title: Forearm

text: The forearm contains many muscles, including the flexors and extensors of the wrist, flexors and extensors of the digits, a flexor of the elbow (brachioradialis), and pronators and supinators that turn the hand to face down or upwards, respectively. In cross-section, the forearm can be divided into two fascial compartments. The posterior compartment contains the extensors of the hands, which are supplied by the radial nerve. The anterior compartment contains the flexors and is mainly supplied by the median nerve. The flexor muscles are more massive than the extensors because they work against gravity and act as anti-gravity muscles. The ulnar nerve also runs the length of the forearm.


title: Forearm

text: The radial and ulnar arteries and their branches supply the blood to the forearm. These usually run on the anterior face of the radius and ulna down the whole forearm. The main superficial veins of the forearm are the cephalic, median antebrachial and the basilic vein. These veins can be used for cannularisation or venipuncture, although the cubital fossa is a preferred site for getting blood.


title: Forearm

text: The bones of the forearm are the radius (located on the lateral side) and the ulna (located on the medial side)


title: Forearm

text: Proximally, the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna at the elbow. The articulation between the radius and the ulna at the elbow is known as the proximal radioulnar joint.


title: Forearm

text: Distally, it articulates with the ulna again at the distal radioulnar joint. It forms part of the wrist joint by articulating with the scaphoid at its lateral aspect and with the lunate at its medial aspect.


title: Forearm

text: Proximally, the trochlear notch of the ulna articulates with the trochlea of the humerus and the radial notch articulates with the head of the radius at the elbow.


title: Forearm

text: The forearm can be brought closer to the upper arm (flexed) and brought away from the upper arm (extended) due to movement at the elbow. The forearm can also be rotated so that the palm of the hand rotates inwards (pronated) and rotated back so that the palm rotates outwards (supinated) due to movement at the elbow and the distal radioulnar joint.


title: Forearm

text: A fracture of the forearm can be classified as to whether it involves only the ulna (ulnar fracture), only the radius (radius fracture), or both radioulnar fracture.


title: Forearm

text: For treatment of children with torus fractures of the forearm splinting appears to work better than casting.


title: Forearm

text: Genetically determined disorders like hereditary multiple exostoses can lead to hand and forearm deformities. Hereditary multiple exostoses is due growth disturbance of the epiphyses of the radius and ulna, the two bones of the forearm.


title: Cefixime

text: Cefixime, sold under the brand name Suprax among others, is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections. These infections include otitis media, strep throat, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, gonorrhea, and Lyme disease. For gonorrhea typically only one dose is required. In the United States it is a second-line treatment to ceftriaxone for gonorrhea. It is taken by mouth.


title: Cefixime

text: Common side effects include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and nausea. Serious side effects may include allergic reactions and "Clostridium difficile" diarrhea. It is not recommended in people with a history of a severe penicillin allergy. It appears to be relatively safe during pregnancy. It is in the third-generation cephalosporin class of medications. It works by disrupting the bacteria's cell wall resulting in its death.


title: Cefixime

text: Cefixime was patented in 1979 and approved for medical use in the United States in 1989. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication in the United States.


title: Cefixime

text: Cefixime is a broad spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic and is commonly used to treat bacterial infections of the ear, urinary tract, and upper respiratory tract. The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant microorganisms:


title: Cefixime

text: The bactericidal action of Cefixime is due to the inhibition of cell wall synthesis. It binds to one of the penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) which inhibits the final transpeptidation step of the peptidoglycan synthesis in the bacterial cell wall, thus inhibiting biosynthesis and arresting cell wall assembly resulting in bacterial cell death.


title: Cefixime

text: Only 40–50% is absorbed from the GI tract (oral bioavailability). Absorption may be slowed but not decreased when taken with food. Average peak concentration after administration of oral suspension is approximately 25–50% greater than the peak concentration following oral tablet or capsules administration.


title: Cefixime

text: It has high concentrations in bile and urine. It can cross the placenta and its protein binding capacity is 65%.


title: Cefixime

text: It is always better to perform appropriate cultures and susceptibility studies to determine the causative organism and its sensitivity to cefixime.


title: Cefixime

text: Cefixime is contraindicated in patients with known sensitivity or allergies to cephalosporin class of antibiotics. As Cefixime is a third generation cephalosporin, it is not contraindicated for patients with a true penicillin allergy.


title: Cefixime

text: Adverse drug reactions include diarrhea, dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting. Hypersensitivity reactions like skin rashes, urticaria and Stevens–Johnson syndrome have been reported. Though thrombocytopenia has been reported for many cephalosporins, it has not been reported for cefixime.


title: Cefixime

text: There is no specific antidote for Cefixime overdosage. Gastric lavage may be performed. Dialysis will not remove Cefixime in significant quantities.


title: Cefixime

text: It was sold under the trade name Suprax 125 in the United States until 2003, when it was taken off the market by drug manufacturer Wyeth after its patent expired. Lupin started selling Suprax in the United States in 2007, and it is available in different formulations and strengths.


title: Cefixime

text: Cefixime is marketed under many trade names worldwide; examples include Pancef, Caricef, Taxim o, Texit,Ofex, Cef-3, Denvar, 3-C, Cefim, Magnett, Oroken, Ofiken, Fix-A, and Zifi. In India it is marketed as Zifi 200 and is commonly counterfeited.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Herbert Anthony Stevens IV (born February 23, 1987), better known by his stage name Ab-Soul, is an American rapper, singer and songwriter. Raised in Carson, California, he signed to indie record label Top Dawg Entertainment (TDE) in 2007, where he eventually formed West Coast hip hop group Black Hippy, alongside fellow California-based rappers Jay Rock, Kendrick Lamar and Schoolboy Q. He is perhaps most known for his introspective lyrics and his five independent albums under TDE, "Longterm Mentality", "Control System", "These Days...", "Do What Thou Wilt.", and "Herbert", which were all released to positive reviews and commercial success.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Herbert Anthony Stevens IV was born on February 23, 1987, in Los Angeles. He spent the first four years of his life in Korea while his father was in the military, right up until his parents split and he and his mother subsequently moved back to the United States, to live in his grandmother's house in Carson, California. He once recalled being five years old: "I was serious into video games and basketball, at five. But video games for sure. Five… What was that, Nintendo? Sega. Sonic the Hedgehog. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles on TV. But I know early on, I really, really liked Michael Jackson, like we all did. Newborn babies loved Michael Jackson." At the age of 10, Stevens contracted Stevens–Johnson syndrome, which caused him to be hospitalized and is the origin of his dark lips and light-sensitive eyes. In his adolescent years, Stevens was severely teased about his condition.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Stevens encountered music at a very young age, due to his family owning a record store. Stevens also began crafting his rapping skills at an early age: "I was on BlackPlanet freestyle chat, rapping my ass off. Text battle. It is a very interesting world. I think that it still exists online, where you freestyle but you type it. They call it keystyle. I think that is where I developed my rhyming skills. I had been rapping a little earlier, maybe around 12 [years old], but when I hopped online and into that culture, that textcee culture. It really got me going as far as being a rapper."


title: Ab-Soul

text: Stevens claims to have written his first verse when he was 12 years old, to the beat of Twista's "Emotions". Rapping continued on as a hobby for Stevens, whose parents "saw a bright, college-type future" for him and enrolled him in advanced classes. It was not until Stevens graduated from high school that he began to take a career in music seriously.


title: Ab-Soul

text: In 2002, Stevens recorded his first song. In 2005, he signed a recording contract with StreetBeat Entertainment, but just a year later, in 2006, he met Punch, President and Chairman of Carson-based indie record label, Top Dawg Entertainment (TDE), who as Stevens says, "saw more in his music than metaphors and punchlines". Before signing to TDE, Stevens was a part of a rap group called Area 51, alongside Brooklyn-native and fellow American rapper Snake Hollywood.


title: Ab-Soul

text: In 2007, Stevens officially became part of the TDE roster. In 2008, Stevens made a brief cameo appearance in the music video for his TDE-mate Jay Rock's commercial debut single, "All My Life (In the Ghetto)". Also in 2008, he began recording music for his debut mixtape, at the TDE Recording Studio: House of Pain. In December 2008, Stevens released his first music video, for a song from the mixtape, titled "A Day in the Life", through YouTube. The mixtape, entitled "Longterm", was released in January 2009. It was the first in a series, that Stevens claimed would have four installments: "When I did the first "Longterm" I knew that there would be four of them. When I did the first one. So there will be four of them: "Longterm 1, 2, 3, and 4". So right now we're at two. You'll have to wait for the next one. That's for the next Ab-Soul interview.".


title: Ab-Soul

text: In 2009, he formed supergroup Black Hippy, with his frequent collaborators and TDE label-mates Schoolboy Q, Jay Rock and K-Dot. Stevens released his second mixtape, and the sequel to his first, on June 28, 2010. The tape, titled "Longterm 2: Lifestyles of the Broke and Almost Famous" was highly acclaimed and featured Stevens singing on several songs.


title: Ab-Soul

text: In February 2011, Ab-Soul revealed he was working on an album titled "Longterm Mentality", and subsequently released "Hell Yeah", a track featuring Schoolboy Q. On February 22, 2011, Stevens released another promotional recording taken from the album, "Moscato", a collaboration with another fellow Black Hippy, Kendrick Lamar. In February 2011, Stevens also embarked on the "Road to Paid Dues" concert tour, after being enlisted by fellow American rapper Murs.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On March 21, 2011, Stevens released the music video for a song titled "Nothin' New", in promotion for the album. On March 25, he released "Gone Insane", the fourth track liberated that was taken from the album. On March 30, a trailer for "Longterm Mentality", was released via Top Dawg Entertainment. On April 1, 2011, he released the music video for "Gone Insane", directed by Top Dawg in-house directors Fredo Tovar and Scott Fleishman.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Stevens has stated the respective independent albums of his label-mates partly inspired material on "Longterm Mentality": "I compare [the process behind] "Longterm Mentality" to the process with all of my joints. Kendrick's "OD" had came out and Q's "Setbacks" had came out. I had these bodies of work to go off of as references, as inspiration. I hear what Kendrick is talking about, I hear what Q is talking about, I heard what Jay Rock was talking about. So how am I going to piece this all together and add my own two cents, too? How do I continue the sound but have my individuality as an artist? It's the same challenge every single time." Stevens released his first independent album, under Top Dawg Entertainment, exclusively through iTunes on April 5, 2011. The album subsequently peaked at #73 on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. The album, although its title is "Longterm Mentality", is not the third part of his "Longterm" series.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Soon after the release of Schoolboy Q's second independent album, "Habits & Contradictions" (2012), Stevens began promoting his second independent album, releasing a song titled "Black Lip Bastard", on January 17, 2012. The song was produced by TDE in-house producer Willie B. On February 28, 2012, Ab-Soul, alongside Schoolboy Q, appeared on Sway Calloway's #SwayInTheMorning radio show, where Ab-Soul called "Black Lip Bastard": "pretty much one of the title tracks", The first song that appears on the album, to be released was "Showin' Love", also produced by Willie B.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On March 24, Schoolboy Q announced #TheGroovyTour; a month-long tour with Ab-Soul accompanying him the entire way. The tour began on April 20, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco, California. On April 6, 2012, Ab-Soul liberated a song titled "Terrorist Threats". The song features frequent collaborator Jhené Aiko and fellow American rapper Danny Brown, who proclaimed on Twitter that "Black Hippy the new Beatles and I'm Harry Nilsson". On April 17, 2012, Ab-Soul revealed the album's title to be "Control System" and unveiled the release date to be May 11, 2012. That same day, he also released a music video for "Pineal Gland", a song inspired by the psychedelic drug DMT and of course the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. On April 24, 2012, Stevens released another song, "SOPA". The song, produced by Nez & Rio, references the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), a United States bill introduced by U.S. Representative Lamar S. Smith, that would have allowed the U.S. government to control the Internet.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On May 1, 2012, Ab-Soul released another music video, for a new song titled "Empathy", the song features vocals from Stevens' late longtime girlfriend Alori Joh (December 16, 1986 - February 6, 2012), who had committed suicide earlier in February. Joh's death had a huge impact on Stevens and the recording process of "Control System". On May 4, 2012, it was revealed "Black Lip Bastard" was remixed and would feature his Black Hippy cohorts, Rock, Lamar and Schoolboy Q. On May 8, 2012, his collaboration with Lamar, titled "ILLuminate", was released. The day before the album's release Ab-Soul revealed the track listing and released snippets from the album. The album, as written on the back cover, is "Dedicated to the beautiful soul of Loriana Angel Johnson aka Alori Joh".


title: Ab-Soul

text: "Control System" was released exclusively through iTunes on May 11, 2012, under Top Dawg Entertainment. The album sold approximately 5,300 units in an abbreviated week, debuting at number 83 on the "Billboard" 200 and appearing on several other "Billboard" charts as well. The album sold an estimated 3,700 the next week. During 2012, Stevens toured with the rest of Black Hippy and fellow American rapper Stalley, on BET's Music Matters Tour.


title: Ab-Soul

text: In late 2012, Stevens was featured on Joe Budden's mixtape "A Loose Quarter" on the track "Cut From a Different Cloth". The song received praise as one of the best songs on the project. Budden has since announced that he and Ab-Soul have recorded many songs together which will be seeing the light of day in the near future. Budden went on to praise Ab-Soul as "one of the best things going in hip hop right now".


title: Ab-Soul

text: In October 2012, American singer-songwriter and record producer JMSN, who previously produced "Nibiru" for Stevens earlier in August, for what his label called "TDE Fan Appreciation Week", announced he and Stevens would be releasing a collaborative project together. The lead single for their collaborative album, which was set to be titled "Unit 6", was officially released via iTunes on January 22, 2013. The single, titled "You're Gone", features vocals from both artists, as well as production from JMSN. On March 26, 2013, it was announced that Ab-Soul would be featured on "XXL"s 2013 Freshman Class issue, alongside Schoolboy Q and other up-and-coming rappers.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On August 6, 2013, after a near four-month hiatus, Stevens released a new song produced by Willie B, titled "Christopher DRONEr", alluding to former LAPD police officer Christopher Dorner. Along with the song, he announced he was working on a new solo project. The following day he would speak to "XXL" and say that he and JMSN had finished the "Unit 6" album, however their management could not "see eye to eye", so the project was ultimately shelved for a possible later release, with Stevens saying: "As of right now it's sounding like prequel to my album." He went on to confirm that JMSN and Jhene Aiko, will appear on the upcoming solo project. On October 17, 2013, Stevens stated that he was close to finalizing the project. Then later that week, he confirmed that the project had been turned in for mixing and cleared up rumors that it was titled "Black Lip Pastor". With the release of the 56th Annual Grammy Awards nominations, it was revealed Stevens was nominated for Album of the Year for his participation on Macklemore & Ryan Lewis' debut album, "The Heist".


title: Ab-Soul

text: On January 2, 2014, Stevens revealed he had turned in two projects to his label Top Dawg, before the year 2013, was over: "I turned in 2 projects last year, yea I know what your thinking, let's see where this year takes me…" he tweeted. On January 6, 2014, in an interview with Bootleg Kev, when speaking on the album Stevens stated: "Ali is mixing it right now," and that they were waiting on the perfect way to present the project, as a result of creative releases such as Nipsey Hussle's "Crenshaw". He also revealed the album is about progression and confirmed there would be appearances from his TDE label-mates, as well as production from hip hop producer Statik Selektah. On April 11, 2014, Stevens announced he was also working on the third installment in the "Longterm" series.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On May 5, 2014, Stevens took to Twitter to announce his third album would be titled "These Days…". On May 30, 2014, Top Dawg management took to Twitter to reveal "These Days...", is scheduled for a June 24 release date. That same day, TDE management also unveiled the cover art for the album and released a snippet of a music video for Stevens' song "Stigmata". On June 21, 2014, Stevens released a music video for a song titled "Closure", taken from "These Days...". The album debuted at number 11 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, with first-week sales of 21,812 copies in the United States and has received generally positive reviews from music critics.


title: Ab-Soul

text: In October 2014, in an interview with Montreality, Stevens revealed the title for his first in-store retail project would be "Longterm 3". In February 2015, Ab-Soul premiered the song "47 Bars" online, produced by The Alchemist. In July 2015, Stevens tweeted that his next album was "almost done." In July 2015, Stevens gave an update on the album: "My album's almost done..." he wrote on Twitter, adding, "It's a love story". He completed the post with the hashtag "DWTW", presumably the album title acronym to which he kept alluding.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On June 8, 2016, via Twitter, Stevens revealed he had completed his upcoming album and turned it in for mixing. The album, titled "Do What Thou Wilt.", was released December 9, 2016.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On November 3, 2019, Stevens performed his set at the Day N Vegas music festival and revealed that he "been cookin' the bird up slow", referring to his album. He then ended his set by freestyling and promising a new album in 2020.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On April 20, 2020, to celebrate Top Dawg Entertainment founder and CEO Anthony Tiffith's birthday, as well as start off TDE's Fan Appreciation Week, Stevens released the single "Dangerookipawaa Freestyle".


title: Ab-Soul

text: On April 22, 2022, Stevens released the single "Hollandaise", which was produced by TDE in-house producer Kal Banx.


title: Ab-Soul

text: On November 18, 2022, alongside the release of the single "Gang'Nem", Stevens announced his fifth studio album "Herbert", would be released on December 16, 2022.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Ab-Soul cites fellow American rappers Twista, Canibus, Eminem, Nas and Lupe Fiasco as major influences, with Jay-Z being his biggest influence. He stated: "There are so many others, but those are the ones that came to my mind at this time. Those artists are basically the template to my format as an MC. They all capture me with their music, whether it be the vibe, delivery, cadence, story, or just the lyrics in general."


title: Ab-Soul

text: Stevens has cited the book "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" (1964) as being highly influential to him.


title: Ab-Soul

text: Stevens dated fellow label mate Alori Joh (born Loriana Johnson) from high school until her untimely and tragic death, where she took her own life by jumping off of a radio tower in Compton, CA. Stevens references the relationship and the fatal loss on his song "The Book of Soul" from his 2012 album Control Systems. Since then, Stevens has reportedly dated model Yaris Sanchez.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Lesbian erotica deals with depictions in the visual arts of lesbianism, which is the expression of female-on-female sexuality. Lesbianism has been a theme in erotic art since at least the time of ancient Rome, and many regard depictions of lesbianism (as for sexuality in general) to be erotic.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: For much of the history of cinema and television, lesbianism was considered taboo, though since the 1960s it has increasingly become a genre in its own right. First found in softcore movies and erotic thrillers, depictions of lesbianism entered mainstream cinema in the 1980s. In pornography, depictions of lesbian sex form a popular subgenre, directed toward male heterosexual audiences, lesbian audiences, and bisexual audiences of any gender.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Sexual relations between women have been illustrated as well as narrated, but much of the written material from the early modern period has been destroyed. What seems clear from the historical record is that much of the lesbian material in pornographic texts was intended for a male readership.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Depictions of lesbianism are found among the erotic frescoes of Pompeii. Having all but disappeared during the Middle Ages, they made a comeback after the Renaissance. François Boucher and J. M. W. Turner were among the forerunners of 19th century artists who featured eroticism between women among their work. Like other painters (such as Jean-Honoré Fragonard), Boucher found inspiration in classical mythology. He was one of many artists to use various myths surrounding the goddess Diana, including the often-depicted story of Callisto, Diana's nymph who was seduced by Jupiter, with the god taking Diana's form since Callisto had vowed chastity.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: In the 19th century, lesbianism became more openly discussed and found its way into many fields of art. In France, the influence of Charles Baudelaire is considered crucial, on literature as well as on the visual arts, though according to Dorothy Kosinski it was a matter not for the high arts but mostly for popular erotica. Auguste Rodin's illustrations for Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du Mal" included lesbian scenes. Gustave Courbet's "Le Sommeil" (1866) illustrates a scene from the 1835 story "Mademoiselle de Maupin" by Théophile Gautier (though Baudelaire's "Delphine et Hippolyte" from "Les fleurs" is also cited as an inspiration), depicting two women asleep after love-making. Its lesbian subject matter was controversial enough to be the subject of a police report in 1872, but Courbet's painting is credited with inspiring others to depict "sapphic couple[s]", which in turn led to "soften[ing] taboos by revealing love between women and forcing society to see those whom it regarded as deviants and sinners." Nonetheless, the audience for such artwork was predominantly male (Courbet's painting was commissioned by a profligate Turkish diplomat), therefore "the term "lesbian" should perhaps be provided with quotation marks, insofar as we are dealing with images made by men, for men, and in which the very disposition of the women's bodies declares that they are arranged more for the eyes of the viewer than for those of one another." In the twentieth century the image's sensuality would appeal to lesbian viewers as well.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: In 19th century French painting, lesbianism was often depicted within the context of orientalism, and was thus apt to be affected by the era's colonialism and imperialism; as a result, assumptions regarding race and class informed the images, especially when lesbianism was linked to harem and brothel scenes. Later depictions of lesbians in Western art may reflect like cultural mores, or merely borrow from formal pictorial conventions.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: In the second half of the 19th century, the lesbian theme was well-established, and its artists include Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Constantin Guys, Edgar Degas, and Jean-Louis Forain. Later artists include Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Christian Schad, Albert Marquet, Balthus, and Leonor Fini. More explicit depictions were an important part of the work of erotic illustrators such as Édouard-Henri Avril, Franz von Bayros, Martin van Maële, Rojan, Gerda Wegener, and Tom Poulton. Explicit depictions of lovemaking between women were also an important theme in Japanese erotic "shunga", including the work of such masters as Utamaro, Hokusai, Katsukawa Shunchō, Utagawa Kunisada, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Yanagawa Shigenobu, Keisai Eisen, and Kawanabe Kyōsai.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: In art and fetish photography, notable artists to work with lesbian themes include David Hamilton, Steve Diet Goedde and Bob Carlos Clarke. More recently, lesbian and bisexual photographers such as Nan Goldin, Tee Corinne, and Judy Francesconi have focused on erotic themes, reclaiming a subject that has traditionally been mainly treated through the eye of male artists.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Lesbian and erotic themes were restrained or coded in early cinema. Even scenes suggestive of lesbianism were controversial, such as the presentation of women dancing together in "Pandora's Box" (1929) and "The Sign of the Cross" (1932). "Pandora's Box" is notable for its lesbian subplot with the Countess (Alice Roberts) being defined by her masculine look and because she wears a tuxedo. Lesbian themes were found in European films such as "Mädchen in Uniform" (1931). By the mid-1930s, the Hays Code banned any homosexual themes in Hollywood-made films and several pre-Code films had to be cut to be re-released. For example, "The Sign of the Cross" originally included the erotic "Dance of the Naked Moon", but the dance was considered a "lesbian dance" and was cut for a 1938 reissue. Even suggestions of a romantic attraction between women were rare, and the "L-word" was taboo. Lesbianism was not treated in American cinema until the 1962 release of "Walk on the Wild Side" in which there is a subtly implied lesbian relationship between Jo and Hallie. Depictions of lovemaking between women first appeared in several films of the late 1960s – "The Fox" (1967), "The Killing of Sister George" (1968), and "Therese and Isabelle" (1968).


title: Lesbian erotica

text: During the 1970s, depictions of sex between women were largely restricted to semi-pornographic softcore and sexploitation films, such as "Cherry, Harry & Raquel!" (1970), "Score" (1974), "Emmanuelle" (1974), "Bilitis" (1977) and 'Caligula" (1979). Although semi-explicit heterosexual sex scenes had been part of mainstream cinema since the late 1960s, equivalent depictions of women having sex only began making their appearance in mainstream film during the 1980s. These were typically in the context of a film that was specifically lesbian-themed, such as "Personal Best" (1982), "Lianna" (1983), and "Desert Hearts" (1985). The vampire film "The Hunger" (1983) also contained a seduction and sex scene between Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon. Jacques Saurel's film "Joy et Joan" (1985) also belongs to this new more-than-softcore film performance.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: "Henry & June" (1990) had several lesbian scenes, including one that was considered explicit enough to give the film an NC-17 rating. (There was some controversy as to whether the MPAA had given the film a more restrictive rating than it normally would have because of the lesbian nature of the scene in question.) "Basic Instinct" (1992) contained mild lesbian content, but established lesbianism as a theme in the erotic thriller genre. Later, in the 1990s, erotic thrillers such as "Showgirls", "Wild Side" (1995), "Crash" (1996) and "Bound" (1996) explored lesbian relationships and contained explicit lesbian sex scenes.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: From the 1990s, depictions of sex between women became fairly common in mainstream cinema. Females kissing has increasingly been shown in films and on television, often as a way to include a sexually arousing element in a film without actually having the film gain a more restrictive rating by depicting sex or nudity.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: The Showtime drama series "The L Word" (2004–2009) explores lesbian, bisexual, and transgender relationships, and contains numerous explicit lesbian sex scenes.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Lesbianism is an important theme in both hardcore and softcore pornography, with many adult video titles, websites, and entire studios (such as Girlfriends Films and Sweetheart Video) devoted entirely to depictions of lesbian sexual activity. Lesbian pornography typically is aimed predominantly at a male audience, with a smaller female audience, and many heterosexual adult videos include a lesbian sex scene. However, in Japanese adult video, lesbianism is considered a fetish and is only occasionally included in heterosexual videos. "Rezu" (レズ—lesbian) video is a specialized genre, though a large number of such videos are produced.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Erotica and pornography involving sex between women have been predominantly produced by men for a male and female audience. A 1996 study by Henry E. Adams, Lester W. Wright, Jr., and Bethany A. Lohr, published in the "Journal of Abnormal Psychology", found that heterosexual men have the highest genital and subjective arousal to pornography depicting heterosexual activity, rather than lesbian activity. Another study indicated that heterosexual men are more aroused by depictions involving lesbian sex than they are by depictions of heterosexual activity, while heterosexual and lesbian women were aroused by a wide range of sexual stimuli. On-screen lesbian sex (in both Western and Japanese pornography), while typically aimed at a male audience, has developed a small lesbian audience as well, but still contrasts with gay male pornography, which is considered a genre of its own.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Deborah Swedberg, in an analysis published in the "NWSA Journal" in 1989, argues that it is possible for lesbian viewers to reappropriate lesbian porn. Swedberg notes that, typically, all-women films differ from mixed porn (with men and women) in, among other things, the settings (less anonymous and more intimate) and the very acts performed (more realistic and emotionally involved, and with a focus on the whole body rather than just the genitals): "the subject of the heterosexually produced all-women videos is female pleasure". She argues (against Laura Mulvey's "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cineman" and Susanne Kappeler's "Pornography and Representation", for example) that such movies allow for female subjectivity since the women are more than just objects of exchange. Appropriation by women of male-made lesbian erotica (such as by David Hamilton) was signaled also by Tee Corinne.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Some pornography is made by lesbians, such as the defunct lesbian erotic magazine "On Our Backs"; videos by Fatale Media, SIR Video, Pink and White Productions, and BLEU Productions; and web sites such as the CyberDyke Network.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: A PornHub report indicates that "lesbian", "orgy", "BDSM" are the most popular category for female viewers of its porn portal. The category was 151% more popular with women than with men.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Mainstream lesbian pornography is criticized by some members of the lesbian community for its inauthenticity. According to author Elizabeth Whitney, "lesbianism is not acknowledged as legitimate" in lesbian porn due to the prevalence of "heteronormatively feminine women", the experimental nature, and the constant catering to the male gaze, all of which counter real life lesbianism.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: A study conducted by Valerie Webber found that most actors in lesbian porn consider their own pornographic sex somewhere on a spectrum between real and fake sex, depending on several factors. They were more likely to consider it authentic if there was a real attraction between themselves and the other actor(s) in the scene, and if they felt mutual respect between themselves and the producers.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Authenticity in porn is disputed because some assert that the only authentic sex has no motive other than sex itself. Porn sex, being shot for a camera, automatically has other motives than sex itself. On the other side, some assert that all porn sex is authentic since the sex is an occurrence that took place, and that is all that is needed to classify it as authentic.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: With regard to the authenticity of their performance, some lesbian porn actors describe their performance as an exaggerated, altered version of their real personality, providing some authenticity to the performance. Authenticity depends on real life experiences, so some lesbian porn actors feel the need to create an entirely different persona in order to feel safe. Webber writes of Agatha, a queer actor in lesbian porn who "prefers that the activity and ambiance of her performances be very inauthentic, because otherwise it feels 'too close to home, referring to the oppression and verbal abuse she is subject to by homophobic men in her daily life.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Like in straight and gay male porn, there is an emphasis on penetration in lesbian porn. Even though studies have found that dildos have minimal use in real life lesbian sexual activity, lesbian porn prominently features dildos. According to Lydon, the ability to achieve orgasm clitorally, as opposed to penetratively, eliminates the need for a phallus and, by extension, for a man. For this reason, male producers continue to include, and male viewers continue to demand, a phallus as a central feature in lesbian porn.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Several penile plethysmography studies have shown high levels of arousal in heterosexual men to pornography showing sexual activity between women. One study found heterosexual men to have the highest genital and subjective arousals to pornography depicting heterosexual activity, rather than lesbian activity, while another study reported that on average heterosexual men are more aroused by pornography showing sexual activity between women than they are by depictions of heterosexual activity. These findings correspond with reports in several earlier studies (summarized in Whitley et al. (1999); see also anecdotal reports in Loftus (2002)).


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Male perception of lesbianism as erotic has been shown to correspond with recent exposure to lesbian pornography; however, men who have recently viewed lesbian pornography are no more likely than others to perceive lesbians as hypersexual and/or bisexual. Bernard E. Whitley, Jr., et al. hypothesized, upon reaching this conclusion, that "pornography may [...] lead heterosexual men to view lesbianism as erotic by means of a generalized association of female-female sexual activity with sexual arousal", but noted that "more research is needed to clarify the relationship between exposure to pornography and the perceived erotic value of lesbianism."


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Enjoyment of lesbian pornography can have little connection to feelings towards homosexuals in real life. A heterosexual man may be aroused by pornographic depictions of lesbianism yet hold homophobic views. However, several studies suggest that men who perceive lesbianism as erotic may have less negative attitudes toward lesbians than they do toward gay men. Studies have further shown that, while men tend to correlate lesbianism with eroticism more often than women do, women perceive male homosexuality as erotic no more often than men do.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Lesbian views on sex between women in erotica are complex. Historically, women have been less involved in the production and consumption of erotica in general and visual pornography in particular than have men. Since the late 1960s, radical feminist objections to pornography and the sexual objectification of women have influenced the lesbian community, with some feminists objecting to all pornography. However, since the end of the 1980s' "Feminist Sex Wars" and the beginning of the "women's erotica" movement, feminist views on pornography, both lesbian and heterosexual, have shifted.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: Some lesbians are even consumers of mainstream pornography, but many dislike what they perceive as inaccurate and stereotypical depictions of women and lesbianism in mainstream pornography. Some are also uncomfortable with male interest in lesbians. As of the early 2000s, there is a very strong lesbian erotic literature movement, as well as a small genre of pornography made by lesbians for a lesbian audience.


title: Lesbian erotica

text: An increasing amount of queer erotic literature has been released in recent decades, written by women and usually for women. There is a large sub-category of this erotica that involves various queer relationships while also including bisexuality and transgender characters into the writing. By introducing various other identities and sexualities, it opens up the erotica world to more gender-fluidity and acceptance of other queer or non-heteronormative sexualities.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: The Sacrament is a 2013 American found footage horror thriller film written and directed by Ti West. A. J. Bowen and Joe Swanberg play VICE journalists who document their co-worker's (Kentucker Audley) attempt to locate his sister (Amy Seimetz) after she joins a reclusive religious commune. The film's plot is based on the real-life events of the Jonestown Massacre of 1978.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: Patrick, a fashion photographer, receives a letter from his sister, a recovering addict named Caroline, that invites him to visit Eden Parish, a utopian, drug-free community founded by a religious leader. When Patrick investigates, he discovers that they have moved to a secluded compound only accessible by helicopter, located in what Sam only calls "a remote part of the world." Intrigued by the mystery, Patrick's co-workers, reporter Sam and cameraman Jake, suggest a feature documentary on the topic. The trip goes well, but the helicopter pilot warns them that he will leave with or without them the next day; they promise to be prompt. Issues first arise when they meet the guides at the airfield. Expecting only Patrick, the guides are taken aback by a film crew; they contact Father, the leader, who authorizes their entrance.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: At the commune itself, armed guards delay the entry of the film crew. Feeling uneasy, Jake and Sam begin to regret the trip, but Patrick is able to smooth things over when his sister appears. Caroline enthusiastically welcomes them and apologizes for the misunderstanding. Caroline leaves with Patrick, and Jake and Sam are given their own cabin. After settling in, the two attempt to find members to interview. Several of the people open up to them and tell stories of how Father has saved them and given them new-found hope. The commune's nurse, Wendy, reveals that the commune has a well-stocked medical center funded by donations from the members, who sold off all their possessions.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: Privately, the filmmakers express their skepticism but admit that the members seem happy and have accomplished much. Caroline arranges an interview with Father, and Sam prepares a list of questions. However, Father will only agree to do the interview during a public meeting. Father, an older Southerner, greets them warmly and at first answers the questions openly. However, his answers become more evasive and vaguely threatening. Near the end of the interview, Father raises the subject of Sam's pregnant wife, which Sam had mentioned earlier to Wendy. Put off-guard, Sam fumbles and loses control of the interview, and Father politely but dominantly cuts it short with roaring applause from his followers, who proceed to engage in a party.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: During the party, Savannah, a young, mute girl, passes a note requesting help to Sam. When Sam and Jake attempt to locate Patrick, they find that he has been taken aside for a threesome, and an inebriated-seeming Caroline explains that they need Patrick's money. When the filmmakers search further, they discover a dissident group that wishes to leave, alleging abuse and brainwashing. Jake does not want to get involved, but Sam insists that they help despite the fact that the helicopter cannot fit them. Growing increasingly distrustful of Father and the commune, Jake and Sam anxiously wait out the night, unable to sleep.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: In the morning, they find that the dissidents have become outright rebellious. Sarah, Savannah's mother, insists that they at least rescue her daughter, and Jake returns to the helicopter to delay its take-off. The pilot flatly refuses to help, but gunshots cut the conversation short. Jake flees into the forest and circles back to the helicopter; the injured pilot tells him to get the others. At the camp, Sam attempts to break up a fight, and a guard attacks him. Caroline angrily denounces him, and he is taken hostage. Father convenes the commune and forces everyone to take cyanide-laced drinks. Anyone who refuses is shot dead. Patrick, held hostage nearby, panics when Caroline injects him with a syringe, and she holds him as he dies.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: When Jake returns to the camp, he finds almost everyone dead except for roving, armed guards. In a cabin, he finds Savannah and Sarah hiding; Sarah herself kills her daughter to spare her from execution, and a guard kills Sarah while Jake hides. When Jake finds Caroline, she refuses to leave the camp, saying that she has nothing left, and she self-immolates. When Jake finally confronts Father himself, he finds Sam bound to a chair. Father commits suicide, and the two filmmakers flee back to the helicopter, where they escape.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: Eli Roth signed on to produce the film in September 2012. He described the film as "West's first mainstream movie". Swanberg, Bowen, Audley, Seimetz, and Jones were announced to have joined the cast in October 2012, as it went into production. The parts were written specifically for the actors, as Roth gave West full creative control. Swanberg doubled as cameraman for parts of the film, as West trusted his background as a filmmaker to shoot the scenes without supervision. West described the film as his most horrific film yet, and said that he wanted the film's violence to be upsetting. When West cast Jones as cult leader Father, he wanted to make sure that Father seemed like a genuine, well-meaning person who nonetheless was driven to evil by his paranoia. The film was shot outside of Savannah, Georgia.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: "The Sacrament" premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 2013. It was released on video on-demand on May 1, 2014, and had a limited theatrical release on June 6, 2014. It was released on home video on August 19, 2014.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64% of 70 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating was 5.86/10. The consensus reads: "While it may be a bit too slow for some, "The Sacrament" offers enough tense atmosphere and intriguing ideas to satisfy discerning horror buffs." Metacritic rated it 49/100 based on 21 reviews.


title: The Sacrament (2013 film)

text: Guy Lodge of "Variety" gave a mostly-positive review, commenting that making the cameraman of the found footage feature an employee of "Vice" magazine helped "[provide] an alibi for Eric Robbins' fluid, generously-lit lensing; most films in the found-footage genre have no reason to look this good." David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "a bone-chilling genre piece" that may disappoint horror purists. Robert Abele of the "Los Angeles Times" called the first half a "dread-inducing "tour de force"" but wrote that the second half is a disappointment that adds no insight to the real-life tragedy. Jordan Hoffman of Film.com gave an unfavorable review overall, criticizing what he saw as an overly-slow story line.


title: Finola Hughes

text: Finola Hughes (born 29 October 1959) is an English actress, best known for her role as Anna Devane on the ABC soap operas "General Hospital" and "All My Children", and her portrayal of Laura in the 1983 film "Staying Alive", the sequel to "Saturday Night Fever".


title: Finola Hughes

text: She is also known for her portrayal of Anna Devane's identical twin, Alexandra "Alex" Devane on "All My Children" and Patty Halliwell on the supernatural series, "Charmed". She also portrayed Carol in the final seasons of the NBC sitcom "Blossom". Hughes has also appeared in the films, "Aspen Extreme", "Above Suspicion" and "Like Crazy".


title: Finola Hughes

text: Hughes trained in dance and performing arts at the Arts Educational Schools London. In 1981, she originated the role of Victoria the White Cat in the London production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical "Cats". In 1983, Hughes starred with John Travolta in the musical film "Staying Alive", a sequel to "Saturday Night Fever". She played the role of Laura, an English dancer who is the romantic interest of Travolta's character Tony Manero. Hughes also appeared on the sitcom "Blossom", and as the X-Men character Emma Frost in the television movie "Generation X" (1996).


title: Finola Hughes

text: In 1997, Hughes starred in Aaron Spelling's short-lived primetime soap opera "Pacific Palisades". She was a frequent guest star on the television series "Charmed", playing the mother of the Halliwell girls, Patricia "Patty" Halliwell. She provided the voice of Lara, Kal-El's biological mother in "". Another voice-over role she had was Miss Robertson on an episode of Fox's animated comedy series "Life with Louie".


title: Finola Hughes

text: From 1985 to 1992, she played Anna Devane on "General Hospital". Hughes won a Daytime Emmy in 1991, for Outstanding Lead Actress on "General Hospital". She was nominated for the same category in 1990 for Anna, in 2000 for "All My Children" as Alex, and, in 2002, as Anna. After establishing herself as a daytime television star, Hughes shot a feature film cameo as a soap opera actress who loses an award to Sally Field in the satirical film "Soapdish" (1991). Two years later, she played a leading role in the film "Aspen Extreme" (1993). It was announced in April 2006 that Hughes would be returning to "GH". In May 2006, as part of the May Sweeps period, three "GH" veterans would return. Finola Hughes would be reunited with Tristan Rogers (Robert Scorpio) and Emma Samms (Holly Sutton). Following a rise in ratings from her sweeps return, Hughes returned to "General Hospital" for a limited run through August 2006. She returned the following year on 13 July 2007 and once again on 15 April 2008.


title: Finola Hughes

text: In September 2008, Hughes guest-starred in the "General Hospital" spinoff series "". It has been said that Hughes would return to "GH" in early 2012 as character Anna Devane to be with her daughter, Robin Scorpio, and help her through her toughest year. She is a recurring character but Anna Devane is front and center and staying in Port Charles awhile. In 2010, Finola also appeared in the "", "Make It or Break It" and "Melissa & Joey". Finola made a permanent return to "General Hospital" in 2012.


title: Finola Hughes

text: In 2013, Hughes made her feature-film directing debut with indie comedy-drama "The Bet". She later starred with Kathryn McCormick in the dance movie "Platinum the Dance Movie". In 2015, Hughes directed her second film, "Byrd and the Bees" a romantic comedy starring Jonathan Rhys Meyers and Tracy Spiridakos.


title: Finola Hughes

text: Hughes was born in London. She married Russell Young in 1992. Their first child, son Dylan Joseph was born on November 9, 2000. Later, they adopted a son, Cash Justice Young born in 2005 and a daughter, Sadie Beatrice Young born in December 2007.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The politics of the Philippines take place within a three-branch governmental system. The country is a democracy, led by a directly elected president who serves as both the head of state and the head of government. The president heads the executive branch, and has significant political powers. Presidents are limited to a single six-year term of office. The bicameral Congress serves as the legislature, consisting of the small Senate, elected on an at-large basis throughout the country, and the larger House of Representatives, primarily made up of representatives elected from specific geographic regions. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, a body with expansive powers of review over actions taken by other political and administrative bodies.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The legal system is a mixture of civil and common law, influenced by the prior rule of both Spain and the United States. Spanish rule relied heavily on local intermediaries, setting up a system dominated by elites. A revolution that emerged near the end of Spanish rule was defeated by the United States, who consolidated power over the entirety of the archipelago. American rule led to the introduction of democracy, and institutions patterned on the American political system. Following independence in 1946, national politics took place within a two-party system. This was disrupted by the establishment under martial law. Changes following the restoration of democracy led to the current multi-party system. Left-wing insurgencies have existed at various strengths since independence, and a long-running Islamic insurgency contributed to the establishment of an autonomous Muslim region with a limited sharia law system.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Elections are held every three years, although the president, vice-president, and Senators are elected for six-year terms. Results are determined through plurality voting, including plurality-at-large for elections (such as for the Senate) with multiple winners. A mixed-member proportional representation system is used to elect a minority of the House of Representatives. Local government units have some revenue-generating powers, under a code intended to decentralize power away from the national government. Administrative structures at local levels are designed to foster civil society participation.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Politics is dominated by a powerful elite, with dynastic politics common at both the local and national levels. Political parties are weak, with elections instead dominated by individual and familial personalities. Political positions provide extensive opportunities for patronage, and clientelism and electoral fraud are common. Corruption is considered widespread, while state institutions are relatively weak. Politics has been heavily influenced at times by the Catholic Church, the Philippine military, and the United States. Despite pessimism about the potential for political change, democracy maintains strong public support, and voter turnout is high.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Executive power is vested to the President, who is both head of state and head of government. This individual is directly elected to a six-year term through a single-round first past the post election, and being limited to one term are unable to seek re-election. To be eligible for the presidency, an individual must be at least 40 years old, and must have resided in the Philippines for the decade prior to the election. Presidents may legislate through executive orders and other administrative actions, and must approve or veto bills coming from the Congress.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The vice president, limited to two consecutive six-year terms, is elected separately from the president. This means the president and vice president may be from different political parties. While the vice president has no constitutional powers aside from acting as president when the latter is unable to do so, the president may give the former a cabinet office. In case of death, resignation, or incapacitation, of the president, the vice president becomes the president until the expiration of the term. The vice president may also serve as Acting President if the president is temporarily incapacitated. Following in the line of succession are the Senate president and the Speaker of the House.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Executive power is exercised through the Cabinet, who are appointed by the president. While the appointees may wield executive power, all powers and responsibilities ultimately remain with the president, who may overrule any decision made by a cabinet member. The Cabinet includes the heads of executive departments. Actions taken by executive and administrative officials are taken as actions exercised by the president. Cabinet members may not be members of Congress. Close relatives of the president are explicitly barred from certain offices.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, thereby ensuring civilian supremacy over the military. This title gives the president several emergency military powers, such as the ability to suspend habeas corpus and declare martial law, although these powers automatically end after 60 days unless extended by Congress, and can be reviewed by the Supreme Court. The president also proposes a national budget, which Congress may alter before they adopt it.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The president wields significant political power, including considerable influence over supposedly independent agencies due to the power of appointment. The president directly controlled the Philippine Development Assistance Fund until the Supreme Court declared this unconstitutional in 2013. Following this, the Disbursement Acceleration Program was created to allow the president to direct funds, although some parts of this new program have similarly been declared unconstitutional. Such influence means that the legislature has never overcome a presidential veto, despite having the theoretical power to do so. A commission on appointments, independent from the legislature but made up of members from it, has the power to veto presidential appointments. However, court rulings mean the president can renominate an individual repeatedly upon rejection, and that that individual can effectively carry out the role by being officially in an acting capacity. The strength of the Presidency combined with weak state institutions exacerbates corruption in the country.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Under the 1987 constitution, the House of Representatives has the power to impeach the president through a vote of one-third of its members, and the Senate decides upon the case. Impeachment proceedings against an individual can not occur more than once per year, which can be abused through the filing cases with weak impeachment claims to forestall the filing of stronger cases. President Joseph Estrada was the first Asian head of state to be tried following impeachment, although he was not ousted by the Senate. No president has ever been ousted through impeachment.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Congress is a bicameral legislature. The upper house, the Senate, is composed of 24 senators. These are elected through plurality-at-large voting, with the entire country considered a single district. The senators elect amongst themselves a Senate President. Half of the Senate seats are contested every three years, and senators are limited to serving a maximum of two consecutive six-year terms.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The lower house is the House of Representatives, currently composed of 311 representatives, with 20% elected via party-list system, and the rest elected from legislative districts. Legislative districts are intended to be roughly equal in population, and every city with a population of at least 250,000 people is guaranteed at least one representative. The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker. Representatives are elected every three years, and are limited to three three-year terms.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Each bill needs the consent of both houses to be submitted to the president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment "sine die", the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all over again. Congress's decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, while money bills may only be introduced by the House of Representatives. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The control the legislature has over funding includes individual discretionary funds. These funds are considered an avenue for patronage politics and are often seen a symbol of corruption. They are derogatorily referred to as "pork barrel" funds. In addition to being able to use such funds to curry favor or gain support, politicians can personally benefit from kickbacks, which are often directly used for re-election campaigns.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Priority Development Assistance Fund scam highlighted the link between such funding and legislative support for executive initiatives.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: , the PDP-LABAN, the Nacionalista Party (NP), the Nationalist People's Coalition (NPC), National Unity Party (NUP), and the Liberal Party (LP) are the parties with largest membership in Congress. The party of the sitting president controls the House of Representatives, where members often change party affiliation to join the president's party. The Senate has generally acted more independently.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, which lies at the top of three lower court levels. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and can decide on the constitutionality of laws. Vested with the responsibility of overseeing the other branches of government, the Supreme Court has significant powers, able to go as far as overruling discretionary decisions made by political and administrative individuals and bodies, giving it powers usually seen as those of the executive and legislature. The court can effectively create law without precedent, and such decisions are not subject to review by other bodies.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: All lower levels of courts have their bases through legislation, rather than the constitution. Their proceedings are determined by the Supreme Court. Courts are arranged in a three-level hierarchy, with each level able to review only rulings at lower levels. Within the regular court system, the Court of Appeals is the second-highest appellate court. Below this, Regional Trial Courts have original jurisdiction on most criminal matters, and are the main trial courts. The Regional Trial Courts are organized within judicial regions, which correspond to the administrative regions. The lowest level courts are the Metropolitan Trial Courts.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Alongside the regular courts, a variety of special courts have been set up at various levels of the judicial system. The Court of Tax Appeals was set up specifically to rule on tax matters. The Sandiganbayan is a special court set up to deal with cases of government corruption. Some Regional Trial Courts specialize in a particular sort of case, such as heinous crime courts, family courts, and environmental courts. Sharia courts, which have been set up in some regions on the same level as Regional and Metropolitan courts, rule on personal law where both parties are Muslim. Some administrative bodies are able to exercise very specific quasi-judicial powers, as determined by law.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The president appoints justices and judges to the judicial system. For an appointment to the Supreme Court, the president must select from a short-list provided by the Judicial and Bar Council, although they have influence over the shortlist and can ask for it to be changed. The Judicial and Bar Council is responsible for vetting appointments. Congress has no control over appointments, to reduce its political influence on the judiciary. However, the Chief Justice can be impeached by the legislature, which took place for the first time with the conviction of Chief Justice Renato Corona in 2012. Political pressure is thought to be behind inconsistencies between some court decisions. Traditionally the most senior associate justice became the Chief Justice. However, this tradition was broken by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, and her successor President Benigno Aquino III also bypassed seniority in some judicial appointments.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Ombudsman of the Philippines is selected by the president from a list provided by the Judicial and Bar Council. This selection does not need confirmation, and lasts for a seven-year term with no re-appointment. The Ombudsman investigates and prosecutes public officials and agencies, except for the president, who is immune while in office. Considerable power lies with the position to request information and direct public officials to carry out certain tasks as required by law. The Office of the Solicitor General is an independent body that represents the government in legal cases.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Philippine Legal System is a hybrid form based on the Spanish civil law and American common law system, with a system of Sharia law in place for some areas of law involving Muslims.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Constitution is the supreme law of the land and laws passed by the Congress must be consistent with the Constitution. Since the establishment of the 1898 Constitution, there have been only three new constitutions, implemented in 1935, 1973, and 1987, respectively. Prior to 1898, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 had applied to the Philippines for a short time, and there were numerous proposed constitutions during the Philippine Revolution. The most notable of these was the Malolos Constitution. The presidential system established with the 1935 Constitution was replaced by a semi-parliamentary system in 1973 under the authoritarian rule of President Marcos, concentrating power in his hands.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: After the 1986 People Power Revolution brought President Aquino to power, she issued a proclamation establishing a temporary constitution and created a constitutional commission. The commission finished writing a new constitution on October 15, 1986, which was subsequently approved by referendum on February 2, 1987. The 1987 constitution restored the presidential system, being based on the 1935 constitution rather than the 1973 one. The constitution is designed to provide a number of checks and balances, including the establishment of independent constitutional commissions and an Ombudsman. The Ombudsman and members of these commissions, in addition to the leaders of the executive (the president and vice-president) and judicial (Justices of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice) branches, may be removed through impeachment.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: All presidents under the current constitution have proposed some type of constitutional reform, although none have succeeded. Wariness around such change exists due to the structural aim of the constitution in limiting Presidential power compared to previous constitution, leaving reform open to accusations of being a power grab. A switch to a unicameral parliamentary system is seen by some as a way to make the legislature and government more responsive and effective. It has also been argued such a change would weaken the presidency, and strengthen the role of political parties. Such a proposal gained majority support in the house along with presidential support in the mid-2000s, but stalled due to senate opposition. Reforming the country as a federation is a recurring issue arising as a result of a desire for local autonomy. Such considerations influenced the 1987 constitution; while it maintained the unitary state, it included provisions for autonomous regions and for stronger local government.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Civil Code of the Philippines is based on the Civil Code of Spain, which was extended to the Philippines on July 31, 1889. A notable feature of this code is the influence of the Catholic Church, which remains to this day. Under this code, judicial decisions applying or interpreting the laws or the Constitution is part of the legal system, the doctrine of "stare decisis" applies in deciding legal controversies. However, the application of "stare decisis" is not the same as in full common law jurisdictions, as it incorporates civil law precedent. The constitution grants the Supreme Court the power of judicial review, through which it can "determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government".


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: This power is extensive enough that the court can create new law without precedent in such situations, and such decisions are not themselves subject to review from another body. The president may issue executive orders, proclamations or other executive issuance. The Philippines adopts the dualist system in the incorporation of international law, with such laws able to come into force either through adoption in domestic legislation or a constitutional declaration. The local legislative assemblies may enact local ordinances within their respective territorial and political boundaries in accordance with the local autonomy granted by the Local Government Code.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Since 1935 and the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, elections have been administered by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC). The elected officials are the president, vice president, members of Congress, regional governors and assemblymen, provincial governors, vice governors, and board members, city and municipal mayors, vice mayors and councilors, and barangay (village) chairmen and councilors. Elections are for fixed terms. Most elected officials have three-year terms, with the exceptions being the president, vice president, and senators, whose terms last for six years.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: All terms above the barangay level begin and end on June 30 of the election year, and all elected officials are limited to three consecutive terms, except for senators, and the vice president, who are limited to two, and for the president, who cannot be reelected. 12 of the 24 senators are up for election every 3 years. All are elected on a national basis, with voters selecting up to 12 names from the list of all candidates. It is not required to fill out 12 names for the vote to be valid, and voters select 7.5 candidates on average. This system increases the importance of name familiarity, with up to one-fifth of voters reporting they decide upon their votes while inside the voting booth. All positions are voted on separately, including those of president and vice-president.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Despite the plurality voting system used to elect presidents, elections are effectively a multi-party system. Prior to the Marcos regime, the country effectively had a two-party system, however the restriction of presidents to one term in the 1987 has likely prevented that system from reemerging. Even during the two-party era, internal party structures were weak. Three presidents had previously switched parties after falling to obtain the nomination in their previous party's conference. Under the 1987 constitution, elections above the barangay level are held every three years since 1992 on the second Monday of May, although senate seats, the presidency, and the vice presidency are only contested every six years since 1992.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Ever since elections were first introduced by the United States, single-winner elections have been carried out using a plurality voting system: the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected. Multiple-winner elections, except for representatives elected through the party-list system, are done via plurality-at-large voting. Each voter has "x" votes, from which the "x" candidates with the highest number of votes are elected. A constitutional commission was assembled after the 1986 People Power Revolution in part to consider the process of elections. It determined to keep plurality/first-past-the-post voting for 80% of seats, but to use a mixed-member proportional representation party-list system to allocate up to 20% of seats. However, such a system was not used until the 1998 general election, which followed the passing of the Party-List System Act in 1995. Prior to this law passing, sectoral representatives were appointed by the President.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: A group participating in the party-list system (which may not be running in any single-member constituencies) must receive 2% of votes cast to enter congress, and can win a maximum of three seats. The 1998 election saw 123 organizations run, and only 32% of voters selecting a party-list organization, meaning only 13 organizations passed the 2% threshold taking up only 14 of the 52 seats allocated to party-list organizations. COMELEC decided to allocate the remaining seats to organizations that had not reached the 2% threshold despite prior rules indicating they would be distributed among parties that passed the threshold by vote share. Following a legal challenge, the Supreme Court overruled COMELEC, implementing its own system to allocate the seats, limiting the maximum three seats to only the most-voted organization. In the run-up to the 2001 election COMELEC approved over 160 organizations. Following a legal challenge at the Supreme Court COMELEC all but 42 were disqualified, including seven which had won more than 2% of the votes. Two court later nullified two of the disqualifications.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The 1986 commission also kept the "open ballot" system, where voters had to write the name of their chosen candidate on the voting form. The distribution of sample filled-in ballots to voters by politicians provided more opportunities for patronage through the determination of which other names appear on a politicians sample ballot, and increased the power of local politicians who were better able to distribute these ballots to voters. The 1992 and 2004 presidential elections were contested in court following accusations of electoral fraud. Neither case succeeded.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Vote counting in these elections could take up to 18 hours, and tabulation could take up to 40 days. In 1992 COMELEC adopted a strategic plan to modernize voting, and the first electronic vote-counting pilot test took place in the 1996 Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao general election. This pilot was considered a success. In 1997 a law was based calling for the open ballots to be replaced by pre-printed ballots. However, it was not until the May 2010 elections that electronic vote-counting was used for a national election. This change in the process saw ballots shift from the "open ballot" system to ballots where voters fill in ovals next to the candidate names. It has been reported by COMELEC that this new system reduces the ability for vote-buyers to monitor how people vote. It also reduced vote count time, with manual counting previously taking perhaps months.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: National and local elections began to be held on the same day from May 1992, following the passage of Republic Act (RA) 7166. The country has a voting age of 18. Under the 1987 constitution all registered parties are allowed poll watchers, whereas under the previous system poll watchers were only allowed from the two main parties. Political advertising was allowed beginning in 2001. Various forms of electoral fraud occur throughout the various elections, and are even expected by a majority of voters. Vote buying is especially prevalent, and campaigns are estimated to cost as much as 16 times the legal campaign finance limit.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Philippines has been highly centralized since Spanish rule, being governed from an "Imperial Manila". The Spanish created some bodies to bring together barangays in 1893, and the Americans organized provincial governments in 1905. Both actions, however, left the majority of power with the capital. During the Commonwealth period local governments remained under the direct control of the president, before some autonomy was granted to cities and municipalities in 1959 through RA 2264, "An Act Amending the Laws Governing Local Governments by Increasing their Autonomy and Reorganizing Provincial Governments", and to barangays (then called barrios) through RA 2370, the "Barrio Charter Act". Further powers were given under the "Decentralization Act of 1967" (RA 5185), before local elections were abolished with the imposition of martial law in 1972.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The 1987 constitution mandates that local governments must have local autonomy. The 1991 Local Government Code (Republic Act 7160) shifted some power away from the capital. Barangays are grouped into municipalities or cities, while municipalities and cities may be further grouped into provinces. Each barangay, municipality or city, and the province is headed by a captain, mayor, or governor, respectively, with its legislatures being the Sangguniang Barangay (village council), Sangguniang Bayan (municipal council) or Sangguniang Panlungsod (city council), and the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial board). The Local Government Code seeks to enhance civil participation in local government, mandating civil society representation on bodies such as school and health boards. There are also mechanisms for the recall of elected officials, and local legislation through publicly organized referendum, although such mechanisms are rarely used.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Regions are groupings of adjacent provinces created by the national government, often with linguistic or ethnic similarities. However, they do not by themselves have any local government. The exception is the autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao, which has its own regional government. While Article X of the 1987 constitution allows autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, only the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) exists. A referendum held in 1989 led to four provinces voting to be part of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). In 1990 elections were held for a regional governor, a vice-governor, and for representatives in the Regional Assembly.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: A 2018 law confirmed through a 2019 plebiscite transformed the ARMM into the more powerful BARMM. Elections in Mindanao have a reputation for electoral anomalies. Two laws aimed at creating the proposed autonomous region in Cordillera were defeated after two plebiscites. The National Capital Region has a unique governing body, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, which carries out some region-equivalent functions.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The concentration of political and economic power in Manila leads has created the demand for changes such as decentralization or federation. While local government units have the autonomy, most of their budget is derived from the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA), a disbursement from the national government which is ultimately derived from taxes. This makes most local government units ultimately dependent on the national government. However, they do have the ability to raise income through other measures, such as taxes, which is reflected by significantly increased responsibilities. Provinces further from the capital tend to be both poorer, and more reliant on IRA funding from the national government.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Despite the challenges faced by Filipino elections, and a sometimes pessimistic view about the potential of elections, there is broad public support for democracy, coupled with a free press and an established legal system. Voter turnout in legislative and executive elections averages above 75 percent. However, other forms of political participation, such as membership in a political party, civil society organization, and labor unions, are rarely used. There are several examples of mass direct action throughout history, including the long-running communist rebellion in the Philippines and the multiple "People Power" events. A distrust of the state, and of state institutions such as the police, is a continuing legacy of martial law.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Political parties continue to be weak, often created to propel a single candidate before fading from relevancy. The power of the president within the political system may be one factor limiting the development of stable political parties, as the president is in a position to considerably support their allies. Parties often serve to ally various political families, and it is common for politicians elected on losing party tickets to switch allegiance to the party of the president. The power of traditional elites outside of the government has also inhibited the development of strong national institutions. Broad democratic political debate is linked with the concept of good governance, rather than political movements related to class. The persistence of poverty is widely linked in political discourse to the presence of corruption. Campaigns focus on personal qualities and records, rather than party platforms.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: There has been strong continuity in class structures from the Spanish period to the present. One prominent historical narrative sees Philippine history through the lens of an "unfinished revolution", tracing the takeover of the Philippine Revolution by elites from the masses to unfulfilled expectations of reform following the People Power Revolution. Electoral pressure is absorbed through elections, despite the winners of elections invariably coming from various factions of the elite, and political parties being differentiated more by patronage networks than by policies. The importance of election funding creates a cyclic effect as political positions provide access to state power which provides the ability to generate funds. This state capture means that reforms occur slowly, even if popular.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: While questions over land reform have persisted since the colonial era, and have been considered by multiple administrations faced with peasant and communist-related political instability, the links between legislators and landlords mean progress has been limited and the vast majority of farmers continue to work on land owned by others. This failure to achieve significant land reform is thought to have restricted the growth of the Philippine economy, and is linked to continuing political inequality. Despite such inequality, the strength of the left movement has declined since the restoration of democracy.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: A small professional and technical middle class, mostly concentrated in urban areas such as Metro Manila, are relatively trusted within the civil service and play a significant role in civil society organization. Such organizations are examples of cause-based politics, an exception to the usual model of Philippine political parties and political organization. While too small to change the overall political structure, civil society organizations are sometimes able to influence policy on specific issues. Notably, the role they played in the People Power Revolution led to a brief political consensus towards a more technocratic and relatively economically liberal state.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Some tension exists between this middle class with the larger but less active poorer class, most clearly expressed in the different outcomes and opinions regarding the entwined EDSA II and EDSA III protests. Unlike in the first People Power Revolution, which saw joint participation from both classes, these following mass protests are generally considered to have predominantly middle and lower class movements respectively, with EDSA III failing to overturn the success of EDSA II.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Politicians at local and national levels are usually either dynastic candidates or popular celebrities. Dynastic politics is very common. Members of the House and local government officials can be elected for a maximum of three terms, although positions often pass to family members. In 1992, 32% of the representatives in the restored Congress were children of politicians, and 15% represented a third or fourth generation. In 2010, over half of the members of the House of Representatives and over half of all Governors were related to someone who had been in Congress over the previous 20 years. Over 60% of high-level local elective offices were held by a dynastic candidate. For both dynastic candidates and celebrities, voter familiarity with their names is thought to drive their electoral success.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Levels of education correlate with voting for each of the types of candidates, with those with less education more likely to vote for celebrity candidates and those with more education more likely to vote for dynastic candidates. Less wealthy voters are more likely to vote for celebrity candidates, although it has little impact on votes for dynastic candidates. Older voters are more likely to vote for celebrity candidates, and voters in Luzon are more likely to vote for celebrity candidates than voters in the Visayas or Mindanao. While the constitution bans political dynasties, no legislation has been passed to define what this means. Term limits have had a limited effect on such dynasties.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: In addition to strong divisions in class identity, the Philippines has a diversity of regional identities, driven by its archipelagic nature and varied history. Regional and ethnic identities are sometimes stronger than national identity, with national identity often being driven by Christians, and more specifically Tagalogs. Contrasted with the broad Christian Filipino identity is that of the Muslims, and that of often-marginalized indigenous peoples. Winning a presidential election usually comes with winning the highly populous Tagalog areas of Southern Luzon. Most winning candidates have done well throughout the Philippines, winning pluralities in Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao. However, some elections have been won without the Visayas or Mindanao, and in a single case, the 2004 election, the Presidency was won without a plurality in Luzon. However, the importance of national image has been increasing in presidential contests.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Despite the centralization of national power, politics itself is very decentralized. Political patronage relationships extend vertically through the various levels of political administration. National politicians then relied on local politicians to drive turnout within the constituency of the local politician, incentivizing government funding of local projects rather than national ones to shore up support, and causing national political parties to function more as an alliance of local politicians rather than centralized platforms.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Decentralization of power to local governments and widespread poverty have reinforced the presence of clientelism within politics. Such an effect is particularly strong in the geographically defined House of Representative seats. The importance of name recognition in politics (especially under the open ballot system) and the use of single-member district entrenchs local politicians. Politics is defined by clans and personalities rather than political parties, and politicians receive support from members of their linguistic group or from a geographical area that identifies with them. Political, cultural, and geographical borders are mutually reinforcing.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Factional rivalries have dominated local politics since the late 19th century. As democracy expanded under American rule, these rivalries influenced provincial and national politics. Local politics is thus often more personal and potentially violent than national politics. It can also grow more authoritarian, even as national politics becomes more democratic. The competitiveness of different localities varies greatly, from having a long-entrenched dynasty, to having regular electoral turnover.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Furthermore, a strong emphasis on family, so entrenched it is enshrined in the civil code, makes local familial links more important than state support, and personal links more important than ideological interests. Particular families are associated with certain areas, and a seat passing within a family is often seen as political continuity, with competition provided instead by seats passing to another family. A paternalistic landlord-tenant relationship typifies politician voter relationships in rural areas.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Local politicians attend events such as baptisms, funerals, and weddings within their constituency, often providing a direct financial donation. In urban areas, where established patron-client links are weaker, patronage takes the form of machine politics, being more specific and short-term. In such situations, electoral fraud and physical coercion is more common. Vote buying is extremely prevalent, including "negative vote buying", where voters are taken out of their constituency on voting day or have their fingers inked without having cast a ballot. Over time, this model of control, supported through the economic benefits of state capture, has become more prominent compared to the older paternalistic model.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The influence of the Church in civil society dates back to the Spanish era, when the Church exercised considerable secular power. Despite the separation of Church and State that was established under American rule, the Church retained social influence among both elites and the wider population and a desire to promote its global values within the country. The Church provides a unifying moral framework that transcends class lines, linking the rich with the poor.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: National structures were established shortly after independence, and the Church became directly involved in elections, both through its administrative hierarchy and through the actions of individual clergy. The politicization of the Church increased after the Second Vatican Council, in great part due to the activism of Catholic youth. Another factor was the increasing filipinization of the Church following independence. The Church did not initially strongly oppose Marcos and agreed with his anti-communist stance. However, internal opposition grew over the course of the martial law era.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Public political opposition from individual clergy members eventually shifted the opinion of the Church hierarchy, who supported the candidacy of Corazon Aquino and the subsequent People Power Revolution. Due to these events, the Church began to see itself as a "guardian of democracy". Later, the Church was one of the institutions that became opposed to the Presidency of Joseph Estrada.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Religious orders, such as the Society of Jesus and Opus Dei, run private educational establishments for law, medicine, and business. The Church is active in social and economic development, in ways not always in alignment with the desire of state authorities. It has organized to assist in anti-corruption efforts. The Church maintains strong influence on the topic of family, notably through its support of large family size and its opposition to birth control. Catholic influence led to the removal of divorce laws following independence.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The political influence of the Church has decreased in the 21st century, following sexual abuse revelations and the death of the prominent Cardinal Jaime Sin. A symbolic moment for Church influence was the passing of the Reproductive Health Act of 2012 by the Benigno Aquino administration. This law aimed to make contraception and family planning more accessible, a topic which had faced long-standing Church opposition. Public opinion was thought to be in favor of the law. The Rodrigo Duterte administration has also clashed with the Church, with Duterte at times directly positioning himself against the Church. While Duterte himself is not in favor of a divorce law, proposals to legalize divorce gained significant support in Congress following his election, with one bill being passed by the House of Representatives before rejection by the Senate. The measure was reintroduced in the next session of Congress.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The Philippine military became officially involved in socioeconomic issues during the Hukbalahap Rebellion. Its involvement was expanded further by Ferdinand Marcos, who actively used the military for civil work. While the 1935 constitution designated the president the Commander in Chief, the 1973 constitution was the first to explicitly include the principle of civilian control of the military. Despite this change, during martial law under Marcos, military leaders took over aspects of local government and became directly involved in the economy, and the military itself expanded threefold. During this period, the communist and Islamist rebellions in the Philippines led to further involvement by the military in politics. Internal opposition to Marcos developed as corruption became more apparent, and following the 1986 elections an apparently failed coup by a military faction sparked what became the People Power Revolution The military's perceived role in this overthrowing of President Marcos created a precedent for direct intervention into politics.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The 1987 constitution kept the 1973 text on civilian rule over the military, although it added that the armed forces were the "protector of the people and the state". It also separated the Philippine Constabulary from the military, while shifting response for internal security from the military to the police. However, the military has remained more involved in politics than it was before martial law, playing a role in the 2001 Second EDSA Revolution which overthrew President Estrada. Failed or suspected coups took place in the late 1980s, 2003, 2006, and 2007.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Civilian oversight of the military includes a dedicated deputy ombudsman for the military, investigation by the Commission on Human Rights, and the jurisdiction of civilian courts. The 1989 Philippine coup d'état attempt led to rebellion and mutiny becoming crimes. As an institution the military is supportive of democracy, with many factions often coming out in opposition to attempted coups. However, weak civilian institutions continue to provide openings for military influence. Amnesty was granted to those involved in past coup attempts in 1992.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The practice of recruiting retired military officers for some executive branch roles, such as ambassadorships, or within cabinet, was started by Marcos and continued after the restoration of democracy. The separation between the police and the military was impeded by the continuing communist and Islamic rebellions. The president remains able to use the military to rule by decree. Localized instances of martial law have been declared in 2009 and 2017, both in Mindanao.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Even after Philippine independence, the United States remained entwined within Philippine politics and the Philippine economy. Influence also remains in social and civil institutions. In the context of the Cold War, direct and indirect influence was leveraged in the early days of independence to reinforce democratic institutions. Early civil influence was particularly strong among veterans' networks, and the American military maintained support for Philippine military campaigns against the Hukbalahap. During the Hukbalahap rebellion the United States also supported land reforms to reduce potential attraction to communism, although this pressure subsided as the rebellion ceased.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: When Marcos declared martial law, to muted American response and with general acquiescence, the strategic value of the Philippines and its American military bases led to continued official support. While the United States eventually pressured Marcos to bring back elections, such support enabled Marcos to stay in power even as civil society and the military began to turn against him. Eventually, the United States supported the development of an anti-Marcos coalition, and in 1989 intervened to halt a coup against the new Aquino government.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: The influence of the United States decreased in the 1990s, when agreements to host American military bases ended and the country increased the regional aspects of its foreign policy. Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security ties deepened once more, as the Moro insurgency became linked with the global War on Terror. This growing cooperation included the limited return of some US forces to Philippine soil.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Before the onset of Spanish rule in the 16th century, the Philippines was split into numerous barangays, which were small entities while being part of region-wide trade networks. The arrival of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized datus. The first large state was Sulu, which adopted Islam in the 15th century. Spanish Captain-General Miguel López de Legazpi established a settlement in Cebu in 1565. Maynila was conquered in 1571, and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Spain gradually conquered the majority of the modern Philippines, although full control was never established over some Muslims areas in the south and in the Cordillera highlands. In the 19th century Spain eventually gained control over the seas and coasts. Inward migration in the Cordilleras to escape Spanish control and an increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political complexity. Throughout Spanish rule, the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language.


title: Politics of the Philippines

text: Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the church, especially friars. Ultimate power was held by the King and the Council of the Indies, with the Philippines being part of New Spain, although the islands functioned practically autonomously. The Philippines had their own Governor and a judicial body was established in 1583. Direct Spanish rule did not extend far from Manila, and locals were relied upon for administration. Traditional native elites, along with some native officeholders and high-value tax payers, became part of a group known as the "principalia". Over time, this elite class became more culturally distinct, gaining an education unavailable to most and intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants.