title: Gazebo

text: Gazebos are freestanding or attached to a garden wall, roofed, and open on all sides. They provide shade, shelter from rain and a place to rest, while acting as an ornamental feature. Some gazebos in public parks are large enough to serve as a bandstand.


title: Gazebo

text: Gazebos overlap with pavilions, kiosks, alhambras, belvederes, follies, gloriettes, pergolas, and rotundas.


title: Gazebo

text: Such structures first appeared in Egyptian gardens approximately 5,000 years ago and appear in the literature of China, Persia and other classical civilizations.


title: Gazebo

text: Examples in England are the garden houses at Montacute House in Somerset. The gazebo at Elton on the Hill in Nottinghamshire, thought to date from the late 18th or early 19th century, is a square, crenelated, brick and stone tower with an arched opening. It acted as a focus for an extensive system of red-brick walled gardens, which has survived with some more modern additions.


title: Gazebo

text: In today's England and North America, gazebos are typically built of wood and covered with standard roofing materials, such as shingles. Gazebos can be tent-style structures of poles covered by tensioned fabric. Gazebos may have screens to aid in the exclusion of flying insects.


title: Gazebo

text: Temporary gazebos are often set up in the campsites of music festivals in the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, usually accompanying tents around them.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Torres Strait Islands are a group of at least 274 small islands in the Torres Strait, a waterway separating far northern continental Australia's Cape York Peninsula and the island of New Guinea. They span an area of , but their total land area is .


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Islands have been inhabited by the indigenous Torres Strait Islanders. Lieutenant James Cook first claimed British sovereignty over the eastern part of Australia at Possession Island in 1770, but British administrative control only began in the Torres Strait Islands in 1862. The islands are now mostly part of Queensland, a constituent State of the Commonwealth of Australia, but are administered by the Torres Strait Regional Authority, a statutory authority of the Australian federal government. A few islands very close to the coast of mainland New Guinea belong to the Western Province of Papua New Guinea, most importantly Daru Island with the provincial capital, Daru.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: Only 16 of the islands are inhabited. The Torres Strait Islands' population was recorded at 4,514 in the 2016 Australian census, with 91.8% of these identifying as Indigenous Torres Strait Island peoples. Although counted as Indigenous Australians, Torres Strait Islander peoples, being predominantly Melanesian, are ethnically and culturally different from Aboriginal Australians.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: There was continuous inter-island warfare. In particular, the Murray (Mer) islanders were known as the fiercest raiders and head-hunters. They waged constant warfare against the Darnley islanders, their nearest neighbours.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Spanish navigator Luís Vaez de Torres explored the Torres Strait in 1606. Torres had joined the expedition of Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, which sailed west from Peru across the Pacific Ocean in search of Terra Australis.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: Captain James Cook first claimed British sovereignty in 1770 over the eastern part of Australia at Possession Island.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: British administrative control did not begin until 1862 in the Torres Strait Islands, marked by the appointment of John Jardine, police magistrate at Rockhampton, as Government Resident in the Torres Straits. He originally established a small settlement on Albany Island, but on 1 August 1864 he settled at Somerset Island. Although the Torres Strait Islanders had long dived for pearl shells themselves, the international industry of pearl and trochus shells, for using the mother of pearl as decoration, started in earnest in the 1860s. By the 1890s, the islands were supplying more than 50 percent of the world's pearl shell.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The London Missionary Society (LMS) mission, led by Rev. Samuel Macfarlane, arrived on Erub (Darnley Island) on 1 July 1871. After the Anglican Church took over their mission in the 20th century, they referred to the events as "The Coming of the Light", and established an annual celebration on 1 July.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1872, the boundary of Queensland was extended to include Thursday Island and other islands in Torres Strait within 60 miles of the Queensland coast.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In June 1875, a measles epidemic killed about 25% of the population, with some islands suffering losses of up to 80%, as the islanders had no natural immunity to European diseases.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1879, Queensland annexed the other Torres Strait Islands. They were classified as part of the British colony of Queensland and, after 1901, of the Australian state of Queensland. But some of them lie just off the coast of New Guinea.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1885, John Douglas was appointed as Government Resident Magistrate residing on Thursday Island. He made periodic tours of all the islands and was known to all the natives. He established the system under which the hereditary native chief of each island was installed as chief magistrate, supporting the local traditional system. He also established Native Police, but the only island on which the Native Police were armed was Saibai. There they were provided with Snider carbines to repel the attacks of the Marind-anim (formerly known as Tugeri), the headhunters who raided the islands from their territory on the New Guinea coast.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1898–1899, the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition led by Alfred Cort Haddon visited the Torres Strait Islands. Among its members was W. H. R. Rivers, who later gained notability for his work in psychology and treating officers in the Great War. They collected and took about 2000 cultural artefacts, ostensibly to save them from destruction by missionaries. But all of the artefacts collected by Samuel Macfarlane were sold in London, mostly to European museums.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1904, the peoples of the Torres Strait Islands were made subject to the "Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897", which gave draconian powers to the Queensland government in placing legal restrictions on natives and on their land use.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1899, John Douglas had initiated a process of electing island councils, intended to loosen the power of missionaries in the islands. They had become powerful by default because the government did not have resources to administer the territory. In the Western islands, where the traditional lifestyle was semi-nomadic, the council system continued to thrive.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: During World War II, many Torres Strait Islander people served in the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion of the Australian Army.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: From 1960 to 1973, Margaret Lawrie captured some of the Torres Strait Islander people's culture by recording their recounting of local myths and legends. Her anthropological work, stored at the State Library of Queensland, has recently been recognised and registered with the Australian UNESCO Memory of the World Programme.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The proximity of the islands to Papua New Guinea became an issue when the territory started moving to gain independence from Australia, which it gained in 1975. The Papua New Guinea government objected to the position of the border close to the New Guinean mainland, and the subsequent complete control that Australia exercised over the waters of the strait. The Torres Strait Islanders opposed being separated from Australia and insisted on no change to the border. The Australian Federal government wished to cede the northern islands to appease Papua New Guinea, but were opposed by the Queensland government and Queensland Premier Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: An agreement was struck in 1978 whereby the islands and their inhabitants remained Australian, but the maritime boundary between Australia and Papua New Guinea was defined as running through the centre of the strait. In practice the two countries co-operate closely in the management of the strait's resources.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 1982, Eddie Mabo and four other Torres Strait Islander people from Mer (Murray Island) started legal proceedings to establish their traditional land ownership. Because Mabo was the first-named plaintiff, it became known as the Mabo Case. In 1992, after ten years of hearings before the Queensland Supreme Court and the High Court of Australia, the latter court found that the Mer people had owned their land prior to annexation by Queensland. This ruling overturned the long-established legal doctrine of "terra nullius" ("no-one's land"), which held that native title over Crown land in Australia had been extinguished at the time of annexation. The ruling thus has had far-reaching significance for the land claims of both Torres Strait Islanders and Australian Aboriginal people. Its effects are still being felt in the 21st century, as indigenous communities establish claims to their traditional lands under the Native Title Act of 1993.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: On 1 July 1994, the Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA) was created. In March 2008, fifteen Torres Strait Islander Councils were amalgamated into a single body to form a Torres Strait Island Regional Council, or Torres Strait Island Region, created by the Queensland Government in the interest of financial viability, and accountability and transparency of local governments throughout the State. It is administered from Thursday Island, but Thursday, Horn Island, Prince of Wales Island and many others are under the Shire of Torres council.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In the , the population of the Torres Strait Islands was 4,514, of whom 4,144 (91.8%) were Torres Strait Islanders. These inhabitants live on only 14 of the 274 islands. For comparison, people identifying themselves as of Torres Strait Islander descent living in the whole of Australia numbered 32,345, while those of both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal descent numbered a further 26,767.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The islands span an area of some . The strait from Cape York to New Guinea has a width of approximately at its narrowest point; the islands lie scattered in between, extending some from furthest east to furthest west. The total land area of the islands comprises . of land are used for agricultural purposes.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Torres Strait itself was previously part of a land bridge known as the Arafura Plain which connected the present-day Australian continent with New Guinea (in a single landmass called Sahul, Meganesia, Australia-New Guinea). This land bridge was most recently submerged by rising sea levels at the end of the last ice-age glaciation approximately 12,000 years ago, forming the Strait which now connects the Arafura and Coral seas. Many of the western Torres Strait Islands are the remaining peaks of this land bridge which were not completely submerged when the ocean levels rose.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The islands and their surrounding waters and reefs provide a highly diverse set of land and marine ecosystems, with niches for many rare or unique species. Saltwater crocodiles inhabit the islands along with neighboring areas of Queensland and Papua New Guinea. Marine animals of the islands include dugongs (an endangered species of sea mammal widely found throughout the Indian Ocean and tropical Western Pacific, including Papua-New Guinean and Australian waters), as well as green, ridley, hawksbill and flatback sea turtles.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Torres Strait Islands may be grouped into five distinct clusters, which exhibit differences of geology and formation as well as location. The Torres Strait provides a habitat for numerous birds, including the Torresian imperial-pigeon, which is seen as the iconic national emblem to the islanders.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: These islands are also a distinct physiographic section of the larger Cape York Platform province, which in turn is part of the larger East Australian Cordillera physiographic division.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The islands in this cluster lie very close to the southwestern coastline of New Guinea (the closest is less than offshore). Saibai (one of the largest of the Torres Strait Islands) and Boigu (one of the Talbot Islands) are low-lying islands which were formed by deposition of sediments and mud from New Guinean rivers into the Strait accumulating on decayed coral platforms. Vegetation on these islands mainly consists of mangrove swamps, and they are prone to flooding.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The other main island in this group, Dauan (Mt Cornwallis), is a smaller island with steep hills, composed largely of granite. This island actually represents the northernmost extent of the Great Dividing Range, the extensive series of mountain ranges which runs along almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia. This peak became an island as the ocean levels rose at the end of the last ice age.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The isolated and uninhabited Deliverance Island is west of Boigu, the nearest of the Top Western islands.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The islands in this cluster lie south of the Strait's midway point, and are also largely high granite hills with mounds of basaltic outcrops, formed from old peaks of the now submerged land bridge. Moa (Banks Island) is the second-largest in the Torres Strait, and Badu (Mulgrave Island) is slightly smaller and fringed with extensive mangrove swamps. Other smaller islands include Mabuiag, Pulu and further to the east Naghir (correct form Nagi, aka Mount Ernest Island). Culturally this was the most complex part of Torres Strait, containing three of the four groupings/dialects of the Western-central Islanders, Nagi being culturally/linguistically a Central Island (Kulkalaig territory, specifically part of Waraber tribal waters), Moa is part of the Muwalaig-Italaig-Kaiwalaig [Kauraraig/Kaurareg] tribal areas, with two groups, the Italaig of the south, and the Muwalaig of the north. Many Kauraraig also live there, having been forcibly moved there in 1922–1923. Badu and Mabuiag are the Maluigal "Deep Sea People".


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: These islands, also known as the Thursday Island group, lie closest to Cape York Peninsula, and their topography and geological history is very similar. Muralag (Prince of Wales Island) is the largest of the Strait's islands, and forms the centre of this closely grouped cluster. The much smaller Waiben Thursday Island is the region's administrative centre and most heavily populated. Several of these islands have permanent freshwater springs, and some were also mined for gold in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Because of their proximity to the Australian mainland, they have also been centres of pearling and fishing industries. Nurupai Horn Island holds the region's airport, and as a result is something of an entrepôt with inhabitants drawn from many other communities. Kiriri (Hammond Island) is the other permanently settled island of this group; Tuined (Possession Island) is noted for Lt. James Cook's landing there in 1770. Moa in the Near Western group is culturally and linguistically speaking part of this group.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: This cluster is more widely distributed in the middle of Torres Strait, consisting of many small sandy cays surrounded by coral reefs, similar to those found in the nearby Great Barrier Reef. The more northerly islands in this group however, such as Gerbar (Two Brothers) and Iama (Yam Island), are high basaltic outcrops, not cays. Nagi is a culturo-linguistic part of this group, and also has high basaltic outcropping. The low-lying inhabited coral cays, such as Poruma (Coconut Island), Warraber Island and Masig (Yorke Island) are mostly less than long, and no wider than . Several have had problems with saltwater intrusion.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The islands of this group (principally Mer (Murray Island), Dauar and Waier, with Erub Island and Stephen Island (Ugar) further north) are formed differently from the rest. They are volcanic in origin, the peaks of volcanoes which were active in Pleistocene times. Consequently, their hillsides have rich and fertile red volcanic soils, and are thickly vegetated. The easternmost of these are less than from the northern extension of the Great Barrier Reef.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The national flag features a white Dhari (headdress) and, underneath, a white five-pointed star, symbolising "peace, the five major island groups and the navigational importance of stars to the seafaring people of the Torres Strait". The five points of the star on the flag represent the following regions (which do not match administrative regions):


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: A celebration known as Flag Day takes place on 29 May each year, the anniversary of the day the flag was officially presented to the people of the Torres Strait.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA), an Australian Commonwealth statutory authority created in 1994, exercises governance over the islands. The TSRA has an elected board comprising 20 representatives from the Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal communities resident in the Torres Strait region.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: One representative per established local community wins election to the board under the "Queensland Community Services (Torres Strait) Act 1984" and Division 5 of the "ATSIC Act 1989". The TSRA itself falls under the portfolio responsibilities of the Australian Government Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (previously under the Department of Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs). Thursday Island functions as the administrative centre of the islands.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The TSRA now represents the local communities at both Commonwealth and State levels; previously, State representation operated via a Queensland statutory authority called the Island Coordinating Council (ICC). The Torres Strait Island Region local government area superseded the ICC in March 2008.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In March 2008, fifteen Torres Strait Islander Councils were amalgamated into a single body to form a Torres Strait Island Regional Council, or Torres Strait Island Region, created by the Queensland Government in the interest of financial viability, and accountability and transparency of local Governments throughout the State. It is administered from Thursday Island, but Thursday, Horn Island, Prince of Wales Island and many others are under the Shire of Torres council.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: At the local level, there are two authorities. One is the Shire of Torres, which governs several islands and portions of Cape York Peninsula and operates as a Queensland local government area.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The other is the Torres Strait Island Region, created in 2008, which embodies 15 former island councils. These former councils had been previously relinquished by the Government of Queensland to specific Islander and Aboriginal Councils under the provisions of the "Community Services (Torres Strait) Act 1984" and the "Community Services (Aboriginal) Act 1984"), consisting of:


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: Politicians who have declared support for independence, include Bob Katter and former Queensland Premier Anna Bligh, who in August 2011 wrote to Prime Minister Julia Gillard in support of Torres Strait Islands independence from Australia; Prime Minister Gillard said in October 2011 "her government will respectfully consider the Torres Strait's request for self-government". Other figures who have supported independence include Australian Indigenous rights campaigner Eddie Mabo.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: Torres Strait Islander peoples, the Indigenous peoples of the islands, are predominantly Melanesians, culturally most akin to the coastal peoples of Papua New Guinea. Thus they are regarded as being distinct from Aboriginal peoples of Australia, and are generally referred to separately, despite ongoing historical trade and inter-marriage with mainland Aboriginal people. There are also two Torres Strait Islander communities on the nearby coast of the mainland, Bamaga and Seisia.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: According to the Torres Strait Treaty, residents of Papua New Guinea are permitted to visit the Torres Strait Islands for traditional purposes.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: There are three languages spoken on the islands. The two indigenous languages are the Western-Central Torres Strait Language (called by various names, including Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Kalaw Kawaw Ya, Kulkalgau Ya and Kaiwaligau Ya), and the Eastern Torres Language Meriam Mir.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: Yumplatok (also known as Torres Strait Creole and Broken) is a contemporary Torres Strait Island language spoken in the Torres Strait. The contact with missionaries, traders and other English speakers since the 1800s led to the development of a pidgin language. It developed more fully as a creole language, with its own distinctive sound system, grammar, vocabulary, usage and meaning. Torres Strait Creole is spoken by most Torres Strait Islanders and is a mixture of Standard Australian English and traditional indigenous languages. It is an English-based creole; however, each island has its own version of creole. Torres Strait Creole is also spoken on the Australian mainland, including in the Northern Peninsula Area Region and coastal communities such as Cairns, Townsville, Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The Torres Strait Islands are threatened by rising sea levels, especially those islands which do not rise more than above sea level. Storm surges and high tides pose the greatest danger. Other developing problems include erosion, property damage, drinking water contamination and the unearthing of the dead. As of June 2010, there were no relocation strategies in place for Torres Strait Islanders. By 2021, at least one freshwater well had turned to salt water.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In early 2020, it was reported that Warraber is particularly threatened by rising sea levels, and coastal defences have been built on many of the beaches on the island. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted that by 2100, tides will rise , depending on the timing and level of cuts to carbon emissions. Several of the smaller islands in the group are also under threat. Construction of sea walls has begun on Boigu Island, and Masig Island is next in line.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: A group of eight people from the small, low-lying islands of Boigu, Poruma, Warraber and Masig, who became known as the Torres Strait 8, lodged a complaint against the Australian Government with the UN Human Rights Committee in May 2019, based on the claim that their human rights were being violated by the government's lack of efforts to protect the people of the Strait from the effects of climate change. Their complaint has been supported by the current and previous UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment, David Boyd and John Knox respectively. The group is also seeking an opinion from the International Court of Justice as to whether they would be eligible to seek compensation from countries or large companies for losses brought about by climate change.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In 2020 the Torres Strait 8 were recognised as one of ten "Human Rights Heroes" in the Human Rights Awards, in a special category replacing the usual awards.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: In September 2022, the UN Human Rights Committee gave its response to the Torres Strait 8. It concluded that Australia had violated two of three human rights described in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a treaty signed in 1966 by 173 member states of the UN, including Australia. The violated rights are "the right to enjoy their culture" and "[to] be free from arbitrary interferences with their private life, family and home". The committee did not find that their right to life had been violated. There is no means by which to enforce the finding, but states generally comply. While the Morrison government had called for dismissal of the complaint, the Albanese government (since early 2022) was committed to working with Torres Strait Islanders on climate change. The committee called on the government to compensate the islanders for the harm already inflicted, "consult the community on their needs and take action to secure their safety".


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The banana plant leaf disease black sigatoka, the major banana disease worldwide, is endemic to Papua New Guinea and the Torres Strait Islands. Occasional infections have been discovered on Cape York Peninsula but they have been successfully halted with eradication programs. The disease most likely appeared on the mainland via plant material from the Torres Strait Islands.


title: Torres Strait Islands

text: The music of the Torres Strait is principally vocal accompanied by instruments. The introduction of Christianity through the London Missionary Society, beginning in 1871, had a profound influence, but before that time the musical culture reflected the cultural and geographic diversity of the Strait.


title: Buccaneer

text: Buccaneers were a kind of privateers or free sailors particular to the Caribbean Sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. First established on northern Hispaniola as early as 1625, their heyday was from the Restoration in 1660 until about 1688, during a time when governments were not strong enough and did not consistently attempt to suppress them.


title: Buccaneer

text: Originally the name applied to the landless hunters of wild boars and cattle in the largely uninhabited areas of Tortuga and Hispaniola. The meat they caught was smoked over a slow fire in little huts the French called "boucans" to make "viande boucanée" – "jerked meat" or "jerky" – which they sold to the corsairs who preyed on the (largely Spanish) shipping and settlements of the Caribbean. Eventually the term was applied to the corsairs and (later) privateers themselves, also known as the Brethren of the Coast. Though corsairs, also known as "filibusters" or "freebooters", were largely lawless, privateers were nominally licensed by the authorities – first the French, later the English and Dutch – to prey on the Spanish, until their depredations became so severe they were suppressed.


title: Buccaneer

text: The term "buccaneer" was taken from the Spanish "bucanero" and derives from the Caribbean Arawak word "buccan", a wooden frame on which Tainos and Caribs slowly roasted or smoked meat, commonly manatee. From it derived the French word "boucan" and hence the name "boucanier" for French hunters who used such frames to smoke meat from feral cattle and pigs on Hispaniola. English colonists anglicised the word "boucanier" to "buccaneer".


title: Buccaneer

text: About 1630, French interlopers were driven away from the island of Hispaniola and fled to nearby Tortuga. French buccaneers were established on northern Hispaniola as early as 1625, but lived at first mostly as hunters rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids. According to Alexandre Exquemelin, the Tortuga buccaneer Pierre Le Grand pioneered the settlers' attacks on galleons making the return voyage to Spain. The Spaniards also tried to drive them out of Tortuga, but the buccaneers were joined by many more French, Dutch, and English adventurers who turned to piracy. They set their eyes on Spanish shipping, generally using small craft to attack galleons in the vicinity of the Windward Passage. With the support and encouragement of rival European powers, they became strong enough to sail for the mainland of Spanish America, known as the Spanish Main, and sacked cities.


title: Buccaneer

text: Perhaps what distinguished the buccaneers from earlier Caribbean sailors was their use of permanent bases in the West Indies. During the mid 17th century, the Bahama Islands attracted many lawless people who had taken over New Providence. Encouraged by its large harbour, they were joined by several pirates who made their living by raiding the Spanish on the coast of Cuba. They called this activity buccaneering. Their principal station was Tortuga, but from time to time they seized other strongholds, like Providence, and they were welcomed with their booty in ports like Port Royal in Jamaica. At first they were international. In 1663 it was estimated that there were fifteen of their ships with nearly a thousand men, English, French, and Dutch, belonging to Jamaica and Tortuga. As time went on and the European governments asserted their authority, the buccaneers first became separated by nationalities and then in time were suppressed altogether, leaving behind only dispersed bands of pirates.


title: Buccaneer

text: English settlers occupying Jamaica began to spread the name "buccaneers" with the meaning of pirates. The name became universally adopted later in 1684 when the first English translation of Alexandre Exquemelin's book "The Buccaneers of America" was published.


title: Buccaneer

text: Viewed from London, buccaneering was a budget way to wage war on England's rival, Spain. The English crown licensed buccaneers with letters of marque, legalising their operations in return for a share of their profits. The buccaneers were invited by Jamaica's Governor Thomas Modyford to base ships at Port Royal. The buccaneers robbed Spanish shipping and colonies, and returned to Port Royal with their plunder, making the city the most prosperous in the Caribbean. There even were Royal Navy officers sent to lead the buccaneers, such as Christopher Myngs. Their activities went on irrespective of whether England happened to be at war with Spain or France.


title: Buccaneer

text: Among the leaders of the buccaneers were two Frenchmen, Jean-David Nau, better known as François l'Ollonais, and Daniel Montbars, who destroyed so many Spanish ships and killed so many Spaniards that he was called "the Exterminator".


title: Buccaneer

text: Another noted leader was Welshman Henry Morgan, who sacked Maracaibo, Portobello, and Panama City, stealing a huge amount from the Spanish. Morgan became rich and went back to England, where he was knighted by Charles II.


title: Buccaneer

text: While the buccaneers were powerful it was not only hostility to Spain, but also lack of authority, that prevented the other states from ending the old state of affairs in which, even when they were at peace with Spain and Portugal in Europe, there was 'no peace beyond the Line'. The West Indies were beyond the range of the European international system. Sometimes this was for their advantage but on the whole, with the intermingled possessions, trade rivalries, and disputes about territorial rights, the local conditions led to conflicts. The West Indies continued to be one of the centres of international strife throughout the eighteenth century though by that time it was regulated in the same way as in Europe, and had become inseparable from the European wars.


title: Buccaneer

text: During the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665, de Ruyter attacked Barbados with a strong squadron, and the English had no choice but to base their defence on the buccaneers whom the governor of Jamaica had previously been trying to suppress. They were unmanageable and destroyed where they conquered, but they mastered the Dutch colonies of St. Eustatius and Tobago. In 1666, however, when the French joined the Dutch in the war the weakness of this policy was proved. The English hoped to capture the French plantations of St. Kitts, where there were new settlers of both nations, and so they declined to make a new agreement for neutrality. They made what was intended to be a surprise attack, but was an ignominious failure, and the English settlers in the island had to surrender unconditionally. More than 8,000 of them were shipped away, and their property was seized by the French. Lord Willoughby, the able governor of Barbados, got together an expedition for a counter-stroke, but his fleet was broken up by a hurricane in which he perished. The French captured one island after another. In 1667 naval ships from England regained the command of the sea and made various conquests, but the Peace of Breda re-established the status quo in March of that year.


title: Buccaneer

text: Henry Morgan was knighted in 1674 and became lieutenant-governor of Jamaica. In the late 1670s there was a succession of raids on Spanish ports. In 1680 a party made its way across the Isthmus of Panama and, sailing in captured Spanish ships, pillaged the coasts and commerce of the Pacific. They had not been long on their journey when the Anglo-Spanish treaty of 1680 was signed, which at last stipulated for a real peace beyond the Line and indirectly recognised the right of the English to trade in West Indian waters. When the buccaneers returned by way of Cape Horn in 1682, the survivors found themselves treated as pirates. The French, within a very few years, also controlled their buccaneers, and in the Nine Years' War (1688-1697) they were no longer an important factor. Until about 1688 the governments were not strong enough, and did not consistently attempt, to suppress the buccaneers.


title: Buccaneer

text: In January 1684, Havana responded to the attacks by the buccaneers of the Bahamas in the event known as the Raid on Charles Town.


title: Buccaneer

text: In the 1690s, the old buccaneering ways began to die out, as European governments began to discard the policy of "no peace beyond the Line". Buccaneers were hard to control; some even embroiled their colonies in unwanted wars. Notably, at the 1697 joint French-buccaneer siege of Cartagena, led by Bernard Desjean, Baron de Pointis, the buccaneers and the French regulars parted on extremely bitter terms. Less tolerated by local Caribbean officials, buccaneers increasingly turned to legal work or else joined regular pirate crews who sought plunder in the Indian Ocean, the east coast of North America, or West Africa as well as in the Caribbean.


title: Buccaneer

text: Sometimes the buccaneers held more or less regular commissions as privateers, and they always preyed upon the Spaniards; but often they became mere pirates and plundered any nation. As a rule, the buccaneers called themselves privateers, and many sailed under the protection of a letter of marque granted by British, French or Dutch authorities. For example, Henry Morgan had some form of legal cover for all of his attacks, and expressed great indignation at being called a "corsair" by the governor of Panama. Nevertheless, these rough men had little concern for legal niceties, and exploited every opportunity to pillage Spanish targets, whether or not a letter of marque was available. Many of the letters of marque used by buccaneers were legally invalid, and any form of legal paper in that illiterate age might be passed off as a letter of marque. Furthermore, even those buccaneers who had valid letters of marque often failed to observe their terms; Morgan's 1671 attack on Panama, for instance, was not at all authorised by his commission from the governor of Jamaica. The legal status of buccaneers was still further obscured by the practice of the Spanish authorities, who regarded them as heretics and interlopers, and thus hanged or garroted captured buccaneers entirely without regard to whether their attacks were licensed by French or English monarchs.


title: Buccaneer

text: Simultaneously, French and English governors tended to turn a blind eye to the buccaneers' depredations against the Spanish, even when unlicensed. But as Spanish power waned toward the end of the 17th century, the buccaneers' attacks began to disrupt France and England's merchant traffic with Spanish America, such that merchants who had previously regarded the buccaneers as a defence against Spain now saw them as a threat to commerce, and colonial authorities grew hostile. This change in political atmosphere, more than anything else, put an end to buccaneering.


title: Buccaneer

text: A hundred years before the French Revolution, the buccaneer companies were run on lines in which liberty, equality and fraternity were the rule. In a buccaneer camp, the captain was elected and could be deposed by the votes of the crew. The crew, and not the captain, decided whether to attack a particular ship, or a fleet of ships. Spoils were evenly divided into shares; the captain received an agreed amount for the ship, plus a portion of the share of the prize money, usually five or six shares.


title: Buccaneer

text: Crews generally had no regular wages, being paid only from their shares of the plunder, a system called "no purchase, no pay" by Modyford or "no prey, no pay" by Enqueueing. There was a strong "esprit" among buccaneers. This, combined with overwhelming numbers, allowed them to win battles and raids. There was also, for some time, a social insurance system guaranteeing compensation for battle wounds at a worked-out scale.


title: Buccaneer

text: Buccaneers initially used small boats to attack Spanish galleons surreptitiously, often at night, and climb aboard before the alarm could be raised. Buccaneers were expert marksmen and would quickly kill the helmsman and any officers aboard. Buccaneers' reputation as cruel pirates grew to the point that, eventually, most victims would surrender, hoping they would not be killed.


title: Buccaneer

text: When buccaneers raided towns, they did not sail into port and bombard the defences, as naval forces typically did. Instead, they secretly beached their ships out of sight of their target, marched overland, and attacked the towns from the landward side, which was usually less fortified. Their raids relied mainly on surprise and speed. The sack of Campeche was considered the first such raid and many others that followed replicated the same techniques including the attack on Veracruz in 1683 and the raid on Cartagena later that same year.


title: Buccaneer

text: Spanish authorities always viewed buccaneers as trespassers and a threat to their hegemony in the Caribbean basin, and over the second half of the 17th century, other European powers learned to perceive them in the same way. These new powers had appropriated and secured territories in the area and needed to protect them. Buccaneers who did not settle down on agriculture or some other acceptable business after the so-called Golden Age of Piracy proved a nuisance to them, too. Spanish anti-pirate practices became thus a model for all recently arrived colonial governments. Some expanded them.


title: Buccaneer

text: When caught by anti-pirate English authorities, 17th and 18th century buccaneers received justice in a summary fashion, and many ended their lives by "dancing the hempen jig", a euphemism for hanging. Public executions were a form of entertainment, and people came out to watch them as they would for a sporting event today. Newspapers reported details such as condemned men's last words, the prayers said by the priests, and descriptions of their final moments in the gallows. In England, most executions took place at Execution Dock on the River Thames in London.


title: Buccaneer

text: In the cases of more famous prisoners, usually captains, their punishments extended beyond death. Their bodies were enclosed in iron cages (for which they were measured before their execution) and left to swing in the air until the flesh rotted off them—a process that could take as long as two years. The bodies of captains such as William "Captain" Kidd, Charles Vane, William Fly, and Jack Rackham ("Calico Jack") were all treated this way.


title: Buccaneer

text: It is doubtful many buccaneers got off with just a time in the pillory. However, a pirate who was flogged could very well spend some time in the pillory after being beaten. "The most common shaming punishment was confinement in the pillory often with symbols of their crimes."


title: Buccaneer

text: After the threat began to abate, literature brought buccaneers to glory as example of virility and self-reliance. Daniel Defoe’s works like "Robinson Crusoe" (1719), "Captain Singleton" (1720), and "A General History of the Pyrates" (1724) (purported by Defoe) set the tone for the glamorous ways in which later generations would perceive them.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: In marketing, the unique selling proposition (USP), also called the unique selling point, or the unique value proposition (UVP) in the business model canvas, is the marketing strategy of informing customers about how one's own brand or product is superior to its competitors (in addition to its other values).


title: Unique selling proposition

text: It was used in successful advertising campaigns of the early 1940s. The term was coined by television advertising pioneer Rosser Reeves of Ted Bates & Company. Theodore Levitt, a professor at Harvard Business School, suggested that, "Differentiation is one of the most important strategic and tactical activities in which companies must constantly engage." The term has been extended to cover one's "personal brand".


title: Unique selling proposition

text: A unique selling proposition (USP) refers to the unique benefit exhibited by a company, service, product or brand that enables it to stand out from competitors. The unique selling proposition must be a feature that highlights product benefits that are meaningful to consumers. USP focuses on explicit claims of uniqueness involving an objectively verifiable product attribute or benefit-in-use.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: The USP concept has become one of the eight broad approaches to creative executions in advertising. The USP approach is recommended where high levels of technological innovation characterise a product category. A clear USP helps consumers to understand differences - even non-existent differences - between brand offerings in a category, and may also help consumers to form a positive attitude towards a brand and may ultimately contribute to increased levels of brand recall.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: In order to determine an appropriate USP for any given brand, marketers must undertake extensive research of the category as well as of consumers. It is important to be able to locate a space in the market, ensure that the feature is something that is unique, and also something that is valued by potential customers. Sellers also need to try selling a brand to themselves; this is so they know they are passionate about a product and confident it can succeed. The seller needs a key point to use when trying to sell their product or service, and coming up with it prior to selling will benefit. Having a point of difference to stand out is a major benefit in markets; customers will be drawn to a business if it offers something no one else has. Whether differences are subtle or blatant, they can be the driving force that ensures the end-consumer makes the desired decision in choosing one product over the competition.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: In markets which contain many similar products, using a USP is one campaign method of differentiating the product from the competition. Products or services without differentiation risk the consumer seeing them as commodities and fungible, thus lowering price potential. Thus having a unique selling point is essential to have a successful business that can handle current competition, as well as possible future comers in similar markets.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: The desktop personal-computer market provides one example with many manufacturers and the potential for new manufacturers at any time. Apple used the slogan "Beauty outside, Beast inside" for its Mac Pro campaign to differentiate its product as "beautiful" compared with any other desktop computer. Buyers of this product were willing to pay a premium price, compared with technically similar desktop computers. Apple differentiates itself with a focus on aesthetics and cutting-edge technologies. Wal-Mart's "Save money, live better" (Waiz, 2013). Wal-Mart is concerned with being the cheapest department store and with reminding customers that it's not how much one spends on a product that matters. This USP rests on strong, direct and concise messaging that gives consumers a clear picture of exactly what value they will receive for choosing a given brand or product. Something so simple that can attract customers like that and show the unique selling proposition of the business is what people look for.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: Marketing strategies are very important for different companies to establish their identity and increase market share.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: A good USP should target a specific audience. Furthermore, a USP should not only be unique, but also keep its promises in order to prove trustworthy.


title: Unique selling proposition

text: The following are examples of Unique Selling Propositions. What is commonly considered a slogan is enhanced with a differentiating benefit of the product or service. Typically, the uniqueness is delivered by a unique process, ingredient, or system that produces the benefit described.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Brighton and Hove () is a city and unitary authority in East Sussex, England. It consists primarily of the settlements of Brighton and Hove, alongside neighbouring villages.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Often referred to synonymously as Brighton, the City of Brighton and Hove is England's most populous seaside resort, as well as the second most populous urban area in South East England. It is administered by Brighton and Hove City Council, which is currently in Green minority control. In 2014, Brighton and Hove City Council formed the Greater Brighton City Region with neighbouring local authorities.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: It can be considered both a coastal and a downland city benefiting from both the sea and the chalk hill grasslands that it is nestled in.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: In 1992 a government commission was set up to conduct a structural review of local government arrangements across England. In its draft proposals for East Sussex, the commission suggested two separate unitary authorities be created for the towns of Brighton and Hove, with the latter authority to include Hove, Worthing and the Adur District. Support within Brighton for its own unitary authority was high, however respondents in Hove expressed reservations towards a merger with Worthing and Adur. A report following consultation noted that more than 25% of respondents in both Brighton and Hove had "unprompted, indicated support for a merger of those two areas." Although this option had not been included in the draft proposals, subsequent polling indicated that the merger was the most popular option among residents.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Nevertheless, the proposal of a merger proved controversial, particularly in Hove. Hove Borough Council opposed the move on the grounds that Brighton would dominate affairs in the city, and the commission acknowledged that residents of Hove "have significant negative feelings towards Brighton" and greater identification towards Sussex. Ultimately, the view was taken that support for a single tier of government in both towns outweighed opposition to unification, and as a result the commission recommended that the borough councils of Brighton and Hove be made a single unitary authority independent of East Sussex County Council. In 1997, Brighton and Hove Borough Council was formed, and assumed responsibility for all matters of local government across both towns.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Twenty years earlier, as part of the Queen's Silver Jubilee celebrations, Brighton had been shortlisted as a candidate for city status, though eventually lost out to larger Derby. Following unification of the towns, Brighton and Hove applied for city status again as part of the Millennium City Status Competition, and was subsequently granted city status on 31 January 2001. As a result, the borough council became a city council.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Although the city now operates as a single entity, locals generally still consider Brighton and Hove to be separate settlements with different identities. Hove is largely residential and has its own distinct seafront and established town centre located around George Street, while Brighton has a higher profile as the country's most popular seaside resort, a significant digital economy, and hosts several festivals of national prominence. Recognition of the city's twin identities is evident from the continued popularity of the local saying "Hove, actually", a phrase which long predates unification.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Some organisations such as the local football club, Brighton and Hove Albion, and the bus company Brighton & Hove, predate the unification of the towns by several decades.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: In 2014, Brighton and Hove formed the Greater Brighton City Region with neighbouring local authorities.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The City of Brighton and Hove consists of many districts, a stretch of coast and some downland areas. Just to the south of Brighton and Hove in the English Channel is the Rampion Wind Farm, which provides renewable energy to the country.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Brighton has been the most populous settlement in Sussex since at least the 17th century, and a town hall and evidence of citizen's control over town affairs predates 1580. The original parish of Brighton covered what is today much of central Brighton. The parish border ran from Little Western Street and Boundary Passage in the west, to Whitehawk Road in the east, and roughly followed the Old Shoreham Road and Bear Road to the north. The Great Reform Act of 1832 created the parliamentary constituency of Brighton. Brighton obtained a royal charter for incorporation in 1854 and was organised into six wards: Park, Pavilion, Pier, St Nicholas, St Peter, and West. The ward of Preston was added in 1873, expanding Brighton to the north. In 1889 Brighton attained county borough status.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The Brighton Corporation Act of 1927 added the settlements of Ovingdean and Rottingdean, as well as western parts of Falmer, Patcham and West Blatchington. These reforms expanded the Brighton the north and west dramatically. Between 1920 and 1950 housing estates were developed in Woodingdean, Moulsecoomb, Bevendean, and Whitehawk increasing the population of the town substantially. As a result, the number of wards had by now increased to 19. The rest of Falmer, Coldean and the parish of Stanmer were added to Brighton by the Brighton Extension Act 1951, completing the northward extension of the town. A final expansion of the town's boundaries was approved in 1968, incorporating reclaimed land from the sea for the Brighton Marina project.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Brighton was split into two parliamentary constituencies in 1950. The first, Brighton Pavilion, covers the centre and north of the town. The second, Brighton Kemptown, covers the east of the town. The latter has since expanded further east to include the neighbouring towns of East Saltdean, Telscombe Cliffs, and Peacehaven. Brighton became a municipal borough as a result of the 1972 Local Government Act, losing unitary control of town affairs to East Sussex County Council. This reform was later followed by a reduction of wards to 16 in 1983. Brighton Borough Council remained under this structure until unification with Hove.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: A small parish at the end of the 18th century, Hove began to expand in the early 19th century alongside the westward development of Brighton, and in 1832 became incorporated into the parliamentary constituency of Brighton. In 1873 commissioners from Hove, West Hove and Brunswick were amalgamated as means to guard against the dominance of Brighton. The first public buildings were completed in the late 19th century, including the original town hall in 1882. The parish of Aldrington was annexed by Hove in 1893. A municipal borough of Hove was formed by royal charter in 1889, granting Hove administrative autonomy. Further expansion took place in 1927, with the addition of the parishes of Preston Rural and Hangleton and westerly sections of West Blatchington and Patcham. Hove gained its own parliamentary constituency in 1950. The Local Government Act 1972 abolished the remaining parishes of Hove, Aldrington and Hangleton and West Blatchington to form the unparished non-metropolitan district of Hove. It also incorporated the nearby town of Portslade-by-Sea into the new district. The new boundaries established by the Act remained largely the same until unification with Brighton a quarter of a century later.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the west of Brighton and Hove is Portslade. The area has three distinct centres with different histories and include Portslade-by-Sea, Portslade Village and Mile Oak. Each is quite different in character.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Portslade-by-Sea is quite an industrial port with a busy canal area that opens up to the River Adur and the English Channel. It has a long history of human settlement and the name came from the Roman port, Novus Portus.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Portslade Village has kept more of its antiquity and retains many elements of the downland village it once was. Many of the buildings have their original flint walls, and there are some early manor house ruins, tree lined parks, a landmark church and former convent.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Mile Oak is a newer development. Until the 1920s it was only a small groups of farm buildings with a surrounding corn fields, sheep down and market gardens. After such time, suburban housing started to be built and considerable further developments happened in the 1960s with the construction bungalows and other private housing. In the 1990s after the construction of the A27 Mile Oak was access to the Downs was largely blocked, stopping the spread of the developments.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the north of Mile Oak, on the other side of the A27 are a number of downland areas that are still in the Brighton and Hove jurisdiction. These include the ancient chalk grassland slopes of Cockroost Hill, Cockroost Bottom and Mount Zion. They are all special areas with some remarkable wildlife survivals, including rare downland flowers, orchids, butterflies and other insects. There is a lot of history on the slopes including a large 4000 year old Bronze Age settlement, a possible 'henge' (as in Stonehenge), now lost under the A27 bypass, and evidence of Iron Age and Romano-British field systems. To the north of the city boundary is the Fulking Parish. The final stretch of the Monarch's Way passes through Mile Oak and Porstlade. It is a 625-mile (1,006 km) long-distance footpath that runs from Worcester to Shoreham.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Aldrington sits between Portslade-by-Sea to its west and Hove to its east. For centuries Aldrington was largely countryside with very few people living there for the majority of the Middle Ages, but it is now a residential area.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Like Aldrington, West Blatchingham, was once primarily down and sheep grazing area, but is now built up. West Blatchington manor had various lords over the centuries, but unlike Adrington and Hangleton, it was always associated to lords in the east such Lewes, Falmer, and Patcham. It is now known for its windmill and secondary school. To the east of West Blatchington is Westdene.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Hangleton is to the north of Aldrington and sits between Portslade Village and West Blatchington. The manors of Hangleton and Aldrington formed part of the Fishersgate Half Hundred, together with the neighbouring manor of Portslade, The lords of the Hangleton manor from 1291 to 1446 were the de Poynings, a Sussex gentry family that gave their name to the present parish of Poynings.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Hangeton was a medieval downland village in the 13th century and by the early 14th century had a population of approximately two hundred people. After such time, the village was abandoned for around six hundred years. It started to grow again in the 1950s with other areas of Brighton and is now popular for its views of the sea and green spaces.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Between Hangleton and Westdene, south of the A27, is Toads Hole Valley. Its west slope, below Downland Drive, was once an unspoilt place for wildlife and still home to threatened species such as dormice, hedgehogs, and adders. The valley has been unmanaged for many years and the area has turned to scrub. It has now been designated for development and up to three hundred homes are planned to be built on the site.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the north of the A27 are two golf courses, the West Hove and Brighton and Hove Golf courses. The two are divided by the Old Dyke Railway Trail which follows part of the route taken by the old Dyke Railway Branch Line. The line opened in September 1887 and took people from Hove to the popular downland beauty spot of Devil's Dyke. When the railway closed in December 1938, the line lay unused until the Dyke Railway Trail was created in 1988. There are a number of ways through Hangleton to a bridge over the A27 bypass where the trail begins, but the original route took you from Aldrington railway station and above the Hove cemetery. Much of the trail across the Downs is on a hard surface.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: There are many archaic Down pastures in the area. To the west is Benfield Hill (), a Local Nature Reserve which is famous for its glowworm displays on midsummer evenings. On the steep east side of the hill there is large thyme, autumn gentian and many butterflies. Bee orchids can be also found in some years. To the north of this area is the Poynings parish and the impressive geography of Devil's Dyke.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the east is Round Hill where there are many signs of the past from different periods of human history. There are several old barrows in the area. There is an old flint barn () called the Skeleton Hovel which is thought to commemorate a prehistoric burial site. Round Hill's eastern slope () is the richest chalk grassland site in Hangleton, though it desperately needs grazing management for its many downland flowers such as field fleawort, chalk milkwort, orchids, cowslips, hairy violet, rockrose, crested hair-grass, and devil's bit scabious. There are two rare Forester moth species, fox moth and heath moth, purse-web spider, moss, and pygmy snails. To the north of Round Hill is the Newtimber parish.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Patcham, Westdene, and Withdean are divided by the London Road. Of the three, Patcham (), has much the longest history of human settlement and retains much from its agricultural past. It was one of the bigger settlements in Sussex at the time of Domesday book, with 10 shepherds and six slaves and a medieval Archbishop of Canterbury came from the village. The area still has many old flint cottages, big allotment sites and winding twittens. There is Patcham Place and Park. The best cluster of buildings comprise its Norman church (which has kept part of its medieval wall paintings) and the old buildings of Patcham Court Farm, with a 17th-century flint farmhouse and dovecot.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The areas of Withdean and Westdene were historically farmland but have been developed, mainly in the 1920s and 1930s, with a mix of detached, semi-detached and mid-rise flats. The Withdean manor was originally the property of the great Cluniac Priory of St. Pancras at Lewes, until 1537. This was then given to Anne of Cleves in 1541 by Henry VIII. The manor was demolished in 1936. Westdene sits to the north of Brighton, east of West Blatchington and north of Withdean.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Withdean Park is to the east of the London Road, and is home to the national collection of lilacs with over 250 varieties. Collections of berberis, cotoneaster and viburnum can also be found here. Withdean Woods is next to Withdean stadium and is a wooded hillside nature reserve approximately 2.47 acres (1 ha) in size. It is the home of several woodland birds including the great spotted woodpecker, tawny owl, goldcrest, firecrest, and in winter the stinking hellebore.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the west of the A23 and north of Westdene and the A27 is Waterhall (), and its lost 18th century farm is now the site of football and rugby pitches. The Waterhall Golf Course has just been given over to a version of rewilding which involves the restoration of species-rich chalk grassland There is still a significant population of adders. By the bridlepath just downhill of the old clubhouse there are the damaged remains of a Bronze Age round barrow () which has long acted as a marker on the old parish boundaries. Since the cessation of golf play harebell, scabious, cowslip, rockrose, betony, Sussex rampion and horseshoe vetch have flowered ebulliently. There are large old anthills and chalkhill, small and adonis blue and brown argus butterflies, and all three species of Forester moth. At the corner of the Saddlescombe Road and the turn-off to the golf clubhouse, there is a sarsen stone () marking this point in the medieval boundary between Patcham and West Blatchington parishes.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the north is Varncombe Hill, which borders the Newtimber parish. Its south-west facing slope() is heavily scrubbed-up, though lovely old pasture glades survive. Rockrose is one of the commonest flowers here, with some of its associated fungi. The west facing slopes of Varncombe Hill () were sold by Brighton Council with the rest of Saddlescombe Farm to the National Trust, but the Trust did not dedicate them as Access land, though they qualified and the National Trust had the power to do so.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the east of Waterhall is Sweet Hill. The Hill has a flowery bank on its western slope (), a bushy lynchet and an old dewpond site on its brow. The Sussex Border Path takes you north to Pangdean Bottom and the Pyecombe parish. Pangdean Bottom is the west of the A23 and is rented by a tenant farmer from Brighton and Hove City Council, who have owned it since 1924. It includes ancient chalk grassland slopes where there are still chalkland flowers and butterflies. In late summer, the valley's north side has one of the largest populations of autumn ladies-tresses orchid has been recorded, together with a large population of the white variety of the self heal violet. The scrub at the head of the valley is old and diverse, with wayfaring tree, old man's beard, honeysuckle, hazel, and gorse.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: In July 2021 the Sussex-based 'Landscapes of Freedom' group, together with Nick Hayes and Guy Shrubsole of the 'Right to Roam' network, organised a mass trespass in protest against the lack of public access to this valley and its management for game bird shooting, which has badly affected its chalk grassland wildlife. Over 300 people walked from Waterhall, Brighton, to Pangdean Bottom in protest. The public are actively discouraged from walking in the area and scrub has been allowed to grow on the pristine downland, whilst other parts have been ploughed out.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The Downland to the north of Patcham leads up to Ditchling Beacon and the western end of the Clayton to Offham Escarpment. Tegdown Hill is the next hill to the west of the downland Ditchling Road. A remarkable "ring barrow" survives () on its brow, together with the slight mounds of two other bowl barrows. Tegdown ring barrow has been described as "probably the best of this type in the county". It consists of a circular bank with a ditch and a flattish interior. It lies just south of a big dried up dew pond. From Tegdown you can see the three Iron Age camps of Hollingbury Castle, Ditchling Beacon, and the Devil's Dyke. To the north of the city boundary is the long Ditchling parish.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The Mid Sussex track of the Sussex Border Path starts at the A27 roundabout and the eastern track takes you up Ewebottom Hiil leaving Scare Hill to its west, passing the Chattri to the east and on to Holt Hill and the Pyecombe parish. The western track takes you to Waterhall across the A23.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Those walking from Patcham towards Standean farm descend the hill into Ewe Bottom and have the pleasure of the intact, old Tegdown pastures to their right, where the steepest slope and the lynchets have fine chalk downland flowers. Opposite the slope is the mouth of Deep Bottom (), the southerly slope of which is a colourful old pasture site with abundant rockrose and which rises up to the Chattri. In autumn there are boletes and several old meadow waxcaps and a fairy club fungus.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the south of the A27 and on the western edge of Patcham is Ladies Mile Down (), which has designated as a Local nature reserve. The area is a remarkable survival of plateau chalk grassland on Downland, where almost all such flattish sites have been destroyed by modern farming. The ancient turf has preserved lots of odd linear banks, which are surviving fragments of an Iron Age and Romano-British lynchetted field system. The banks once stretched across the line of the A27 bypass, beyond which one or two more fragments also survive. At the eastern end of the Down, is a Bronze Age burial mound recognisable as a low, grassy tump. The area is rich with summer flowers. Harebell, Sussex rampion flower, rockrose, and yellow rattle are enjoyed by locals here and at midsummer there are still good numbers of glowworms. Later in the summer months, the violet-blue of devil's-bit scabious and the powder-blue lesser scabious radiate.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The Chattri () is a place of memorial and a destination for walks. It can be accessed from the Sussex Border Path to its west or by scrambling through the thickets of Deep Bottom. It is a solemn place where the bodies of First World War Indian Sikh and Hindu soldiers who died from wounds whilst being nursed at the Brighton Pavilion "passed through the fire", for this was their "ghat", or place of cremation. Its white Sicilian marble dome is in good condition, but the surrounding memorial garden is often unkept.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: What is now considered to be Hollingbury is the slope facing west, east of Patcham and north of Fiveways. However, old Hollingbury was the crest of the hill by the hillfort, Hollingbury Park and even the east-facing slope. Until the 1930s the area was open Downland with farms, small-holdings and piggeries. After world war two, Hollingbury was used for a factory estate with the housing for the workforce.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Hollingdean is in the combe east of Ditchling Road and rising up to the north facing slope to Roedale allotments, the golf course and hillfort . It is now mainly a residential area, with many council houses to the east and low-rise flats in the central part, with late 19th and early 20th-century terraced houses towards Fiveways.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: There is an oasis of undeveloped green space at the peak of the Down between Hollingbury, Hollingdean, and Coldean. At its centre is Hollingbury Castle or Hillfort ().This Iron Age hillfort is a scheduled ancient monument, of Iron Age date, whilst the four mounded round barrows within its ramparts are made by Bronze Age people, who held this place sacred. There are thickets of gorse which shine yellow in spring and are home to linnets and goldfinch. European stonechat is a familiar bird, too, and the rarer whinchat and redstart are seen regularly on passage to and from their breeding grounds. The soil within and around the camp has a layer of superficial acidity, with sorrel, bent-grass, and tormentil growing there.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the south is Hollingbury Golf Course, the Roedale allotments and Hollingbury Park (). The park was originally part of the Golf Course. Its Edwardian pavilion was the original (circa 1908) Clubhouse. East of the Park is the two-century-old Hollingbury Woods, now full of the rotting carcasses of beech giants toppled in the 1987 gale. It is a popular walk, with Fittleworth Stone walks, glades, and benches. It has received the loving care of a local "Friends" group for many years now.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the west of Moulsecoombe is Wild Park (). The park is a valley/coombe which runs down from Hollingbury Castle and was opened in 1925. In the 1850s the valley, then known as Hollingbury Coombe, was one of the most famous of Sussex sites for lepidopterists (butterfly and moth experts), but dark green and silver-washed fritillary and silver-spotted skipper, once present in numbers, are rarely seen there now. Despite this, there are parts which are still rich in diversity and it is still good for butterflies. In spring one may still see the green hairstreak or orange-tip or find the wacky small bloody-nosed beetle and there are still adonis, chalkhill and common blues and brown argus and glowworms in midsummer. There are also orchids, harebells, sheets of rockrose, Sussex rampion, devil's-bit, and carline thistle. In autumn there are fungi too, including penny-bun bolete, collared earthstar, stinkhorn, and shaggy inkcap in the circling woods.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Coldean, Moulescoomb, and Bevendean are suburbs developed by Brighton Corporation in the 1950s necessitated by the acute housing shortage in the area after World War II. The districts are all in beautiful downland areas.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Coldean occupies a deep valley on the historic boundary of Falmer and Stanmer parishes and is only separated from Hollingbury Hillfort by Wild Park. It has recently been approved to build over two hundred new homes in green land adjoining the South Downs and Stanmer Estate that ten years ago had been proposed to be a Local Nature Reserve.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Moulsecoomb is on the other side of the Lewes Road and backs on to Falmer Hill, and is home to the University of Brighton's Moulsecoomb campus and Moulsecoomb Place. North of Moulsecoomb is the Falmer train station, University of Brighton's Falmer campus, and Falmer Stadium.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: In this area to the north east of Coldean are two further valleys. The first is occupied by Stanmer village (), a village with much historical value. The upper village street has eighteen flint cottages, with colourful gardens. The church was reconstructed in 1838, but the date of the original church can be guessed by the two huge and knotty yews in the churchyard. Next to the church is a pond, which although often unkempt, is probably the reason why Stanmer is so called as 'stan mere' is likely to derive from the Saxon 'stony pool'. Between the church and the barn is a Tudor well 252 feet deep and a wooden donkey wheel, like that at Saddlescombe, contained within a flint well-house. The well was in use until mains water was installed in 1900.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Stanmer woods were transformed in the 18th century after the Pelhams, later Earls of Chichester, had bought it. They planted a circle of woods along the hill-tops surrounding the dry valley in which the village lay and more shaws and clumps were scattered within. In 2007 the City Council took the initiative after the recent retirement of the Park's farming tenant and opened up all the closed woods and pasture fields to public access. The paths, gates and benches the council made are all popular with Brighton residents and beyond.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The largest plantation is called the Great Wood () and has acquired many of the plants of ancient woodland, some by planting and some have made their own way there. Under the council's control there has been much imaginative new planting too, "The trees are laid out alphabetically, with Acer and Betula at the lower east end and Ulmus and Zelkova high up to the west"., and on the lawns behind the House is a gigantic Blue Atlas Cedar with several slighter companions.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The next valley is occupied by the University of Sussex, which opened in 1961. In 2021, it is the place of study of over 16,000 students. The Brighton and Hove City border is surrounded by the large Falmer parish in this area.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Bevendean Down () is a local nature reserve. Its hot, south-facing slopes and as a result is home to lizards and many butterflies. The area is well looked after by local people in cooperation with the tenant farmer and the Council rangers. There is a dew pond where swallows and house martins skim the water. Chalkhill and adonis blue and brown argus butterflies are found in numbers in the area. Hogtrough Bottom () has a mixture of taller grassland, short sheep's fescue turf, and scrub. On the shorter ground some years are large swarms of autumn ladies tresses. There are lots of scarce species such as bastard toadflax, waxcap, and webcap fungi, four-spot orb-weaver and purseweb spiders, but the tapestry of summer colours is the main delight which come from the purple knapweed and felwort, blue scabious, yellow hawkbit, and rockrose.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: On the southern side of Bevendean is Heath Hill which runs up to Warren Road and two horse pasture smallholdings, Southdown Riding Stables () and Inglesíde Stables to the east. Neither receive any agro-chemicals and consequently have gathered rich wildlife in the past half century. Swallows and swifts, bats and dung beetles, rooks and woodpecker and the hornet robberfly all survive on the rich supply of insects attracted by the pony dung. Both the farmsteads of Southdown's and Ingleside Stables are targeted for housing development within Brighton and Hove City Council's draft City Plan Part 2. The loss of these two farmsteads, which organise the grazing of these nature-rich pastures, would put them at risk.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Falmer Hill () gives great views across to Hollingbury Castle and Stanmer Park and the higher Downs beyond. The Hill's top remained unploughed till the last World War. It had a cluster of about ten probably Saxon barrows and a couple of round barrows. Nothing remains now except white smears of chalk and flint on the ploughed earth, where the barrows were. To the west of the Hill is City boundary which borders the Kingston near Lewes parish.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Kemp Town is a district to east of Brighton. It was designed by Thomas Read Kemp (1782–1844). It includes the elegant Grade I listed buildings such as those of Sussex Square, Lewes Crescent, Arundel, and Chichester Terraces, and the less prestigious areas such as Rock Gardens to the east. The area includes the Royal Sussex Hospital. The beach south of Kemp Town is known as Black Rock. To the east of Kemp Town is Roedean gap. There is some housing and Roedean school, a public girls school that faces the sea.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the north of Kemp Town is Whitehawk, a district of Brighton that has been built since 1931. On the saddle between Whitehawk Hill and Race Hill is Whitehawk Camp which is a Neolithic causewayed camp, one of eight causewayed camps known to have existed in the Sussex Downs. The camp is a scheduled ancient monument. To the northwest of Whitehawk is Brighton Race Course. Horse racing started on the Hill in the late 18th century next to the causewayed camp.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Whitehawk Hill's lower slopes have large allotment sites, and there is a transmitting station on its top. To the north of the hilltop is the neolithic Whitehawk Camp.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the east of Whitehawk is Sheepcote Valley (). Here over are open to the public. In the 1870s there was a rifle range for volunteer soldiers sited here. The park was acquired in 1913 and laid out with plants and sports pitches in 1925. The northern part of the Valley served for many years as a municipal rubbish dump. When that purpose was completed, however, a kilometre and more of the upper Valley was terraced with six giant steps, which have now softened further with the cover of grass and low scrub. Now many birds breed in the area and many more pass through and stop extended periods on migration. Uncommon bird species are often seen there, such as rare warblers, wryneck, and redstarts. Sheepcote's lower valley has a caravan park where the first municipal site in the country was opened in 1938. There are playing fields embraced by the valley slopes and a café in East Brighton Park.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To its east is East Brighton Golf Course () with extensive roughs, scrub thickets, and woodland. In winter, short-eared owls often reside in the area. Below the course is Roedean Bottom (). It sits between Roedean School and a pitch and putt golf course. On the east slope of the Bottom there is a little piece of aboriginal Downland turf, where in late summer autumn ladies tresses orchid grow, with carline thistle and hairy violet. Tiny moss snail in the turf demonstrates the site's antiquity. East again from the Golf Course (and southwest of Woodingdean) is Wick Bottom (). This peaceful dean takes its name from the medieval farm on the Falmer Road, now long-gone. The name 'wick' may denote a far more ancient, perhaps Roman, farmstead. In modern times it has been a place of arable stubbles, but there be a good array of chalk loving plants such as night flowering catchfly, henbit deadnettle, field madder, round-leaved fluellen, and common fumitory.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Ovingdean () is east of Brighton and slightly set back from the sea. It is a historic settlement that has existed since at least the Iron Age


title: Brighton and Hove

text: about 600 BC. In ancient documents, the area is described as "Ofamn-inge-denu" or "the valley of the enclosure of Ofa's people". The Domesday book of 1086 records that the manor of 'hovingedene'. At that time the population of Ovingdean was about 90 people who included the lord of the manor and his family.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: By 2020 there were nearer 1,200 inhabitants and many new buildings, but the old core of Ovingdean still exists and many flint walls, old cottages, barns (converted) and gentry houses have been retained. The Norman church of St Wulfran's is the oldest surviving building in the village and has lots of surviving early details. North of the church the stonewalled paddock is full of humps and hollows that mark where a Saxon thane had his manor house. To the south of the village in front of the sea is one of Blind Veterans UK's rehabilitation centres. On the beach is a cafe and beach for rock pooling at low tide.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Rottingdean is east of Ovingdean and has more history still. The first settled inhabitants of Rottingdean were the Neolithic people, arriving around 2500 BC. It later became famed for sea faring activities and primarily a centre for smuggling. Rottingdean is its own parish despite being with the Brighton and Hove boundary.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Woodingdean is north of Ovingdean and east of the Brighton Racecourse. It was extensively developed during the 1950s and 1960s when most of the roads in the north-eastern and southern ends of the village were built. The name Woodingdean came from Woodendean (i.e. wooded valley) Farm which was situated in the south end of what is now Ovingdean. This farm existed from before 1714 until 1979. Perhaps the earliest farming settlement to be identified in the area was situated in Wick Bottom. It was here that the Wick Farm, later Warren Farm was situated.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Between the Brighton Marina and Saltdean is the undercliff path. It passes cafes at Ovingdean and Rottingdean. Many people use the path to walk, run or cycle either for amusement or to reach their destinations avoiding the up and down of the busy road above. The entire stretch of beach provides excellent home to rock pool loving species and sea and wading birds take advantage. Fulmars, peregrine falcons, ravens and rock pipits are just some of the bird life that nest in the chalk cliffs. This area is the only place on these southern cliffs that sea stock is native. Sea lavender also clings to the cliff ledges. Occasionally one can find sea samphire, too.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: To the west of the Falmer Road from Woodingdean is Happy Valley (), a bushy, cattle-grazed slope with old Down pasture herbs, bits of gorse, and thorn. Further south is Mount Pleasant (). The west slope looks over Wick Bottom and is a small triangle of rich chalk grassland. It's rough and derelict, but special wildlife clings on. There's big swarms of Pride of Sussex rampion, dropwort, horseshoe vetch, and hairy violet. European stonechat frequent its thorn and bramble.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Just east of Woodingdean, is the Bostle barrow field (). There is a cluster of at least twenty-seven small low grassy mounds, which are probably Saxon, and three larger, probably Bronze Age barrows on the top of the hill just south of the bridleway fence line. The barrow field is a 'precious fragment' of antiquity surrounded by agricultural fields. The Bostle combe slope () is an ancient Down pasture slope with the softest sheep's fescue turf, just south of the barrow field.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: East a little further there is one of the most special natural sites in the Brighton area, Castle Hill (). The area is known for its early spider orchids, Roesel's bush-cricket, wart-biter grasshopper, and dramatic butterfly displays that include dark green fritillary, adonis blue, and thousands of chalkhill blues.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: From west to east the administrative boundary of Brighton and Hove begins on the coast at Gate 4 of Shoreham Port. It crosses the Southwick Ship Canal and the A259 between Brambledean Road and St Richard's Road in Portslade. From here, the border joins Eastbrook Road, and runs north up St Aubrey's Crescent. It then runs along the Sussex Border Path, through Fishersgate Station, separating Portslade from the neighbouring town of Southwick. Running west of Mile Oak, the border crosses the A27 skirting Mile Oak Farm and continues towards Devil's Dyke, before turning east over the Downs. The border then extends north from Tydell Farm to the outskirts of Pyecombe – its most northerly point. It crosses the A23 at the Patcham Pylons, which signifies the border for incoming traffic.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Continuing east, the border runs north of the Chattri and Standean Farm, before crossing Ditchling Road at the Upper Lodges and running along the northerly limits of Stanmer Park and Stanmer Village. At this point, the border turns south and runs to the eastern edge of the University of Sussex campus, re-crossing the A27 along The Drove and passing east of Falmer Stadium. It continues along The Drove and Falmer Road to Woodingdean. Running north of Woodingdean, the border then heads southeast through Balsdean before adjoining to a footpath which enters Saltdean at the top of Longridge Avenue. The border runs down Longridge Avenue to the junction with Lynwood Road, where it turns south over houses and back across the A259 before returning the coastline at the eastern end of Saltdean Beach.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: As a unitary authority, Brighton and Hove City Council provides local government services, combining the functions of a non-metropolitan county and district council. Elections to the council are held every four years, with the most recent taking place in 2019. Councillors annually elect a Mayor of Brighton and Hove – a ceremonial position. The current mayor is Councillor Alan Robins. A proposal to introduce a directly elected mayor to the city was rejected by referendum in 2001. As a result, the council uses a cabinet system to form its executive. Geoff Raw is the current chief executive. Both Brighton Town Hall in The Lanes, and Hove Town Hall on Church Road are used as meeting places for council.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The council was under Labour majority control until 2003, when it fell into no overall control where it has remained since. During this period the council has been controlled by minority administrations of all three major parties in Brighton and Hove: Labour, the Conservatives and the Greens. The first Green administration, elected in 2011, was the first time any Green Party had run a council in the UK, highlighting the city as the party's primary area of support. A Labour administration was elected in 2015, and the party narrowly retained a plurality in 2019, however expulsions from the Labour group led to the Greens regaining control of the administration in 2020. At the most recent by-elections in May 2021, the Greens gained one seat from Labour, further extending their plurality on the council. Convenor of the Green Group Councillor Phélim MacCafferty is the current Leader of the council.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: Three constituencies cover Brighton and Hove in the UK Parliament. Hove is represented by Labour MP Peter Kyle. Brighton Pavilion, which covers central and northern Brighton, is represented by Green MP Caroline Lucas – the UK's first and only MP from the Green Party. Brighton Kemptown, which covers East Brighton, as well as areas outside of Brighton and Hove, such as Telscombe Cliffs and Peacehaven, is represented by Labour MP Lloyd Russell-Moyle.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The economy of the city is service-based with a strong emphasis on creative, digital and electronic technologies. Tourism and entertainment are important sectors for the city, which has many hotels and amusements, as well as Brighton Pier and Shoreham/Portslade Harbour.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The United Kingdom Census 2011 showed a substantial fall in the proportion of the population claiming Jobseeker's Allowance or Income Support, from 10.1% of the resident population in 2001, to 4.5% of the resident population in 2011"."


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The resident population of Brighton and Hove at the 2011 census was 273,369 persons, 50% male and 50% female.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The 2011 census found the ethnic composition of Brighton and Hove to be 89.1% white (80.5% white British, 1.4% white Irish, 7.1% other white), 4.1% Asian (1.1% Chinese, 1.1% Indian, 0.5% Bangladeshi, 1.2% other Asian), 3.8% mixed race (1.5% mixed black/white, 1.2% mixed white/Asian, 1.0% other mix), 1.5% black, and 0.8% Arab.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: The 2011 census found the religious composition to be 42.90% Christian, 42.42% nonreligious, 2.23% Muslim, 1.00% Buddhist, and 0.98% Jewish. 1.66% were adherents of some other religion, while 8.81% did not state their religion.


title: Brighton and Hove

text: In the 2001 census, Brighton and Hove had the highest percentage of citizens indicating their religion as Jedi among all principal areas of England and Wales.


title: Chingy

text: Howard Earl Bailey Jr. (born March 9, 1980), known professionally as Chingy, is an American rapper. Chingy grew up in St. Louis, Missouri, and began rapping in his late teens. He toured as an opening act with Nelly in the summer of 2002 and then became a protégé of Ludacris, who signed him to his newly formed Disturbing Tha Peace (DTP) record label. The rapper's 2003 summer debut single, "Right Thurr", put him on the musical map as a good-time rapper who specialized in catchy, club-friendly beats and simplistic lyrics delivered in a sing-song, nursery rhyme style.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy's 2003 debut album, "Jackpot", sold three million copies, thanks to the boost from "Right Thurr". A second album, "Powerballin'", was released in 2004 to mixed reviews, and his 2006 release "Hoodstar" spawned the hit singles "Pullin' Me Back" (featuring Tyrese Gibson) and "Dem Jeans" (featuring Jermaine Dupri). In 2007, his fourth album, "Hate It or Love It" was released under Disturbing tha Peace, preceded by lead single "Fly Like Me" (featuring Amerie). A studio album, "Success & Failure", was released in 2010. In 2018, he made his official debut as a record producer with his single "Sparks Fly" which debuted on July 4, 2018.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy grew up in Walnut Park, St. Louis, Missouri, a neighborhood he has referred to as the "Bad Blocks."


title: Chingy

text: He began writing lyrics when he was 9 and was recording raps at 10. He was originally known as H Thugz and was in the St. Louis group Without Warning on 49 Productions with M.G.D. & Mysphit. They recorded "What's Poppin Off" together, which became a local hit. H Thugz and Augustin also recorded a music video for the song. H Thugz later chose the alias Chingy, a slang term for money.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy attended McCluer North High School in Florissant, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis. During high school, he was known to his friends as "Howie," and he continues to prefer that name from close friends and family.


title: Chingy

text: Ludacris and his manager, Chaka Zulu, were quick to sign Chingy to their fledgling Disturbing Tha Peace label.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy's debut album "Jackpot" was released on July 15, 2003, on Disturbing tha Peace. Unable to secure a distribution deal through Def Jam, Ludacris negotiated a deal to distribute the album through Capitol Records. Guest appearances included Ludacris, Snoop Dogg, Murphy Lee, I-20, Raindrop, Tity Boi of Playaz Circle, Trina, and Jermaine Dupri. Fueled by "Right Thurr", "Jackpot" produced the hit "One Call Away" featuring J-Weav and "Holidae In" featuring Snoop Dogg and Ludacris. The album was produced by St. Louis production crew The Trak Starz. The album was received well by critics. Within a year of the release of "Jackpot", It was certified Platinum by the RIAA. The up-tempo Southern hip hop track "Right Thurr" gained popularity, peaking at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy released his second album, "Powerballin'", on November 16, 2004, through Slot-A-Lot Records and Capitol Records. The album peaked at #10 on the charts and featured the hit single "Balla Baby." The album featured guest appearances from artists R. Kelly, Bun B, Lil Wayne, Lil Flip, Janet Jackson, David Banner, Nate Dogg, and Get It Boyz. "Powerballin"' sold over one million copies and received a Platinum certification by the RIAA on March 21, 2005. He also was on one of the George Lopez episodes as himself. The eighth song from his album "I Do" is featured on the soundtrack for the smash hit 2004 video game .


title: Chingy

text: "Hoodstar" is Chingy's third album, released on September 19, 2006. The album featured Mr. Collipark, longtime collaborator Jermaine Dupri, Timbaland, and Mannie Fresh. His summer single, "Pullin Me Back" (featuring actor-R&B singer Tyrese), would find him back on top on the Hot Rap Tracks chart and help "Hoodstar" debut at number eight on the album chart, but the follow-up single "Dem Jeans", featuring Jermaine Dupri, fared worse although the album did go gold. Other singles from "Hoodstar" were "Brand New Kicks" and "Hands Up".


title: Chingy

text: Unhappy with the way he felt Capitol was promoting their urban artists, in 2007 Chingy jumped ship and returned to DTP Records, which was by-then a part of the Def Jam family. When asked upon this move, the St. Louis rapper said: "I don't think Capitol really knew how to work urban artists, They're really stuck on pop and they didn't know how to market me."


title: Chingy

text: "Hate It or Love It" is Chingy's fourth studio album. The album featured production from Scott Storch, Timbaland, and Cool and Dre. The lead single is "Fly Like Me", featuring Amerie. The album was released on December 18, 2007, and featured appearances by Ludacris, Bobby Valentino, Steph Jones, Trey Songz, Rick Ross, and Anthony Hamilton. The album debuted at #84 on the "Billboard" 200, selling 30,000 copies, making it Chingy's first album not to crack the Top 10. "Hate It or Love It" was not released in the UK, marking Chingy's first album not to be released in the country.


title: Chingy

text: In 2012 Chingy announced he was working on his fifth studio album called "No Risk No Reward", DTP which was set to be released sometime in 2012, but as of June 2016 continues to be delayed due to lack of funding. "Superhero", featuring Full Dekk Music Group's artist Chris Woodhouse, was purported to be the first single from the album. Chingy then announced that he would be releasing a mixtape, "Jackpot Back", which was released March 3, 2012.


title: Chingy

text: In Spring 2013, Chingy announced that he had become a practicing Black Hebrew Israelite and released the music video for "King Judah". This was Chingy's attempt to follow a moral agenda and denouncing mainstream rap. Currently Chingy is working on his upcoming EP album entitled "Chingology" which was released later this year.


title: Chingy

text: Major media outlets in Australia and NZ leaked information about a new Chingy collaboration, "Watch The World", featuring New Zealand based Asian model/singer Lucy X (Lucy Xu) . The track produced by ChristopherKris (Kris Lal) is rumored to be featured on an upcoming compilation album released in 2014. The single was released on November 1, 2013, to iTunes and radio. The song reached #2 on the iTunes Urban chart in both countries, with a video to follow in the coming months.


title: Chingy

text: Chingy signed to Universal Music Group distributed label Bungalo Records, making it his 3rd time recording under the Universal umbrella. In 2019, Chingy will participate in the "Millenium Tour" with B2K.


title: Chingy

text: Full Dekk Music Group, formerly known as Slot-A-Lot Records, is founded by rapper Chingy and manager Stan Wright in 2004, while Bailey was signed to Capitol Records.


title: Chingy

text: In early 2022, he announced that his first ever cologne was in the process of being completed and packaged. He appeared on the online platform TalkShopLive in September 2022 to promote and officially sell the cologne for the first time.


title: Chingy

text: In 2005, Chingy made his acting debut in the TV comedy series "My Wife and Kids". The same year, Chingy acted in the TV comedies "One on One" and "George Lopez". In 2006, Chingy made a cameo in the comedy film "Scary Movie 4", as well as on TV series "Yo Momma". In 2010, Chingy had a role in the film "Speed-Dating".


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: The Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) is a class of air-cushioned landing craft (hovercraft) used by the United States Navy and the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). They transport weapons systems, equipment, cargo and personnel from ship to shore and across the beach. It is to be replaced in US service by the Ship-to-Shore Connector (SSC).


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: JEFF A had four rotating ducted propellers JEFF B had two ducted rear propellers similar to the proposed SK-10 which was derived from the previous Bell SK-5 / SR.N5 hovercraft tested in Vietnam. JEFF B was selected for the LCAC. JEFF A was later modified for Arctic use and deployed in Prudhoe Bay to support offshore oil drilling.


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: The first 33 were included in the FY82-86 defense budgets, 15 in FY89, 12 each in FY90, FY91 and FY92, while seven were included in FY93. The first LCAC was delivered to the Navy in 1984 and Initial Operational Capability (IOC) was achieved in 1986. Approval for full production was granted in 1987.


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: After an initial 15-craft competitive production contract was awarded to each of two companies, Textron Marine & Land Systems (TMLS) of New Orleans, La, and Avondale Gulfport Marine, TMLS was selected to build the remaining craft. The final craft was delivered in 2001.


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: On June 29, 1987, approval was granted for full LCAC production. Forty-eight air-cushion landing craft were authorized and appropriated through FY 89. Lockheed Shipbuilding Company was competitively selected as a second source. The FY 1990 budget request included $219.3 million for nine craft. The FY 1991 request included full funding for 12 LCACs and advance procurement in support of the FY 1992 program (which was intended to be nine craft). The remaining 24 were funded in FY92.


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: The LCAC first deployed in 1987 aboard . LCACs are transported in and operate from all the U.S. Navy's amphibious-well deck ships including LHA, LHD, LSD and LPD. Ships capable of carrying the LCAC include the (3 LCACs), (1), (4), (1), (4–5), (2), and (2) classes.


title: Landing Craft Air Cushion

text: All of the planned 91 craft were delivered. Seventeen have since been disassembled or terminated for cost reasons, two are held for R&D, and 36 are in use on each coast at Little Creek, Virginia and Camp Pendleton, California. Eight minesweeping kits were acquired in 1994–1995. A service-life extension program (SLEP) to extend service life from 20 to 30 years for the remaining 72 active LCACs was begun in 2000 and was scheduled to be completed by 2018.