title: Brantley Gilbert

text: Gilbert released his sixth studio album "So Help Me God" on November 10, 2022 and announced "Heaven by Then", featuring Blake Shelton and Vince Gill, as the album's second official single.


title: Brantley Gilbert

text: In addition to his original work, Gilbert has written songs that Colt Ford and Jason Aldean have recorded. The songs "Dirt Road Anthem" (co-written and originally recorded by him and Colt Ford) and "My Kinda Party" were released on Aldean's 2010 album "My Kinda Party". "My Kinda Party" was originally recorded by Gilbert on "Modern Day Prodigal Son", while "Dirt Road Anthem" was on "Halfway to Heaven". Aldean has also covered Gilbert's "The Best of Me", available on the iTunes release of his 2009 album "Wide Open". Gilbert has also co-written the tracks "The Same Way" on Aldean's album "9" and "Small Town Small" on his album "Macon, Georgia".


title: Brantley Gilbert

text: It was announced in September 2012 that Brantley Gilbert was dating country music singer and actress Jana Kramer. They met at the CMT Music Awards in June 2012. They were engaged on January 20, 2013, his 28th birthday. They split in August 2013.


title: Brantley Gilbert

text: In June 2015, Gilbert married Georgia school teacher Amber Cochran in a small ceremony at his home. He admitted that she was the girl who inspired his singles "You Don't Know Her Like I Do" and "More Than Miles", among several others. In 2017, on his "The Devil Don't Sleep" tour, he announced he would be a father in November. In 2017, Gilbert and his wife welcomed their first child, a son. In 2019, they welcomed their second child, a daughter.


title: Brantley Gilbert

text: In 2013, Gilbert embarked on an eight-day USO tour to entertain American service members stationed in Italy and Kuwait.


title: Brantley Gilbert

text: Brantley Gilbert was in a near-fatal truck accident when he was 19. Gilbert is an active Christian, and his song "My Faith In You", from his album "Just as I Am", speaks of his faith. In May 2015, Gilbert got a tattoo showing his support of the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution.


title: Jean Castex

text: Jean Castex (; born 25 June 1965) is a French politician who was the country's Prime Minister from 3 July 2020 to 16 May 2022. He was a member of The Republicans (LR) until 2020, when he joined La République En Marche! (LREM). Castex served for twelve years as mayor of the small town of Prades prior to his appointment as Prime Minister by President Emmanuel Macron. He resigned his post in May 2022.


title: Jean Castex

text: Elected in 2008 as the mayor of Prades, Pyrénées-Orientales, Castex served under Health Minister Xavier Bertrand as Chief of Staff in François Fillon's ministry from 2010 until 2011. He succeeded Raymond Soubie as Secretary-General of the Élysée under President Nicolas Sarkozy between 2011 and 2012. In the UMP 2012 leadership primaries, he endorsed Fillon.


title: Jean Castex

text: On the local level, Castex was a regional councillor of Languedoc-Roussillon from 2010 to 2015, and has served as department councillor of Pyrénées-Orientales since 2015. In September 2017, Castex was appointed interdepartmental delegate to the 2024 Olympics and Paralympics; he was also appointed as President of the National Sports Agency. On 2 April 2020, he was appointed coordinator of the phasing out of the lockdown implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic in France.


title: Jean Castex

text: Castex was a member of The Republicans until early 2020, where he was regarded as being socially conservative. Following Édouard Philippe's resignation on 3 July 2020, Castex was appointed Prime Minister by President Emmanuel Macron. His appointment was described as a "doubling down on a course that is widely seen as centre-right in economic terms". Castex subsequently named his government on 6 July.


title: Jean Castex

text: On 25 April 2022, following Macron's re-election as President, Castex agreed to resign as Prime Minister. Castex had previously pledged to do so if Macron was re-elected. Upon his resignation, Castex's government resigned as well, effective on 16 May.


title: Jean Castex

text: After leaving office, Castex was nominated by his successor Élisabeth Borne as chairman of the board of directors of the Agence de financement des infrastructures de transport de France (AFITF).


title: Jean Castex

text: Castex, whose name means 'castle' in Gascon, hails from the Gers. He is married to Sandra Ribelaygue; they have four daughters.


title: Jean Castex

text: A fluent Catalan speaker, Castex is regarded a defender of the Catalan identity in Southern France and other regional sensibilities. He is also friends with the ex-trades union leader Jean-Claude Mailly and the physician Patrick Pelloux, a former columnist at "Charlie Hebdo".


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Shaquem Alphonso Griffin (born July 20, 1995) is a former American football linebacker. He is the twin brother of Jacksonville Jaguars cornerback Shaquill Griffin, and both brothers played college football at UCF. When Griffin was 4 years old, he had his left hand amputated; Griffin later received extensive media coverage as a prospective 2018 NFL Draft pick. He was selected as a fifth round pick (141st overall) by the Seahawks on April 28, 2018, reuniting him with Shaquill.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Shaquem Griffin was born to Terry and Tangie Griffin on July 20, 1995, in St. Petersburg Florida, less than two minutes after Shaquill. Shaquem was born with amniotic band syndrome affecting his left hand, causing his fingers on his left hand not to fully develop. The pain was so intense that at 4 years of age he grabbed a butcher knife, planning to cut the hand off. His mother took the knife away, and his parents scheduled an amputation the next day. Still, Griffin was able to continue playing sports without his left hand, competing in track, baseball, and football alongside his brother.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Born in St. Petersburg, Florida, Griffin attended and played high school football at Lakewood, where he played safety. He attended the 2011 Under Armour Combine.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: As a senior, he helped Lakewood reach the 2012 Florida 5A regional semifinals. He earned Second Team 5A All-State and Tampa Bay Times Second Team All-Suncoast honors. He played in the 2012 Florida Athletic Coaches Association North-South All-Star Game. USA Football selected him to the 2013 U.S. Under-19 National Team, playing for whom earned him national attention after an interception by Griffin landed on ESPN's Top 10 Plays. He was rated a three-star recruit prospect by both Rivals and ESPN.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: He was also a four-year letter earner in track and field, including the 4x100 relay, triple jump, shot put, and discus. After winning the triple jump state title, and breaking two Lakewood records, he was named the Tampa Bay Times Track and Field Athlete of the Year in Pinellas County (Florida). He received collegiate track and field interest from programs including LSU, Miami, and Purdue.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Shaquem and his brother Shaquill were both offered football scholarships at the University of Central Florida (UCF) by then-coach George O'Leary, with Shaquill rejecting offers from other teams including the Miami Hurricanes, his dream team, to play with Shaquem. Griffin spent his whole college career at UCF, totaling 17 sacks and 30 tackles for a loss. Notable plays also include an interception versus the Temple Owls and a fumble recovery for a touchdown versus the Austin Peay Governors, both during the 2017 season.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: In his second season, playing as a redshirt freshman, Shaquem Griffin had a brief stint as a second string player on the depth chart before being demoted to third string and then scout team. Griffin attributes his rise in his redshirt junior and redshirt senior seasons to Scott Frost's hiring as head coach for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. Writing for "The Players' Tribune", Griffin said that, following his winless third season under O'Leary, "Coach Frost came in and brought me back into the light... He gave me the opportunity I had been waiting for ever since I first arrived at UCF. And I took advantage of it".


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Griffin was named the 2018 Peach Bowl Defensive MVP and was the 2016 American Athletic Conference Defensive Player of the Year. In Griffin's senior season, UCF went undefeated and subsequently claimed a national championship. Griffin told Ralph Warner and NFL Network in November 2017 that he planned to continue his football career in the NFL.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Shaquem stayed at UCF one season longer than Shaquill, as Shaquem redshirted his freshman year while Shaquill saw playing time. Shaquill graduated and was drafted by the Seattle Seahawks in the third round (90th overall pick) of the 2017 NFL Draft, while Shaquem stayed on for his redshirt senior year at UCF.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: After the end of his college career, Griffin was named as one of two recipients of the 2019 NCAA Inspiration Award, presented to individuals currently or formerly associated with NCAA athletics for especially inspirational efforts in dealing with life-altering personal situations. He received the award alongside Maggie Nichols, the first individual to report having been sexually assaulted by Larry Nassar.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Griffin participated in the NFL Scouting Combine in March 2018. He made headlines for performing 20 reps in the bench press while wearing a prosthesis and for running the 40-yard dash in 4.38 seconds, the fastest time for a linebacker since the NFL has released official statistics.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Despite the fact that he was not projected as a first round pick, Griffin received an invitation to the 2018 NFL Draft, which he accepted on March 29, 2018. Griffin received extensive press and social media coverage leading up to and during the draft, as he would have been the first one-handed player drafted into the NFL if chosen.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: On April 28, 2018, he was selected by the Seattle Seahawks in the fifth round (141st overall), reuniting him with his brother Shaquill. On May 17, 2018, Griffin signed a four-year deal worth $2.8 million with $300,000 guaranteed.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: On August 9, 2018, Griffin made his preseason debut against the Indianapolis Colts in CenturyLink Field, leading his team in tackles with six solo tackles and three assisted tackles. On August 30, 2018, he again led the team in tackles with four solo and three assisted tackles in the final week of the preseason against the Oakland Raiders. Griffin led the Seahawks in total tackles for the entire 2018 NFL preseason with fifteen, tied with fellow linebacker Austin Calitro. On September 9, 2018, Griffin was named as a starter in the first game of his NFL career due to veteran linebacker K. J. Wright being unable to play. He made three solo tackles in the 27–24 loss to the Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: In the Divisional Round of the playoffs in the 2019 season, Griffin recorded one sack on Aaron Rodgers during the 28–23 loss.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: Griffin was waived by the Seahawks during final roster cuts on September 5, 2020, and signed to the team's practice squad the next day. He was elevated to the active roster on September 26 for the team's week 3 game against the Dallas Cowboys, and reverted to the practice squad after the game. He was promoted to the active roster on October 2, 2020.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: On July 23, 2021, Griffin agreed to a one-year contract with the Miami Dolphins. He was waived on August 31, 2021, and re-signed to the practice squad. He was released on October 19.


title: Shaquem Griffin

text: In high school, Griffin earned the United States Achievement Academy Student of Excellence Award, the Mr. LHS Award (for Lakewood High School), and the 2012 Mike June Courage Award. The St. Petersburg mayor presented him a "key to the city" in high school. He and his twin brother, Shaquill, founded a track club in their hometown of St. Petersburg.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The Odd Couple is a 1968 American comedy film directed by Gene Saks, produced by Howard W. Koch and written by Neil Simon, based on his 1965 play. It stars Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau as two divorced men, neurotic neat-freak Felix Ungar and fun-loving slob Oscar Madison, who decide to live together.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The film was successful with critics and grossed over $44.5 million, making it the third highest-grossing film of 1968 in the United States. The success of the film was the basis for the ABC television sitcom of the same name, starring Tony Randall and Jack Klugman as Felix and Oscar.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: A sequel, "The Odd Couple II", was released in 1998, almost three decades later, in which Lemmon and Matthau reprised their roles. However, it was a critical and commercial failure.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: Divorced sports writer Oscar Madison and his card-playing cronies Murray, Speed, Roy and Vinnie have assembled in Madison's Washington Heights apartment for their Friday night poker game. Murray is concerned because their mutual friend Felix Ungar is unusually late for the game. Murray's wife calls and informs them that Felix is missing. Oscar then calls Felix's wife Frances, who tells him that she and Felix have broken up. Felix arrives not knowing that everyone has already heard that he and his wife have separated. The group attempts to pretend nothing is wrong, but Felix eventually breaks down crying and his friends attempt to console him. After everyone leaves, Oscar suggests that Felix move in with him, since Oscar has lived alone since he split up with his own ex-wife, Blanche, some time earlier. Felix agrees and urges Oscar to not be shy about letting him know if he gets on Oscar's nerves.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: Within only a week, the two men discover they are incompatible. Felix runs around the apartment cleaning, picking up after Oscar, and berating him for being so sloppy. Felix refuses to have any fun, spending most of his time thinking about Frances. While at a tavern, Oscar tells Felix about two English sisters he recently met who live in their building: Cecily and Gwendolyn Pigeon. Oscar telephones the girls and arranges a double date for the following evening.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The next night, Oscar tries to get uptight Felix to loosen up by leaving him alone with the two flirtatious sisters while he leaves the room to mix drinks. Instead, Felix talks incessantly about his family, breaks down weeping, and burns the meatloaf. Furious about Felix's ruining the date, Oscar resorts to giving Felix the silent treatment and torturing him by deliberately making the apartment as much of a mess as possible. Eventually, the tension explodes into an argument that results in Oscar demanding that Felix move out. Felix complies, but leaves Oscar feeling guilty for having abandoned his still-in-need friend.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: Oscar assembles the poker group to help search the city for Felix. After searching for hours, they return to Oscar's apartment to play poker and soon discover that Felix has moved in with the Pigeon sisters with plans to get a place of his own. Felix and Oscar apologize to each other, realizing that a bit of each has rubbed off on the other, with each being a better person for it. Felix promises that next week he will attend their usual Friday night poker game. After Felix's final exit, the once slovenly Oscar tells his friends to watch their messes as the poker game continues.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: "The Odd Couple" was originally produced for Broadway and the original cast starred Art Carney as Felix and Walter Matthau as Oscar. For the film version, Matthau reprised his role as Oscar, and Felix was portrayed by Jack Lemmon. At one point, Frank Sinatra (as Felix) and Jackie Gleason (as Oscar) were reportedly considered for the film version. Dick Van Dyke and Tony Randall were also among those considered for the role of Felix (Randall later portrayed Felix in the 1970 TV series). Similarly, Mickey Rooney and Jack Klugman (who replaced Matthau on Broadway as Oscar and would later play him in the 1970 TV series) were also considered to portray Oscar. Much of the original script from the play has been retained for the film, although the setting is expanded: instead of taking place entirely in Oscar's apartment, Simon also added some scenes that take place at various New York City locations (such as the scene at Shea Stadium in Queens, New York).


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: Oscar's poker playing cronies were Roy (David Sheiner), Vinnie (John Fiedler), Speed (Larry Haines) and Murray the Cop (Herbert Edelman). The film made its debut at Radio City Music Hall in 1968. It was a hit and earned Neil Simon a nomination for the Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. The film was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy and Lemmon and Matthau were both nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The scene at Shea Stadium, which also featured Heywood Hale Broun, was filmed right before a real game between the New York Mets and the Pittsburgh Pirates on June 27, 1967. Roberto Clemente was asked to hit into the triple play that Oscar misses, but he refused to do it and Bill Mazeroski took his place.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: One of the outdoor scenes in the film involved Felix shopping at Bohack, a Maspeth, Queens-based supermarket chain ubiquitous in the New York City area during the mid-20th century. The last Bohack supermarket closed in 1977.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The award-winning jazz instrumental theme was composed by Neal Hefti. The theme was used throughout the movie's sequel, starring Lemmon and Matthau and released 30 years later, and also adapted for the 1970 TV series and used over the opening credits. The song also has seldom-heard lyrics, written by Sammy Cahn.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: "The Odd Couple" garnered both critical acclaim and box-office success; it opened at New York's Radio City Music Hall on May 2, 1968 and ran there for a record-breaking 14 weeks with a record gross of $3.1 million. It grossed over $44.5 million in the United States, making it the third highest-grossing film of 1968. "The Odd Couple" received universal acclaim from critics, earning a 98% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on 40 reviews, with a weighted average of 8/10.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four and praised the "universally good" performances, though he noted times when "the movie's Broadway origins are painfully evident, as when the players in the poker game are grouped around three sides of the table, but the 'downstage' side is always left bare." Renata Adler of "The New York Times" called the film "a very funny, professional adaptation" of the play although "Mr. Lemmon sometimes overacts." Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called it an "excellent film," adding, "Teaming of Lemmon and Matthau has provided each with an outstanding comedy partner." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" declared, "My not very fearless forecast is that 'The Odd Couple' will cause more people to do more laughing than any film you are likely to see all year." Stanley Eichelbaum of the "San Francisco Examiner" wrote that "Neil Simon, whose hit plays haven't always been served too well by Hollywood (remember the flat-footed film of "Barefoot in the Park"), did his own adaptation this time and there's been no appreciable loss of hilarity", also applauding Saks' direction and the performances of the cast.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: The film spawned a television series spin-off in 1970, also entitled "The Odd Couple" which ran until 1975. As the series ended, a cartoon version called "The Oddball Couple" ran on ABC. Produced by Depatie-Freleng, it features a sloppy dog and a neat cat.


title: The Odd Couple (film)

text: In 1998, almost three decades later, a sequel, "The Odd Couple II", was released. It reunited Lemmon and Matthau, along with original writer Neil Simon. However, it was a critical and commercial failure, grossing less than half than its predecessor.


title: German idealism

text: German idealism was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. The best-known thinkers in the movement, besides Kant, were Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Arthur Schopenhauer, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and the proponents of Jena Romanticism (Friedrich Hölderlin, Novalis, and Friedrich Schlegel). August Ludwig Hülsen, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Gottlob Ernst Schulze, Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Salomon Maimon and Friedrich Schleiermacher also made major contributions.


title: German idealism

text: The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism, post-Kantian philosophy, or simply post-Kantianism.


title: German idealism

text: Fichte's philosophical work has controversially been interpreted as a stepping stone in the emergence of German speculative idealism, the thesis that we only ever have access to the correlation between thought and being. Another scheme divides German idealists into transcendental idealists, associated with Kant and Fichte, and absolute idealists, associated with Schelling and Hegel.


title: German idealism

text: The word "idealism" has multiple meanings. The philosophical meaning of idealism are those properties we discover in objects that are dependent on the way that those objects appear to us, as perceiving subjects. These properties only belong to the perceived appearance of the objects, and not something they possess "in themselves". The term "idea-ism" is closer to this intended meaning than the common notion of idealism. The question of what properties a thing might have "independently of the mind" is thus unknowable and a moot point, within the idealist tradition.


title: German idealism

text: Immanuel Kant's work purported to bridge the two dominant philosophical schools in the 18th century: 1) rationalism, which held that knowledge could be attained by reason alone "a priori" (prior to experience), and 2) empiricism, which held that knowledge could be arrived at only through the senses "a posteriori" (after experience), as expressed by philosopher David Hume, whom Kant sought to rebut. Kant's solution was to propose that, while we depend on objects of experience to know anything about the world, we can investigate "a priori" the form that our thoughts can take, determining the boundaries of possible experience. Kant called his mode of philosophising "critical philosophy", in that it was supposedly less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we "can" set out. The conclusion he presented, as above, he called "transcendental idealism". This distinguished it from classical idealism and subjective idealism such as George Berkeley's, which held that external objects have actual being or real existence only when they are perceived by an observer. Kant said that there are things-in-themselves (noumena, that is), things that exist other than being merely sensations and ideas in our minds. Kant held in the "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781) that the world of appearances (phenomena) is empirically real and transcendentally ideal. The mind plays a central role in influencing the way that the world is experienced: we perceive phenomena through time, space and the categories of the understanding. It is this notion that was taken to heart by Kant's philosophical successors.


title: German idealism

text: Arthur Schopenhauer considered himself to be a transcendental idealist. In his major work "The World as Will and Representation" (1818/1819) he discusses his indebtedness to Kant, and the work includes Schopenhauer's extensive analysis of the "Critique".


title: German idealism

text: The best-known German idealist thinkers, besides Kant, were Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The Young Hegelians, a number of philosophers who developed Hegel's work in various directions, were in some cases idealists. On the other hand, Karl Marx, who was numbered among them, had professed himself to be a materialist, in opposition to idealism. Another member of the Young Hegelians, Ludwig Feuerbach, advocated for materialism, and his thought was influential in the development of historical materialism, where he is often recognized as a bridge between Hegel and Marx.


title: German idealism

text: According to Kant, the human mind is not capable of directly experiencing the external world as it is in itself. Instead, our experience of the world is mediated by the a priori categories and concepts that are inherent in the human mind. These categories and concepts, which Kant calls "transcendental" because they are necessary for any experience, structure and organize our experience of the world, but they do not provide us with direct access to the thing-in-itself, which is the ultimate nature of reality.


title: German idealism

text: Kant's transcendental idealism has two main components. The first is the idea that the human mind is not a passive recipient of sensory information, but is actively involved in shaping our experience of the world. The second is the idea that the nature of reality is ultimately unknowable to us, because our experience of the world is mediated by the structures of our own minds.


title: German idealism

text: Kant criticized pure reason. He wanted to restrict reasoning, judging, and speaking only to objects of possible experience. His three most notable successors, however, would react against Kant's stringent limits.


title: German idealism

text: In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book "On Faith, or Idealism and Realism", Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself". Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known. This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi legitimized belief. "…[B]y reducing the external world to a matter of faith, he wanted merely to open a little door for faith in general..."


title: German idealism

text: Karl Leonhard Reinhold published two volumes of "Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy" in 1790 and 1792. They provided a clear explication of Kant's thoughts, which were previously inaccessible due to Kant's use of complex or technical language.


title: German idealism

text: Reinhold also tried to prove Kant's assertion that humans and other animals can know only images that appear in their minds, never "things-in-themselves" (things that are not mere appearances in a mind). In order to establish his proof, Reinhold stated an axiom that could not possibly be doubted. From this axiom, all knowledge of consciousness could be deduced. His axiom was: "Representation is distinguished in consciousness by the subject from the subject and object, and is referred to both."


title: German idealism

text: He thereby started, not from definitions, but, from a principle that referred to mental images or representations in a conscious mind. In this way, he analyzed knowledge into (1) the knowing subject, or observer, (2) the known object, and (3) the image or representation in the subject's mind. In order to understand transcendental idealism, it is necessary to reflect deeply enough to distinguish experience as consisting of these three components: subject, subject's representation of object, and object.


title: German idealism

text: Kant noted that a mental idea or representation must be a representation of something, and deduced that it is of something external to the mind. He gave the name of "Ding an sich", or thing-in-itself to that which is represented. However, Gottlob Ernst Schulze wrote, anonymously, that the law of cause and effect only applies to the phenomena within the mind, not between those phenomena and any things-in-themselves outside the mind. That is, a thing-in-itself cannot be the cause of an idea or image of a thing in the mind. In this way, he discredited Kant's philosophy by using Kant's own reasoning to disprove the existence of a thing-in-itself.


title: German idealism

text: After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself. Fichte asserted that our representations, ideas, or mental images are merely the productions of our ego, or knowing subject. For him, there is no external thing-in-itself that produces the ideas. On the contrary, the knowing subject, or ego, is the cause of the external thing, object, or non-ego.


title: German idealism

text: Fichte's style was a challenging exaggeration of Kant's already difficult writing. Also, Fichte claimed that his truths were apparent to intellectual, non-perceptual, intuition. That is, the truth can be immediately seen by the use of reason.


title: German idealism

text: Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling attempted to rescue theism from Kant's refutation of the proofs for God's existence. "Now the philosophy of Schelling from the first admitted the possibility of a knowledge of God, although it likewise started from the philosophy of Kant, which denies such knowledge."


title: German idealism

text: With regard to the experience of objects, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So the ideas or mental images in the mind are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. According to Schelling's "absolute identity" or "indifferentism", there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real.


title: German idealism

text: In 1851, Arthur Schopenhauer criticized Schelling's absolute identity of the subjective and the objective, or of the ideal and the real. "...[E]verything that rare minds like Locke and Kant had separated after an incredible amount of reflection and judgment, was to be again poured into the pap of that absolute identity. For the teaching of those two thinkers [Locke and Kant] may be very appropriately described as the doctrine of the "absolute diversity of the ideal and the real, or of the subjective and the objective"."


title: German idealism

text: Friedrich Schleiermacher was a theologian who asserted that the ideal and the real are united in God. He understood the ideal as the subjective mental activities of thought, intellect, and reason. The real was, for him, the objective area of nature and physical being. Schleiermacher declared that the unity of the ideal and the real is manifested in God. The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other. Rather, they are both equally existent in the absolute transcendental entity which is God.


title: German idealism

text: Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other.


title: German idealism

text: Maimon claimed that the dualism between these faculties was analogous to the old Cartesian dualism between the mind and body, and that all the problems of the older dualism should hold "mutatis mutandis" for the new one. Such was the heterogeneity between understanding and sensibility, Maimon further argued, that there could be no criterion to determine how the concepts of the understanding apply to the intuitions of sensibility. By thus pointing out these problematic dualisms, Maimon and the neo-Humean critics left a foothold open for skepticism within the framework of Kant’s own philosophy. For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that "a priori" concepts apply to "a posteriori" intuitions.


title: German idealism

text: Schelling and Hegel, however, tried to solve this problem by claiming that opposites are absolutely identical. Maimon's concept of an infinite mind as the basis of all opposites was similar to the German idealistic attempt to rescue theism by positing an Absolute Mind or Spirit.


title: German idealism

text: Maimon's metaphysical concept of "infinite mind" was similar to Fichte's "Ich" and Hegel's "Geist." Maimon ignored the results of Kant's criticism and returned to pre-Kantian transcendent speculation.


title: German idealism

text: What characterizes Fichte’s, Schelling’s, and Hegel’s speculative idealism in contrast to Kant's critical idealism is the recurrence of metaphysical ideas from the rationalist tradition. What Kant forbade as a violation of the limits of human knowledge, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel saw as a necessity of the critical philosophy itself. Now Maimon was the crucial figure behind this transformation. By reviving metaphysical ideas from within the problematic of the critical philosophy, he gave them a new legitimacy and opened up the possibility for a critical resurrection of metaphysics.


title: German idealism

text: Maimon is said to have Influenced Hegel's writing on Spinoza. "[T]here seems to be a striking similarity between Maimon’s discussion of Spinoza in the "Lebensgeschichte" (Maimon's autobiography) and Hegel’s discussion of Spinoza in the "Lectures in the History of Philosophy"."


title: German idealism

text: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. Hegel responded to Kant's philosophy by suggesting that the unsolvable contradictions given by Kant in his Antinomies of Pure Reason applied not only to the four areas Kant gave (world as infinite vs. finite, material as composite vs. atomic, etc.) but in all objects and conceptions, notions and ideas. To know this he suggested makes a "vital part in a philosophical theory." Given that abstract thought is thus limited, he went on to consider how historical formations give rise to different philosophies and ways of thinking. For Hegel, thought fails when it is only given as an abstraction and is not united with considerations of historical reality. In his major work "The Phenomenology of Spirit" he went on to trace the formation of self-consciousness through history and the importance of other people in the awakening of self-consciousness (see master-slave dialectic). Thus Hegel introduces two important ideas to metaphysics and philosophy: the integral importance of history and of the Other person. His work is theological in that it replaces the traditional concept of God with that of an Absolute Spirit. Spinoza, who changed the anthropomorphic concept of God into that of an abstract, vague, underlying Substance, was praised by Hegel whose concept of Absolute fulfilled a similar function. Hegel claimed that "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all". Reality results from God's thinking, according to Hegel. Objects that appear to a spectator originate in God's mind.


title: German idealism

text: Neo-Kantianism refers broadly to a revived type of philosophy along the lines of that laid down by Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, or more specifically by Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy in his work "The World as Will and Representation" (1818), as well as by other post-Kantian philosophers such as Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart. It has some more specific reference in later German philosophy.


title: German idealism

text: Hegel was hugely influential throughout the nineteenth century; by its end, according to Bertrand Russell, "the leading academic philosophers, both in America and Britain, were largely Hegelian". His influence has continued in contemporary philosophy but mainly in Continental philosophy.


title: German idealism

text: Arthur Schopenhauer contended that Spinoza had a great influence on post-Kantian German idealists. Schopenhauer wrote: "In consequence of Kant's criticism of all speculative theology, almost all the philosophizers in Germany cast themselves back on to Spinoza, so that the whole series of unsuccessful attempts known by the name of post-Kantian philosophy is simply Spinozism tastelessly got up, veiled in all kinds of unintelligible language, and otherwise twisted and distorted."


title: German idealism

text: According to Schopenhauer, Kant's original philosophy, with its refutation of all speculative theology, had been transformed by the German idealists. Through the use of his technical terms such as "transcendental", "transcendent", "reason", "intelligibility" and "thing-in-itself" they attempted to speak of what exists beyond experience and, in this way, to revive the notions of God, free will, and immortality of soul. Kant had effectively relegated these ineffable notions to faith and belief.


title: German idealism

text: In his notebook, Nietzsche expressed his opinion of German idealism's enterprise: "The significance of German philosophy (Hegel): to devise a "pantheism" through which evil, error, and suffering are "not" felt as arguments against divinity. "This grandiose initiative" has been misused by the existing powers (state, etc.), as if it sanctioned the rationality of whoever happened to be ruling." He understood German Idealism to be a government-sponsored theodicy.


title: German idealism

text: In England, during the nineteenth century, philosopher Thomas Hill Green embraced German Idealism in order to salvage Christian monotheism as a basis for morality. His philosophy attempted to account for an eternal consciousness or mind that was similar to Berkeley's concept of God and Hegel's Absolute. John Rodman, in the introduction to his book on Thomas Hill Green's political theory, wrote: "Green is best seen as an exponent of German idealism as an answer to the dilemma posed by the discrediting of Christianity…."


title: German idealism

text: "German idealism was initially introduced to the broader community of American "literati" through a Vermont intellectual, James Marsh. Studying theology with Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary in the early 1820s, Marsh sought a Christian theology that would 'keep alive the heart in the head.' " Some American theologians and churchmen found value in German Idealism's theological concept of the infinite Absolute Ideal or "Geist" [Spirit]. It provided a religious alternative to the traditional Christian concept of the Deity. "…[P]ost–Kantian idealism can certainly be viewed as a religious school of thought…." The Absolute Ideal "Weltgeist" [World Spirit] was invoked by American ministers as they "turned to German idealism in the hope of finding comfort against English positivism and empiricism." German idealism was a substitute for religion after the Civil War when "Americans were drawn to German idealism because of a 'loss of faith in traditional cosmic explanations.' " "By the early 1870s, the infiltration of German idealism was so pronounced that Walt Whitman declared in his personal notes that 'Only Hegel is fit for America — is large enough and free enough.' "


title: German idealism

text: According to José Ortega y Gasset, with Post-Kantian German Idealism, "…never before has a lack of truthfulness played such a large and important role in philosophy." "They did whatever they felt like doing with concepts. As if by magic they changed anything into any other thing." According to Ortega y Gasset, "…the basic force behind their work was not strictly and exclusively the desire for truth…." Ortega y Gasset quoted Schopenhauer's "Parerga and Paralipomena", Volume II, in which Schopenhauer wrote that Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel forgot "the fact that one can feel an authentic and bitter seriousness" for philosophy. Schopenhauer, in Ortega y Gasset's quote, hoped that philosophers like those three men could learn "true and fruitful seriousness, such that the problem of existence would capture the thinker and bestir his innermost being."


title: German idealism

text: George Santayana had strongly-held opinions regarding this attempt to overcome the effects of Kant's transcendental idealism.


title: German idealism

text: In the first sentence of his "The Refutation of Idealism", G. E. Moore wrote: "Modern Idealism, if it asserts any general conclusion about the universe at all, asserts that it is spiritual," by which he means "that the whole universe possesses all the qualities the possession of which is held to make us so superior to things which seem to be inanimate." He does not directly confront this conclusion, and instead focuses on what he considers the distinctively Idealist premise that "esse is percipere" or that to be is to be perceived. He analyzes this idea and considers it to conflate ideas or be contradictory.


title: German idealism

text: Hannah Arendt stated that Immanuel Kant distinguished between "Vernunft" ("reason") and "Verstand" ("intellect"): these two categories are equivalents of "the urgent need of" reason, and the "mere quest and desire for knowledge". Differentiating between reason and intellect, or the need to reason and the quest for knowledge, as Kant has done, according to Arendt "coincides with a distinction between two altogether different mental activities, thinking and knowing, and two altogether different concerns, meaning, in the first category, and cognition, in the second". These ideas were also developed by Kantian philosopher, Wilhelm Windelband, in his discussion of the approaches to knowledge named "nomothetic" and "idiographic".


title: German idealism

text: Kant's insight to start differentiating between approaches to knowledge that attempt to understand meaning (derived from reason), on the one hand, and to derive laws (on which knowledge is based), on the other, started to make room for "speculative thought" (which in this case, is not seen as a negative aspect, but rather an indication that knowledge and the effort to derive laws to explain objective phenomena has been separated from "thinking"). This new-found room for "speculative thought" (reason, or thinking) touched-off the rise of German idealism. However, the new-found "speculative thought", reason or thinking of German idealism "again became a field for a new brand of specialists committed to the notion that philosophy's 'subject proper' is 'the actual knowledge of what truly is'. Liberated by Kant from the old school of dogmatism and its sterile exercises, they erected not only new systems but a new 'science' - the original title of the greatest of their works, Hegel's "Phenomenology of the mind", was "Science of the experience of consciousness" - eagerly blurring Kant's distinction between reason's concern with the unknowable and the intellect's concern with cognition. Pursuing the Cartesian ideal of certainty as though Kant had never existed, they believed in all earnest that the results of their speculations possessed the same kind of validity as the results of cognitive processes".


title: German idealism

text: Slavoj Žižek sees German idealism as the pinnacle of modern philosophy, and as a tradition that contemporary philosophy must recapture: "[T]here is a unique philosophical moment in which philosophy appears 'as such' and which serves as a key—as the only key—to reading the entire preceding and following tradition as philosophy... This moment is the moment of German Idealism..."


title: Christ University

text: CHRIST (Deemed to be University), is a deemed to be university in Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Founded in 1969 as Christ College, the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India conferred autonomy to Christ College in 2004. On 22 July 2008 it was declared as an institution deemed to be university under section 3 of UGC Act 1956 by the Ministry of Education (India). The university is under the management of the priests of the Catholic religious order, Carmelites of Mary Immaculate (CMI), part of Syro Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church. In 2016, the university was accredited by National Assessment and Accreditation Council with A+ Grade.


title: Christ University

text: CHRIST (Deemed to be University) was born out of the educational vision of St. Kuriakose Elias Chavara, an educationalist and social reformer of the nineteenth century in South India. Chavara founded the first indigenous Catholic congregation Carmelites of Mary Immaculate (CMI) in 1831, which administers CHRIST (Deemed to be University). Established in 1969 as Christ College, the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India conferred autonomy to Christ College in 2004 and identified it as an "institution with potential for excellence" in 2006. In 2008 under section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956, the Ministry of Human Resource Development of the Government of India, declared the institution a "deemed to be university" in the name and style of "Christ University". Later in 2018, upon the direction of Supreme Court of India, the word "university" was removed, thus making it "Christ (Deemed to be University)". Christ was one of the first institutions in India to be accredited in 1998 by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), and subsequently in 2004 and 2016 had been awarded Grade 'A' on 4-point scale.


title: Christ University

text: The university's main campus is spread over and is part of the Dharmaram College Campus in the central part of Bangalore city. It is on the extension of Hosur Road (NH 7) opposite the Bangalore Dairy Circle Flyover. The city campus is close to residential localities such as BTM Layout, a residential and commercial area; Koramangala, another large neighborhood; and Jayanagar, one of the largest residential neighborhoods in Bangalore. In 2009, CHRIST (Deemed to be University) opened its Kengeri campus, which is spread over 75 acres at Kengeri on the Bangalore-Mysore highway SH 17 and houses the School of Engineering and Technology; the PU Residential College; the School of Business and Management, which offers MBA and BBA programmes; as well as the School of Architecture, which was started officially from 2017. CHRIST (Deemed to be University) also has a Bannerghatta Road campus in Hulimavu on Bannerghatta Road, inaugurated in May 2016. CHRIST (Deemed to be University) opened its new campus in Yeshwanthpur in July 2022, which started functioning from August 2022. The campus is 10 stories tall and spread over 16 lakhs square feet of space. Apart from these campuses, Christ has two more campuses: in Lavasa, Pune, which was established in 2007; and in Delhi NCR, established in 2013.


title: Christ University

text: The university is managed by the CHRIST (Deemed to be University) Trust, which in turn is organized by the CMI congregation, under the Syro Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church. The chancellor of the university is always the rector of the Dharmaram Pontifical Seminary. The present vice-chancellor is Dr Fr Abraham V. M.


title: Christ University

text: The university has over 20,000 students and more than 800 faculty members. It has a foreign student community of about 700 from 58 nationalities. The university offers nationally and internationally recognised undergraduate, postgraduate and research programmes.


title: Christ University

text: The university offers over 50 undergraduate programmes in humanities, social sciences, science, commerce and management, education, law and engineering. Undergraduate programmes are of three-year duration except in the case of Bachelor of Education (BEd, two years), Bachelor of Hotel Management (BHM, four years), Bachelor of Laws (LLB, five years), Bachelor of Technology (BTech, four years) and an integrated BTech/MTech or MBA (five years). Except for Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Commerce (BCom), Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BSc) programmes follow a Triple Major system.


title: Christ University

text: The institution entered into a memorandum of understanding with the Centre for Internet and Society, Bangalore to make article writing on Wikipedia a core exercise for the continuous internal assessment of its 1600 undergraduate students in Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit and Urdu. The Hindi and Kannada articles may be found at and .


title: Christ University

text: The university offers 47 master's, 17 Master of Philosophy and 21 PhD degree programmes in Humanities, Social Sciences, Science, Law, Education, commerce and management, and Engineering. Masters programmes are of two years duration, except for Master of Computer Science and Master of Law which are three years and one-year duration, respectively.


title: Christ University

text: The university has published over 220 books in Kannada, through Kannada Sangha, a non-profit organisation of the university promoting Kannada.


title: Christ University

text: According to the QS India rankings for 2020, Christ is positioned 20–25. In 2019, Christ was ranked 19. Among Asian universities it is ranked 501–550.


title: Christ University

text: According to India Today Best Universities Survey 2022 Christ University is Ranked 2 in General (Private) University Category.


title: Christ University

text: According to India Today MDRA Survey of Excellence National Rankings, Best Colleges of India - Christ University is Ranked 1 for BCA Programme, Ranked 4 for BBA, Ranked 7 for Commerce, Ranked 7 for Media and Social works, Ranked 9 for Arts.


title: Christ University

text: India Today conducts annual surveys and rates institutions of higher education in India on several parameters. The rankings are summarised in the two tables.


title: Christ University

text: The Week in association with Hansa research conducted the Week-Hansa research survey and the rankings are listed in the table


title: Christ University

text: On 10 January 2011, Christ Junior College, Bangalore, under ensemble director Vineeth Vincent, in an event titled 'Can You Say Beat Box?' created the largest human beatbox ensemble in the Limca Book of Records with 2136 participants.


title: Christ University

text: According to the Guinness World Records, the previous record for the largest human beatbox ensemble involved 1,246 participants and was achieved by Vineeth Vincent and Christ University (India) in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, on 5 February 2011. This record was broken by Shlomo on 14 November 2011 with 2,081 participants.


title: Christ University

text: In 2008, Christ College was involved in a controversy surrounding the granting of deemed university status. The institute is now a deemed to be university. The institute has also been under public scrutiny after allegations of sexual harassment against its faculty surfaced in June 2021.


title: Markella Kavenagh

text: Markella Kavenagh (born January 30, 2000) is an Australian actress. She is best known for her starring role as the harfoot Nori Brandyfoot in "".


title: Markella Kavenagh

text: After appearing in several television shows, Kavenagh landed her first film role with "True History of the Kelly Gang" (2019) as Jane Cotter. In July 2019, she gained attention when she was cast as Elanor "Nori" Brandyfoot in "" (2022), becoming the first actress to be attached in the high-profile project.


title: Len Deighton

text: Leonard Cyril Deighton (; born 18 February 1929) is a British author. His publications have included cookery books, history and military history, but he is best known for his spy novels.


title: Len Deighton

text: After completing his national service in the Royal Air Force, Deighton attended art school in London, and graduated from the Royal College of Art in 1955. He had several jobs before becoming a book and magazine illustrator—including designing the cover for first UK edition of Jack Kerouac's 1957 work "On the Road". He also worked for a period in an advertising agency. During an extended holiday in France he wrote his first novel, "The IPCRESS File", which was published in 1962, and was a critical and commercial success. He wrote several spy novels featuring the same central character, a working-class intelligence officer, cynical and tough.


title: Len Deighton

text: Between 1962 and 1966 Deighton was the food correspondent for "The Observer" and drew cookstrips—black and white graphic recipes with a limited number of words. A selection of these were collected and published in 1965 as "Len Deighton's Action Cook Book", the first of five cookery books he wrote. Other topics of non-fiction include history, particularly military history.


title: Len Deighton

text: Several of Deighton's works have been adapted for film and other media. Films include "The Ipcress File" (1965), "Funeral in Berlin" (1966), "Billion Dollar Brain" (1967) and "Spy Story" (1976). In 1988 Granada Television produced the miniseries "Game, Set and Match" based on his trilogy of the same name, and in 1995 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a "real time" dramatisation of his novel "Bomber".


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton was born in Marylebone, London, on 18 February 1929. His father was the chauffeur and mechanic for Campbell Dodgson, the Keeper of Prints and Drawings at the British Museum; Deighton's mother was a part-time cook. At the time the family lived in Gloucester Place Mews near Baker Street. In 1940, at the age of eleven, Deighton witnessed the arrest of Anna Wolkoff, a British subject of Russian descent for whom his mother cooked; Wolkoff was detained as a Nazi spy and charged with stealing correspondence between Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Deighton later said that observing her arrest was "a major factor in my decision to write a spy story at my first attempt at fiction".


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton was educated at St Marylebone Grammar School, but was moved to an emergency school for part of the Second World War. After leaving school, Deighton worked as a railway clerk before being conscripted at the age of 17 for national service, which he completed with the Royal Air Force. While in the RAF he was trained as a photographer, often recording crime scenes as part of his duties.


title: Len Deighton

text: After two and a half years with the RAF, Deighton received a demobilisation grant, enabling him to study at the Saint Martin's School of Art where he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art, graduating from the latter in 1955. He worked as a flight attendant for British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) between 1956 and 1962 before becoming a professional illustrator. Much of his work as an illustrator was in advertising—he worked for agencies in New York and London—but he also illustrated magazines and over 200 book covers, including for the first UK edition of Jack Kerouac's 1957 work "On the Road".


title: Len Deighton

text: Following the publication of a cartoon cookery illustration in the "Daily Express" in 1961, Deighton was commissioned by "The Observer" to provide a "Cookstrip" for the paper's magazine, which he did between March 1962 and August 1966. Deighton had come up with the concept while he was at art school and working as a porter in the restaurant of the Royal Festival Hall, where he had occasionally assisted the chefs in preparing dishes. He made sketches to remember some of the steps he undertook. He later explained:


title: Len Deighton

text: I was buying expensive cookbooks. I'm very messy, and didn't want to take them into the kitchen. So I wrote out the recipes on paper, and it was easier for me to draw three eggs than write 'three eggs'. So I drew three eggs, then put in an arrow. For me it was a natural way to work.


title: Len Deighton

text: In 1962 Deighton's first novel, "The IPCRESS File", was published; it had been written in 1960 while he was staying in the Dordogne; the book was soon a commercial success. The story introduced a working-class protagonist, cynical and tough, who was called by the name "Harry" once, although the character says he does not remember whether he had used that name; he was given the name Harry Palmer in the 1965 film adaptation.


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton sees the character not as an anti-hero, but as "a romantic, incorruptible figure in the mould of Philip Marlowe". Deighton described the inspiration of using a working-class spy among the Oxbridge-educated members of the Establishment as coming from his time at the London advertising agency, when he was the only member of the company's board not to have been educated at Eton. He said ""The IPCRESS File" is about spies on the surface, but it's also really about a grammar school boy among public school boys and the difficulties he faces."


title: Len Deighton

text: After two further novels with his "Harry" character—"Horse Under Water" (1963) and "Funeral in Berlin" (1964)—Deighton published two cookbooks in 1965, "Len Deighton's Action Cook Book" (a collection of his cookstrips from "The Observer") and "Où est le garlic", a collection of French recipes. Two further novels in the spy series then followed—"Billion-Dollar Brain" (1966) and "An Expensive Place to Die" (1967)— after which he published his first historical non-fiction work, "The Assassination of President Kennedy" (1967), co-written with M. Rand and H. Lockston. In September that year he wrote an article in "The Sunday Times Magazine" about Operation Snowdrop, an SAS attack on Benghazi during the Second World War. The following year David Stirling, the leader of the raid, was awarded substantial damages in libel from the article. During the mid-1960s Deighton wrote for "Playboy" as a travel correspondent, and he provided a piece on the boom in spy fiction; "An Expensive Place to Die " was serialised in the magazine in 1967.


title: Len Deighton

text: In 1968, Deighton was the producer of the film "Only When I Larf", which was based on his novel of the same name. He was the writer and co-producer of "Oh! What a Lovely War" in 1969, but did not enjoy the process of making films, and had his name removed from the film's credits.


title: Len Deighton

text: In 1970 Deighton wrote "Bomber", a fictional account of an RAF Bomber Command raid that goes wrong. To produce the novel he used an IBM MT/ST, and it is likely that this was the first novel to be written using a word processor. Deighton's next non-fictional work, "", was published in 1977. This was followed in 1978 by another novel, "SS-GB", the idea for which came from Ray Hawkey, Deighton's friend from art school and the designer of the covers of several of his books. While the two were discussing what would have happened if the Germans had won the Second World War, Hawkey asked Deighton if he thought there could be an alternative history novel.


title: Len Deighton

text: From 1983 Deighton wrote three trilogies: "Berlin Game" (1983), "Mexico Set" (1984) and "London Match" (1985); "Spy Hook" (1988), "Spy Line" (1989) and "Spy Sinker" (1990); and "Faith" (1994), "Hope" (1995) and "Charity" (1996). "Winter", a companion novel dealing with the lives of a German family from 1899 to 1945, which also provides an historical background to several of the characters from the trilogies, was published in 1987. The trilogies are centred on Bernard Samson, a tough, cynical and disrespectful MI6 intelligence officer.


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton married the illustrator Shirley Thompson in 1960; the couple were divorced in 1976, having not lived together for over five years. He left Britain in 1969, and has lived abroad since, including in Ireland, Austria, France, the United States and Portugal. He lived for a while in Blackrock, County Louth, where he married Ysabele, the daughter of a Dutch diplomat.


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton does not like giving interviews, and these have been rare throughout his life; he also avoids appearing at literary festivals. He says that he does not enjoy being a writer and that "The best thing about writing books is being at a party and telling some pretty girl you write books, the worst thing is sitting at a typewriter and actually writing the book." After completing the "Faith", "Hope" and "Charity" trilogy he decided to take a year off writing; at the end of the period, he decided that writing was "a mug's game" that he did not miss and did not have to do.


title: Len Deighton

text: According to the film and media historian Alan Burton, "The Ipcress File" along with John le Carré's "The Spy Who Came In from the Cold", "changed the nature of British spy fiction" as it brought in "a more insolent, disillusioned and cynical style to the espionage story". The academic George Grella considers Deighton's novels to be "stylish, witty [and] well-crafted", while providing "a convincingly detailed picture of the world of espionage while carefully examining the ethics and morality of that world".


title: Len Deighton

text: The academic Clive Bloom considers that after "Funeral in Berlin" was published in 1964, Deighton "established a place for himself ... in the front rank of the spy genre, along with Graham Greene, Ian Fleming and John le Carré". Deighton's later works were less oblique than the earlier ones, and had, according to Bloom, "more subtlety and deeper characterization". Oliver Buckton, the professor of literature, also considers Deighton to be in the forefront of post-war spy writers. The crime writer and poet Julian Symons writes that "[t]he constant crackle of his dialogue makes Deighton a kind of poet of the spy story".


title: Len Deighton

text: Grella considers Deighton to be "the angry young man of the espionage novel", with the central characters of his main novels—"Harry" from the Ipcress series and Bernard Samson from the nine novels in which he appears—both working class, cynical and streetwise, in contrast to the upper class and ineffective seniors in their respective novels.


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton also wrote five cookery books, and wrote and drew the cookstrips in "The Observer" for four years. Several of the strips are pinned up in the background of the film set of Harry Palmer's kitchen in "The Ipcress File". In January 2015 Deighton created 12 new cookstrips which were printed monthly in the "Observer Food Magazine".


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton began writing works of history after being advised to by the historian A. J. P. Taylor. His first work on the Second World War was "Fighter", published in 1977. The book was well received by readers and critics, although it was "censured by some for including interviews with German participants", according to the journalist Jake Kerridge. Taylor wrote the introduction for the book, describing it as a "brilliant analysis"; Albert Speer, once the Minister of Armaments for Adolf Hitler, thought it "an excellent, most thorough examination. I read page after page with fascination".


title: Len Deighton

text: "Blitzkrieg", his history of the rise of the Nazis and the fall of France, has a foreword written by General Walter Nehring, Chief of Staff to General Heinz Guderian. His final history book is "Blood, Tears and Folly: An Objective Look at World War II", which examined the events of the war up until 1942.


title: Len Deighton

text: Several of Deighton's novels have been adapted as films including "The IPCRESS File", "Funeral in Berlin", "Billion Dollar Brain" and "Spy Story". All feature the Deighton character that was once called "Harry" in the books, but who was given the full name "Harry Palmer" for the films; the producer for two of the three films, Harry Saltzman, came up with the name. Two television films also featured Palmer: "Bullet to Beijing" (1995) and "Midnight in Saint Petersburg" (1996); they were not based on Deighton's stories. All the films except "Spy Story" feature Michael Caine as Palmer.


title: Len Deighton

text: The first trilogy of his "Bernard Samson" novel series was made into a thirteen-part television series by Granada Television in 1988. Although Quentin Tarantino expressed interest in filming the trilogy, the project was not forthcoming. The nine Samson novels were in pre-production with Clerkenwell Films in 2013, with a script by Simon Beaufoy.


title: Len Deighton

text: In 2017 the BBC adapted Deighton's novel "SS-GB" for a five-part TV miniseries, broadcast in one-hour episodes; Sam Riley played the lead role of Detective Superintendent Douglas Archer. In 1995 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a "real time" dramatisation of "Bomber". The drama threaded through the station's unchangeable schedule of news and current affairs from early morning to midnight.


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton's work has been acknowledged by the thriller writer Jeremy Duns as being an influence on his own work. In "Letters from Burma", the politician Aung San Suu Kyi mentions reading Deighton's books, while under house arrest. Suu Kyi wrote that she was passionate about Arthur Conan Doyle's tales of Sherlock Holmes and the spy novels of le Carré and Deighton. When asked by Christie's about his love for Indian art and how he started his collection, the writer V. S. Naipaul credited Deighton. "I met Len Deighton, the thriller writer, at dinner many years ago. He demonstrated to me that Indian art could really be approachable. I bought from ... Maggs because of Len Deighton pushing me onto [them] as being a very fair dealer, saying that they do not charge you much more than they should. That's a marvellous thing to be told".


title: Len Deighton

text: Deighton's 1970 novel "Bomber" was listed in Anthony Burgess's work "Ninety-nine Novels", as one of the 99 best novels in English since 1939. "Bomber", the third album of the rock group Motörhead, was named after the novel, as the band's singer, Lemmy, was reading it at the time.


title: Canonical hours

text: In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of fixed times of prayer at regular intervals. A book of hours, chiefly a breviary, normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers.


title: Canonical hours

text: In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, canonical hours are also called "offices", since they refer to the official set of prayers of the Church, which is known variously as the ("divine service" or "divine duty"), and the ("work of God"). The current official version of the hours in the Roman Rite is called the Liturgy of the Hours () in North America or divine office in Ireland and Britain.


title: Canonical hours

text: In Lutheranism and Anglicanism, they are often known as the daily office or divine office, to distinguish them from the other "offices" of the Church (e.g. the administration of the sakraments).


title: Canonical hours

text: In the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches, the canonical hours may be referred to as the divine services, and the "book of hours" is called the (). Despite numerous small differences in practice according to local custom, the overall order is the same among Byzantine Rite monasteries, although parish and cathedral customs vary rather more so by locale.


title: Canonical hours

text: The usage in Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and their Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran counterparts all differ from each other and from other rites.


title: Canonical hours

text: The canonical hours stemmed from Jewish prayer. In the Old Testament, God commanded the Israelite priests to offer sacrifices of animals in the morning and afternoon (). Eventually, these sacrifices moved from the Tabernacle to Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.


title: Canonical hours

text: During the Babylonian captivity, when the Temple was no longer in use, synagogues carried on the practice, and the services (at fixed hours of the day) of Torah readings, psalms, and hymns began to evolve. This "sacrifice of praise" began to be substituted for the sacrifices of animals. After the people returned to Judea, the prayer services were incorporated into Temple worship as well.


title: Canonical hours

text: The miraculous healing of the crippled beggar described in Acts of the Apostles 3:1, took place as Peter and John went to the Temple for the three o’clock hour of prayer. The practice of daily prayers grew from the Jewish practice of reciting prayers at set times of the day known as : for example, in the "Acts of the Apostles", Saint Peter and John the Evangelist visit the Temple in Jerusalem for the afternoon prayers.


title: Canonical hours

text: Psalm 119:164 states: "Seven times a day I praise you for your righteous laws" (of this, Symeon of Thessalonica writes that "the times of prayer and the services are seven in number, like the number of gifts of the Spirit, since the holy prayers are from the Spirit"). In Act 10: 9, the decision to include Gentiles among the community of believers, arose from a vision Peter had while praying about noontime.


title: Canonical hours

text: Early Christians prayed the Psalms (), which have remained the principal part of the canonical hours. By 60 AD, the Didache, recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: From the time of the early Church, the practice of seven fixed prayer times, being attached to , have been taught; in "Apostolic Tradition", Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."


title: Canonical hours

text: In the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept. The word "Vigils", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers. The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil. The Night Office is linked to : "At midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee because of thy righteous judgments."


title: Canonical hours

text: Christians attended two liturgies on the Lord's Day, worshipping communally in both a morning service and evening service, with the purpose of reading the Scriptures and celebrating the Eucharist. Throughout the rest of the week, Christians assembled at the church every day for morning prayer (which became known as "lauds") and evening prayer (which became known as "vespers"), while praying at the other fixed prayer times privately. In the evening the faithful assembled in the place or church where the feast was to be celebrated and prepared themselves by prayers, readings, and sometimes also by hearing a sermon. Pliny the Younger (63 – ) mentions not only fixed times of prayer by believers, but also specific services—other than the Eucharist—assigned to those times: "they met on a stated day before it was light, and addressed a form of prayer to Christ, as to a divinity ... after which it was their custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless meal." (cf. Lovefeast) This vigil was a regular institution of Christian life and was defended and highly recommended by St. Augustine and St. Jerome.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Office of the Vigils was a single Office, recited without interruption at midnight. Probably in the fourth century, in order to break the monotony of this long night prayer the custom of dividing it into three parts or Nocturns was introduced. John Cassian in speaking of the solemn Vigils mentions three divisions of this Office.


title: Canonical hours

text: Around the year 484, the Greek-Cappadocian monk Sabbas the Sanctified began the process of recording the liturgical practices around Jerusalem, while the cathedral and parish rites in the Patriarchate of Constantinople evolved in an entirely different manner. The two major practices were synthesized, commencing in the 8th century, to yield an office of great complexity.


title: Canonical hours

text: In 525, Benedict of Nursia set out one of the earliest schemes for the recitation of the Psalter at the Office. The Cluniac Reforms of the 11th century renewed an emphasis on liturgy and the canonical hours in the reformed priories of the Order of Saint Benedict, with Cluny Abbey at their head.


title: Canonical hours

text: As the form of fixed-hour prayer developed in the Christian monastic communities in the East and West, the Offices grew both more elaborate and more complex, but the basic cycle of prayer still provided the structure for daily life in monasteries. By the fourth century, the elements of the canonical hours were more or less established. For secular (non-monastic) clergy and lay people, the fixed-hour prayers were by necessity much shorter, though in many churches, the form of the fixed-hour prayers became a hybrid of secular and monastic practice (sometimes referred to as 'cathedral' and 'monastic' models).


title: Canonical hours

text: In the Byzantine Empire, the development of the Divine Services shifted from the area around Jerusalem to Constantinople. In particular, Theodore the Studite ( – ) combined a number of influences from the Byzantine court ritual with monastic practices common in Anatolia, and added thereto a number of hymns composed by himself and his brother Joseph (see for further details).


title: Canonical hours

text: In the West, the Rule of Saint Benedict (written in 516) was modeled on his guidelines for the prayers on the customs of the basilicas of Rome. It was he who expounded the concept in Christian prayer of the inseparability of the spiritual life from the physical life. St. Benedict set down the dictum – "Pray and work". The Order of Saint Benedict began to call the prayers the or "Work of God."


title: Canonical hours

text: By the time of Saint Benedict of Nursia, author of the Rule, the monastic Liturgy of the Hours was composed of seven daytime hours and one at night. He associated the practice with Psalm 118/119:164, "Seven times a day I praise you", and Psalm 118/119:62, "At midnight I rise to praise you". The fixed-hour prayers came to be known as the "Divine Office" (office coming from , lit., "duty").


title: Canonical hours

text: Initially, the term "Matins" from Latin , meaning "of or belonging to the morning", was applied to the psalms recited at dawn. At first "Lauds" (i.e. praises) derived from the three last psalms in the office (148, 149, 150), in all of which the word is repeated frequently, and to such an extent that originally the word Lauds designated the end, that is to say, these three psalms with the conclusion. The Night Office and Lauds are grouped together as a single canonical hour to form a total of seven canonical hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: By the fourth century the word "matins" became attached to the prayer originally offered at cockcrow. and, according to the sixth-century "Rule of Saint Benedict", could be calculated to be the eighth hour of the night (the hour that began at about 2 a.m.). Outside of monasteries few rose at night to pray. The canonical hour of the vigil was said in the morning, followed immediately by lauds, and the name of "matins" replaced that of "vigils". Gradually the title "Lauds" was applied to the early morning office.


title: Canonical hours

text: Already well-established by the 9th century in the West, these canonical hours consisted of daily prayer liturgies:


title: Canonical hours

text: The three major hours were Matins, Lauds and Vespers; the minor hours Terce, Sext, None and Compline.


title: Canonical hours

text: As the Divine Office grew more important in the life of the Church, the rituals became more elaborate. Praying the Office already required various books, such as a Psalter for the psalms, a lectionary to find the assigned Scripture reading for the day, a Bible to proclaim the reading, a hymnal for singing, etc. As parishes grew in the Middle Ages away from cathedrals and basilicas, a more concise way of arranging the hours was needed. So, a sort of list developed called the breviary, which gave the format of the daily office and the texts to be used.


title: Canonical hours

text: The spread of breviaries eventually reached Rome, where Pope Innocent III extended their use to the Roman Curia. The Franciscans sought a one-volume breviary for their friars to use during travels, so the order adopted the , but substituting the Gallican Rite Psalter for the Roman. The Franciscans gradually spread this breviary throughout Europe. Eventually, Pope Nicholas III adopted the widely used Franciscan breviary to be the breviary used in Rome. By the 14th century, the breviary contained the entire text of the canonical hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: In general, when modern secular books reference canonical hours in the Middle Ages, these are the equivalent times:


title: Canonical hours

text: Church bells are tolled at the fixed times of these canonical hours in some Christian traditions as a call to prayer.


title: Canonical hours

text: In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, bishops, priests, and deacons are obliged to recite the full sequence of the hours each day, keeping as far as possible to the true time of day, and using the text of the approved liturgical books that apply to them. The laity are exhorted to pray the hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: The diurnal offices or daytime offices (Ecclesiastical Latin: ) are the canonical hours during the day. Interpretation of their number and identity varies.


title: Canonical hours

text: The monastic rule drawn up by Benedict of Nursia ( – ) distinguishes between the seven daytime canonical hours of lauds (dawn), prime (sunrise), terce (mid-morning), sext (midday), none (mid-afternoon), vespers (sunset), compline (retiring) and the one nighttime canonical hour of night watch. It links the seven daytime offices with Psalm 118/119:164, "Seven times a day I praise you for your righteous rules"; and the one nighttime office with Psalm 118/119:62, "At midnight I rise to praise you, because of your righteous rules",


title: Canonical hours

text: In this reckoning, the one nocturnal office, together with lauds and vespers, are the three major hours, the other five are the minor or little hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: According to Dwight E. Vogel, Daniel James Lula and Elizabeth Moore the diurnal offices are terce, sext, and none, which are distinguished from the major hours of matins (morning prayer), lauds and vespers and from the nighttime hours of compline and vigil.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Council of Trent, in its final session on 4 December 1563, entrusted the reform of the Breviary to the Pope. On 9 July 1568, Pope Pius V, the successor of the pope who closed the Council of Trent, promulgated an edition, known as the Roman Breviary, with his Apostolic Constitution , imposing it in the same way in which, two years later, he imposed his Roman Missal. Later popes altered the Roman Breviary of Pope Pius V. Pope Pius XII began reforming the Roman Breviary, allowing use of a new translation of the Psalms and establishing a special commission to study a general revision, with a view to which all the Catholic bishops were consulted in 1955. His successor, Pope John XXIII, made a further revision in 1960.


title: Canonical hours

text: Following the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church's Roman Rite simplified the observance of the canonical hours and sought to make them more suited to the needs of today's apostolate and accessible to the laity, hoping to restore their character as the prayer of the entire Church.


title: Canonical hours

text: The council abolished the office of Prime, and envisioned a manner of distributing the psalms over a period of more than 1 week. The Roman breviary is published under the title . A translation is published by Catholic Book Publishing Corp. under the title "The Liturgy of the Hours" in four volumes, arranged according to the liturgical seasons of the Church year.


title: Canonical hours

text: The current liturgical books for the celebration of the hours in Latin are those of the (second typical edition) promulgated in 1985. The official title is .


title: Canonical hours

text: After the Second Vatican Council, which decided that the hour of Prime should be suppressed, Pope Paul VI decreed a new arrangement of the Liturgy of the Hours. The modern Liturgy of the Hours usage focuses on the three major hours and from two to four minor hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: The major hours consist of the Office of Readings (formerly Matins), Morning (or Lauds) and Evening Prayer (or Vespers). The character of Morning Prayer is that of praise; of Evening Prayer, that of thanksgiving. Night Prayer has the character of reflection on the day that is past and preparing the soul for its passage to eternal life. In each office, the psalms and canticle are framed by antiphons, and each concludes with the traditional Catholic doxology.


title: Canonical hours

text: Because the Rite of Constantinople evolved as a synthesis of two distinct rites – cathedral rite of Constantinople called the ("sung services") and the monastic typicon of the Holy Lavra of Saint Sabbas the Sanctified near Jerusalem – its offices are highly developed and quite complex.


title: Canonical hours

text: Two main strata exist in the rite, those places that have inherited the traditions of the Russian Church which had been given only the monastic which is used to this day in parishes and cathedrals as well as in monasteries, and everywhere else where some remnant of the cathedral rite remained in use; therefore, the rite as practiced in monasteries everywhere resembles the Russian recension, while non-Russian non-monastic customs differs significantly. For example, in the Russian tradition, the "all-night vigil" is served in every church on Saturday nights and the eves of feast days (although it may be abridged to be as short as two hours) while elsewhere, it is usual to have Matins on the morning of the feast; however, in the latter instance, Vespers and matins are rather less abridged but the Divine Liturgy commences at the end of matins and the hours are not read, as was the case in the extinct cathedral rite of Constantinople.


title: Canonical hours

text: Also, as the rite evolved in sundry places, different customs arose; an essay on some of these has been written by Archbishop Basil Krivoshein and is posted on the web.


title: Canonical hours

text: The (; Church Slavonic: , ), or "Book of Hours", provides the fixed portions of the Daily Cycle of services (, ) as used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches.


title: Canonical hours

text: Into this fixed framework, numerous moveable parts of the service are inserted. These are taken from a variety of liturgical books:


title: Canonical hours

text: Various cycles of the liturgical year influence the manner in which the materials from the liturgical books (above) are inserted into the daily services:


title: Canonical hours

text: Most of the texts come from the , which has a large collections of hymns for each weekday for each of the eight tones; during great lent and, to a lesser degree, the pre-lenten season, the supplements this with hymns for each day of the week for each week of that season, as does the during the pascal season. Also, there are fixed texts for each day of the week are in the and "Priest's Service Book" (e.g., dismissals) and the Kathismata (selections from the "Psalter") are governed by the weekly cycle in conjunction with the season.


title: Canonical hours

text: Commemorations on the Fixed Cycle depend upon the day of the calendar year, and also, occasionally, specific days of the week that fall near specific calendar dates, e.g., the Sunday before the Exaltation of the Cross. The texts for this cycle are found in the .


title: Canonical hours

text: The commemorations on the Paschal Cycle (Moveable Cycle) depend upon the date of Pascha (Easter). The texts for this cycle are found in the , the , the and also, because the daily Epistle and Gospel readings are determined by this cycle, the "Gospel Book" and "Apostle Book". The cycle of the continues through the following Great Lent, so the variable parts of the lenten services are determined by both the preceding year's and the current year's dates of Easter.


title: Canonical hours

text: The cycle of the eight Tones is found in the and is dependent on the date of Easter and commences with the Sunday after (eighth day of) Easter, that week using the first tone, the next week using the second tone, and so, repeating through the week preceding the subsequent Palm Sunday.


title: Canonical hours

text: The portions of each of the Gospels from the narration of the Resurrection through the end are divided into eleven readings which are read on successive Sundays at matins; there are hymns sung at Matins that correspond with that day's Matins Gospel.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Daily Cycle begins with Vespers and proceeds throughout the night and day according to the following table:


title: Canonical hours

text: The Typica is served whenever the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated at its usual time, i.e., when there is a vesperal Liturgy or no Liturgy at all. On days when the Liturgy may be celebrated at its usual hour, the Typica follows the sixth hour (or Matins, where the custom is to serve the Liturgy then) and the Epistle and Gospel readings for the day are read therein; otherwise, on aliturgical days or when the Liturgy is served at vespers, the Typica has a much shorter form and is served between the ninth hour and vespers.


title: Canonical hours

text: Also, there are Inter-Hours for the First, Third, Sixth and Ninth Hours. These are services of a similar structure to, but briefer than, the hours. their usage varies with local custom, but generally they are used only during the Nativity Fast, Apostles Fast, and Dormition Fast on days when the lenten alleluia replaces "God is the Lord" at matins, which may be done at the discretion of the ecclesiarch when the Divine Liturgy is not celebrated.


title: Canonical hours

text: In addition to these public prayers, there are also private prayers prescribed for both monastics and laypersons; in some monasteries, however, these are read in church. These include Morning and Evening Prayers and prayers (and, in Russia, canons) to be prayed in preparation for receiving the Eucharist.


title: Canonical hours

text: The full cycle of services are usually served only in monasteries, cathedrals, and other . In monasteries and parishes of the Russian tradition, the Third and Sixth Hours are read during the Prothesis (Liturgy of Preparation); otherwise, the Prothesis is served during Matins, the final portion of which is omitted, the Liturgy of the Catechumens commencing straightway after the following the Great Doxology.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Midnight Office is seldom served in parishes churches except at the Paschal Vigil as the essential office wherein the burial shroud is removed from the tomb and carried to the altar.


title: Canonical hours

text: The sundry Canonical Hours are, in practice, grouped together into aggregates so that there are three major times of prayer a day: Evening, Morning and Midday. The most common groupings are as follows:


title: Canonical hours

text: On the eves before Great Feasts and, in some traditions, on all Sundays, this grouping is used. However, the all-night vigil is usually abridged so as to not last literally "all-night" and may be as short as two hours; on the other hand, on Athos and in the very traditional monastic institutions, that service followed by the hours and Liturgy may last as long as 18 hours.


title: Canonical hours

text: When the feast is a weekday (or, in the Russian tradition, on any day for Christmas, Theophany), Vespers (with the Liturgy in most instances) is served earlier in the day and so Great Compline functions much as Great vespers does on the vigils of other feast days.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Alexandrian Rite is observed by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Coptic Catholic Church. The cycle of canonical hours is largely monastic, primarily composed of psalm readings. The Coptic equivalent of the Byzantine "Horologion" is the Agpeya.


title: Canonical hours

text: Seven canonical hours exist, corresponding largely to the Byzantine order, with an additional "Prayer of the Veil" which is said by Bishops, Priests, and Monks (something like the Byzantine Midnight Office).


title: Canonical hours

text: The hours are chronologically laid out, each containing a theme corresponding to events in the life of Jesus Christ:


title: Canonical hours

text: The East Syriac Rite (also known as the Chaldean, Assyrian, or Persian Rite) has historically been used in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Malabar. The nucleus of the Daily Office is mainly of course the recitation of the Psalter. There are usually seven regular hours of service;


title: Canonical hours

text: When East Syriac monasteries existed (which is no longer the case) seven hours of prayer were the custom in them, and three "hulali" (sections) of the Psalter were recited at each service. This would accomplish the unique feat of the common recitation of the entire Psalter each day.


title: Canonical hours

text: The present arrangement provides for seven "hulali" at each ferial night service, ten on Sundays, three on "Memorials", and the whole Psalter on Feasts of the Lord. At the evening service there is a selection of from four to seven psalms, varying with the day of the week, and also a "Shuraya", or short psalm, with generally a portion of Psalm 118, varying with the day of the fortnight. At the morning service the invariable psalms are 109, 90, 103:1–6, 112, 92, 148, 150, 116. On ferias and "Memorials" Psalm 146 is said after Psalm 148, and on ferias Psalm 1:1–18, comes at the end of the psalms.


title: Canonical hours

text: The rest of the services consist of prayers, antiphons, litanies, and verses ("giyura") inserted—like the Greek stichera, but more extensively—between verses of psalms. On Sundays the Gloria in Excelsis and Benedicte are said instead of Psalm 146. Both morning and evening services end with several prayers, a blessing, ("Khuthama", "Sealing" ), the kiss of peace, and the Creed.


title: Canonical hours

text: The variables, besides the psalms, are those of the feast or day, which are very few, and those of the day of the fortnight. These fortnights consist of weeks called "Before" ("Qdham") and "After" ("Wathar"), according to which of the two choirs begins the service. Hence the book of the Divine Office is called "Qdham u wathar", or at full length "Kthawa daqdham wadhwathar", the "Book of Before and After".


title: Canonical hours

text: The East Syriac liturgical Calendar is unique. The year is divided into periods of about seven weeks each, called "Shawu'i"; these are Advent (called "Subara", "Annunciation"), Epiphany, Lent, Easter, the Apostles, Summer, "Elias and the Cross", "Moses", and the "Dedication" ("Qudash idta"). "Moses" and the "Dedication" have only four weeks each. The Sundays are generally named after the "Shawu'a" in which they occur, "Fourth Sunday of Epiphany", "Second Sunday of the Annunciation ", etc., though sometimes the name changes in the middle of a "Shawu'a". Most of the "Memorials" ("dukhrani"), or saints' days, which have special lections, occur on the Fridays between Christmas and Lent, and are therefore movable feasts; but some, such as Christmas, Theophany, the Dormition, and about thirty smaller days without proper readings, are on fixed days.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Fast of the Ninevites commemorates the repentance of Nineveh at the preaching of Jonah, and is carefully kept. Those of Mar Zaya and the Virgins are nearly obsolete. The Malabar Rite has largely adopted the Roman Calendar, and several Roman days have been added to that of the Chaldean Catholics. The Chaldean Easter coincides with that of the Eastern Orthodox Church, as the Julian Calendar is used to calculate Easter. The years are numbered, not from the birth of Christ, but from the Seleucid era (year 1 = 311 B.C.).


title: Canonical hours

text: The West Syriac Rite, used in India and Syria by the Indian Orthodox and Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites), as well as Syriac Rite Catholics, is in its origin simply the old rite of Antioch in the Syriac language. The translation must have been made very early, evidently before the division in the church over Chalcedon, before the influence of Constantinople over the Antiochian Rite had begun. No doubt as soon as Christian communities arose in the rural areas of Syria the prayers which in the cities (Antioch, Jerusalem, etc.) were said in Greek, were, as a matter of course, translated into Syriac for common use.


title: Canonical hours

text: In accordance with Psalm 119:164, "Seven times in the day have I praised Thee for Thy judgments, O Righteous One," the Syriac Orthodox Church observes seven services of prayer each day:


title: Canonical hours

text: The Midnight prayer (Matins) consists of three "qawme" or "watches" (literally "standings"). As in other traditional rites, the ecclesiastical day begins in the evening at sunset with Vespers ("Ramsho"). Today, even in monasteries, the services are grouped together: Vespers and Compline are said together; Matins and Prime are said together; and the Third, Sixth and Ninth Hours are said together; resulting in three times of prayer each day.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Syriac Orthodox Book of Hours is called the Shehimo, "simple prayer." The "Shehimo" has offices for the canonical hours for each day of the week. Each canonical office begins and ends with a "qawmo", a set of prayers that includes the Lord's Prayer. At the end of the office, the Nicene Creed is recited. The great part of the office consists of lengthy liturgical poems composed for the purpose, similar to the Byzantine odes.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Daily Services in the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church are made up of nine services. The daily cycle of prayer begins with the Night Service, according to the ancient belief that a new day begins at nightfall.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Night Service (midnight) Dedicated to the praising of God the Father. Themes of the service are: thanksgiving to God for the blessing of sleep and asking that the remainder of the night pass in peace and tranquility, and that the next day be spent in purity and righteousness.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Morning Service (dawn) Dedicated to the praising of God the Son. Symbolizes the Resurrection of Christ and his appearance to the Myrrh-bearing Women.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Sunrise Service (6:00 a.m.) Dedicated to the praising of the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes the appearance to Christ to the disciples after the Resurrection.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Third Hour (9:00 a.m.) Dedicated to the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes Eve's original tasting the forbidden fruit and eventual liberation from condemnation through Jesus Christ. The service has a profound penitential meaning.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Sixth Hour (noon) Dedicated to God the Father. Symbolizes Christ's Crucifixion. The prayers at the service ask for God's help towards feeble human nature.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Ninth Hour (3:00 p.m.) Dedicated to God the Son. Symbolizes Christ's death and liberation of humanity from the power of the Hell.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Evening Service (before sunset) Dedicated to God the Son. Symbolizes Christ's burial, asks God for a quiet night and a peaceful sleep.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Peace Service (after sunset) Dedicated to the Holy Spirit. Symbolizes Christ's descent into Hell and liberation of the righteous from torments.


title: Canonical hours

text: The Rest Service (before retiring for sleep) Dedicated to God the Father. In early times it was the continuation of the Peace Service.


title: Canonical hours

text: In ancient times all nine services were offered every day, especially in monasteries. At present the following services are conducted in churches daily for the majority of the year:


title: Canonical hours

text: During Great Lent, all of the services are offered on weekdays (except Saturday and Sunday) according to the following schedule:


title: Canonical hours

text: The book which contains the hymns which constitute the substance of the musical system of Armenian liturgical chant is the "Sharagnots" (see Armenian Octoechos), a collection of hymns known as "Sharakan". Originally, these hymns were Psalms and biblical Canticles that were chanted during the services, similar to the Byzantine Canon. In addition, the eight modes are applied to the psalms of the Night office, called "ganonaklookh" (Canon head).