title: Gurdwara

text: The use of 'sahib', as sometimes appended in the term "Gurdwara Sahib", derives from a loanword of Arabic origin, meaning "companion" or "friend".


title: Gurdwara

text: By the early 20th century, a number of Sikh gurdwaras in British India were under the control of the Udasi mahants (clergymen). The Gurdwara Reform Movement of the 1920s resulted in Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee taking control of these gurdwaras.


title: Gurdwara

text: The which literally means five seats or thrones of authority, are five gurdwaras which have a very special significance for the Sikh community. They are result of the historical growth of the religion of Sikhism and represent the centers of power of the religion.


title: Gurdwara

text: A gurdwara has a main hall called a darbar, a community kitchen called a , and other facilities. The essential features of a gurdwara are these public spaces, the presence of the holy book and eternal Sikh guru the Granth Sahib, the pursuit of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct and convention), and the provision of daily services:


title: Gurdwara

text: Other ceremonies performed there include the Sikh marriage ceremony, ; some of the rites of the death ceremony, ; and most of the important Sikh Festivals. The , a Sikh processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community, begin and conclude at a gurdwara.


title: Gurdwara

text: Gurdwaras around the world may also serve the Sikh community in other ways, including acting as libraries of Sikh literature and schools to teach children Gurmukhi, housing the Sikh scriptures, and organizing charitable work in the wider community on behalf of Sikhs. Many historical gurdwaras associated with the lives of the Sikh Gurus have a sarovar (eco-friendly pool) attached for bathing.


title: Gurdwara

text: Many gurdwaras are designed to seat men on one side and women on the other, although designs vary, and the divided seating is far from mandatory. They do not generally sit together but on separate sides of the room, both at an equal distance from the Guru Granth Sahib, as a sign of equality. Worshippers are offered (sweet flour and ghee-based food offered as ) in the hall, which is usually given into cupped hands by a (gurdwara volunteer).


title: Gurdwara

text: In the room, food is cooked and served by the volunteers in the community. Only vegetarian food is served in the langar hall, to suit the visitors from different backgrounds so that no person may be offended. All people belonging to different faiths sit together to share a common meal, regardless of any dietary restrictions. The main philosophy behind the is two-fold: to provide training to engage in and an opportunity to serve people from all walks of life, and to help banish all distinctions between high and low or rich and poor.


title: Gurdwara

text: Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set architectural design. The only established requirements are: the installation of the Granth Sahib under a canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher than the specific floor on which the devotees sit, and a tall Sikh pennant flag atop the building.


title: Gurdwara

text: In the 21st century, more and more gurdwaras (especially within India) have been following the Harimandir Sahib pattern, a synthesis of Indo-Islamic and Sikh architecture. Most of them have square halls, stand on a higher plinth, have entrances on all four sides, and have square or octagonal domed sanctums usually in the middle. During recent decades, to meet the requirements of larger gatherings, bigger and better ventilated assembly halls, with the sanctum at one end, have become accepted style. The location of the sanctum, more often than not, is such as to allow space for circumambulation. Sometimes, to augment the space, verandahs are built to skirt the hall. A popular model for the dome is the ribbed lotus, topped by an ornamental pinnacle. Arched copings, kiosks and solid domelets are used for exterior decorations.


title: Gurdwara

text: It is the duty of all Sikhs to engage in personal and communal meditation, and the study of the holy scriptures. Meditating and understanding the meaning of texts from the Granth Sahib is important for the proper moral and spiritual development of a Sikh. One must study Gurmukhi script and be able to read Gurbani to understand the meaning of the text. A Sikh has to revert to the Granth Sahib for the all spiritual guidance in one's life.


title: Gurdwara

text: It is believed that a Sikh is more easily and deeply engrossed by Gurbani when engaged in congregation gatherings. For this reason, it is necessary for a Sikh to visit gurdwara. On joining the holy congregation, Sikhs should take part and obtain the benefit from the combined study of the holy scriptures. No one is to be barred from entering a gurdwara regardless of their religious or regional background and are welcomed in.


title: Gurdwara

text: Seva is an important and prominent part of the Sikh religion. Dasvand forms a central part of Sikh belief (of Vand Chhako) and literally means donating ten percent of one's harvest, both financial and in the form of time and service such as seva to the gurdwara and anywhere where help is needed. All Sikhs therefore get involved in this communal service whenever an opportunity arises. This in its simple forms can be: sweeping and washing the floors of the gurdwara, serving water and food (Langar) to or fanning the congregation, offering provisions or preparing food and doing other 'house keeping' duties.


title: Gurdwara

text: Sikhism offers strong support for a healthy communal life, and a Sikh must undertake to support all worthy projects which would benefit the larger community and promote Sikh principles. Importance is given to Inter-faith dialogue, support for the poor and weak; better community understanding and co-operation.


title: Gurdwara

text: Many gurdwaras also have other facilities for Sikhs to learn more about their religion, such as libraries, complexes for courses in Gurmukhi, Sikhism and Sikh scriptures, meeting rooms, and room-and-board accommodation for those who need it. Gurdwaras are open to all people, regardless of gender, age, sexuality or religion, and are generally open all hours of a day. Some gurdwaras also provide temporary accommodations () for visitors or devotees. The gurdwara also serves as a community centre and a guest house for travellers, occasionally a clinic, and a base for local charitable activities. Apart from morning and evening services, the gurdwaras hold special congregations to mark important anniversaries on the Sikh calendar. They become scenes of much éclat and festivity during celebrations in honour of the birth and death () anniversaries of the Gurus and Vaisakhi.


title: Christy Brown

text: Christy Brown (5 June 1932 – 7 September 1981) was an Irish writer and painter who had cerebral palsy and was able to write or type only with the toes of one foot. His most recognized work is his autobiography, titled "My Left Foot" (1954). It was later made into a 1989 Academy Award-winning film of the same name, starring Daniel Day-Lewis as Brown.


title: Christy Brown

text: Christy Brown was born into a working-class Irish family at the Rotunda Hospital in Dublin in June 1932. His parents were Bridget Fagan (1901–1968) and Patrick Brown. He had 22 siblings. Out of these 22, 13 lived while 9 died in infancy. After his birth, doctors discovered that he had severe cerebral palsy, a neurological disorder which left him almost entirely spastic in his limbs. Though urged to commit him to a hospital, Brown's parents were unswayed and subsequently determined to raise him at home with their other children. During Brown's adolescence, social worker Katriona Delahunt became aware of his story and began to visit the Brown family regularly, while bringing Christy books and painting materials as, over the years, he had shown a keen interest in the arts and literature. He had also demonstrated extremely impressive physical dexterity since, soon after discovering several household books, Christy had learned to both write and draw himself, with the only limb over which he had unequivocal control: his left leg. Brown quickly matured into a serious artist.


title: Christy Brown

text: Although Brown famously received almost no formal schooling during his youth, he did attend St Brendan's School-Clinic in Sandymount intermittently. At St Brendan's he came in contact with Robert Collis, a noted author. Collis discovered that Brown was also a natural novelist and, later, Collis helped use his own connections to publish "My Left Foot", by then a long-gestating autobiographical account of Brown's struggle with everyday life amidst the vibrant culture of Dublin.


title: Christy Brown

text: When "My Left Foot" became a literary sensation, one of the many people who wrote letters to Brown was married American woman Beth Moore. Brown and Moore became regular correspondents and, in 1960, Brown holidayed in North America and stayed with Moore at her home in Connecticut. When they met again in 1965 they began an affair. Brown journeyed to Connecticut once more to finish his magnum opus, which he had been developing for years. He finally did so in 1967 with help from Moore, who introduced and administered a strict working regimen, mostly by denying him alcohol (on which Brown was dependent) until a day's work was completed. The book, titled "Down All the Days", was published in 1970 and was inscribed with a dedication to Moore that read, "For Beth, who with such gentle ferocity, finally whipped me into finishing this book..." During this time, Brown's fame continued to spread internationally and he became a prominent celebrity. Upon his return to Ireland, he was able to use proceeds from the sales of his books to design and move into a specially constructed home outside Dublin with his sister's family. Though Brown and Moore had planned to marry and live together at the new home, and though Moore had informed her husband of these plans, it was around this time that Brown began an affair with Englishwoman Mary Carr, whom he met at a party in London. Brown then terminated his affair with Moore and married Carr at the Register Office, Dublin, in 1972. They moved to Stoney Lane, Rathcoole, County Dublin (now site of Lisheen Nursing Home), to Ballyheigue, County Kerry and then to Somerset. He continued to paint, write novels, poetry and plays. His 1974 novel, "A Shadow on Summer", was based on his relationship with Moore, whom he still considered a friend.


title: Christy Brown

text: Brown's health deteriorated after marrying Carr. He became mainly a recluse in his last years, which is thought to be a direct result of Carr's influence and perhaps abusive nature. Brown died at the age of 49 after choking during a lamb chop dinner. His body was found to have significant bruising, which led many to believe that Carr had physically abused him. Further suspicions arose after Georgina Hambleton's biography, "The Life That Inspired My Left Foot", revealed a supposedly more accurate and unhealthy version of their relationship. The book portrays Carr as an abusive alcoholic and habitually unfaithful. In Hambleton's book, she quotes Brown's brother, Sean, as saying: "Christy loved her but it wasn't reciprocated because she wasn't that kind of person. If she loved him like she said she did, she wouldn't have had affairs with both men and women. I feel she took advantage of him in more ways than one."


title: Christy Brown

text: Brown's magnum opus, "Down All the Days" was an ambitious project drawn largely from a playful expansion of "My Left Foot"; it also became an international best-seller, translated into 14 languages. "The Irish Times" reviewer Bernard Share claimed the work was "the most important Irish novel since "Ulysses"." Like James Joyce, Brown employed the stream-of-consciousness technique and sought to document Dublin's culture through the use of humour, accurate dialects and intricate character description. "Down All the Days" was followed by a series of other novels, including "A Shadow on Summer" (1972), "Wild Grow the Lilies" (1976) and "A Promising Career" (published posthumously in 1982). He also published three poetry collections: "Come Softly to My Wake", "Background Music" and "Of Snails and Skylarks". All the poems are included in "The Collected Poems of Christy Brown".


title: Christy Brown

text: A film adaptation of "My Left Foot" directed by Jim Sheridan was produced in 1989 from a screenplay by Shane Connaughton. Daniel Day-Lewis starred as Brown and Brenda Fricker as his mother; both won Academy Awards for their performances. The film also received Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay.


title: Christy Brown

text: The Anglo-Irish rock band The Pogues paid tribute to Christy Brown with a song titled "Down All the Days." It is the seventh track on their 1989 recording "Peace and Love". Similarly, U2 released a song titled "Down All the Days" with the 20th anniversary edition of "Achtung Baby". The Men They Couldn't Hang also wrote a song "Down All the Days" which appears on the Silver Town album also released in 1989.


title: Hookworm

text: Hookworms are intestinal, blood-feeding, parasitic roundworms that cause types of infection known as helminthiases. Hookworm infection is found in many parts of the world, and is common in areas with poor access to adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene. In humans, infections are caused by two main species of roundworm, belonging to the genera "Ancylostoma" and "Necator". In other animals the main parasites are species of "Ancylostoma".


title: Hookworm

text: The two most common types of hookworm that infect humans are "Ancylostoma duodenale" and "Necator americanus".


title: Hookworm

text: Hookworm species that are known to infect domestic cats are "Ancylostoma braziliense" and "Ancylostoma tubaeforme". Wild cats are infected by "Ancylostoma pluridentatum".


title: Hookworm

text: Dogs are commonly infected by "Ancylostoma caninum", but may also be infected by "Uncinaria stenocephala" and "Ancylostoma braziliense".


title: Hookworm

text: The two species that commonly infect humans have a similar morphology. "A. duodenale" worms are pale grey or slightly pink. The head is bent a little in relation to the rest of the body, forming a hook shape – hence the name. The hook is at the front end of the body. They have well-developed mouths with two pairs of teeth. Males measure approximately 10 by 0.5 mm, and females are often longer and stouter. Males also have a prominent copulatory bursa posteriorly.


title: Hookworm

text: "N. americanus" is generally smaller than "A. duodenale", with males usually being 5 to 9 mm long and females about 10 mm long. Instead of the two pairs of teeth in "A. duodenale", "N. americanus" has a pair of cutting plates in the buccal capsule. Also, the hook is much more defined in "Necator americanus".


title: Hookworm

text: The host is infected by the larvae, not by the eggs, and the usual route is through the skin. Hookworm larvae need warm, moist soil, above 18 °C, in order to hatch. They will die if exposed to direct sunlight or if they become dried out. "Necator" larvae can survive at higher temperatures than "Ancylostoma" larvae.


title: Hookworm

text: First-stage larvae (L1) are non-infective, and once hatched in the deposited feces, they feed on that, and then feed on soil microorganisms until they moult into second stage larvae (L2). First- and second-stage larvae are in the rhabditiform stage. After feeding for seven days or so they will moult into third-stage larvae (L3) known as the filariform stage, which is the non-feeding, infective stage. Filariform larvae can survive for up to two weeks. They are extremely motile and will move onto higher ground to improve their chances of finding a host.


title: Hookworm

text: "N. americanus" larvae can only infect through penetrating skin, but "A. duodenale" can also infect orally. A common route of passage for the larvae is the skin of barefoot walkers. Once the larvae have entered the host they travel in the circulatory system to the lungs where they leave the venules and enter the alveoli. They then travel up the trachea and are coughed up, swallowed and end up in the small intestine. In the small intestine, the larvae moult into stage four (L4) the adult worm. It takes from five to nine weeks from penetration to maturity in the intestine.


title: Hookworm

text: "Necator americanus" can cause a prolonged infection lasting from one to five years with many worms dying in the first year or two. Some worms though have been recorded as living for fifteen years or more. In comparison, "Ancyclostoma duodenale" worms are short-lived lasting for around six months. However, larvae can remain dormant in tissue stores and be recruited over many years to replace the worms that die.


title: Hookworm

text: The worms mate inside the host, in which the females also lay their eggs, to be passed out in the host's feces into the environment to start the cycle again. "N. americanus" can lay between nine and ten thousand eggs per day, and "A. duodenale" between twenty-five and thirty thousand per day. The eggs of the two species are indistinguishable.


title: Hookworm

text: Worms need five to seven weeks to reach maturity and symptoms of infection can therefore appear before eggs are to be found in the feces, making the diagnosis of hookworm infection difficult.


title: Hookworm

text: Signs and symptoms of hookworm infection vary by host and hookworm species. In humans, the first sign of infection is itching and skin rash. Humans with light infections may show no symptoms, but humans with heavy infections may have abdominal pain, diarrhea, loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue and anemia. Children's physical and cognitive growth may be affected.


title: Hookworm

text: Dogs and cats may experience dermatitis, enteritis, and intestinal blood loss. Dogs may additionally experience anemia, hemorrhagic diarrhea, anorexia and dehydration.


title: Hookworm

text: Diagnosis for many forms of hookworm infections is confirmed through fecal analysis to identify hookworm eggs. In animals, fecal floatation is used to detect hookworm eggs.


title: Hookworm

text: Treatment for hookworm infections depends on the species of hookworm and the species of the infected host. In humans, treatment is by anthelminthic medications, such as albendazole and mebendazole. Treatment in animals can be done with a variety of anthelminthics. A high-protein diet, supplemental iron, or a blood transfusion may also be necessary.


title: Hookworm

text: Humans can avoid hookworm infections by avoiding skin-to-soil contact, such as walking barefoot, in areas where hookworms are common. Additionally, infection can be controlled by defecating indoors and not using human feces as a plant fertilizer. Lawns and kennels may be sterilized by sodium borate. Large education efforts funded by John D. Rockefeller helped reduce the rates of infection among children in the American South during the 1910s.


title: Sysco

text: Sysco Corporation (short for Systems and Services Company) is an American multinational corporation involved in marketing and distributing food products, smallwares, kitchen equipment and tabletop items to restaurants, healthcare and educational facilities, hospitality businesses like hotels and inns, and wholesale to other companies that provide foodservice (like Aramark and Sodexo). The company is headquartered in the Energy Corridor district of Houston, Texas. Sysco is the world's largest broadline food distributor; it has more than 600,000 clients in a wide array of fields. Management consulting is also an integral part of their services. The company operates approximately 330 distribution facilities worldwide; providing service to over 90 countries.


title: Sysco

text: The company was founded by Herbert Irving, John F. Baugh and Harry Rosenthal in 1969. The company became public on March 3, 1970. On July 20, 2009, "Fortune" magazine ranked Sysco No. 204 in the annual Fortune 500 companies in world based on sales volume. On May 3, 2010, "Fortune" ranked Sysco as the 7th largest Fortune 500 Company in Texas and 55th largest in the U.S. by total revenue. Sysco is also the largest non-oil related company in Houston and the third largest non-oil related company in Texas (behind AT&T and Dell). The company ranked No. 54 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest US corporations by total revenue.


title: Sysco

text: In December 2013, Sysco announced an $8.2 billion planned acquisition of its next-largest food distribution rival, US Foods. The Federal Trade Commission challenged the acquisition as a violation of the Clayton Antitrust Act that would substantially lessen competition. After the court ruled that the combined company would likely reduce competition because it would control 75% of the U.S. food service industry, Sysco terminated its merger with US Foods.


title: Sysco

text: In 1981, SYSCO Food Services bought out the assets of Lankford Produce, based in West Pocomoke, Maryland and founded in 1964, by Stanley E. Lankford Jr., forming the Lankford-SYSCO division in the Delmarva Peninsula, renamed Sysco Eastern Maryland in 2008.


title: Sysco

text: In 1988, Sysco acquired CFS Continental which had recently been acquired from Tate & Lyle through their purchase of A. E. Staley in Illinois.


title: Sysco

text: In 1999 Sysco acquired Newport Meat Company, which generated a yearly revenue of $100 million supplying meat to over 1,000 restaurants.


title: Sysco

text: In 2002, Sysco purchased SERCA Foodservices and renamed it Sysco Canada. SERCA had been owned by the supermarket giant Oshawa Group, which was acquired by Sobeys in 1998.


title: Sysco

text: In 2003, Sysco purchased Asian Foods, the largest Asian foods distribution in North America. The first group of Asian Foods joined Sysco Kansas City in 2006, followed by Asian Foods Chicago joining Sysco Chicago in Sep, 2009.


title: Sysco

text: In 2009, Sysco acquired Pallas Foods, the largest food distributor in Ireland. Continuing the expansion of their Irish offerings, in 2012, Sysco purchased Crossgar Foodservice for an undisclosed amount.


title: Sysco

text: On December 9, 2013, Sysco announced they would acquire US Foods for a total of $3.5 billion. But on June 24, 2015, US Federal Judge Amit Mehta ruled that the combined Sysco-US Foods would control 75% of the U.S. food service industry and would stifle competition. On June 29, 2015, Sysco terminated its merger with US Foods.


title: Sysco

text: In May 2022, after a year of testing, Sysco committed to the purchase of Freightliner eCascadia electric trucks, with the goal of electrifying 35% of its fleet by 2026.


title: Sysco

text: The SYGMA Network, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Sysco that provides food and non-food products to chain restaurants throughout the United States.


title: Sysco

text: SYGMA was founded in January 1984, when senior officers of Sysco Corporation started discussions for forming a new distribution company. The first products were shipped in May 1985, from SYGMA’s first distribution center in Oklahoma. In 1988, Sysco acquired CFS, increasing head count at the organization.


title: Sysco

text: SYGMA's customers include approximately 14,000 restaurants representing 26 concepts. Operating from 14 distribution centers, SYGMA is one of the largest chain distributors in the United States with sales over $6.7 billion. 186 million cases of product are delivered each year. SYGMA currently employs over 4,000 employees.


title: Sysco

text: Beginning in the summer of 2013, the California Department of Public Health was investigating the storage of food in a total of 21 sheds which were never regulated and never inspected. The food included overnight drop-offs of chicken, pork, beef, bacon, and milk. An investigative report by KNTV recorded food sitting in these sheds for up to five hours, in temperatures as hot as , before the food was delivered to hotels and restaurants. An employee speaking anonymously stated that sheds in Spokane, Washington, had refrigerators which were not large enough, and that most of the time there were cases of frozen food sitting on the floor outside the refrigerators.


title: Sysco

text: On July 16, 2014, Sysco agreed to pay fines totaling $19.4 million in California and admitted to the allegations made by KNTV's news team and investigated by the California Department of Public Health.


title: Proximity fuze

text: A proximity fuze (or fuse) is a fuze that detonates an explosive device automatically when the distance to the target becomes smaller than a predetermined value. Proximity fuzes are designed for targets such as planes, missiles, ships at sea, and ground forces. They provide a more sophisticated trigger mechanism than the common contact fuze or timed fuze. It is estimated that it increases the lethality by 5 to 10 times, compared to these other fuzes.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Before the invention of the proximity fuze, detonation was induced by direct contact, a timer set at launch or an altimeter. All of these earlier methods have disadvantages. The probability of a direct hit on a small moving target is low; a shell that just misses the target will not explode. A time- or height-triggered fuze requires good prediction by the gunner and accurate timing by the fuze. If either is wrong, then even accurately aimed shells may explode harmlessly before reaching the target or after passing it. At the start of The Blitz, it was estimated that it took 20,000 rounds to shoot down a single aircraft, other estimates put the figure as high as 100,000 or as low as 2,500. With a proximity fuze, the shell or missile need only pass close by the target at some time during its flight. The proximity fuze makes the problem simpler than the previous methods.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Proximity fuzes are also useful for producing air bursts against ground targets. A contact fuze would explode when it hit the ground; it would not be very effective at scattering shrapnel. A timer fuze can be set to explode a few meters above the ground but the timing is vital and usually requires observers to provide information for adjusting the timing. Observers may not be practical in many situations, the ground may be uneven, and the practice is slow in any event. Proximity fuzes fitted to such weapons as artillery and mortar shells solve this problem by having a range of set burst heights [e.g. ] above ground that are selected by gun crews. The shell bursts at the appropriate height above ground.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The idea of a proximity fuse had long been considered militarily useful. Several ideas had been considered, including optical systems that shone a light, sometimes infrared, and triggered when the reflection reached a certain threshold, various ground-triggered means using radio signals, and capacitive or inductive methods similar to a metal detector. All of these suffered from the large size of pre-WWII electronics and their fragility, as well as the complexity of the required circuitry.


title: Proximity fuze

text: British military researchers at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) Samuel C. Curran, William A. S. Butement, Edward S. Shire, and Amherst F. H. Thomson conceived of the idea of a proximity fuze in the early stages of World War II. Their system involved a small, short range, Doppler radar. British tests were then carried out with "unrotated projectiles," in this case rockets. However, British scientists were uncertain whether a fuze could be developed for anti-aircraft shells, which had to withstand much higher accelerations than rockets. The British shared a wide range of possible ideas for designing a fuze, including a photoelectric fuze and a radio fuze, with United States during the Tizard Mission in late 1940. To work in shells, a fuze needed to be miniaturized, survive the high acceleration of cannon launch, and be reliable.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The National Defense Research Committee assigned the task to the physicist Merle A. Tuve at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Also eventually pulled in were researchers from the National Bureau of Standards (this research unit of NBS later became part of the Army Research Laboratory). Work was split in 1942, with Tuve's group working on proximity fuzes for shells, while the National Bureau of Standards researchers focused on the technically easier task of bombs and rockets. Work on the radio shell fuze was completed by Tuve's group, known as Section T, at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab (APL). Over 100 American companies were mobilized to build some 20 million shell fuzes.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The proximity fuze was one of the most important technological innovations of World War II. It was so important that it was a secret guarded to a similar level as the atom bomb project or D-Day invasion. Adm. Lewis L. Strauss wrote that,


title: Proximity fuze

text: The fuze was later found to be able to detonate artillery shells in air bursts, greatly increasing their anti-personnel effects.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In Germany, more than 30 (perhaps as many as 50) different proximity fuze designs were developed, or researched, for anti-aircraft use, but none saw service. These included acoustic fuzes triggered by engine sound, one based on electrostatic fields developed by Rheinmetall Borsig, and radio fuzes. In mid-November 1939, a German neon lamp tube and a design of a prototype proximity fuze based on capacitive effects was received by British Intelligence as part of the Oslo Report.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In the post-World War II era, a number of new proximity fuze systems were developed, including radio, optical, and other means. A common form used in modern air-to-air weapons uses a laser as an optical source and time-of-flight for ranging.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The first reference to the concept of radar in the UK was made by W. A. S. Butement and P. E. Pollard, who constructed a small breadboard model of a pulsed radar in 1931. They suggested the system would be useful for the coast artillery units, who could accurately measure the range to shipping even at night. The War Office proved uninterested in the concept and told the two to work on other issues.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In 1936, the Air Ministry took over Bawdsey Manor in Suffolk to further develop their prototype radar systems that would emerge the next year as Chain Home. The Army was suddenly extremely interested in the topic of radar, and sent Butement and Pollard to Bawdsey to form what became known as the "Army Cell". Their first project was a revival of their original work on coast defense, but they were soon told to start a second project to develop a range-only radar to aid anti-aircraft guns.


title: Proximity fuze

text: As these projects moved from development into prototype form in the late 1930s, Butement turned his attention to other concepts, and among these was the idea of a proximity fuse:


title: Proximity fuze

text: In May 1940 a formal proposal from Butement, Edward S. Shire, and Amherst F.H. Thompson was sent to the British Air Defence Establishment based on the second of the two concepts. A breadboard circuit was constructed and the concept was tested in the laboratory by moving a sheet of tin at various distances. Early field testing connected the circuit to a thyratron trigger operating a tower-mounted camera which photographed passing aircraft to determine distance of fuze function.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Prototype fuzes were then constructed in June 1940, and installed in "unrotated projectiles", the British cover name for solid-fueled rockets, and fired at targets supported by balloons. Rockets have relatively low acceleration and no spin creating centrifugal force, so the stresses on the delicate electronic fuze are relatively benign. It was understood that the limited application was not ideal; a proximity fuze would be useful on all types of artillery and especially anti-aircraft artillery, but those had very high accelerations.


title: Proximity fuze

text: As early as September 1939, John Cockcroft began a development effort at Pye Ltd. to develop tubes capable of withstanding these much greater forces. Pye's research was transferred to the United States as part of the technology package delivered by the Tizard Mission when the United States entered the war. Pye's group was apparently unable to get their rugged pentodes to function reliably under high pressures until 6 August 1941, which was after the successful tests by the American group.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Looking for a short-term solution to the valve problem, in 1940 the British ordered 20,000 miniature tubes from Western Electric Company and Radio Corporation of America that were intended for use in hearing aids. An American team under Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr. correctly deduced that the tubes were meant for experiments with proximity fuzes for bombs and rockets.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In September 1940, the Tizard Mission travelled to the US to introduce their researchers to a number of UK developments, and the topic of proximity fuses was raised. The details of the British experiments were passed to the United States Naval Research Laboratory and National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). Information was also shared with Canada in 1940 and the National Research Council of Canada delegated work on the fuze to a team at the University of Toronto.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Prior to and following receipt of circuitry designs from the British, various experiments were carried out by Richard B. Roberts, Henry H. Porter, and Robert B. Brode under the direction of NDRC Section T Chairman Merle Tuve. Tuve's group was known as Section T, not APL, throughout the war. As Tuve later put it in an interview: "We heard some rumors of circuits they were using in the rockets over in England, then they gave us the circuits, but I had already articulated the thing into the rockets, the bombs and shell." As Tuve understood, the circuitry of the fuze was rudimentary. In his words, "The one outstanding characteristic in this situation is the fact that success of this type of fuze is not dependent on a basic technical ideaall of the ideas are simple and well known everywhere." The critical work of adapting the fuze for anti-aircraft shells was done in the United States, not in England. Tuve claimed that despite being pleased by the outcome of the "Butement et al. vs. Varian" patent suit (which saved the U.S. Navy millions of dollars), the fuze design delivered by the Tizard Mission was "not the one we made to work!"


title: Proximity fuze

text: A key improvement was introduced by Lloyd Berkner, who developed a system using separate transmitter and receiver circuits. In December 1940, Tuve invited Harry Diamond and Wilbur S. Hinman, Jr, of the United States National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to investigate Berkner's improved fuze and develop a proximity fuze for rockets and bombs to use against the German Luftwaffe.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In just two days, Diamond was able to come up with a new fuze design and managed to demonstrate its feasibility through extensive testing at the Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, Virginia. On 6 May 1941, the NBS team built six fuzes which were placed in air-dropped bombs and successfully tested over water.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Given their previous work on radio and radiosondes at NBS, Diamond and Hinman developed the first all solid-state radio doppler proximity fuze, which employed the Doppler effect of reflected radio waves using a diode detector arrangement that they devised. The use of the Doppler effect developed by this group was later incorporated in all radio proximity fuzes for bomb, rocket, and mortar applications. Later, the Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards (which became the Harry Diamond Laboratories – and later merged into the Army Research Laboratory – in honor of its former chief in subsequent years) developed the first automated production techniques for manufacturing radio proximity fuzes at a low cost.


title: Proximity fuze

text: While working for a defense contractor in the mid-1940s, Soviet spy Julius Rosenberg stole a working model of an American proximity fuze and delivered it to Soviet intelligence. It was not a fuze for anti-aircraft shells, the most valuable type.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In the US, NDRC focused on radio fuzes for use with anti-aircraft artillery, where acceleration was up to 20,000  as opposed to about 100  for rockets and much less for dropped bombs. In addition to extreme acceleration, artillery shells were spun by the rifling of the gun barrels to close to 30,000 rpm, creating immense centrifugal force. Working with Western Electric Company and Raytheon Company, miniature hearing-aid tubes were modified to withstand this extreme stress. The T-3 fuze had a 52% success against a water target when tested in January, 1942. The United States Navy accepted that failure rate. A simulated battle conditions test was started on 12 August 1942. Gun batteries aboard cruiser tested proximity-fuzed ammunition against radio-controlled drone aircraft targets over Chesapeake Bay. The tests were to be conducted over two days, but the testing stopped when drones were destroyed early on the first day. The three drones were destroyed with just four projectiles.


title: Proximity fuze

text: A particularly successful application was the 90 mm shell with VT fuze with the SCR-584 automatic tracking radar and the M-9 electronic fire control computer. The combination of these three inventions was successful in shooting down many V-1 flying bombs aimed at London and Antwerp, otherwise difficult targets for anti-aircraft guns due to their small size and high speed.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The Allied fuze used constructive and destructive interference to detect its target. The design had four or five tubes. One tube was an oscillator connected to an antenna; it functioned as both a transmitter and an autodyne detector (receiver). When the target was far away, little of the oscillator's transmitted energy would be reflected to the fuze. When a target was nearby, it would reflect a significant portion of the oscillator's signal. The amplitude of the reflected signal corresponded to the closeness of the target. This reflected signal would affect the oscillator's plate current, thereby enabling detection.


title: Proximity fuze

text: However, the phase relationship between the oscillator's transmitted signal and the signal reflected from the target varied depended on the round trip distance between the fuze and the target. When the reflected signal was in phase, the oscillator amplitude would increase and the oscillator's plate current would also increase. But when the reflected signal was out of phase then the combined radio signal amplitude would decrease, which would decrease the plate current. So the changing phase relationship between the oscillator signal and the reflected signal complicated the measurement of the amplitude of that small reflected signal.


title: Proximity fuze

text: This problem was resolved by taking advantage of the change in frequency of the reflected signal. The distance between the fuze and the target was not constant but rather constantly changing due to the high speed of the fuze and any motion of the target. When the distance between the fuze and the target changed rapidly, then the phase relationship also changed rapidly. The signals were in-phase one instant and out-of-phase a few hundred microseconds later. The result was a heterodyne beat frequency which corresponded to the velocity difference. Viewed another way, the received signal frequency was Doppler-shifted from the oscillator frequency by the relative motion of the fuze and target. Consequently, a low frequency signal, corresponding to the frequency difference between the oscillator and the received signal, developed at the oscillator's plate terminal. Two of the four tubes in the VT fuze were used to detect, filter, and amplify this low frequency signal. Note here that the amplitude of this low frequency 'beat' signal corresponds to the amplitude of the signal reflected from the target. If the amplified beat frequency signal's amplitude was large enough, indicating a nearby object, then it triggered the fourth tube – a gas-filled thyratron. Upon being triggered, the thyratron conducted a large current that set off the electrical detonator.


title: Proximity fuze

text: In order to be used with gun projectiles, which experience extremely high acceleration and centrifugal forces, the fuze design also needed to utilize many shock hardening techniques. These included planar electrodes and packing the components in wax and oil to equalize the stresses. To prevent premature detonation, the inbuilt battery that armed the shell had a several millisecond delay before its electrolytes were activated, giving the projectile time to clear the area of the gun.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The designation VT means variable time. Captain S. R. Shumaker, Director of the Bureau of Ordnance's Research and Development Division, coined the term to be descriptive without hinting at the technology.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The anti-aircraft artillery range at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico was used as one of the test facilities for the proximity fuze, where almost 50,000 test firings were conducted from 1942 to 1945. Testing also occurred at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, where about 15,000 bombs were fired. Other locations include Ft. Fisher in North Carolina and Blossom Point, Maryland.


title: Proximity fuze

text: US Navy development and early production was outsourced to the Wurlitzer company, at their barrel organ factory in North Tonawanda, New York.


title: Proximity fuze

text: First large scale production of tubes for the new fuzes was at a General Electric plant in Cleveland, Ohio formerly used for manufacture of Christmas-tree lamps. Fuze assembly was completed at General Electric plants in Schenectady, New York and Bridgeport, Connecticut. Once inspections of the finished product were complete, a sample of the fuzes produced from each lot was shipped to the National Bureau of Standards, where they were subjected to a series of rigorous tests at the specially built Control Testing Laboratory. These tests included low- and high-temperature tests, humidity tests, and sudden jolt tests.


title: Proximity fuze

text: By 1944, a large proportion of the American electronics industry concentrated on making the fuzes. Procurement contracts increased from $60 million in 1942, to $200 million in 1943, to $300 million in 1944 and were topped by $450 million in 1945. As volume increased, efficiency came into play and the cost per fuze fell from $732 in 1942 to $18 in 1945. This permitted the purchase of over 22 million fuzes for approximately one billion dollars ($14.6 billion in 2021 USD). The main suppliers were Crosley, RCA, Eastman Kodak, McQuay-Norris and Sylvania. There were also over two thousand suppliers and subsuppliers, ranging from powder manufacturers to machine shops. It was among the first mass-production applications of printed circuits.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Vannevar Bush, head of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) during the war, credited the proximity fuze with three significant effects.


title: Proximity fuze

text: At first the fuzes were only used in situations where they could not be captured by the Germans. They were used in land-based artillery in the South Pacific in 1944. Also in 1944, fuzes were allocated to the British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command, that was engaged in defending Britain against the V-1 flying bomb. As most of the British heavy anti-aircraft guns were deployed in a long, thin coastal strip, dud shells fell into the sea, safely out of reach of capture. Over the course of the German V-1 campaign, the proportion of flying bombs flying through the coastal gun belt that were destroyed rose from 17% to 74%, reaching 82% during one day. A minor problem encountered by the British was that the fuze was sensitive enough to detonate the shell if it passed too close to a seabird and a number of seabird "kills" were recorded.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The Pentagon refused to allow the Allied field artillery use of the fuzes in 1944, although the United States Navy fired proximity-fuzed anti-aircraft shells during the July 1943 invasion of Sicily. After General Dwight D. Eisenhower demanded he be allowed to use the fuzes, 200,000 shells with VT fuzes (code named "POZIT") were used in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. They made the Allied heavy artillery far more devastating, as all the shells now exploded just before hitting the ground. German divisions were caught out in open as they had felt safe from timed fire because it was thought that the bad weather would prevent accurate observation. U.S. General George S. Patton credited the introduction of proximity fuzes with saving Liège and stated that their use required a revision of the tactics of land warfare.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Bombs and rockets fitted with radio proximity fuzes were in limited service with both the USAAF and USN at the end of WW2.  The main targets for these proximity fuze detonated bombs and rockets were anti-aircraft emplacements and airfields.


title: Proximity fuze

text: The device described in World War II patent works as follows: The shell contains a micro-transmitter which uses the shell body as an antenna and emits a continuous wave of roughly 180–220 MHz. As the shell approaches a reflecting object, an interference pattern is created. This pattern changes with shrinking distance: every half wavelength in distance (a half wavelength at this frequency is about 0.7 meters), the transmitter is in or out of resonance. This causes a small cycling of the radiated power and consequently the oscillator supply current of about 200–800 Hz, the Doppler frequency. This signal is sent through a band-pass filter, amplified, and triggers the detonation when it exceeds a given amplitude.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Optical sensing was developed in 1935, and patented in the United Kingdom in 1936, by a Swedish inventor, probably Edward W. Brandt, using a petoscope. It was first tested as a part of a detonation device for bombs that were to be dropped over bomber aircraft, part of the UK's Air Ministry's "bombs on bombers" concept. It was considered (and later patented by Brandt) for use with anti-aircraft missiles fired from the ground. It used then a toroidal lens, that concentrated all light from a plane perpendicular to the missile's main axis onto a photocell. When the cell current changed a certain amount in a certain time interval, the detonation was triggered.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Some modern air-to-air missiles (e.g. the ASRAAM and AA-12 Adder) use lasers to trigger detonation. They project narrow beams of laser light perpendicular to the flight of the missile. As the missile cruises towards its target the laser energy simply beams out into space. As the missile passes its target some of the energy strikes the target and is reflected to the missile, where detectors sense it and detonate the warhead.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Acoustic proximity fuzes are actuated by the acoustic emissions from a target (example an aircraft's engine or ship's propeller). Actuation can be either through an electronic circuit coupled to a microphone, or hydrophone, or mechanically using a resonating vibratory reed connected to diaphragm tone filter.


title: Proximity fuze

text: During WW2, the Germans had at least five acoustic fuzes for anti-aircraft use under development, though none saw operational service. The most developmentally advanced of the German acoustic fuze designs was the Rheinmetall-Borsig Kranich (German for Crane) which was a mechanical device utilizing a diaphragm tone filter sensitive to frequencies between 140 and 500Hz connected to a resonating vibratory reed switch used to fire an electrical igniter. The Schmetterling, Enzian, Rheintochter and X4 guided missiles were all designed for use with the Kranich acoustic proximity fuze.


title: Proximity fuze

text: During WW2, the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) investigated the use of acoustic proximity fuzes for anti-aircraft weapons but concluded that there were more promising technological approaches. The NDRC research highlighted the speed of sound as a major limitation in the design and use of acoustic fuzes, particularly in relation to missiles and high-speed aircraft.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Hydroacoustic influence is widely used as a detonation mechanism for naval mines and torpedoes. A ship's propeller rotating in water produces a powerful hydroacoustic noise which can be picked up using a hydrophone and used for homing and detonation. Influence firing mechanisms often use a combination of acoustic and magnetic induction receivers.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Magnetic sensing can only be applied to detect huge masses of iron such as ships. It is used in mines and torpedoes. Fuzes of this type can be defeated by degaussing, using non-metal hulls for ships (especially minesweepers) or by magnetic induction loops fitted to aircraft or towed buoys.


title: Proximity fuze

text: Some naval mines use pressure fuzes which are able to detect the pressure wave of a ship passing overhead. Pressure sensors are usually used in combination with other fuze detonation technologies such as acoustic and magnetic induction.


title: Proximity fuze

text: During WW2, pressure activated fuzes were developed for sticks (or trains) of bombs to create above ground airbursts.  The first bomb in the stick was fitted with an impact fuze while the other bombs were fitted with pressure sensitive diaphragm actuated detonators.  The blast from the first bomb was used to trigger the fuze of the second bomb which would explode above ground and in this turn would detonate the third bomb with the process repeated all the way till the last bomb in the string.  Due to the forward speed of the bomber, bombs fitted with pressure detonators would all explode at about the same height above ground along a horizontal trajectory.  This design was used in both the British No44 “Pistol” and the German Rheinmetall-Borsig BAZ 55A fuzes.


title: Ganache

text: Ganache is a chocolate preparation, normally made by heating equal parts by weight of cream and chopped chocolate, warming the cream first, then pouring it over the chocolate. The mixture is then typically left to rest for a short period (between 3 and 10 minutes generally, dependent on volume) before it is stirred or blended until smooth, with liqueurs or extracts added if desired. The resting period allows the hot cream to increase the temperature of the bowl and its contents. If one were to blend immediately this would introduce air reducing the temperature and preventing the chocolate from melting consistently. Butter is generally added to give the ganache a shiny appearance and smooth texture. Adding corn syrup also gives it a shiny color and is used to sweeten the ganache without the crystallization side effect that comes from other sugars. Depending on the kind of chocolate used, for what purpose the ganache is intended, and the temperature at which it will be served, the ratio of chocolate to cream is varied to obtain the desired consistency. Typically, two parts chocolate to one part cream are used for filling cakes or as a base for making chocolate truffles, while one to one is commonly used as a glaze. If using white chocolate, a ratio of 3 parts chocolate to 1 part cream is standard. Heavy whipping cream is generally preferred, to make a creamier, thicker ganache. This pairs well with dark chocolate between 60 and 82%. If the chocolate should seize while being mixed with the warm cream, adding tablespoon by tablespoon of hot water to the mixture can remedy the problem.


title: Ganache

text: Cooled ganache can be whipped to increase volume and spread as icing to cover a cake. It becomes thicker as it cools. Ganache is also poured into a mold or terrine while warm, and allowed to set or cool. Once cool, it can be removed from the mold and sliced similarly to pâté.


title: Ganache

text: It is said that ganache was originally invented in the 1850s in France during an accident in which water was poured over chocolate. Ganache or "crème ganache" was originally a kind of chocolate truffle introduced by the Paris playwright-turned-confectioner Paul Siraudin, and first documented in 1869. Siraudin named the sweet after a popular Vaudeville comedy debuted in that year by his contemporary Victorien Sardou called "Les Ganaches" ("The Chumps").


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The Lockheed Martin (previously Lockheed) KC-130 is a family of the extended-range tanker version of the C-130 Hercules transport aircraft. The KC-130J is the latest variant operated by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), with 48 delivered out of 79 ordered. It replaced older KC-130F, KC-130R, and KC-130T variants for aerial refueling. USMC reserve unit, VMGR-452 operated 12 KC-130T aircraft until May 2021; this was the last USMC reserve unit that operated the legacy KC-130s, completing the corps' transition to the more advanced Super Hercules.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The KC-130F made its first test flight in January 1960 as the GV-1 under the old Navy designation system. First entering service in 1962, the KC-130F was designed to undertake aerial refueling missions in support of USMC aircraft. It was developed from the Lockheed C-130 Hercules.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The newest Hercules, the KC-130J, shares 55 percent of the same airframe as preceding models, but in fact is a greatly improved airplane. It is based on the Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules and provides significant increases in operational capability and performance margins over preceding KC-130F/R/T (legacy) aircraft. Additionally, The KC-130J reduces cost of ownership through system reliability and reduced maintenance man-hours per flight hour.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The new HC-130J combat rescue tanker and MC-130J special operations tanker are both derived from a KC-130J baseline.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: Technological development has led to the incorporation of interior/exterior night vision lighting, night vision goggle head-up displays, global positioning system, and jam-resistant radios. Some KC-130s are also equipped with defensive electronic and infrared countermeasures systems.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The KC-130 is a multi-role, multi-mission tactical tanker/transport which provides the refueling support required by the USMC for its aircraft. This versatile asset provides in-flight refueling to both tactical aircraft and helicopters within a operating radius, as well as rapid ground refueling when required. Additional tasks performed are aerial delivery of troops and cargo, emergency resupply into unimproved landing zones within the objective or battle area, emergency medical evacuation, tactical insertion of combat troops and equipment, and evacuation missions.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The KC-130J offers a 27,215 kg (60,000 lb) fuel capacity that it can allocate between its own flight requirements against aerial refueling offload capacity using its wing and external tanks while in the air. When more fuel is needed, an additional 11,064 kg (24,392 lb) of fuel can be offloaded from a specially configured internal fuselage 13,627 L (3,600-gallon) aluminum fuel tank. The system also functions without the fuselage tank, so the cargo compartment can be used for cargo on the same mission, giving the aircraft even greater flexibility.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The aircraft is ready to fuel fixed-wing, tilt-rotor, or rotary-wing aircraft using the standard probe and drogue technique. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue refueling pods (made by Sargent Fletcher) can each transfer up to 300 gallons (1,136 L) per minute to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The KC-130J also provides for rapid ground refueling of helicopters, vehicles and fuel caches. The aircraft has a unique propeller feathering feature (known as "hotel mode", derived from the term hotel electric power, when a vessel or other means of transport is equipped with a power plant with the sole purpose of generating electric power for lighting, etc., rather than propulsion) which can slow (at 25% rotation speed) the propellers while the turbines continue to run and energize the generator, providing power to the electric fuel pumps. This reduction of the propellers' speed helps to eliminate prop wash behind the KC-130J. This allows ground forces to operate in relative calm while the aircraft offloads up to 2,271 L, 1,823 kg (600 gallons, 4,018 pounds) per minute.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The U.S. Marine Corps has chosen the KC-130J to replace its aging KC-130 legacy tanker fleet. The new KC-130J offers increased utility and much needed improvement in mission performance. As a force multiplier, the J-model tanker is capable of refueling both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft as well as conducting rapid ground refueling. The refueling speed envelope has been widened from 100 to indicated airspeed, offering more capability and flexibility. Offload rates per refueling pod can be up to 300 gallons (1,136 L) per minute simultaneously. The KC-130's offload is significantly greater than previous Hercules tankers. As an example, at 1,000 nautical miles (1,852 km), the fuel offload is well over 45,000 pounds (20,412 kg).


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: With the addition of the Marine Corps's ISR / Weapon Mission Kit, the KC-130J will be able to serve as an overwatch aircraft and can deliver ground support fire in the form of Hellfire or Griffin missiles, precision-guided bombs, and eventually 30mm cannon fire in a later upgrade. This capability, designated as "Harvest HAWK" (Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), can be used in scenarios where precision is not a requisite, such as area denial.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The AN/AAQ-30 Target Sight System (TSS) integrates an infrared and television camera, and is mounted under the left wing's external fuel tank. It is the same TSS used on the upgraded AH-1Z Viper attack helicopter. The typical loadout is four Hellfire missiles and 10 Griffin GPS guided missiles. The weapons systems operator uses a Fire Control Console mounted on an HCU-6/E pallet in the KC-130J's cargo compartment.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The aircraft retains its original capabilities in refueling and transportation. The entire system can be removed in less than a day if necessary. The USAF MC-130W Dragon Spear program uses a similar concept.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The USMC plans to acquire three kits per active-duty KC-130J squadron for a total of nine kits, each costing up to . It was first test flown on 29 August 2009 by VX-20, and first deployed in October 2010 with VMGR-352.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The KC-130 has supported operations in the Vietnam War, Operation Desert Shield, Operation Desert Storm, Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom and other USMC operations over the last fifty years. It also participated in the Falklands War for Argentina.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: VMGR-252, Cherry Point, NC, was the first fleet squadron to transition to the KC-130J. Contrary to most military squadrons when they transition to a new aircraft, VMGR-252 did not "stand down" to train and equip for the new airframe. Instead, they continued full-time fleet support with their "legacy" Hercs until fully converted to the J model. This trend was continued by squadrons as they transitioned to the KC-130J.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: In February 2005, VMGR-252 made the first operational combat deployment of the KC-130J when six aircraft were deployed to Al Asad, Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. During this time VMGR-252 experienced many "firsts" with the new J model conducting aerial refueling, delivery of cargo and passengers, the first combat aerial delivery of supplies by any J model user (the USAF subsequently conducted aerial delivery in Afghanistan with their new J models later that year) and battlefield illumination. VMGR-252 maintained the sole KC-130J presence for a year while VMGR-352 took delivery of and transitioned to the J model. The semi-permissive threat environment and the state of the art defensive systems of the J model permitted it to operate over the battlefield, providing fuel for the jets close to the fight, versus the tanker being far behind the lines in relative sanctuary. On more than one occasion VMGR-252 aircraft came under fire from insurgents, as did VMGR-352 aircraft during subsequent deployments to Iraq.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: In 2006, VMGR-252 and 352 shared a joint detachment in Iraq and this paradigm continued for a number of years. In the summer of 2006, VMGR-252 provided a two KC-130J detachment in support of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24MEU) to RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus during the Lebanon/Israeli conflict that summer. Also during this time VMGR-252 began extensive operational training and tactics development with the new MV-22 Osprey, refining long range tanker procedures with the new tilt-rotor aircraft.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: In Spring 2008, VMGR-252 again made KC-130J history by providing the KC-130J aircraft detachment to 24MEU as they reestablished the USMC presence in Kandahar, Afghanistan. This deployment experienced numerous great KC-130J successes conducting all manner of expeditionary type missions routinely landing at austere dirt runways, tactical aerial delivery of goods, and the traditional logistic support and refueling missions that are the hallmark of USMC KC-130 support.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: Though the USMC KC-130Js have left Iraq, a continuing KC-130J presence has now been maintained in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, with aircraft and crews provided by both VMGR-252 and 352 during different periods. In May 2009, the Okinawa-based "SUMOS" of VMGR-152 provided two aircraft and crews to support the OEF presence. This was VMGR-152's first operational combat deployment since Vietnam, and they have been maintaining a continuing presence in Afghanistan with VMGR-352/252.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: USMC KC-130J aircraft from VMGR-252 and 352 have additionally been deployed to Djibouti for operations in the Horn of African supporting counter-terrorist operations in the region.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: After the 2010 Pakistan floods, KC-130Js from USMC VMGR-352 squadron delivered over 90,000 kg (200,000 lbs) of cargo across Pakistan in support of flood relief efforts.


title: Lockheed Martin KC-130

text: The Harvest Hawk weapons system for USMC KC-130J aircraft began its first deployment during October 2010 in Afghanistan with Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 352 (VMGR-352). Its first weapons engagement was on 4 November supporting the 3rd Battalion 5th Marines in Sangin. One Hellfire missile was fired and five enemy insurgents were killed. The battle damage assessment stated there were no civilian casualties or property damage during the fire fight.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Damien: Omen II is a 1978 supernatural horror film directed by Don Taylor and the second installment of "The Omen" series. It stars William Holden and Lee Grant, with Jonathan Scott-Taylor, Robert Foxworth, Lew Ayres, Sylvia Sidney, Lance Henriksen, Ian Hendry, and Leo McKern. Set seven years after the first film, it follows a now-pubescent Damien Thorn (Scott-Taylor) as he begins to realize his destiny as the Antichrist.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Franchise producer Harvey Bernhard wrote the screen story, with a screenplay by Stanley Mann and Mike Hodges. Hodges was the original director, but was fired and replaced by Don Taylor early in production. Unlike the first film, which was shot in England and Italy, filming of the sequel took place primarily in Chicago, Illinois; Wisconsin, and Israel.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: It was released by 20th Century Fox on June 9, 1978, and received mixed reviews from critics. A sequel, "", was released in 1981.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: A week after the funerals of Robert and Katherine Thorn, archaeologist Carl Bugenhagen learns that their adopted son Damien is still alive. Confiding to his friend Michael Morgan that Damien is the Antichrist, Bugenhagen wants him to give Damien's new guardian a box containing the means to kill Damien. As Morgan is unconvinced, Bugenhagen takes him to a local ruin to see the mural of Yigael's Wall, which was said to have been drawn by a monk who saw the Devil and had visions of the Antichrist as he would appear from birth to adulthood. Though Morgan believes him upon seeing an ancient depiction of the Antichrist with Damien's face, both he and Bugenhagen are trapped and buried alive as the tunnel collapses.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Seven years later, the 12-year-old Damien is living in Chicago with his uncle, industrialist Richard Thorn and his second wife, Ann. Damien gets along well with his cousin Mark, Richard's son from his first marriage, with whom Damien is enrolled in a military academy. However, Damien is despised by Richard's aunt, Marion, who sees him as a bad influence on Mark and demands that they be separated. Ann vehemently reacts and demands she leave. Aunt Marion threatens to rewrite her will, i.e. the allocation of her shares in the family business. She is found dead in her bed by Ann the following morning, an apparent heart attack after being visited by a raven, perched on her window sill, in the dead of night.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: At Thorn Industries, manager Paul Buher suggests expanding the company's operations into agriculture; however, the project is shelved by senior manager Bill Atherton, who calls Buher's intention of buying up land in the process unethical. At Mark's birthday party, Buher introduces himself to Damien, invites him to see the plant, and also speaks of his approaching initiation. Buher seemingly makes up with Atherton, who drowns after falling through the ice at a hockey game on a lake the following day.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: A photojournalist named Joan Hart, a friend of Thorn Museum curator Dr. Charles Warren, arrives in Chicago and attempts to interview Richard. When she asks about his brother's involvement with Bugenhagen, Richard angrily ends the interview. Having recently seen Yigael's Wall herself, Joan is horrified when she visits the academy and sees Damien in person. She drives away in a panic, but her car mysteriously stalls. The raven appears and attacks Joan by pecking out her eyes. She is killed by a semi-truck after wandering blindly into its path.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Meanwhile, at the academy, Damien's new commander, Sergeant Neff, is revealed to be a secret Satanist. Damien learns his true nature, and flees the Academy grounds. Later, Dr. David Pasarian is killed when he and his assistant suffocate from toxic fumes during an apparently accidental industrial accident. The incident sickens Damien's class, who were visiting the plant at the time. Treated at hospital, only Damien is found to be unaffected by the fumes. A doctor suggests keeping him in the hospital as a precaution. The doctor discovers that Damien's marrow cells resemble those of a jackal but before he can investigate any further or report his findings he is killed by a falling elevator cable.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Meanwhile, Bugenhagen's box has been found during an excavation of the ruins and delivered to the Thorn Museum. Dr. Warren opens it and finds the Seven Daggers of Megiddo, the only weapons able to kill Damien, along with a letter by Bugenhagen explaining that Damien is the Antichrist. Warren rushes to inform Richard. Mark overhears their conversation and confronts Damien. Reluctantly, and then proudly, admitting to being the Devil's son, Damien pleads with Mark to join him on his rise to power, but Mark's steadfast refusal "forces" Damien to kill Mark by causing an aneurysm in his cousin's brain.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Shaken by his son's death, Richard goes to New York City to see a half-crazed Warren before being taken to the train station where Yigael's Wall is being stored in a cargo carrier. As he sees Damien's image, a switching locomotive impales Warren and crushes him against the carriage, destroying the wall and convincing Richard beyond doubt that Damien is the Antichrist. Upon his return, Richard has Damien picked up from his graduation at the academy while taking Ann to the museum.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: When they find the daggers in Warren's office in the Thorn Museum, Ann uses them to kill Richard, revealing herself to be a Satanist. She says "I've always belonged to him!", then screams "Damien!" Having heard the altercation from an outside corridor, Damien wills a nearby boiler room to explode, setting fire to the building and killing Ann. Damien leaves the burning museum and is picked up by the family driver, Murray, as the fire department arrives.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: David Seltzer, who wrote the first film's screenplay, was asked by the producers to write the second. Seltzer refused, for he had no interest in writing sequels. Years later he commented that had he written the story for the second "Omen", he would have set it the day after the first movie, with Damien a child living in the White House. With Seltzer turning down "Omen II", producer Harvey Bernhard duly outlined the story himself, and Stanley Mann was hired to write the screenplay.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: The earliest drafts presented Damien as a teenager and featured a female love interest. The love interest was deleted in the final film.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Academy Award-winning veteran actor William Holden was considered to star as Robert Thorn in the first "Omen", but turned it down as he did not want to star in a picture about the devil. Gregory Peck was selected as his replacement. "The Omen" went on to become a huge hit, and Holden made sure he did not turn down the part of protagonist Richard Thorn in the sequel. Lee Grant, another Oscar-winner, was a fan of the first "Omen", and accepted enthusiastically the role of Ann Thorn.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Ray Berwick (1914–1990) trained and handled the crows used for several scenes in the film. Live birds and a crow-puppet were used for the attack on photojournalist Joan Hart. Berwick also trained the avian actors in Alfred Hitchcock's "The Birds" (1963).


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Leo McKern reprises his role as Carl Bugenhagen from the original film. McKern is the only cast member of the series to appear as the same character in more than one installment, although actor Tommy Duggan appears in the first and third installments of the series as different characters.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Richard Donner, director of the first "Omen" movie, was not available to direct the second; he was busy working on "Superman". British director Mike Hodges was hired to helm the movie. Four weeks into principal photography, the producers fired Hodges, claiming his working methods were too slow and placing the film behind schedule.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Harvey Bernhard cited a demonstrative instance where Hodges spent half a day's filming setting up a single shot of Damien arriving at the military academy in order to place a bonfire in the foreground. Hodges maintained a screenwriter's credit on the finished film.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Bernhard replaced Hodges with Don Taylor, who had a reputation for finishing films on time and under budget. Taylor reshot several of Hodges scenes, though several of the earlier director's takes remain in the final film, including:


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Taylor also added the twist ending of Ann Thorn being a secret disciple of Damien who kills Richard in the climax.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Unlike the first film, which was shot primarily in England, "Damien" was filmed almost entirely in the United States.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: The film was mainly set in Chicago and was largely filmed in that city's downtown. The Thorn Industries building was actually Chicago City Hall. Another scene took place at Graceland Cemetery. Scenes that were supposedly at a New York City railroad freight yard, with the CBOT Tower and the Sears Tower clearly visible in the background, were actually filmed at the Rock Island Railroad's 12th Street intermodel yard in Chicago, IL.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Other locations included Lake Forest Academy's campus, which was used as the Thorn Mansion, the Northwestern Military and Naval Academy's Lake Geneva, Wisconsin campus, which was used for the military academy, with real Lake Geneva students portraying most of the academy cadets, and the Murphy Estate on Catfish Lake in Eagle River, Wisconsin for the skating scene, with local children playing the skaters. The Field Museum of Natural History, depicting the Thorn Museum, was also used in several scenes throughout the film, including some of its final minutes.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: The film received mixed reviews, but was deemed as a worthy sequel. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 46% based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The site's consensus states: ""Damien" dishes out ghoulish scares and a Biblical body count to generate some morbid fun, but this repetitious sequel lacks the sophistication of its predecessor."


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote, "Perhaps my resistance has given out but "Damien—Omen II", though it's as foolish as the first film, is rather more fun to watch and sometimes very stylish-looking." "Variety" wrote, "Damien is obviously wearing out his welcome, but presold interest and a couple of gruesome, ghastly death scenes should shore up business for the summer." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" found it inferior to the original because "there's nothing particularly surprising or horrifying about a teen-ager in league with the devil. Also, the commotion the kid inspires this time is not particularly frightening." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote, "Far from advancing the unsavory premise of the first film, this one doggedly retraces its steps. The result is an inferior copy rather than a narrative continuation." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "For all its slavish copying of the original, 'Damien — Omen II' plays differently. It's a hoot instead of a scream. Its deaths are frequent and exceedingly graphic, but you wait for them as for the acts on a variety bill. The connective tissue is frailer this time, and there is almost no accumulation of suspense." Richard Combs of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "The main trouble with the Evil One as a protagonist is that his opposition never looks very convincing—and like its predecessor, "Omen II" is based on a rather lame structure in which successive individuals discover something amiss about Damien and then meet an inexorably bloody end."


title: Damien: Omen II

text: The film opened at number one at the US box office with a gross of $3,880,880 in its opening weekend from 524 theaters. It went on to gross $26.5 million in the United States and Canada, generating theatrical rentals of $12.1 million. Worldwide, it earned rentals of $20.6 million compared to $46.3 million for the original.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: After Harvey Bernhard had finished writing the story outline and was given the green light to start the production, the first person he contacted was Jerry Goldsmith because of the composer's busy schedule. Bernhard also felt that Goldsmith's music for "The Omen" was the highest point of that movie, and that without Goldsmith's music, the sequel would not be successful.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Goldsmith's "Omen II" score uses similar motifs to his original "Omen" score, but for the most part he avoided re-using the same musical cues. In fact, the first movie's famous "Ave Satani" theme is reprised only partially, just before the closing credits begin. Goldsmith composed a largely different main title theme for "Omen II", albeit one that utilises Latin phrases as "Ave Satani" had done. Goldsmith's "Omen II" score allows eerie choral effects and unusual electronic sound designs to take precedence over the piano and gothic chanting.


title: Damien: Omen II

text: Unlike "The Omen" (and ""), Jerry Goldsmith's score was recorded in the US, with the soundtrack album re-recorded in Britain for financial reasons. Lionel Newman conducted both the film and album versions; Varèse Sarabande later released an expanded CD including both, the liner notes of which explain the reasons behind the re-recording (a short-lived union rule meant that musicians had to be paid the full amount for the film and album use if the soundtrack was released on LP, doubling their fee. It was cheaper, therefore, to re-record in the UK than pay the orchestra double in the US). The liner notes also explain that some of the soundtrack's pieces have been re-written slightly or even merged for the album re-recording. The audio quality of these UK-recorded album tracks also sounds noticeably more dynamic. Some sections of the film's soundtrack – the tapes of which were thought lost for many years – were discovered to have warped in storage and have noticeable and uncorrectable flaws. (The film soundtrack is listed from track 11 onwards).


title: Damien: Omen II

text: The film was released on videocassette during the 1980s and 1990s. In 2000, it was part of "The Omen Quadrilogy" DVD set released in the US and UK, and was not available separately until 2005. In 2006, to coincide with the DVD release of the remake of the original film, "The Omen" and its sequels were released individually and together in an ultimate Pentalogy boxset digitally remastered and with more bonus features. In 2008, it was released on Blu-ray with its predecessor and 1981 sequel, "". It is the only film in its series not currently available for online downloading, although Amazon had it on its 'Add to Watchlist' and is available through them for download as well as streaming video with a Cinemax subscription, alongside its predecessor, sequels and remake, all of which are downloadable through Amazon, Apple's iTunes and Vudu. It is now available for download with its original predecessor and sequels in an Omen 4-pack "bundle" set through Apple's iTunes and Vudu. It is also available alongside "The Final Conflict" for streaming on Disney+ via the international brand Star.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The genus Pan consists of two extant species: the chimpanzee and the bonobo. Taxonomically, these two ape species are collectively termed panins; however, both species are more commonly referred to collectively using the generalized term chimpanzees, or chimps. Together with humans, gorillas, and orangutans they are part of the family Hominidae (the great apes, or "hominids"). Native to sub-Saharan Africa, chimpanzees and bonobos are currently both found in the Congo jungle, while only the chimpanzee is also found further north in West Africa. Both species are listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and in 2017 the Convention on Migratory Species selected the chimpanzee for special protection.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The chimpanzee ("P. troglodytes") who lives north of the Congo River, and the bonobo ("P. paniscus") who lives south of it, were once considered to be the same species, but since 1928 they have been recognized as distinct. In addition, "P. troglodytes" is divided into four subspecies, while "P. paniscus" is undivided. Based on genome sequencing, these two extant "Pan" species diverged around one million years ago.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The most obvious differences are that chimpanzees are somewhat larger, more aggressive and male-dominated, while the bonobos are more gracile, peaceful, and female-dominated. Their hair is typically black or brown. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Both chimpanzees and bonobos are some of the most social great apes, with social bonds occurring throughout large communities. Fruit is the most important component of a chimpanzee's diet; but they will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even other chimpanzees or monkeys. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees and bonobos are equally humanity's closest living relatives. As such, they are among the largest-brained and most intelligent primates: they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. Their learning abilities have been extensively studied. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of "Pan troglodytes" were pioneered by primatologist Jane Goodall. Both "Pan" species are considered to be endangered as human activities have caused severe declines in the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild panina populations include poaching, habitat destruction, and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of "Pan" species in the wild.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The genus name "Pan" was first introduced by Lorenz Oken in 1816. An alternative "Theranthropus" was suggested by Brookes 1828 and "Chimpansee" by Voigt 1831. "Troglodytes" was not available, as it had been given as the name of a genus of wren in 1809, for "cave-dweller", reflecting the tendency of some wrens to forage in dark crevices. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature adopted "Pan" as the only official name of the genus in 1895, though the "cave-dweller" connection was able to be included, albeit at the species level ("Pan troglodytes" – the common chimpanzee) for one of the two species of "Pan". The genus name is a reference to Pan, the Greek god of nature and wilderness.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The first use of the name "chimpanze" is recorded in "The London Magazine" in 1738, glossed as meaning "mockman" in a language of "the Angolans" (apparently from a Bantu language; reportedly modern Vili (Civili), a Zone H Bantu language, has the comparable "ci-mpenzi"). The spelling "chimpanzee" is found in a 1758 supplement to "Chamber's Cyclopædia". The colloquialism "chimp" was most likely coined some time in the late 1870s.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The chimpanzee was named "Simia troglodytes" by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1776. The species name "troglodytes" is a reference to the "Troglodytae" (literally "cave-goers"), an African people described by Greco-Roman geographers. Blumenbach first used it in his "De generis humani varietate nativa liber" ("On the natural varieties of the human genus") in 1776, Linnaeus 1758 had already used "Homo troglodytes" for a hypothetical mixture of human and orangutan.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The bonobo, in the past also referred to as the "pygmy chimpanzee", was given the species name of "paniscus" by Ernst Schwarz (1929), a diminutive of the theonym "Pan".


title: Pan (genus)

text: The genus "Pan" is part of the subfamily Homininae, to which humans also belong. The lineages of chimpanzees and humans separated in a process of speciation between roughly five to twelve million years ago, making them humanity's closest living relative. Research by Mary-Claire King in 1973 found 99% identical DNA between human beings and chimpanzees. For some time, research modified that finding to about 94% commonality, with some of the difference occurring in noncoding DNA, but more recent knowledge states the difference in DNA between humans, chimpanzees and bonobos at just about 1%–1.2% again.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The chimpanzee fossil record has long been absent and thought to have been due to the preservation bias in relation to their environment. However, in 2005, chimpanzee fossils were discovered and described by Sally McBrearty and colleagues. Existing chimpanzee populations in West and Central Africa are separate from the major human fossil sites in East Africa; however, chimpanzee fossils have been reported from Kenya, indicating that both humans and members of the "Pan" clade were present in the East African Rift Valley during the Middle Pleistocene.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The chimpanzee's arms are longer than its legs. The male common chimp stands up to high. Male adult wild chimps weigh between 40 and 60 kg with females weighing between 27 and 50 kg. When extended, the common chimp's long arms span one and a half times the body's height. The bonobo is slightly shorter and thinner than the common chimpanzee, but has longer limbs. In trees, both species climb with their long, powerful arms; on the ground, chimpanzees usually knuckle-walk, or walk on all fours, clenching their fists and supporting themselves on the knuckles. Chimpanzees are better suited for walking than orangutans, because the chimp's feet have broader soles and shorter toes. The bonobo has proportionately longer upper limbs and walks upright more often than does the common chimpanzee. Both species can walk upright on two legs when carrying objects with their hands and arms.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The chimpanzee is tailless; its coat is dark; its face, fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet are hairless. The exposed skin of the face, hands, and feet varies from pink to very dark in both species, but is generally lighter in younger individuals and darkens with maturity. A University of Chicago Medical Centre study has found significant genetic differences between chimpanzee populations. A bony shelf over the eyes gives the forehead a receding appearance, and the nose is flat. Although the jaws protrude, a chimp's lips are thrust out only when it pouts.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The brain of a chimpanzee has been measured at a general range of 282–500 cm. The human brain, in contrast, is about three times larger, with a reported average volume of about 1330 cm.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees reach puberty between the age of eight and ten years. A chimpanzee's testicles are unusually large for its body size, with a combined weight of about compared to a gorilla's or a human's . This relatively great size is generally attributed to sperm competition due to the polygynandrous nature of chimpanzee mating behaviour.


title: Pan (genus)

text: In the wild, chimpanzees live to their 30s, while some captured chimps have reached an age of 70 years and older.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees are known for possessing great amount of muscle strength, especially in their arms. However, compared to humans the amount of strength reported in media and popular science is greatly exaggerated with numbers of four to eight times the muscle strength of a human. These numbers stem from two studies in 1923 and 1926 by a biologist named John Bauman. These studies were refuted in 1943 and an adult male chimpanzee was found to pull about the same weight as an adult man. Corrected for their smaller body sizes, chimpanzees were found to be stronger than humans but not anywhere near four to eight times. In the 1960s these tests were repeated and chimpanzees were found to have twice the strength of a human when it came to pulling weights. The reason for the higher strength seen in chimpanzees compared to humans are thought to come from longer skeletal muscle fibers that can generate twice the work output over a wider range of motion compared to skeletal muscle fibers in humans.


title: Pan (genus)

text: It is suspected that human observers can influence chimpanzee behaviour. For this reason researchers sometimes prefer camera traps and remote microphones rather than human observers.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Anatomical differences between the common chimpanzee and the bonobo are slight. Both are omnivorous adapted to a mainly frugivorous diet. Yet sexual and social behaviours are markedly different. The common chimpanzee has a troop culture based on beta males led by an alpha male, and highly complex social relationships. The bonobo, on the other hand, has egalitarian, nonviolent, matriarchal, sexually receptive behaviour. Bonobos frequently have sex, sometimes to help prevent and resolve conflicts. Different groups of chimpanzees also have different cultural behaviour with preferences for types of tools. The common chimpanzee tends to display greater aggression than does the bonobo. The average captive chimpanzee sleeps 9 hours and 42 minutes per day.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Contrary to what the scientific name ("Pan" "troglodytes") may suggest, chimpanzees do not typically spend their time in caves, but there have been reports of some of them seeking refuge in caves because of the heat during daytime.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees live in large multi-male and multi-female social groups, which are called communities. Within a community, the position of an individual and the influence the individual has on others dictates a definite social hierarchy. Chimpanzees live in a leaner hierarchy wherein more than one individual may be dominant enough to dominate other members of lower rank. Typically, a dominant male is referred to as the alpha male. The alpha male is the highest-ranking male that controls the group and maintains order during disputes. In chimpanzee society, the 'dominant male' sometimes is not the largest or strongest male but rather the most manipulative and political male that can influence the goings on within a group. Male chimpanzees typically attain dominance by cultivating allies who will support that individual during future ambitions for power. The alpha male regularly displays by puffing his normally slim coat up to increase view size and charge to seem as threatening and as powerful as possible; this behaviour serves to intimidate other members and thereby maintain power and authority, and it may be fundamental to the alpha male's holding on to his status. Lower-ranking chimpanzees will show respect by submissively gesturing in body language or reaching out their hands while grunting. Female chimpanzees will show deference to the alpha male by presenting their hindquarters.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Female chimpanzees also have a hierarchy, which is influenced by the position of a female individual within a group. In some chimpanzee communities, the young females may inherit high status from a high-ranking mother. Dominant females will also ally to dominate lower-ranking females: whereas males mainly seek dominant status for its associated mating privileges and sometimes violent domination of subordinates, females seek dominant status to acquire resources such as food, as high-ranking females often have first access to them. Both genders acquire dominant status to improve social standing within a group.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Community female acceptance is necessary for alpha male status; females must ensure that their group visits places that supply them with enough food. A group of dominant females will sometimes oust an alpha male which is not to their preference and back another male, in whom they see potential for leading the group as a successful alpha male.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The mating system within each community is polygynandrous, with each male and female possibly having multiple sexual partners.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays; they have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception; they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence; and they are capable of spontaneous planning for a future state or event.


title: Pan (genus)

text: In October 1960, Jane Goodall observed the use of tools among chimpanzees. Recent research indicates that chimpanzees' use of stone tools dates back at least 4,300 years (about 2,300 BC). One example of chimpanzee tool usage behavior includes the use of a large stick as a tool to dig into termite mounds, and the subsequent use of a small stick altered into a tool that is used to "fish" the termites out of the mound. Chimpanzees are also known to use smaller stones as hammers and a large one as an anvil in order to break open nuts.


title: Pan (genus)

text: In the 1970s, reports of chimpanzees using rocks or sticks as weapons were anecdotal and controversial. However, a 2007 study claimed to reveal the use of spears, which common chimpanzees in Senegal sharpen with their teeth and use to stab and pry Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Prior to the discovery of tool use by chimpanzees, humans were believed to be the only species to make and use tools; however, several other tool-using species are now known.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Nest-building, sometimes considered to be a form of tool use, is seen when chimpanzees construct arboreal night nests by lacing together branches from one or more trees to build a safe, comfortable place to sleep; infants learn this process by watching their mothers. The nest provides a sort of mattress, which is supported by strong branches for a foundation, and then lined with softer leaves and twigs; the minimum diameter is and may be located at a height of . Both day and night nests are built, and may be located in groups. A study in 2014 found that the muhimbi tree is favoured for nest building by chimpanzees in Uganda due to its physical properties, such as bending strength, inter-node distance, and leaf surface area.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Studies have shown chimpanzees engage in apparently altruistic behaviour within groups. Some researchers have suggested that chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members, but a more recent study of wild chimpanzees found that both male and female adults would adopt orphaned young of their group. Also, different groups sometimes share food, form coalitions, and cooperate in hunting and border patrolling. Sometimes, chimpanzees have adopted young that come from unrelated groups. And in some rare cases, even male chimpanzees have been shown to take care of abandoned infant chimpanzees of an unrelated group, though in most cases they would kill the infant.


title: Pan (genus)

text: According to a literature summary by James W. Harrod, evidence for chimpanzee emotivity includes display of mourning; "incipient romantic love"; "rain dances"; appreciation of natural beauty (such as a sunset over a lake); curiosity and respect towards other wildlife (such as the python, which is neither a threat nor a food source to chimpanzees); altruism toward other species (such as feeding turtles); and animism, or "pretend play", when chimpanzees cradle and groom rocks or sticks.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees communicate in a manner that is similar to that of human nonverbal communication, using vocalizations, hand gestures, and facial expressions. There is some evidence that they can recreate human speech. Research into the chimpanzee brain has revealed that when chimpanzees communicate, an area in the brain is activated which is in the same position as the language center called Broca's area in human brains.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Adult common chimpanzees, particularly males, can be very aggressive. They are highly territorial and are known to kill others of their species.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees also engage in targeted hunting of lower-order primates, such as the red colobus and bush babies. Males who acquire the meat may share it with females to have sex or for grooming.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Chimpanzees, as well as other apes, had also been purported to have been known to ancient writers, but mainly as myths and legends on the edge of European and Near Eastern societal consciousness. Apes are mentioned variously by Aristotle. The English word "ape" translates Hebrew "qőf" in English translations of the Bible (1 Kings 10:22), but the word may refer to a monkey rather than an ape proper.


title: Pan (genus)

text: The diary of Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1506), preserved in the Portuguese National Archive ("Torre do Tombo"), is probably the first written document to acknowledge that chimpanzees built their own rudimentary tools. The first of these early transcontinental chimpanzees came from Angola and were presented as a gift to Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange in 1640, and were followed by a few of its brethren over the next several years. Scientists described these first chimpanzees as "pygmies", and noted the animals' distinct similarities to humans. The next two decades, a number of the creatures were imported into Europe, mainly acquired by various zoological gardens as entertainment for visitors.


title: Pan (genus)

text: Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection (published in 1859) spurred scientific interest in chimpanzees, as in much of life science, leading eventually to numerous studies of the animals in the wild and captivity. The observers of chimpanzees at the time were mainly interested in behaviour as it related to that of humans. This was less strictly and disinterestedly scientific than it might sound, with much attention being focused on whether or not the animals had traits that could be considered 'good'; the intelligence of chimpanzees was often significantly exaggerated, as immortalized in Hugo Rheinhold's "Affe mit Schädel" (see image, left). By the end of the 19th century, chimpanzees remained very much a mystery to humans, with very little factual scientific information available.