers to approaches that include aspects of divinity, such as Lord and Son of God, and the idea of the pre-existence of Christ as the "Logos" (the Word), as expressed in the . These approaches interpret the works of Christ in terms of his divinity. According to Pannenberg, Christology from above "was far more common in the ancient Church, beginning with Ignatius of Antioch and the second century Apologists." The term "Christology from below" or "low Christology" refers to approaches that begin with the human aspects and the ministry of Jesus (including the miracles, parables, etc.) and move towards his divinity and the mystery of incarnation.


title: Christology

text: A basic christological teaching is that the person of Jesus Christ is both human and divine. The human and divine natures of Jesus Christ apparently ("prosopic") form a duality, as they coexist within one person ("hypostasis"). There are no direct discussions in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human, and since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in ecumenical councils, and schisms.


title: Christology

text: Various church councils, mainly in the 4th and 5th centuries, resolved most of these controversies, making the doctrine of the Trinity orthodox in nearly all branches of Christianity. Among them, only the Dyophysite doctrine was recognized as true and not heretical, belonging to the Christian orthodoxy and deposit of faith.


title: Christology

text: In Christian theology, atonement is the method by which human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial suffering and death. Atonement is the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus, enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation. Due to the influence of Gustaf Aulèn's (1879–1978) "Christus Victor" (1931), the various theories or paradigmata of atonement are often grouped as "classical paradigm", "objective paradigm", and the "subjective paradigm":


title: Christology

text: The earliest christological reflections were shaped by both the Jewish background of the earliest Christians, and by the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean in which they operated. The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and "Kyrios", which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. According to Matt Stefon and Hans J. Hillerbrand:


title: Christology

text: Historically in the Alexandrian school of thought (fashioned on the Gospel of John), Jesus Christ is the eternal "Logos" who already possesses unity with the Father before the act of Incarnation. In contrast, the Antiochian school viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine.


title: Christology

text: The notion of pre-existence is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time, but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation. According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding the story of Christ[...] on the story of divine Wisdom".


title: Christology

text: The title "Kyrios" for Jesus is central to the development of New Testament Christology. In the Septuagint it translates the Tetragrammaton, the holy Name of God. As such, it closely links Jesus with God – in the same way a verse such as Matthew 28:19, "The Name (singular) of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".


title: Christology

text: "Kyrios" is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of Aramaic , which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just "teacher" and was somewhat similar to rabbi. While the term expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek "Kyrios" came to represent his lordship over the world.


title: Christology

text: The early Christians placed "Kyrios" at the center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries. The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the "Kyrios" title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of "Kyrios" included the pre-existence of Christ, for they believed if Christ is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning.


title: Christology

text: Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.


title: Christology

text: The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". According to the "evolutionary model" c.q. "evolutionary theories", the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time, as witnessed in the Gospels, with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son, when he was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. This "evolutionary model" was proposed by proponents of the , especially Wilhelm Bousset's influential "Kyrios Christos" (1913). This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.


title: Christology

text: The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come", and from where he appeared on earth. According to Bousset, this "high Christology" developed at the time of Paul's writing, under the influence of Gentile Christians, who brought their pagan Hellenistic traditions to the early Christian communities, introducing divine honours to Jesus. According to Casey and Dunn, this "high Christology" developed after the time of Paul, at the end of the first century CE when the Gospel of John was written.


title: Christology

text: Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested, and a majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul. According to the "New ", "Early High Christology Club", which includes Martin Hengel, Larry Hurtado, N. T. Wright, and Richard Bauckham, this "incarnation Christology" or "high Christology" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a "big bang" of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul. Some 'Early High Christology' proponents scholars argue that this "high Christology" may go back to Jesus himself.


title: Christology

text: There is a controversy regarding whether Jesus himself claimed to be divine. In "Honest to God", then-Bishop of Woolwich, John A. T. Robinson, questioned the idea. John Hick, writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples Michael Ramsey (1980), C. F. D. Moule (1977), James Dunn (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985). Larry Hurtado, who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus, at the same time rejects the view that Jesus made a claim to messiahship or divinity to his disciples during his life as "naive and ahistorical". According to Gerd Lüdemann, the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities. N. T. Wright points out that arguments over the claims of Jesus regarding divinity have been passed over by more recent scholarship, which sees a more complex understanding of the idea of God in first century Judaism. However, Andrew Loke argues that if Jesus did not claim and show himself to be truly divine and rise from the dead, the earliest Christian leaders who were devout ancient monotheistic Jews would have regarded Jesus as merely a teacher or a prophet; they would not have come to the widespread agreement that he truly divine, which they did.


title: Christology

text: The oldest Christian sources are the writings of Paul. The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as "Kyrios". Both notions already existed before him in the early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities.


title: Christology

text: What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In Philippians 2, Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an incarnation Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an adoptionistic Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the Council of Ephesus. Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, is more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus was sent as an atonement for the sins of everyone.


title: Christology

text: The Pauline epistles use "Kyrios" to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord. Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the Son of God.


title: Christology

text: The Pauline epistles also advanced the "cosmic Christology" later developed in the Gospel of John, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." Paul writes that Christ came to draw all back to God: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven" (Colossians 1:20); in the same epistle, he writes that "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation" (Colossians 1:15).


title: Christology

text: The synoptic Gospels date from after the writings of Paul. They provide episodes from the life of Jesus and some of his works, but the authors of the New Testament show little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life, and as in , the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works.


title: Christology

text: Christologies that can be gleaned from the three Synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables, and his miracles. The Gospel of John provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity. The first 14 verses of the Gospel of John are devoted to the divinity of Jesus as the "Logos", usually translated as "Word", along with his pre-existence, and they emphasize the cosmic significance of Christ, e.g.: "All things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made." In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus.


title: Christology

text: Following the Apostolic Age, from the second century onwards, a number of controversies developed about how the human and divine are related within the person of Jesus. As of the second century, a number of different and opposing approaches developed among various groups. In contrast to prevailing monoprosopic views on the Person of Christ, alternative dyoprosopic notions were also promoted by some theologians, but such views were rejected by the ecumenical councils. For example, Arianism did not endorse divinity, Ebionism argued Jesus was an ordinary mortal, while Gnosticism held docetic views which argued Christ was a spiritual being who only appeared to have a physical body. The resulting tensions led to schisms within the church in the second and third centuries, and ecumenical councils were convened in the fourth and fifth centuries to deal with the issues.


title: Christology

text: Although some of the debates may seem to various modern students to be over a theological iota, they took place in controversial political circumstances, reflecting the relations of temporal powers and divine authority, and certainly resulted in schisms, among others that separated the Church of the East from the Church of the Roman Empire.


title: Christology

text: In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at the First Council of Constantinople in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was "homoousios" (of the same being) as the Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus. After the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the "Logos" and the second Person of the Trinity were being used interchangeably.


title: Christology

text: In 431, the First Council of Ephesus was initially called to address the views of Nestorius on Mariology, but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the "Theotokos" title for Mary and later contradicted Proclus during a sermon in Constantinople. Pope Celestine I (who was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria, who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the "Theotokos", i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus.


title: Christology

text: The First Council of Ephesus debated miaphysitism (two natures united as one after the hypostatic union) versus dyophysitism (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus monophysitism (only one nature) versus Nestorianism (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted ('but being made one', ) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' (, ). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon affirmed dyophysitism. The Oriental Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as "miaphysite" according to the faith put forth at the Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus. The council also confirmed the "Theotokos" title and excommunicated Nestorius.


title: Christology

text: The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in the christological debates. It is the last council which many Lutherans, Anglicans and other Protestants consider ecumenical.


title: Christology

text: The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western dyophysite understanding put forth by Pope Leo I of Rome of the "hypostatic union", the proposition that Christ has one human nature "(physis)" and one divine nature "(physis)", each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division. Most of the major branches of Western Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and Reformed), Church of the East, Eastern Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches (Syrian Orthodoxy, Coptic Orthodoxy, Ethiopian Orthodoxy, and Armenian Apostolicism) reject it.


title: Christology

text: Although the Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. But it also broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century, and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when the Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the Formula of Hormisdas, anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519.


title: Christology

text: The Second Council of Constantinople in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, and other topics.


title: Christology

text: The Third Council of Constantinople in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will.


title: Christology

text: The Second Council of Nicaea was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy".


title: Christology

text: The term "monastic Christology" has been used to describe spiritual approaches developed by Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux. The Franciscan piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, are called "scholastic Christology".


title: Christology

text: In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christ's human attributes.


title: Christology

text: The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the "Kyrios" image.


title: Christology

text: John Calvin maintained there was no human element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the Person of The Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the "Work of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring the Works of Jesus during his ministry.


title: Christology

text: The 19th century saw the rise of Liberal Protestant theology, which questioned the dogmatic foundations of Christianity, and approached the Bible with critical-historical tools. The divinity of Jesus was problematized, and replaced with an emphasis on the ethical aspects of his teachings.


title: Christology

text: Catholic theologian Karl Rahner sees the purpose of modern Christology as to formulate the Christian belief that "God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement can be understood consistently, without the confusions of past debates and mythologies. Rahner pointed out the coincidence between the Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring to and which state whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is ashamed of the Lord himself.


title: Christology

text: Hans von Balthasar argued the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of human attributes, but by their "assumption". Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine.


title: Christology

text: The Nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological issues about his person from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior. The salvific emphasis of later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to Holy Name of Jesus.


title: Christology

text: The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provides a rich background for christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the Pauline Epistles.


title: Christology

text: A central element in the christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan". In this view, as in , the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God.


title: Christology

text: Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the Gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8. In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8), died "at the right time" (Romans 5:6) based on the plan of God. For Paul, the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.


title: Christology

text: The threefold office (Latin ) of Jesus Christ is a Christian doctrine based upon the teachings of the Old Testament. It was described by Eusebius and more fully developed by John Calvin. It states that Jesus Christ performed three functions (or "offices") in his earthly ministry – those of prophet, priest, and king. In the Old Testament, the appointment of someone to any of these three positions could be indicated by anointing him or her by pouring oil over the head. Thus, the term "messiah", meaning "anointed one", is associated with the concept of the threefold office. While the office of king is that most frequently associated with the Messiah, the role of Jesus as priest is also prominent in the New Testament, being most fully explained in chapters 7 to 10 of the Book of Hebrews.


title: Christology

text: Some Christians, notably Roman Catholics, view Mariology as a key component of Christology. In this view, not only is Mariology a logical and necessary consequence of Christology, but without it, Christology is incomplete, since the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did.


title: Christology

text: Protestants have criticized Mariology because many of its assertions lack any Biblical foundation. Strong Protestant reaction against Roman Catholic Marian devotion and teaching has been a significant issue for ecumenical dialogue.


title: Christology

text: Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) expressed this sentiment about Roman Catholic Mariology when in two separate occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly Marian awareness serves as the touchstone indicating whether or not the christological substance is fully present" and "It is necessary to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the truth about Jesus Christ."


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Renault Twizy is a two-seat electric microcar designed and marketed by Renault. It is classified in Europe as either a light or heavy quadricycle depending on the output power, which is either for the 45 model or for the 80 model, both names reflecting its top speed in km/h. Originally manufactured in Valladolid, Spain, production was moved to Busan in South Korea in March 2019 to meet increased demand in Asia.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Twizy debuted as a concept car at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and was designed by Françoise Leboinne and Luciano Bove. In November 2010, Nissan announced a rebadged variant to the Twizy, called the "New Mobility Concept", or "NMC". It was also displayed as a concept with Renault Samsung badging at the 2011 Seoul Motor Show, although it was branded as a Renault in South Korea for production. In May 2011, Renault announced they would produce the Twizy and began taking reservations.


title: Renault Twizy

text: In March 2012, the Twizy was released to the French market, followed a month later by several other European countries.


title: Renault Twizy

text: Available in three models, the Twizy sales price does not include the battery pack, which is leased for a monthly fee that includes roadside assistance and a battery replacement guarantee. In 2020 the Twizy became available as a direct purchase in the UK, no longer requiring the battery rental.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Twizy was the top-selling plug-in electric vehicle in Europe during 2012. The milestone of Twizys sold worldwide was achieved in April 2015. Global cumulative sales totaled 29,118 units through December 2019, with Europe as its main market.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The vehicle's frame and body offer occupants extra protection with its deformable structure, while the outboard position of the four wheels and the lateral beams located either side of the chassis provide protection in case of a side impact. The safety retention systems include a driver's airbag, a four-point safety belt at the front and a three-point one at the rear.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Twizy may be winterized with winter tires and adding flexi side windows to enclose the cabin. Heating would be provided by plugging in electric blankets to keep the driver warm.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Twizy range starts with the light quadricycle-classed Urban 45 that was originally priced at in Europe with a monthly battery lease charge of . The price has since been raised to around €10,300 exc. VAT but now includes the battery. It has a motor power of , a maximum speed of and can thus be driven in most European countries by drivers from 14 years old with a special driving licence (France, Italy, Spain) or with a moped licence (Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, Finland, Slovenia).


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Technic model brings additional design elements while sharing the technical features with the Urban. It is available for both the 45 and 80 trims.


title: Renault Twizy

text: In June 2013 Renault announced the introduction of the Twizy Cargo, a model designed for hauling goods. The space destined for the seat of the second passenger was replaced with a cargo box with a volume of and maximum weight capacity of .


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Cargo 45 has 4 kW of power and top speed is limited to .The car only has 1 seat and there is a larger space behind the driver to store goods.


title: Renault Twizy

text: A rebadged version of the Twizy was launched in Japan as the Nissan New Mobility Concept (NMC). The electric vehicle was deployed in Yokohama on 11 October 2013 for service on a one-way carsharing program called "Choimobi Yokohama" (Choimobi means "easy mobility" in Japanese). During its first month on the market, over 2700 customers signed up for the service. A total of 45 units were registered through the end of October 2013. The NMC is classified as a kei car due to the car's dimensions and as such is equipped with yellow license plates.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Nissan-badged version was also used by Scoot, an American scooter sharing company, as a pilot for car-sharing operation in San Francisco.


title: Renault Twizy

text: Following the footsteps of Renault Espace F1, in April 2013 Renault Sport exhibited the Twizy F1, a concept version of the car that featured Formula One technologies such as KERS. The KERS system and an upgraded electric motor boosted the car's power to , allowing to accelerate at comparable times with the Renault Sport Mégane R.S. 265 and reaching speeds up to . The car is equipped with various open-wheel aerodynamic and other racing parts, including tyres from a Formula Renault 2.0 car and steering wheel from a Formula Renault 3.5 car.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The Twizy Delivery Concept was developed from the VELUD project with École d'ingénieurs généralistes La Rochelle, Airparif, La Petite Reine Groupe Stars Service and the City of Paris for last-mile deliveries. It consisted of a Twizy with shortened rear bodywork and an additional 2 wheeled trailer-like module for carrying containers sizing up to 1 cubic metre, forming a six-wheeled box-truck like vehicle. It was used in experimental test phases in Paris.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The lithium-ion battery is located underneath the front seat. Both motor variants carry the same weight of , including batteries of . The range is homologated at . In real conditions, Renault announces around . At high speed and no eco-driving) the Twizy's range is about .


title: Renault Twizy

text: The battery can be charged with an extendable spiral cable stored beneath a flap at the front of the vehicle.


title: Renault Twizy

text: The integrated charger is compatible with roadside battery charging facilities as well as the standard 220-240 V 10 A household electrical supply. Charging an empty battery takes around three-and-a-half hours.