title: Song 2

text: "Song 2" was used as part of the London 2011 New Year's Eve fireworks display. It appeared in shortened form mixed alongside various other landmark British tracks including "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" by The Beatles, "We Will Rock You" by Queen, and "London Calling" by The Clash. It was also included in the London 2021-2022 New Year fireworks display.


title: Song 2

text: Japan national football team, Italian football team Juventus, Australian football team Western United, German football team FC St. Pauli and English football team Liverpool FC use this as their goal tune. The song is used by numerous professional ice hockey teams, most notably the Ottawa Senators.


title: Song 2

text: Former UFC Middleweight Champion Michael Bisping used the song as his walk-out entrance. It is currently being used as the goal song for the France national football team at the FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


title: Song 2

text: The song appears in the "Parks and Recreation" episode "Prom". "Song 2" is also featured in "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday" of the animated series "The Simpsons" as part of a montage sequence which ends satirically. The song is also featured in the "South Park" episode, "Stanley's Cup".


title: Song 2

text: The song is used as the title music for "", is included on "Just Dance 2" as a DLC song, is a playable song on "", "Just Dance Kids 2" and "Lego Rock Band", and is included in the main setlist of "Guitar Hero 5". In addition, the song appears in "Saints Row IV" as a part of the radio station "107.77 The Mix FM" within the game. It is also among 30 licensed songs featured on the Wii game, "We Cheer 2" where players can cheer to the song. It was recently added to FIFA 23 as part of the ultimate FIFA soundtrack for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. All living organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers can further be organized into a food chain. Each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic level. In order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. The arrows in the food chain show that the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy flow; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: The unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of energy exchange between systems. Trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it deals with the transfer and transformation of energy (originating externally from the sun via solar radiation) to and among organisms.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: The first step in energetics is photosynthesis, wherein water and carbon dioxide from the air are taken in with energy from the sun, and are converted into oxygen and glucose. Cellular respiration is the reverse reaction, wherein oxygen and sugar are taken in and release energy as they are converted back into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide and water produced by respiration can be recycled back into plants.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy loss can be measured either by efficiency (how much energy makes it to the next level), or by biomass (how much living material exists at those levels at one point in time, measured by standing crop). Of all the net primary productivity at the producer trophic level, in general only 10% goes to the next level, the primary consumers, then only 10% of that 10% goes on to the next trophic level, and so on up the food pyramid. Ecological efficiency may be anywhere from 5% to 20% depending on how efficient or inefficient that ecosystem is. This decrease in efficiency occurs because organisms need to perform cellular respiration to survive, and energy is lost as heat when cellular respiration is performed. That is also why there are fewer tertiary consumers than there are producers.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: A producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. Producers are important because they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose, as well as oxygen. The producers themselves can use the energy stored in glucose to perform cellular respiration. Or, if the producer is consumed by herbivores in the next trophic level, some of the energy is passed on up the pyramid. The glucose stored within producers serves as food for consumers, and so it is only through producers that consumers are able to access the sun’s energy. Some examples of primary producers are algae, mosses, and other plants such as grasses, trees, and shrubs.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Chemosynthetic bacteria perform a process similar to photosynthesis, but instead of energy from the sun they use energy stored in chemicals like hydrogen sulfide. This process, referred to as chemosynthesis, usually occurs deep in the ocean at hydrothermal vents that produce heat and chemicals such as hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide and methane. Chemosynthetic bacteria can use the energy in the bonds of the hydrogen sulfide and oxygen to convert carbon dioxide to glucose, releasing water and sulfur in the process. Organisms that consume the chemosynthetic bacteria can take in the glucose and use oxygen to perform cellular respiration, similar to herbivores consuming producers.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: One of the factors that controls primary production is the amount of energy that enters the producer(s), which can be measured using productivity. Only one percent of solar energy enters the producer, the rest bounces off or moves through. Gross primary productivity is the amount of energy the producer actually gets. Generally, 60% of the energy that enters the producer goes to the producer’s own respiration. The net primary productivity is the amount that the plant retains after the amount that it used for cellular respiration is subtracted. Another factor controlling primary production is organic/inorganic nutrient levels in the water or soil that the producer is living in.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Secondary production is the use of energy stored in plants converted by consumers to their own biomass. Different ecosystems have different levels of consumers, all end with one top consumer. Most energy is stored in organic matter of plants, and as the consumers eat these plants they take up this energy. This energy in the herbivores and omnivores is then consumed by carnivores. There is also a large amount of energy that is in primary production and ends up being waste or litter, referred to as detritus. The detrital food chain includes a large amount of microbes, macroinvertebrates, meiofauna, fungi, and bacteria. These organisms are consumed by omnivores and carnivores and account for a large amount of secondary production. Secondary consumers can vary widely in how efficient they are in consuming. The efficiency of energy being passed on to consumers is estimated to be around 10%. Energy flow through consumers differs in aquatic and terrestrial environments.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Heterotrophs contribute to secondary production and it is dependent on primary productivity and the net primary products. Secondary production is the energy that herbivores and decomposers use and thus depends on primary productivity. Primarily herbivores and decomposers consume all the carbon from two main organic sources in aquatic ecosystems, autochthonous and allochthonous. Autochthonous carbon comes from within the ecosystem and includes aquatic plants, algae and phytoplankton. Allochthonous carbon from outside the ecosystem is mostly dead organic matter from the terrestrial ecosystem entering the water. In stream ecosystems, approximately 66% of annual energy input can be washed downstream. The remaining amount is consumed and lost as heat.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Secondary production is often described in terms of trophic levels, and while this can be useful in explaining relationships it overemphasizes the rarer interactions. Consumers often feed at multiple trophic levels. Energy transferred above the third trophic level is relatively unimportant. The assimilation efficiency can be expressed by the amount of food the consumer has eaten, how much the consumer assimilates and what is expelled as feces or urine. While a portion of the energy is used for respiration, another portion of the energy goes towards biomass in the consumer. There are two major food chains: The primary food chain is the energy coming from autotrophs and passed on to the consumers; and the second major food chain is when carnivores eat the herbivores or decomposers that consume the autotrophic energy. Consumers are broken down into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Carnivores have a much higher assimilation of energy, about 80% and herbivores have a much lower efficiency of approximately 20 to 50%. Energy in a system can be affected by animal emigration/immigration. The movements of organisms are significant in terrestrial ecosystems. Energetic consumption by herbivores in terrestrial ecosystems has a low range of ~3-7%. The flow of energy is similar in many terrestrial environments. The fluctuation in the amount of net primary product consumed by herbivores is generally low. This is in large contrast to aquatic environments of lakes and ponds where grazers have a much higher consumption of around ~33%. Ectotherms and endotherms have very different assimilation efficiencies.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Detritivores consume organic material that is decomposing and are in turn consumed by carnivores. Predator productivity is correlated with prey productivity. This confirms that the primary productivity in ecosystems affects all productivity following.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Detritus is a large portion of organic material in ecosystems. Organic material in temperate forests is mostly made up of dead plants, approximately 62%.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: In an aquatic ecosystem, leaf matter that falls into streams gets wet and begins to leech organic material. This happens rather quickly and will attract microbes and invertebrates. The leaves can be broken down into large pieces called coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM). The CPOM is rapidly colonized by microbes. Meiofauna is extremely important to secondary production in stream ecosystems. Microbes breaking down and colonizing this leaf matter are very important to the detritovores. The detritovores make the leaf matter more edible by releasing compounds from the tissues; it ultimately helps soften them. As leaves decay nitrogen will decrease since cellulose and lignin in the leaves is difficult to break down. Thus the colonizing microbes bring in nitrogen in order to aid in the decomposition. Leaf breakdown can depend on initial nitrogen content, season, and species of trees. The species of trees can have variation when their leaves fall. Thus the breakdown of leaves is happening at different times, which is called a mosaic of microbial populations.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Species effect and diversity in an ecosystem can be analyzed through their performance and efficiency. In addition, secondary production in streams can be influenced heavily by detritus that falls into the streams; production of benthic fauna biomass and abundance decreased an additional 47–50% during a study of litter removal and exclusion.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Research has demonstrated that primary producers fix carbon at similar rates across ecosystems. Once carbon has been introduced into a system as a viable source of energy, the mechanisms that govern the flow of energy to higher trophic levels vary across ecosystems. Among aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, patterns have been identified that can account for this variation and have been divided into two main pathways of control: top-down and bottom-up. The acting mechanisms within each pathway ultimately regulate community and trophic level structure within an ecosystem to varying degrees. Bottom-up controls involve mechanisms that are based on resource quality and availability, which control primary productivity and the subsequent flow of energy and biomass to higher trophic levels. Top-down controls involve mechanisms that are based on consumption by consumers. These mechanisms control the rate of energy transfer from one trophic level to another as herbivores or predators feed on lower trophic levels.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Much variation in the flow of energy is found within each type of ecosystem, creating a challenge in identifying variation between ecosystem types. In a general sense, the flow of energy is a function of primary productivity with temperature, water availability, and light availability. For example, among aquatic ecosystems, higher rates of production are usually found in large rivers and shallow lakes than in deep lakes and clear headwater streams. Among terrestrial ecosystems, marshes, swamps, and tropical rainforests have the highest primary production rates, whereas tundra and alpine ecosystems have the lowest. The relationships between primary production and environmental conditions have helped account for variation within ecosystem types, allowing ecologists to demonstrate that energy flows more efficiently through aquatic ecosystems than terrestrial ecosystems due to the various bottom-up and top-down controls in play.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: The strength of bottom-up controls on energy flow are determined by the nutritional quality, size, and growth rates of primary producers in an ecosystem. Photosynthetic material is typically rich in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and supplements the high herbivore demand for N and P across all ecosystems. Aquatic primary production is dominated by small, single-celled phytoplankton that are mostly composed of photosynthetic material, providing an efficient source of these nutrients for herbivores. In contrast, multi-cellular terrestrial plants contain many large supporting cellulose structures of high carbon but low nutrient value. Because of this structural difference, aquatic primary producers have less biomass per photosynthetic tissue stored within the aquatic ecosystem than in the forests and grasslands of terrestrial ecosystems. This low biomass relative to photosynthetic material in aquatic ecosystems allows for a more efficient turnover rate compared to terrestrial ecosystems. As phytoplankton are consumed by herbivores, their enhanced growth and reproduction rates sufficiently replace lost biomass and, in conjunction with their nutrient dense quality, support greater secondary production.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Additional factors impacting primary production includes inputs of N and P, which occurs at a greater magnitude in aquatic ecosystems. These nutrients are important in stimulating plant growth and, when passed to higher trophic levels, stimulate consumer biomass and growth rate. If either of these nutrients are in short supply, they can limit overall primary production. Within lakes, P tends to be the greater limiting nutrient while both N and P limit primary production in rivers. Due to these limiting effects, nutrient inputs can potentially alleviate the limitations on net primary production of an aquatic ecosystem. Allochthonous material washed into an aquatic ecosystem introduces N and P as well as energy in the form of carbon molecules that are readily taken up by primary producers. Greater inputs and increased nutrient concentrations support greater net primary production rates, which in turn supports greater secondary production.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Top-down mechanisms exert greater control on aquatic primary producers due to the roll of consumers within an aquatic food web. Among consumers, herbivores can mediate the impacts of trophic cascades by bridging the flow of energy from primary producers to predators in higher trophic levels. Across ecosystems, there is a consistent association between herbivore growth and producer nutritional quality. However, in aquatic ecosystems, primary producers are consumed by herbivores at a rate four times greater than in terrestrial ecosystems. Although this topic is highly debated, researchers have attributed the distinction in herbivore control to several theories, including producer to consumer size ratios and herbivore selectivity.Modeling of top-down controls on primary producers suggests that the greatest control on the flow of energy occurs when the size ratio of consumer to primary producer is the highest. The size distribution of organisms found within a single trophic level in aquatic systems is much narrower than that of terrestrial systems. On land, the consumer size ranges from smaller than the plant it consumes, such as an insect, to significantly larger, such as an ungulate, while in aquatic systems, consumer body size within a trophic level varies much less and is strongly correlated with trophic position. As a result, the size difference between producers and consumers is consistently larger in aquatic environments than on land, resulting in stronger herbivore control over aquatic primary producers.


title: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Herbivores can potentially control the fate of organic matter as it is cycled through the food web. Herbivores tend to select nutritious plants while avoiding plants with structural defense mechanisms. Like support structures, defense structures are composed of nutrient poor, high carbon cellulose. Access to nutritious food sources enhances herbivore metabolism and energy demands, leading to greater removal of primary producers. In aquatic ecosystems, phytoplankton are highly nutritious and generally lack defense mechanisms. This results in greater top-down control because consumed plant matter is quickly released back into the system as labile organic waste. In terrestrial ecosystems, primary producers are less nutritionally dense and are more likely to contain defense structures. Because herbivores prefer nutritionally dense plants and avoid plants or plant parts with defense structures, a greater amount of plant matter is left unconsumed within the ecosystem. Herbivore avoidance of low-quality plant matter may be why terrestrial systems exhibit weaker top-down control on the flow of energy.


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: Vanessa Estelle Williams (sometimes professionally credited as Vanessa A. Williams) is an American actress and producer. She is best known for her roles as Maxine Joseph–Chadway in the Showtime drama series, "Soul Food" (2000–04), for which she received NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series and as Nino Brown's feisty gun moll, Keisha in the 1991 crime drama film, "New Jack City". Williams is also known for her role as Anne-Marie McCoy in the first and fourth of the "Candyman" films, and as Rhonda Blair in the first season of the Fox prime time soap opera, "Melrose Place" (1992–93).


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: Williams was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York. Williams has three brothers. Her mother Verdell died when she was 10 years old leaving Williams to be raised by her grandmother, Johnnie Mae Mungen. She has traced her ancestry back to Georgia and Virginia. After high school she went on to get a bachelor's degree in theater and business management from Marymount Manhattan College.


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: Williams later went to acting in films and television, becoming known simply as "Vanessa Williams". In the area of acting, she ran into name conflict with singer/actress and former Miss America Vanessa Williams (also born 1963). Screen Actors Guild rules prohibited duplicate stage naming. Vanessa Estelle had registered the name "Vanessa Williams" first, so as a compromise, the former Miss America was occasionally credited as "Vanessa L. Williams" in acting credits. To compound the confusion, both actresses starred in versions of the drama "Soul Food" (Vanessa L. Williams in the film version, and Vanessa E. Williams in its TV series adaptation). The Screen Actors Guild eventually took the issue to arbitration and decided both actresses could use the professional name "Vanessa Williams".


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: Williams began her acting career in 1989, appearing in episodes of "The Cosby Show" and "Law & Order". In 1992, she was cast as Rhonda Blair, the first and only black regular character, in the Fox prime time soap opera, "Melrose Place". She was written off after only one season for lack of direction. "I think they didn't make the effort to equip themselves [to write for a black character], either by hiring a black writer or asking me things," said Williams later. She later had guest starring roles on "NYPD Blue" and "Living Single", before she was cast as a series regular in the ABC legal drama, "Murder One" (1995–1996) created by Steven Bochco. She received her first nomination for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance on the show. In 1996, Williams had a recurring role as Dr. Grace Carr in the CBS medical drama series, "Chicago Hope", for which she received an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series nomination.


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: In 2000, Williams was cast as Maxine Chadway in the Showtime drama series "Soul Food", a continuation of the successful 1997 film of the same name. Two other leads were played by Nicole Ari Parker and Malinda Williams. In the 1997 film, Vanessa L. Williams played the leading role of Teri Joseph, and Vivica A. Fox played Maxine. For her performance, Williams won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 2003, and received three additional nominations. The series aired to 2004 and went on to be the longest running drama with a predominantly black cast in the history of American prime-time television.


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: After "Soul Food", Williams had guest starring roles on "Cold Case", "Knight Rider" and "Lincoln Heights". In 2015, she was cast in a recurring role of Iris West's mother in The CW drama series, "The Flash". In October 2016, it was announced she was cast in the role of Valerie Grant on the NBC soap opera, "Days of Our Lives".


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: In film, Williams is best known for playing Keisha in the 1991 crime thriller "New Jack City" opposite Wesley Snipes and Ice T. She is also known for playing Anne-Marie McCoy in the 1992 horror film "Candyman" opposite Tony Todd and Virginia Madsen. The following years she had small parts in "Drop Squad" (1994), "Mother" (1996), "Punks" (2000), "Like Mike" (2002), and "Imagine That" (2009) alongside "Soul Food" co-star Nicole Ari Parker. Williams has also starred in a number of made for television movies, including Emmy Award-nominated performance in "Our America" (2002). She also had roles in several smaller productions in recent years. In 2021, she returned to her role of Anne-Marie McCoy in the fourth film in the "Candyman" film series.


title: Vanessa Estelle Williams

text: Williams married Andre Wiseman in November 1992 when the couple eloped. The couple have two sons together: Omar Tafari (March 5, 1997) and Haile Zion Ali (born 2003). In April 2018, Williams filed for divorce from Wiseman for the second time.


title: Giant Baba

text: , best known by his ring name , was a Japanese professional wrestler, promoter, and professional baseball player. He is best known as a co-founder of All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), a promotion he founded in 1972 along with Mitsuo Momota and Yoshihiro Momota, the sons of his mentor Rikidōzan. For the first 10 years of its existence, Baba was the top star of All-Japan, while also serving as the booker, promoter, head trainer and president of the promotion from its inception in 1972 till his death in 1999. Baba was also responsible for recruiting much of the talent for All Japan, and was the public face of the promotion for much of his lifetime.


title: Giant Baba

text: Considered one of the most beloved Japanese wrestlers ever, Baba was a national hero with a level of popularity in Japan comparable to that of Hulk Hogan in the United States. "The 2006 Top 100 Historical Persons in Japan" survey ranked Baba the 92nd greatest person in the history of Japan, as voted for by the general public. Among his many accomplishments, Baba was a record seven-time winner of the Champion Carnival, a four-time PWF World Heavyweight Champion, three time NWA International Heavyweight Champion and a three-time NWA World Heavyweight Champion.


title: Giant Baba

text: Shohei Baba was born on January 23, 1938, in Sanjo, Niigata Prefecture, the second son of Kazuo and Mitsu Baba. For most of his early childhood, Baba was one of the smallest children in his class, however, around the fifth grade, he began to grow at a rapid rate, and by the time he was in the ninth grade he was already 175 cm tall. It soon became apparent he was suffering from gigantism. Nevertheless, Baba excelled at baseball, becoming the top player at his local club. After graduating from elementary school, Baba enrolled in the department of mechanical engineering at Sanjo Business High School. Baba was forced to give up baseball when he joined high school as he was continuing to grow at an incredible rate (190 cm at the age of 16) and no cleats could be sourced in his size. He soon joined the art club instead, but this didn't last long as the school ordered custom cleats and Baba was invited to join the baseball team. Baba continued to impress, recording 18 strikeouts during a practice game, which led to tabloids reporting on "Sanjo High School's giant pitcher" and Baba garnering the attention of Nippon Professional Baseball scouts. In 1954, Baba met with Hidetoshi Genkawa of the Yomiuri Giants who invited Baba to drop out of high school and join the team full time. Baba accepted and began pitching for the Giants in January 1955 at #59.


title: Giant Baba

text: Although Baba joined the Yomiuri Giants in 1955, he did not play in the league at all in his first year with the team by recommendation of director Shigeru Mizuhara. Baba was relegated to the second team for his first year, but eventually debuted in 1956 and performed well, earning 12 wins and 1 loss in his rookie year and 13 wins and 2 losses in 1957. Both years, Baba won the Nippon Professional Baseball league's best pitcher award. Despite his success, Baba began suffering eyesight problems in 1957 and was forced to take time off for surgery when it was discovered he had developed a brain tumour. Baba underwent craniotomy at the University of Tokyo Hospital on December 23, 1957. The success rate of the technology at that time was very low, and the doctor warned Baba he was likely to lose his eyesight completely, however, the operation was successful, and Baba was discharged after a week. He returned to the camp with a bandage on his head in January 1958. Baba played for two more seasons, winning best pitcher for a third time in 1959. However, after Hideo Fujimoto, a coach who formed a bond with Baba and regularly advocated for him to start, left the team, Baba was released from the Giants in 1959 after five seasons.


title: Giant Baba

text: Fujimoto would leave for the Taiyo Whales, and invited Baba to a training camp in an attempt to get him signed in 1960. Baba was invited for a tryout by Goro Taniguchi and eventually hired, requiring him to move to Kawasaki, however, just days after moving, Baba fell in the bathroom of his new apartment and crashed directly into the glass door of the shower, which required 17 stitches in his left elbow and led to Baba losing feeling in his hand for a while. Despite the injury not being serious, Baba retired from baseball shortly after and moved back to Niigata.


title: Giant Baba

text: Baba first met Rikidōzan while he was playing baseball, who told him he would do well as a professional wrestler. With his baseball career over, Baba decided to pursue professional wrestling. Meeting with Rikidōzan again in April 1960, Baba began training in the Japan Pro Wrestling Alliance (JWA) dojo along with Kanji "Antonio" Inoki, a Japanese emigrant whom Rikidōzan met during a trip to Brazil. Baba and Inoki debuted on the same show on September 30, 1960, with Baba beating Yonetaro Tanaka in his first match. In 1961, Rikidōzan arranged for Baba to wrestle and live in the United States for a few months. Baba became a popular villain in America, wrestling on the west coast as the fan favourite "'Big' Shohei Baba", and as the villainous "Baba the Giant" in New York. He wrestled the likes of The Destroyer and Buddy Rogers numerous times, as well as Bruno Sammartino for the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship in Madison Square Garden in February 1964.


title: Giant Baba

text: While Baba was in America, his trainer Rikidōzan died, and the JWA began to struggle, and Baba returned to Japan full time in 1966. He formed a popular tag team known as "B-I Cannon" with Inoki, and the two won the NWA International Tag Team Championship from Tarzan Tyler and Bill Watts in 1968, going on to hold the titles four times in total. Baba also held the NWA International Heavyweight Championship on three occasions, and won the World Big League a record six times. As the JWA continued to struggle going into the 1970s, Baba and Inoki agreed to go their own separate ways. Inoki attempted a hostile takeover of the JWA in late 1971, for which he was fired, whereas Baba decided not to renew his contract in 1972. The JWA would disband the following year.


title: Giant Baba

text: After leaving JWA, Baba and Inoki formed their own promotions. Rikidōzan's two sons followed Baba to his new promotion and helped co-found it. Baba's All Japan Pro Wrestling debuted in October 1972, backed by Nippon Television. AJPW established the PWF Heavyweight Championship and Giant Baba as its top star, with Baba winning the Championship in 1973 and holding it for 1920 days, making 38 successful defences before losing to Tor Kamata in 1978. Baba won the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship from Jack Brisco ending Brisco's year and a half run as champion on December 2, 1974. A week later he dropped the title back to Brisco. Baba would regain the title in America from Abdullah The Butcher in 1979, making another 13 successful defences before dropping the title to Harley Race in 1982. Baba would go on to hold the title four times for a total of 3,847 days, or just over ten years. Baba's runs with the title made him synonymous with it, and promoted him to a new level of stardom in Japan. Between his debut in 1960 and April 1984, Baba wrestled 3000 consecutive matches and did not miss a single booking, only breaking the cycle after he suffered a minor neck injury.


title: Giant Baba

text: While continuing to be the promotion's top star, Baba also put a focus on using foreign wrestlers, inviting the likes of Dory Funk, Bruiser Brody, Abdullah The Butcher and Stan Hansen to compete for All Japan from the very beginning. Baba also focused heavily on training the next generation of wrestlers, particularly Jumbo Tsuruta, who was his first student after forming AJPW, and Atsushi Onita, with whom Baba formed an almost parent-like bond.


title: Giant Baba

text: After losing the PWF Heavyweight Championship for the final time in 1985, Baba stepped back from the main event and instead focused on running the company while competing in lower-level matches, pushing Genichiro Tenryu and Jumbo Tsuruta as his successors. Baba ran his company with a schedule of eight tours a year travelling nationwide, and maintained this the entire time he was in charge. Baba remained an extremely popular figure among fans, and continued teaming with young wrestlers and veterans in opening matches into the late 1990s, maintaining a full-time schedule until December 1998. Under Baba's rule, All Japan Pro Wrestling reached unprecedented heights of popularity in the 1990s, thanks to Baba's booking and the performances of Baba disciples Mitsuharu Misawa, Toshiaki Kawada, Akira Taue and Kenta Kobashi, dubbed the "Four Pillars of Heaven" by publications. With the Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship as the focal point, All Japan sold out more than 250 consecutive shows in Tokyo throughout the early to mid-1990s, routinely drawing houses in the $1,000,000 range eight times a year at Budokan Hall. At the peak of the company, tickets for the next Budokan show would be sold at the live event and completely sell out that night. In 1998, Baba finally agreed to run the Tokyo Dome on May 1, and despite it being a few years since the company peaked, they still drew 58,300 paying fans. It became well known that as a promoter, Baba would rather use a handshake agreement than a signed contract, as he had a great reputation for keeping his word when it came to match finishes and payrolls. Because of this, many regarded Baba as the most honest promoter in the professional-wrestling business.


title: Giant Baba

text: Throughout 1998, it was becoming clearer and clearer that Baba's health was deteriorating. Despite this, he worked a full-time schedule throughout the year, touring the country and competing on most shows. However, Baba was slowly losing a tremendous amount of weight, and looked much more pale and weak compared to his previous self. His final match, prior to being confined to a hospital bed, occurred on December 5, 1998, at Nippon Budokan in Tokyo, where he teamed with Rusher Kimura and Mitsuo Momota to take on Masanobu Fuchi, Haruka Eigen, and Tsuyoshi Kikuchi, bringing his career total to 5769 matches.


title: Giant Baba

text: Little is known about Baba's life outside the ring. Said to be quiet and shy, he did not go out drinking with other wrestlers after shows. However, Baba was highly respected by foreign wrestlers, as he always made sure that they travelled first class, stayed in the best hotels, and had beer and food all pre-paid for by himself. Although not a huge drinker, Baba was known to have an incredible tolerance for alcohol and could drink for hours without getting drunk. He also smoked heavily, especially cigars, but quit after his friend Gyutsu Matsuyama, another heavy smoker, was hospitalised with stomach cancer. An urban legend states that, according to Japanese tabloids, Baba was rumoured to have been bisexual, although this hasn't been confirmed by reputable sources.


title: Giant Baba

text: On September 16, 1971, he married Motoko Kawai (born January 2, 1940) in Hawaii. Baba enjoyed staying in Hawaii and would regularly visit. The news of their wedding was not a matter of public record until almost ten years later, when they announced it at a press conference. A ceremony was held in 1983. Baba and his wife had no children due to the fear of the child possibly having gigantism. Despite having no children of their own, Baba and his wife developed a close relationship with Baba's student Atsushi Onita. Baba thought of Onita as one of his own children, and seriously thought about adopting Onita at one point. Onita has said "I learned the most important things as a human being from Mr. Baba".


title: Giant Baba

text: In January 1999, Baba was taken in to a hospital and confined to a bed. He saw his last wrestling match on January 22, as Toshiaki Kawada defeated Mitsuharu Misawa for the Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship. Nine days later on January 31, 1999, Baba died of liver failure from complications of colon cancer at approximately 16:04 local time in the Tokyo Medical University Hospital. He was 61 years old. Present at his deathbed were his wife, his older sister, his niece, Sachiko, All Japan ring announcer Ryu Nakada and senior referee Kyohei Wada.


title: Giant Baba

text: Baba had known about his cancer diagnosis for at least a year prior to his death but kept it a secret, not wanting to cause worry about his condition. Baba's three closest employees, Jumbo Tsuruta, Mitsuharu Misawa and Joe Higuchi, did not know about it until after he died.


title: Giant Baba

text: Baba's funeral was delayed due to the fact they could not find a casket big enough to fit his body. A memorial service was held publicly on April 17, 1999, at the Nippon Budokan the day after the 1999 Champion Carnival Final. Over 28,000 people attended, including the entirety of the All Japan Pro Wrestling roster, as well as Baba's wife and family. His body was later cremated, and his tomb is located at Honmatsuji in Akashi City, Hyogo Prefecture.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Bruce Walter Timm (born February 5, 1961) is an American artist, animator, writer, and producer. He has contributed to building the modern DC Comics animated franchise, most notably "" (1992–1995) and the subsequent DC Animated Universe (DCAU), for which Timm created most of the character designs. Timm and Paul Dini co-created the characters Harley Quinn and Terry McGinnis.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm began his animation career as a layout artist for animation studios such as Filmation, Bakshi Productions, and Don Bluth Productions, before joining Warner Bros. in 1989. In addition to "Batman: The Animated Series", Timm was a producer and writer for other DCAU series such as "" (1996–2000), "The New Batman Adventures" (1997–1999), "Batman Beyond" (1999–2001), "Justice League" (2001–2004), and "Justice League Unlimited" (2004–2006). He also co-created "Freakazoid!" (1995–1997) with Dini and developed "" (2012–2013). Following the conclusion of the DCAU, Timm went on to produce several DC animated films.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Outside of animation, Timm has also drawn several comic books. Timm and Dini collaborated on "", which won the Eisner Award for Best Single Story in 1994. Timm has also released two art books showcasing his erotic drawings of women, "Naughty and Nice: The Good Girl Art of Bruce Timm" and "The Big Tease: A Naughty and Nice Collection".


title: Bruce Timm

text: Bruce Timm was born on February 5, 1961, in Oklahoma, the third of four brothers. His father was an engineer and his mother worked for the phone company. Timm's family first moved to Ohio when Timm was two years old, and then to California when Timm was five or six.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm began drawing from a young age and developed a serious interest in comics around age 12 or 13. His first exposure to superhero media was the 1960s "Batman" television series. Timm went to college for only one year before dropping out due to bad grades. After dropping out, he began working full-time at Kmart until he saw a Filmation ad inviting new artists to take a layout test. Timm applied in mid-1980, but wasn't offered the job and went back to working for Kmart. The next year, Filmation began hiring again. Timm passed the layout test on his second try and from that point on began working in animation.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm's early career in animation started at Filmation, working on the layout of "Blackstar", "", "He-Man and the Masters of the Universe", its spin-off "", and "The Lone Ranger". He also did background work on "". He also worked for numerous other employers, including Ralph Bakshi and Don Bluth Productions, and attempted to find work at Marvel Comics and DC Comics, but was unsuccessful. During an animators strike in 1982, Timm found himself out of work and went back to Kmart for about half a year, before being hired by Don Bluth to help work on "The Secret of NIMH". In 1987, he was hired by John Kricfalusi to do layouts for "", which Timm called "artistically and creatively the most fulfilling job that I'd had in the animation business" up to that point. He worked at DIC Entertainment on "The Real Ghostbusters" for one season in 1988, then joined Warner Bros. in 1989. At Warner, Timm worked on "Tiny Toon Adventures".


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm was one of the creators and producers of the animated series based on various DC Comics superheroes, known as the DC Animated Universe. The DCAU has also named the "Timmverse" or "Diniverse", after both him and Paul Dini, a writer and producer. Along with his "Tiny Toons" partner Eric Radomski, Timm co-created and produced the Emmy Award-winning "", which premiered on September 5, 1992, through which he and Dini co-created the character of Harley Quinn, and went on to co-create and produce "" (premiered in September 1996), "The New Batman Adventures" (premiered in September 1997), and "Batman Beyond" (premiered in January 1999), through which he and Dini co-created Terry McGinnis, the teenage Batman of the future, and his supporting cast. He also served as producer on the feature-length "" (2000) before taking the helm as creator and producer of the animated version of "Justice League", which debuted in November 2001; the series continued in the form of "Justice League Unlimited" in July 2004. Timm was also the producer and creator of "" (premiered in November 2011). Along with Dini he created the animated series "Freakazoid!" (premiered in September 1995).


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm created virtually all the original character designs for "Batman: The Animated Series" himself, with the exceptions of Mr. Freeze and the Riddler, who were designed by Mike Mignola, and the characters Man-Bat and the Mad Hatter, who were designed by Kevin Nowlan. He shared character designer duties on "Superman: The Animated Series" and "Justice League" with James Tucker.


title: Bruce Timm

text: The 2008 project "" is a departure from the "Timmverse" style, with Timm in a producer role collaborating with Japanese animators on a direct-to-DVD anthology that takes place between the live-action "Batman Begins" (2005) and "The Dark Knight" (2008) films.


title: Bruce Timm

text: In 2013, following the release of "" animated feature, Timm stepped down as DC animation supervising producer; James Tucker was named as his replacement. Timm still works at Warner Brothers, and executive produced the DC Universe Original Animated Movies "" (2015) and "" (2016), and series "" (2015). He was a writer and executive producer for "Batman and Harley Quinn" (2017).


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm worked with "Man of Steel" director Zack Snyder in creating a 75th anniversary short of Superman in 2013. In 2014, he released "", an animated short celebrating the 75th anniversary of Batman and an homage to one of Hugo Strange's first appearances in the comic books.


title: Bruce Timm

text: During DC FanDome 2021, Timm was announced to be executive producing a new Batman animated series titled "Batman: Caped Crusader" alongside J. J. Abrams and Matt Reeves. Comparing the new series to "Batman: The Animated Series", Timm stated, "There were certain limitations on what we could do in terms of adult content; in terms of violence and adult themes. My idea is basically to say, 'OK, it's 1990 again, I get to do what I want to do this time, and I got JJ and Matt backing me up.'"


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm has played several characters in the animated series he has been involved in. His cameos include the 1992 episode of "", "Beware the Gray Ghost", playing the toy shop owner, as himself in the 1997 episode of "The New Batman Adventures", "Holiday Knights", and as the leader of the Jokerz gang in "Batman Beyond", which he joked he did under duress and was "Emmy Award-winning material". He subsequently appeared in an animated form in the 2009 episode of "", "Legends of the Dark Mite", in a comic book convention parody scene, in which he wore Joker's costume, alongside Paul Dini in Harley Quinn's costume. He played a guard in the 2000 direct-to-video animated film "".


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm made a cameo appearance in the 2009 film "" as Bug Boy. He played The Riddler in the 2010 film "" and appeared as Galius Zed in the 2011 film "".


title: Bruce Timm

text: Outside of his work in animation, Timm's first ambition was to become a comic-book artist and has thus produced several one-shots and miniseries, mostly for DC Comics. His earliest comic book work was drawing He-Man and other Masters of the Universe mini-comics that would be packaged with Mattel toys in the 1980s.


title: Bruce Timm

text: In 1994, Timm and writer Paul Dini won both the Eisner Award for Best Single Story and the Harvey Award for Best Single Issue or Story for "Batman Adventures: Mad Love". Timm won the same Eisner prize the next year as well, for "Batman Adventures Holiday Special", (a one-shot with several Christmas-themed stories) with Dini, Ronnie del Carmen, and others. Later, Timm was involved with "Batman Adventures" and has also worked on "Avengers" and "Vampirella".


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm co-created Harley Quinn (with Dini), working from Dini's original design. Harley's popularity on television led to her inclusion in the mainstream DC Universe. In 2004, Timm and Dini (assisted by Shane Glines as inker) released a three-issue "Harley and Ivy" miniseries, which was in the works for years.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm also drew the 1999 "Avengers 1½" special for Marvel Comics, written by Roger Stern. In 2005, he contributed artwork for two comics. One was a short story in "Conan" #18, titled "Conan's Favorite Joke". The other was a Black Canary short story in "Birds of Prey" #86. Timm provided the art work for a short two-page Harley Quinn origin story for Dini's "Countdown" in 2008.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm was featured in "Conan Gets Animated", a skit in the December 9, 2010, episode of the TBS late night talk show "Conan", in which host Conan O'Brien enlisted his help in designing a new superhero, based on O'Brien's specifications. The superhero, who was designed to resemble O'Brien, included a typically muscular superhero body and costume with chest insignia, as well as idiosyncrasies such as an oven mitt, a jai alai glove, golf shoes, sock garters, and fishnet stockings. One month later, O'Brien aired a clip on his show in which the character, named "The Flaming C", appears in "Young Justice".


title: Bruce Timm

text: In 2012, Timm released a book of erotic art, "Naughty and Nice: The Good Girl Art of Bruce Timm," showcasing more than 300 pencil, line, and full color erotic drawings of women. In 2020, he released another book of erotic art, "The Big Tease: A Naughty and Nice Collection," showcasing more than 208 pencil, line, and full color erotic drawings of women.


title: Bruce Timm

text: Timm's minimalist, аngular style is heavily based in his love of 1950s- and 1960s-era comics and Art Deco architecture style. He is also self-taught, having never received any formal art schooling. Timm lists his artistic influences as Jack Kirby, Harvey Kurtzman, Jim Steranko, John Buscema, Wally Wood, Frank Frazetta, Dan DeCarlo, and Alex Toth.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: The Cabinet of the Philippines (, usually referred to as the Cabinet or Gabinete) consists of the heads of the largest part of the executive branch of the national government of the Philippines. Currently, it includes the secretaries of 22 executive departments and the heads of other several other minor agencies and offices that are subordinate to the president of the Philippines.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: The cabinet secretaries are tasked to advise the president on the different affairs of the state like agriculture, budget, energy, finance, education, social welfare, national defense, foreign policy, and the like.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: They are nominated by the president and then presented to the Commission on Appointments, a body of the Congress of the Philippines that confirms all appointments made by the president, for confirmation or rejection. If the presidential appointees are approved, they are sworn into office, receive the title "Secretary", and begin to function their duties.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: The people listed below form the cabinet and are the heads of the current executive departments of the Philippines. The officials under these departments are appointed with the rank of Secretary. Appointed officials who are not confirmed by the Commission on Appointments, as required by law, will take the office under acting capacity, or as officer-in-charge, depending on the appointment released and approved by the President. The current structure of the Cabinet of the Philippines are based on the executive orders reorganizing the offices under its jurisdiction, given the fact that the Constitution allows executive privileges to reorganize its structure.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: Official Filipino names of the agencies were derived from Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino and Department of Budget and Management.


title: Cabinet of the Philippines

text: The following officials are appointed on the following agencies directly under the supervision of the Office of the President. The current structure of these agencies and offices are based on Executive Order No. 1, s. 2022, wherein all agencies and offices under and attached to the Office of the President shall be under the supervision and control of the Office of Executive Secretary ("Section 5"). Meanwhile, officials under these agencies and officies can either have a rank of secretary or undersecretary, and therefore are permitted to attend Cabinet meetings for special purposes.


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs (pronounced as "better F S", "butter F S", "b-tree F S", or simply by spelling it out) is a computer storage format that combines a file system based on the copy-on-write (COW) principle with a logical volume manager (not to be confused with Linux's LVM), developed together. It was initially designed at Oracle Corporation in 2007 for use in Linux, and since November 2013, the file system's on-disk format has been declared stable in the Linux kernel. According to Oracle, Btrfs "is not a true acronym".


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs is intended to address the lack of pooling, snapshots, checksums, and integral multi-device spanning in Linux file systems. Chris Mason, the principal Btrfs author, stated that its goal was "to let [Linux] scale for the storage that will be available. Scaling is not just about addressing the storage but also means being able to administer and to manage it with a clean interface that lets people see what's being used and makes it more reliable".


title: Btrfs

text: The core data structure of Btrfsthe copy-on-write B-treewas originally proposed by IBM researcher Ohad Rodeh at a presentation at USENIX 2007. Chris Mason, an engineer working on ReiserFS for SUSE at the time, joined Oracle later that year and began work on a new file system based on these B-trees.


title: Btrfs

text: In 2008, the principal developer of the ext3 and ext4 file systems, Theodore Ts'o, stated that although ext4 has improved features, it is not a major advance; it uses old technology and is a stop-gap. Ts'o said that Btrfs is the better direction because "it offers improvements in scalability, reliability, and ease of management". Btrfs also has "a number of the same design ideas that reiser3/4 had".


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs 1.0, with finalized on-disk format, was originally slated for a late-2008 release, and was finally accepted into the Linux kernel mainline in 2009. Several Linux distributions began offering Btrfs as an experimental choice of root file system during installation.


title: Btrfs

text: In July 2011, Btrfs automatic defragmentation and scrubbing features were merged into version 3.0 of the Linux kernel mainline. Besides Mason at Oracle, Miao Xie at Fujitsu contributed performance improvements. In June 2012, Chris Mason left Oracle for Fusion-io, which he left a year later with Josef Bacik to join Facebook. While at both companies, Mason continued his work on Btrfs.


title: Btrfs

text: In 2012, two Linux distributions moved Btrfs from experimental to production or supported status: Oracle Linux in March, followed by SUSE Linux Enterprise in August.


title: Btrfs

text: In August 2017, Red Hat announced in the release notes for Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) 7.4 that it no longer planned to move Btrfs to a fully supported feature (it's been included as a "technology preview" since RHEL 6 beta) noting that it would remain available in the RHEL 7 release series. Btrfs was removed from RHEL 8 in May 2019. RHEL moved from ext4 in RHEL 6 to XFS in RHEL 7.


title: Btrfs

text: In 2009, Btrfs was expected to offer a feature set comparable to ZFS, developed by Sun Microsystems. After Oracle's acquisition of Sun in 2009, Mason and Oracle decided to continue with Btrfs development.


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs provides a "clone" operation that atomically creates a copy-on-write snapshot of a file. Such cloned files are sometimes referred to as "reflinks", in light of the proposed associated Linux kernel system call.


title: Btrfs

text: By cloning, the file system does not create a new link pointing to an existing inode; instead, it creates a new inode that initially shares the same disk blocks with the original file. As a result, cloning works only within the boundaries of the same Btrfs file system, but since version 3.6 of the Linux kernel it may cross the boundaries of subvolumes under certain circumstances. The actual data blocks are not duplicated; at the same time, due to the copy-on-write (CoW) nature of Btrfs, modifications to any of the cloned files are not visible in the original file and vice versa.


title: Btrfs

text: Cloning should not be confused with hard links, which are directory entries that associate multiple file names with a single file. While hard links can be taken as different names for the same file, cloning in Btrfs provides independent files that initially share all their disk blocks.


title: Btrfs

text: Support for this Btrfs feature was added in version 7.5 of the GNU coreutils, via the codice_2 option to the codice_3 command.


title: Btrfs

text: In addition to data cloning (), Btrfs also supports out-of-band deduplication via . This functionality allows two files with (even partially) identical data to share storage.


title: Btrfs

text: A Btrfs subvolume can be thought of as a separate POSIX file namespace, mountable separately by passing codice_4 or codice_5 options to the utility. It can also be accessed by mounting the top-level subvolume, in which case subvolumes are visible and accessible as its subdirectories.


title: Btrfs

text: Subvolumes can be created at any place within the file system hierarchy, and they can also be nested. Nested subvolumes appear as subdirectories within their parent subvolumes, similarly to the way a top-level subvolume presents its subvolumes as subdirectories. Deleting a subvolume is not possible until all subvolumes below it in the nesting hierarchy are deleted; as a result, top-level subvolumes cannot be deleted.


title: Btrfs

text: Any Btrfs file system always has a default subvolume, which is initially set to be the top-level subvolume, and is mounted by default if no subvolume selection option is passed to codice_6. The default subvolume can be changed as required.


title: Btrfs

text: A Btrfs snapshot is a subvolume that shares its data (and metadata) with some other subvolume, using Btrfs' copy-on-write capabilities, and modifications to a snapshot are not visible in the original subvolume. Once a writable snapshot is made, it can be treated as an alternate version of the original file system. For example, to roll back to a snapshot, a modified original subvolume needs to be unmounted and the snapshot needs to be mounted in its place. At that point, the original subvolume may also be deleted.


title: Btrfs

text: The copy-on-write (CoW) nature of Btrfs means that snapshots are quickly created, while initially consuming very little disk space. Since a snapshot is a subvolume, creating nested snapshots is also possible. Taking snapshots of a subvolume is not a recursive process; thus, if a snapshot of a subvolume is created, every subvolume or snapshot that the subvolume already contains is mapped to an empty directory of the same name inside the snapshot.


title: Btrfs

text: Taking snapshots of a directory is not possible, as only subvolumes can have snapshots. However, there is a workaround that involves reflinks spread across subvolumes: a new subvolume is created, containing cross-subvolume reflinks to the content of the targeted directory. Having that available, a snapshot of this new volume can be created.


title: Btrfs

text: A subvolume in Btrfs is quite different from a traditional Logical Volume Manager (LVM) logical volume. With LVM, a logical volume is a separate block device, while a Btrfs subvolume is not and it cannot be treated or used that way. Making dd or LVM snapshots of btrfs leads to data loss if either the original or the copy is mounted while both are on the same computer.


title: Btrfs

text: Given any pair of subvolumes (or snapshots), Btrfs can generate a binary diff between them (by using the codice_7 command) that can be replayed later (by using codice_8), possibly on a different Btrfs file system. The send–receive feature effectively creates (and applies) a set of data modifications required for converting one subvolume into another.


title: Btrfs

text: The send/receive feature can be used with regularly scheduled snapshots for implementing a simple form of file system replication, or for the purpose of performing incremental backups.


title: Btrfs

text: A "quota group" (or "qgroup") imposes an upper limit to the space a subvolume or snapshot may consume. A new snapshot initially consumes no quota because its data is shared with its parent, but thereafter incurs a charge for new files and copy-on-write operations on existing files. When quotas are active, a quota group is automatically created with each new subvolume or snapshot. These initial quota groups are building blocks which can be grouped (with the codice_9 command) into hierarchies to implement quota pools.


title: Btrfs

text: Quota groups only apply to subvolumes and snapshots, while having quotas enforced on individual subdirectories, users, or user groups is not possible. However, workarounds are possible by using different subvolumes for all users or user groups that require a quota to be enforced.


title: Btrfs

text: As the result of having very little metadata anchored in fixed locations, Btrfs can warp to fit unusual spatial layouts of the backend storage devices. The codice_10 tool exploits this ability to do an in-place conversion of an ext2/3/4 or ReiserFS file system, by nesting the equivalent Btrfs metadata in its unallocated space—while preserving an unmodified copy of the original file system.


title: Btrfs

text: The conversion involves creating a copy of the whole ext2/3/4 metadata, while the Btrfs files simply point to the same blocks used by the ext2/3/4 files. This makes the bulk of the blocks shared between the two filesystems before the conversion becomes permanent. Thanks to the copy-on-write nature of Btrfs, the original versions of the file data blocks are preserved during all file modifications. Until the conversion becomes permanent, only the blocks that were marked as free in ext2/3/4 are used to hold new Btrfs modifications, meaning that the conversion can be undone at any time (although doing so will erase any changes made after the conversion to Btrfs).


title: Btrfs

text: All converted files are available and writable in the default subvolume of the Btrfs. A sparse file holding all of the references to the original ext2/3/4 filesystem is created in a separate subvolume, which is mountable on its own as a read-only disk image, allowing both original and converted file systems to be accessed at the same time. Deleting this sparse file frees up the space and makes the conversion permanent.


title: Btrfs

text: In 4.x versions of the mainline Linux kernel, the in-place ext3/4 conversion was considered untested and rarely used. However, the feature was rewritten from scratch in 2016 for codice_11 4.6. and has been considered stable since then.


title: Btrfs

text: When creating a new Btrfs, an existing Btrfs can be used as a read-only "seed" file system. The new file system will then act as a copy-on-write overlay on the seed, as a form of union mounting. The seed can be later detached from the Btrfs, at which point the rebalancer will simply copy over any seed data still referenced by the new file system before detaching. Mason has suggested this may be useful for a Live CD installer, which might boot from a read-only Btrfs seed on an optical disc, rebalance itself to the target partition on the install disk in the background while the user continues to work, then eject the disc to complete the installation without rebooting.


title: Btrfs

text: In his 2009 interview, Chris Mason stated that support for encryption was planned for Btrfs. In the meantime, a workaround for combining encryption with Btrfs is to use a full-disk encryption mechanism such as dm-crypt / LUKS on the underlying devices and to create the Btrfs filesystem on top of that layer.


title: Btrfs

text: Unix systems traditionally rely on "fsck" programs to check and repair filesystems. This functionality is implemented via the codice_12 program. Since version 4.0 this functionality is deemed relatively stable. However, as of August 2017, the btrfs documentation suggests that its repair option be used only if you have been advised by "a developer or an experienced user".


title: Btrfs

text: There is another tool, named codice_13, that can be used to recover files from an unmountable filesystem, without modifying the broken filesystem itself (i.e., non-destructively).


title: Btrfs

text: In normal use, Btrfs is mostly self-healing and can recover from broken root trees at mount time, thanks to making periodic data flushes to permanent storage, by default every 30 seconds. Thus, isolated errors will cause a maximum of 30 seconds of filesystem changes to be lost at the next mount. This period can be changed by specifying a desired value (in seconds) with the codice_14 mount option.


title: Btrfs

text: Ohad Rodeh's original proposal at USENIX 2007 noted that B+ trees, which are widely used as on-disk data structures for databases, could not efficiently allow copy-on-write-based snapshots because its leaf nodes were linked together: if a leaf was copy-on-written, its siblings and parents would have to be as well, as would "their" siblings and parents and so on until the entire tree was copied. He suggested instead a modified B-tree (which has no leaf linkage), with a refcount associated to each tree node but stored in an ad hoc free map structure and certain relaxations to the tree's balancing algorithms to make them copy-on-write friendly. The result would be a data structure suitable for a high-performance object store that could perform copy-on-write snapshots, while maintaining good concurrency.


title: Btrfs

text: At Oracle later that year, Chris Mason began work on a snapshot-capable file system that would use this data structure almost exclusively—not just for metadata and file data, but also recursively to track space allocation of the trees themselves. This allowed all traversal and modifications to be funneled through a single code path, against which features such as copy-on-write, checksumming and mirroring needed to be implemented only once to benefit the entire file system.


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs is structured as several layers of such trees, all using the same B-tree implementation. The trees store generic "items" sorted by a 136-bit key. The most significant 64 bits of the key are a unique "object id". The middle eight bits are an item type field: its use is hardwired into code as an item filter in tree lookups. "Objects" can have multiple items of multiple types. The remaining (least significant) 64 bits are used in type-specific ways. Therefore, items for the same object end up adjacent to each other in the tree, grouped by type. By choosing certain key values, objects can further put items of the same type in a particular order.


title: Btrfs

text: Interior tree nodes are simply flat lists of key-pointer pairs, where the pointer is the logical block number of a child node. Leaf nodes contain item keys packed into the front of the node and item data packed into the end, with the two growing toward each other as the leaf fills up.


title: Btrfs

text: Within each directory, directory entries appear as "directory items", whose least significant bits of key values are a CRC32C hash of their filename. Their data is a "location key", or the key of the inode item it points to. Directory items together can thus act as an index for path-to-inode lookups, but are not used for iteration because they are sorted by their hash, effectively randomly permuting them. This means user applications iterating over and opening files in a large directory would thus generate many more disk seeks between non-adjacent files—a notable performance drain in other file systems with hash-ordered directories such as ReiserFS, ext3 (with Htree-indexes enabled) and ext4, all of which have TEA-hashed filenames. To avoid this, each directory entry has a "directory index item", whose key value of the item is set to a per-directory counter that increments with each new directory entry. Iteration over these index items thus returns entries in roughly the same order as stored on disk.


title: Btrfs

text: Files with hard links in multiple directories have multiple reference items, one for each parent directory. Files with multiple hard links in the "same" directory pack all of the links' filenames into the same reference item. This was a design flaw that limited the number of same-directory hard links to however many could fit in a single tree block. (On the default block size of 4 KiB, an average filename length of 8 bytes and a per-filename header of 4 bytes, this would be less than 350.) Applications which made heavy use of multiple same-directory hard links, such as git, GNUS, GMame and BackupPC were observed to fail at this limit. The limit was eventually removed (and as of October 2012 has been merged pending release in Linux 3.7) by introducing spillover "extended reference items" to hold hard link filenames which do not otherwise fit.


title: Btrfs

text: File data is kept outside the tree in "extents", which are contiguous runs of disk data blocks. Extent blocks default to 4 KiB in size, do not have headers and contain only (possibly compressed) file data. In compressed extents, individual blocks are not compressed separately; rather, the compression stream spans the entire extent.


title: Btrfs

text: Files have "extent data items" to track the extents which hold their contents. The item's key value is the starting byte offset of the extent. This makes for efficient seeks in large files with many extents, because the correct extent for any given file offset can be computed with just one tree lookup.


title: Btrfs

text: Snapshots and cloned files share extents. When a small part of a large such extent is overwritten, the resulting copy-on-write may create three new extents: a small one containing the overwritten data, and two large ones with unmodified data on either side of the overwrite. To avoid having to re-write unmodified data, the copy-on-write may instead create "bookend extents", or extents which are simply slices of existing extents. Extent data items allow for this by including an offset into the extent they are tracking: items for bookends are those with non-zero offsets.


title: Btrfs

text: The "extent allocation tree" acts as an allocation map for the file system. Unlike other trees, items in this tree do not have object ids. They represent regions of space: their key values hold the starting offsets and lengths of the regions they represent.


title: Btrfs

text: The file system divides its allocated space into "block groups" which are variable-sized allocation regions that alternate between preferring metadata extents (tree nodes) and data extents (file contents). The default ratio of data to metadata block groups is 1:2. They are intended to use concepts of the Orlov block allocator to allocate related files together and resist fragmentation by leaving free space between groups. (Ext3 block groups, however, have fixed locations computed from the size of the file system, whereas those in Btrfs are dynamic and created as needed.) Each block group is associated with a "block group item". Inode items in the file system tree include a reference to their current block group.


title: Btrfs

text: "Extent items" contain a back-reference to the tree node or file occupying that extent. There may be multiple back-references if the extent is shared between snapshots. If there are too many back-references to fit in the item, they spill out into individual "extent data reference items". Tree nodes, in turn, have back-references to their containing trees. This makes it possible to find which extents or tree nodes are in any region of space by doing a B-tree range lookup on a pair of offsets bracketing that region, then following the back-references. For relocating data, this allows an efficient upwards traversal from the relocated blocks to quickly find and fix all downwards references to those blocks, without having to scan the entire file system. This, in turn, allows the file system to efficiently shrink, migrate, and defragment its storage online.


title: Btrfs

text: The extent allocation tree, as with all other trees in the file system, is copy-on-write. Writes to the file system may thus cause a cascade whereby changed tree nodes and file data result in new extents being allocated, causing the extent tree itself to change. To avoid creating a feedback loop, extent tree nodes which are still in memory but not yet committed to disk may be updated in place to reflect new copy-on-written extents.


title: Btrfs

text: In theory, the extent allocation tree makes a conventional free-space bitmap unnecessary because the extent allocation tree acts as a B-tree version of a BSP tree. In practice, however, an in-memory red–black tree of page-sized bitmaps is used to speed up allocations. These bitmaps are persisted to disk (starting in Linux 2.6.37, via the codice_15 mount option) as special extents that are exempt from checksumming and copy-on-write.


title: Btrfs

text: CRC-32C checksums are computed for both data and metadata and stored as "checksum items" in a "checksum tree". There is room for 256 bits of metadata checksums and up to a full node (roughly 4 KB or more) for data checksums. Btrfs has provisions for additional checksum algorithms to be added in future versions of the file system.


title: Btrfs

text: There is one checksum item per contiguous run of allocated blocks, with per-block checksums packed end-to-end into the item data. If there are more checksums than can fit, they spill into another checksum item in a new leaf. If the file system detects a checksum mismatch while reading a block, it first tries to obtain (or create) a good copy of this block from another device if internal mirroring or RAID techniques are in use.


title: Btrfs

text: Btrfs can initiate an online check of the entire file system by triggering a file system scrub job that is performed in the background. The scrub job scans the entire file system for integrity and automatically attempts to report and repair any bad blocks it finds along the way.


title: Btrfs

text: An fsync request commits modified data immediately to stable storage. fsync-heavy workloads (like a database or a virtual machine whose running OS "fsyncs" frequently) could potentially generate a great deal of redundant write I/O by forcing the file system to repeatedly copy-on-write and flush frequently modified parts of trees to storage. To avoid this, a temporary per-subvolume "log tree" is created to journal fsync-triggered copy-on-writes. Log trees are self-contained, tracking their own extents and keeping their own checksum items. Their items are replayed and deleted at the next full tree commit or (if there was a system crash) at the next remount.


title: Btrfs

text: Block devices are divided into "physical chunks" of 1 GiB for data and 256 MiB for metadata. Physical chunks across multiple devices can be mirrored or striped together into a single "logical chunk". These logical chunks are combined into a single logical address space that the rest of the filesystem uses.


title: Btrfs

text: The "chunk tree" tracks this by storing each device therein as a "device item" and logical chunks as "chunk map items", which provide a forward mapping from logical to physical addresses by storing their offsets in the least significant 64 bits of their key. Chunk map items can be one of several different types:


title: Btrfs

text: "N" is the number of block devices still having free space when the chunk is allocated. If N is not large enough for the chosen mirroring/mapping, then the filesystem is effectively out of space.


title: Btrfs

text: Defragmentation, shrinking, and rebalancing operations require extents to be relocated. However, doing a simple copy-on-write of the relocating extent will break sharing between snapshots and consume disk space. To preserve sharing, an update-and-swap algorithm is used, with a special "relocation tree" serving as scratch space for affected metadata. The extent to be relocated is first copied to its destination. Then, by following backreferences upward through the affected subvolume's file system tree, metadata pointing to the old extent is progressively updated to point at the new one; any newly updated items are stored in the relocation tree. Once the update is complete, items in the relocation tree are swapped with their counterparts in the affected subvolume, and the relocation tree is discarded.


title: Btrfs

text: All the file system's trees—including the chunk tree itself—are stored in chunks, creating a potential bootstrapping problem when mounting the file system. To bootstrap into a mount, a list of physical addresses of chunks belonging to the chunk and root trees are stored in the "superblock".


title: Btrfs

text: "Superblock mirrors" are kept at fixed locations: 64 KiB into every block device, with additional copies at 64 MiB, 256 GiB and 1 PiB. When a superblock mirror is updated, its "generation number" is incremented. At mount time, the copy with the highest generation number is used. All superblock mirrors are updated in tandem, except in SSD mode which alternates updates among mirrors to provide some wear levelling.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs in warfare have a very long history starting in ancient times. From being trained in combat, to their use as scouts, sentries, messengers, mercy dogs, and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and Romans.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Among the Greeks and Romans, dogs served most often as sentries or patrols, though they were sometimes taken into battle. The earliest use of war dogs in a battle recorded in classical sources was by Alyattes of Lydia against the Cimmerians around 600 BC. The Lydian dogs killed some invaders and routed others. At the Battle of Pelusium (525 BC), Cambyses II deployed dogs, cats, and other animals held sacred by the Egyptians. By putting these animals in the front lines, he was supposedly able to get the Egyptians to cease using their projectile weaponry.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: During the Late Antiquity, Attila the Hun used large war dogs in his campaigns. Gifts of war dog breeding stock between European royalty were seen as suitable tokens for exchange throughout the Middle Ages. Other civilizations used armored dogs to defend caravans or attack enemies.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In the Far East, 15th century Vietnamese Emperor Lê Lợi raised a pack of over 100 hounds, tended and trained by Nguyễn Xí, whose skills were impressive enough to promote him to the commander of a shock troop regiment.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Later on, Frederick the Great of Prussia used dogs as messengers during the Seven Years' War with Russia. Napoleon also used dogs during his campaigns. Dogs were used until 1770 to guard naval installations in France.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The first official use of dogs for military purposes in the U.S. was during the Seminole Wars. Hounds were used in the American Civil War to protect, send messages, and guard prisoners. General Grant recounts how packs of Southern bloodhounds were destroyed by Union troops wherever found due to their being trained to hunt runaway slaves before the war. Dogs were also used as mascots in American WWI propaganda and recruiting posters.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs have been used in warfare by many civilizations. As warfare has progressed, their purposes have changed greatly.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs have been used for many different purposes. Different breeds were used for different tasks, but always met the demands of the handlers. Many roles for dogs in war are obsolete and no longer practiced, but the concept of the war dog still remains alive and well in modern warfare.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In ancient times, dogs, often large mastiff-type breeds, would be strapped with armor or spiked collars and sent into battle to attack the enemy. This strategy was used by various civilizations, such as the Romans and the Greeks. While not as common as in previous centuries, modern militaries continue to employ dogs in an attack role. SOCOM forces of the US military still use dogs in raids for apprehending fleeing enemies or prisoners, or for searching areas too difficult or dangerous for human soldiers (such as crawl spaces).


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Another program attempted during World War II was suggested by a Swiss citizen living in Santa Fe, New Mexico. William A. Prestre proposed using large dogs to kill Japanese soldiers. He persuaded the military to lease an entire island in the Mississippi to house the training facilities. There, the army hoped to train as many as two million dogs. The idea was to begin island invasions with landing craft releasing thousands of dogs against the Japanese defenders, then followed up by troops as the Japanese defenders scattered in confusion. One of the biggest problems encountered was getting Japanese soldiers with whom to train the dogs, because few Japanese soldiers were being captured. Eventually, Japanese-American soldiers volunteered for the training. Another large problem was with the dogs; either they were too docile, did not properly respond to their beach-crossing training, or were terrified by shellfire. After millions of dollars were spent with inconclusive results, the program was abandoned.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The Soviet Union used dogs for antitank purposes beginning in the 1930s. Earlier antitank dogs were fitted with tilt-rod mines and trained to run beneath enemy tanks, which would detonate the mines automatically. However, the dogs were trained with stationary Russian tanks and very seldom ran under the moving tanks; instead, they were shot as they ran beside the moving tanks. When both Russian and German tanks were present, the dogs would preferentially run towards the familiar Russian tanks.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: About the time World War I broke out, many European communities used dogs to pull small carts for milk deliveries and similar purposes.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In August 1914, the Belgian Army used dogs to pull their Maxim guns on wheeled carriages and supplies or reportedly even wounded in their carts. Two dogs of the sturdy and docile Martin Belge breed were used to pull each machine gun or ammunition cart. Already in common civilian use and cheap to buy and feed, the dogs proved hardier and more suitable for military use under fire than packhorses. The dogs were officially withdrawn from military use in December 1916, although several months were needed before horse-drawn carts and motor vehicles had fully replaced them.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The French had 250 dogs at the start of World War I. The Dutch army copied the idea and had hundreds of dogs trained and ready by the end of World War I (the Netherlands remained neutral). The Soviet Red Army also used dogs to drag wounded men to aid stations during World War II. The dogs were well-suited to transporting loads over snow and through craters.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs were often used to carry messages in battle. They were turned loose to move silently to a second handler. This required a dog that was very loyal to "two" masters, otherwise the dog would not deliver the message on time or at all. Some messenger dogs also performed other communication jobs, such as pulling telephone lines or cables from one location to another.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: A Yorkshire terrier named Smoky was used to run a telegraph wire through a , pipe to ensure communication without moving troops into the line of fire.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs were often used as unit mascots for military units. The dog in question might be an officer's dog, an animal that the unit chose to adopt, or one of their canines employed in another role as a working dog. Some naval dogs such as Sinbad and Judy were themselves enlisted service members. Some units also chose to employ a particular breed of dog as their standard mascot, with new dogs replacing the old when it died or was retired. The presence of a mascot was designed to lift morale, and many were used to this effect in the trenches of World War I. An example of this would be Sergeant Stubby for the US Army.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In World War II, dogs took on a new role in medical experimentation, as the primary animals chosen for medical research. The animal experimentation allowed doctors to test new medicines without risking human lives, though these practices came under more scrutiny after the war. The United States' government responded by proclaiming these dogs as heroes.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The Cold War sparked a heated debate over the ethics of animal experimentation in the U.S., particularly aimed at how canines were treated in World War II. In 1966, major reforms came to this field with the adoption of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Many dogs were used to locate mines. They did not prove to be very effective under combat conditions. Marine mine detecting dogs were trained using bare electric wires beneath the ground surface. The wires shocked the dogs, teaching them that danger lurked under the soil. Once the dog's focus was properly directed, dummy mines were planted and the dogs were trained to signal their presence. While the dogs effectively found the mines, the task proved so stressful for the dogs they were only able to work between 20 and 30 minutes at a time. The mine-detecting war dogs anticipated random shocks from the heretofore friendly earth, making them extremely nervous. The useful service life of the dogs was not long. Experiments with laboratory rats show that this trend can be very extreme; in some tests, rats even huddled in the corner to the point of starvation to avoid electric shock.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Dogs have historically also been used in many cases to track fugitives and enemy troops, overlapping partly into the duties of a scout dog, but use their olfactory skill in tracking a scent, rather than warning a handler at the initial presentation of a scent.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: All scout dogs must be taught the difference between human and animal scent. Some dogs are trained to silently locate booby traps and concealed enemies such as snipers. The dog's keen senses of smell and hearing would make them far more effective at detecting these dangers than humans. The best scout dogs are described as having a disposition intermediate to docile tracking dogs and aggressive attack dogs.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Scouting dogs are able to identify the opposing threat within 1,000 yards of area. This method of scouting is more efficient compared to human senses.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Scout dogs were used in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam by the United States to detect ambushes, weapon caches, or enemy fighters hiding under water, with only reed breathing straws showing above the waterline. The US operated a number of scout-dog platoons (assigned on a handler-and-dog team basis to individual patrols) and had a dedicated dog-training school in Fort Benning, Georgia.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: One of the earliest military-related uses, sentry dogs were used to defend camps or other priority areas at night and sometimes during the day. They would bark or growl to alert guards of a stranger's presence. During the Cold War, the American military used sentry dog teams outside of nuclear weapons storage areas. A test program was conducted in Vietnam to test sentry dogs, launched two days after a successful Vietcong attack on Da Nang Air Base (July 1, 1965). Forty dog teams were deployed to Vietnam for a four-month test period, with teams placed on the perimeter in front of machine gun towers/bunkers. The detection of intruders resulted in a rapid deployment of reinforcements. The test was successful, so the handlers returned to the US while the dogs were reassigned to new handlers. The Air Force immediately started to ship dog teams to all the bases in Vietnam and Thailand.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The buildup of American forces in Vietnam created large dog sections at USAF Southeast Asia (SEA) bases; 467 dogs were eventually assigned to Bien Hoa, Binh Thuy, Cam Ranh Bay, Da Nang, Nha Trang, Tuy Hoa, Phù Cát, Phan Rang, Tan Son Nhut, and Pleiku Air Bases. Within a year of deployment, attacks on several bases had been stopped when the enemy forces were detected by dog teams. Captured Vietcong told of the fear and respect that they had for the dogs. The Vietcong even placed a bounty on lives of handlers and dogs. The success of sentry dogs was determined by the lack of successful penetrations of bases in Vietnam and Thailand. The United States War Dogs Association estimated that war dogs saved over 10,000 U.S. lives in Vietnam. Sentry Dogs were also used by the Army, Navy, and Marines to protect the perimeter of a large bases.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Contemporary dogs in military roles are also often referred to as police dogs, or in the United States and United Kingdom as a military working dog (MWD), or K-9. Their roles are nearly as varied as those of their ancient relatives, though they tend to be more rarely used in front-line formations. As of 2011, 600 U.S. MWDs were actively participating in the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Traditionally, the most common breed for these police-type operations has been the German Shepherd; in recent years, a shift has been made to smaller dogs with keener senses of smell for detection work, and more resilient breeds such as the Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherd for patrolling and law enforcement. All MWDs in use today are paired with a single individual after their training. This person is called a handler. While a handler usually does not stay with one dog for the length of either's career, usually a handler stays partnered with a dog for at least a year, and sometimes much longer.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The latest canine tactical vests are outfitted with cameras and durable microphones that allow dogs to relay audio and visual information to their handlers.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In the 1970s, the US Air Force used over 1,600 dogs worldwide. Today, personnel cutbacks have reduced USAF dog teams to around 530, stationed throughout the world. Many dogs that operate in these roles are trained at Lackland Air Force Base, the only United States facility that currently trains dogs for military use.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Change has also come in legislation for the benefit of the canines. Prior to 2000, older war dogs were required to be euthanized. The new law permits adoption of retired military dogs. One notable case of which was Lex, a working dog whose handler was killed in Iraq.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Numerous memorials are dedicated to war dogs, including at March Field Air Museum in Riverside, California; the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia; at the Naval Facility, Guam, with replicas at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine in Knoxville; the Alfred M. Gray Marine Corps Research Center in Quantico, Virginia; and the Alabama War Dogs Memorial at the USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park in Mobile, Alabama.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: As a partner in everyday military police work, dogs have proven versatile and loyal officers. They can chase suspects, track them if they are hidden, and guard them when they are caught. They are trained to respond viciously if their handler is attacked, and otherwise not to react at all unless they are commanded to do so by their handler. Many police dogs are also trained in detection, as well.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Both MWDs and their civilian counterparts provide service in drug detection, sniffing out a broad range of psychoactive substances despite efforts at concealment. Provided they have been trained to detect it, MWDs can smell small traces of nearly any substance, even if it is in a sealed container. Dogs trained in drug detection are normally used at ports of embarkation such as airports, checkpoints, and other places where security and a need for anti-contraband measures exist.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: MWDs can also be trained to detect explosives. As with narcotics, trained MWDs can detect minuscule amounts of a wide range of explosives, making them useful for searching entry points, patrolling within secure installations, and at checkpoints. These dogs are capable of achieving over a 98% success rate in bomb detection.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The use of MWDs on prisoners by the United States during recent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq has been controversial. Dog ownership in the Middle East is relatively uncommon, as many Muslims consider dogs unclean.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: In court testimony following the revelations of Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, it was stated that Colonel Thomas M. Pappas approved the use of dogs for interrogations. Private Ivan L. Frederick testified that interrogators were authorized to use dogs and that a civilian contract interrogator left him lists of the cells he wanted dog handlers to visit. "They were allowed to use them to ... intimidate inmates", Frederick stated. Two soldiers, Sergeant Santos A. Cardona and Sergeant Michael J. Smith, were then charged with maltreatment of detainees, for allegedly encouraging and permitting unmuzzled working dogs to threaten and attack them. Prosecutors have focused on an incident caught in published photographs, when the two men allegedly cornered a naked detainee and allowed the dogs to bite him on each thigh as he cowered in fear.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Guantanamo Bay: The use of dogs to intimidate prisoners in Iraq is believed to have been learned from practices at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: The use of dogs on prisoners by regular U.S. forces in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base was prohibited by Donald Rumsfeld in April 2003. A few months later, revelations of abuses at Abu Ghraib prison were aired, including use of dogs to terrify naked prisoners; Rumsfeld then issued a further order prohibiting their use by the regular U.S. forces in Iraq.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Traditionally, as in World War II, US MWDs were returned home after the war, to their former owners or new adoptive ones. The Vietnam War was different in that US war dogs were designated as expendable equipment and were either euthanized or turned over to an allied army prior to the US departure from South Vietnam. Due to lobbying efforts by veteran dog handlers from the Vietnam War, Congress approved a bill allowing veteran US MWDs to be adopted after their military service. In 2000, President Bill Clinton signed a law that allowed these dogs to be adopted, making the Vietnam War the only American war in which US war dogs never came home.


title: Dogs in warfare

text: Military working dogs continue to serve as sentries, trackers, search and rescue, scouts, and mascots. Retired MWDs are often adopted as pets or therapy dogs.


title: Social skills

text: A social skill is any competence facilitating interaction and communication with others where social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and nonverbal ways. The process of learning these skills is called socialization. Lack of such skills can cause "social awkwardness".


title: Social skills

text: Interpersonal skills are actions used to effectively interact with others. Interpersonal skills relate to categories of dominance vs. submission, love vs. hate, affiliation vs. aggression, and control vs. autonomy (Leary, 1957). Positive interpersonal skills include persuasion, active listening, delegation, and stewardship, among others. Social psychology, an academic discipline focused on research relating to social functioning, studies how interpersonal skills are learned through societal-based changes in attitude, thinking, and behavior.


title: Social skills

text: Social skills are the tools that enable people to communicate, learn, ask for help, get needs met in appropriate ways, get along with others, make friends, develop healthy relationships, protect themselves, and in general, be able to interact with the society harmoniously. Social skills build essential character traits like trustworthiness, respectfulness, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship. These traits help build an internal moral compass, allowing individuals to make good choices in thinking and behavior, resulting in social competence.


title: Social skills

text: Social skills are goal oriented with both main goals and sub-goals. For example, a workplace interaction initiated by a new employee with a senior employee will first contain a main goal. This will be to gather information, and then the sub-goal will be to establish a rapport in order to obtain the main goal. Takeo Doi in his study of consciousness distinguished this as "tatemae", meaning conventions and verbal expressions and "honne", meaning true motive behind the conventions.


title: Social skills

text: Deficits in social skills were categorized by Gresham in 1998, as failure to recognize and reflect social skills, a failure to model appropriate models, and failure to perform acceptable behavior in particular situations in relation to developmental and transitional stages. Social skill deficits are also a discouragement for children with behavioral challenges when it comes to adult adjustment.


title: Social skills

text: Social skills are often significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism. This is due to the neurotoxic long-term effects of alcohol misuse on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are typically impaired by alcohol abuse, include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody perception problems, and theory of mind deficits. The ability to understand humor is also often impaired in alcohol abusers. Impairments in social skills can also occur in individuals who have fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. These deficits persist throughout the affected people's lives, and may worsen over time due to the effects of aging on the brain.


title: Social skills

text: People with ADHD and hyperkinetic disorder often have difficulties with social skills, such as social interaction. Approximately half of children and adolescents with ADHD will experience peer rejection, compared to 10–15 percent of non-ADHD youth. Adolescents with ADHD are less likely to develop close friendships and romantic relationships; they are usually regarded by their peers as immature or as social outcasts, with an exception for peers that have ADHD or related conditions themselves, or a high level of tolerance for such symptoms. As they begin to mature, however, it becomes easier to make such relationships. Training in social skills, behavioral modification, and medication have some beneficial effects. It is important for youth with ADHD to form friendships with people who are not involved in deviant or delinquent activities, people who do not have significant mental illnesses or developmental disabilities, in order to reduce emergence of later psychopathology. Poor peer relationships can contribute to major depression, criminality, school failure, and substance use disorders.


title: Social skills

text: Individuals with autistic spectrum disorders including autism and Asperger syndrome are often characterized by their deficiency in social functioning. The concept of social skills has been questioned in terms of the autistic spectrum. In response for the needs of autistic children, Romanczyk has suggested for adapting comprehensive model of social acquisitions with behavioral modification rather than specific responses tailored for social contexts.


title: Social skills

text: Individuals with few opportunities to socialize with others often struggle with social skills. This can often create a downward spiral effect for people with mental illnesses like anxiety or depression. Due to anxiety experienced from concerns with interpersonal evaluation and fear of negative reaction by others, surfeit expectations of failure or social rejection in socialization leads to avoiding or shutting down from social interactions. Individuals who experience significant levels of social anxiety often struggle when communicating with others, and may have impaired abilities to demonstrate social cues and behaviors appropriately. The use of social media can also cause anxiety and depression. The Internet is causing many problems, according to a study from the National library of Medicine, National institute of health, with a sample size of 3,560 students. Problematic internet use may be present in about 4% of high school students in the United States, it may be associated with depression. About one fourth of respondents (28.51%) reported spending fifteen or more hours per week on the internet. Although other studies show positive effects from internet use.


title: Social skills

text: Depression can also cause people to avoid opportunities to socialize, which impairs their social skills, and makes socialization unattractive.