title: Blaise Compaoré

text: A week later, "Jeune Afrique" published an interview with Compaoré in which he alleged that 'part of the opposition was working with the army' to plot his overthrow and that 'history will tell us if they were right'. He added that he would 'not wish for his worst enemy' to be in Zida's place.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: The first head of state that has been in office for more than a short time after Blaise Campaoré is Roch Marc Christian Kaboré as of 29 December 2015.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: Compaoré introduced Charles Taylor to his friend Muammar Gaddafi. Compaoré also helped Taylor in the early 1990s by sending him troops and resources.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: In 1993, Compaoré headed the Burkina-Faso delegation that participated in the first Tokyo International Conference on African Development.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: Compaoré has been active as a mediator in regional issues. On 26 July 2006, he was designated as the mediator of the Inter-Togolese Dialogue, which was held in Ouagadougou in August 2006 and resulted in an agreement between the government and opposition parties. He has also acted as mediator in the crisis in Ivory Coast, brokering the peace agreement signed by the Ivorian president, Laurent Gbagbo, and the New Forces leader, Guillaume Soro, in Ouagadougou on 4 March 2007. In March 2012, he acted as a mediator in talks between representatives of the Malian coup d'état and other regional leaders.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: The BBC noted in 2014 that he was 'the strongest ally to France and the US in the region' and that 'despite his own history of backing rebels and fuelling civil wars in the West African neighbourhood ... more importantly, he used his networks to help Western powers battling Islamist militancy in the Sahel'.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: During 2016, the capital was in the grip of a terrorist attack. Jihadists who had suites and tables in town, following agreements with Campaoré of non-aggression. As a result, the military group of the presidential guard received enormous credits while the army was impoverished to avoid any military coup.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: He served on the International Multilateral Partnership Against Cyber Threats (IMPACT) International Advisory Board.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: In an interview with the magazine "Famille Chrétienne", Compaoré asserted that the notion of sexual abstinence was not a monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church and that European non-governmental organizations that disagreed with traditional morality were profiting from the situation to intervene in regional African affairs.


title: Blaise Compaoré

text: In April 2021, a military court in Burkina Faso indicted Compaoré "in absentia", charging him with the murder of his immediate predecessor, Thomas Sankara, in 1987. Another trial against him, on counts of attacking state security, concealing a corpse and complicity in a murder, began on 11 October 2021. In April 2022, he was found guilty and sentenced to life in prison.


title: Courtly love

text: Courtly love ( ; ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing various deeds or services for ladies because of their "courtly love". This kind of love is originally a literary fiction created for the entertainment of the nobility, but as time passed, these ideas about love changed and attracted a larger audience. In the high Middle Ages, a "game of love" developed around these ideas as a set of social practices. "Loving nobly" was considered to be an enriching and improving practice.


title: Courtly love

text: Courtly love began in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne, ducal Burgundy and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily at the end of the eleventh century. In essence, courtly love was an experience between erotic desire and spiritual attainment, "a love at once illicit and morally elevating, passionate and disciplined, humiliating and exalting, human and transcendent". The topic was prominent with both musicians and poets, being frequently used by troubadours, trouvères and minnesänger. The topic was also popular with major writers, including Geoffrey Chaucer, Dante and Petrarch.


title: Courtly love

text: The term "courtly love" was first popularized by Gaston Paris and has since come under a wide variety of definitions and uses. Its interpretation, origins and influences continue to be a matter of critical debate.


title: Courtly love

text: While its origin is uncertain, the term "amour courtois" ("courtly love") was given greater popularity by Gaston Paris in his 1883 article "Études sur les romans de la Table Ronde: Lancelot du Lac, II: "Le conte de la charrette"", a treatise inspecting Chrétien de Troyes's "Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart" (1177). Paris said "amour courtois" was an idolization and ennobling discipline. The lover (idolizer) accepts the independence of his mistress and tries to make himself worthy of her by acting bravely and honorably (nobly) and by doing whatever deeds she might desire, subjecting himself to a series of tests (ordeals) to prove to her his ardor and commitment. Sexual satisfaction, Paris said, may not have been a goal or even result, but the love was not entirely platonic either, as it was based on sexual attraction.


title: Courtly love

text: The term and Paris's definition were soon widely accepted and adopted. In 1936 C. S. Lewis wrote "The Allegory of Love" further solidifying courtly love as a "love of a highly specialized sort, whose characteristics may be enumerated as Humility, Courtesy, Adultery, and the Religion of Love".


title: Courtly love

text: Later, historians such as D. W. Robertson Jr., in the 1960s and John C. Moore and E. Talbot Donaldson in the 1970s, were critical of the term as being a modern invention, Donaldson calling it "The Myth of Courtly Love", because it is not supported in medieval texts. Even though the term "courtly love" does appear only in just one extant Provençal poem (as "cortez amors" in a late 12th-century lyric by Peire d'Alvernhe), it is closely related to the term "fin'amor" ("fine love") which does appear frequently in Provençal and French, as well as German translated as "hohe Minne". In addition, other terms and phrases associated with "courtliness" and "love" are common throughout the Middle Ages. Even though Paris used a term with little support in the contemporaneous literature, it was not a neologism and does usefully describe a particular conception of love and focuses on the courtliness that was at its essence.


title: Courtly love

text: Richard Trachsler says that "the concept of courtly literature is linked to the idea of the existence of courtly texts, texts produced and read by men and women sharing some kind of elaborate culture they all have in common". He argues that many of the texts that scholars claim to be courtly also include "uncourtly" texts, and argues that there is no clear way to determine "where courtliness ends and uncourtliness starts" because readers would enjoy texts which were supposed to be entirely courtly without realizing they were also enjoying texts which were uncourtly. This presents a clear problem in the understanding of courtliness.


title: Courtly love

text: The practice of courtly love developed in the castle life of four regions: Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne and ducal Burgundy, from around the time of the First Crusade (1099). Eleanor of Aquitaine (1124–1204) brought ideals of courtly love from Aquitaine first to the court of France, then to England (she became queen-consort in each of these two realms in succession). Her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne (1145–1198) brought courtly behavior to the Count of Champagne's court. Courtly love found expression in the lyric poems written by troubadours, such as William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071–1126), one of the first troubadour poets.


title: Courtly love

text: Poets adopted the terminology of feudalism, declaring themselves the vassal of the lady and addressing her as "midons" (my lord), which had dual benefits: allowing the poet to use a code name (so as to avoid having to reveal the lady's name) and at the same time flattering her by addressing her as his lord. The troubadour's model of the ideal lady was the wife of his employer or lord, a lady of higher status, usually the rich and powerful female head of the castle. When her husband was away on Crusade or elsewhere she dominated the household and cultural affairs; sometimes this was the case even when the husband was at home. The poet gave voice to the aspirations of the courtier class, for only those who were noble could engage in courtly love. This new kind of love saw nobility not based on wealth and family history, but on character and actions; such as devotion, piety, gallantry, thus appealing to poorer knights who saw an avenue for advancement.


title: Courtly love

text: Since at the time some marriages among nobility had little to do with modern perspectives of what constitutes love, courtly love was also a way for nobles to express the love not found in their marriage. "Lovers" in the context of courtly love need not refer to sex, but rather to the act of loving. These "lovers" had short trysts in secret, which escalated mentally, but might not physically. On the other hand, continual references to beds and sleeping in the lover's arms in medieval sources such as the troubador "albas" and romances such as Chrétien's "Lancelot" imply at least in some cases a context of actual sexual intercourse.


title: Courtly love

text: By the late 12th century Andreas Capellanus' highly influential work "De amore" ("Concerning Love") had codified the rules of courtly love. "De amore" lists such rules as:


title: Courtly love

text: Hispano-Arabic literature, as well as Arabic influence on Sicily, provided a further source, in parallel with Ovid, for the early troubadours of Provence—overlooked though this sometimes is in accounts of courtly love. The Arabic poets and poetry of Muslim Spain express similarly oxymoronic views of love as both beneficial and distressing as the troubadours were to do; while the broader European contact with the Islamic world must also be taken into consideration. Given that practices similar to courtly love were already prevalent in Al-Andalus and elsewhere in the Islamic world, it is very likely that Islamic practices influenced the Christian Europeans - especially in southern Europe where classical forms of courtly love first emerged.


title: Courtly love

text: According to Gustave E. von Grunebaum, several relevant elements developed in Arabic literature - including such contrasts as sickness/medicine and delight/torment - to characterise the love experience. The notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The Persian psychologist and philosopher Ibn Sina ( 980 – 1037; known as "Avicenna" in Europe) developed the notion of the "ennobling power" of love in the early 11th century in his treatise "Risala fi'l-Ishq" ("Treatise on Love"). The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", sometimes occurred implicitly in Arabic poetry, but first developed into a doctrine in European literature, in which all four elements of courtly love were present.


title: Courtly love

text: According to an argument outlined by Maria Rosa Menocal in "The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History" (1987), in 11th-century Spain, a group of wandering poets appeared who would go from court to court, and sometimes travel to Christian courts in southern France, a situation closely mirroring what would happen in southern France about a century later. Contacts between these Spanish poets and the French troubadours were frequent. The metrical forms used by the Spanish poets resembled those later used by the troubadours.


title: Courtly love

text: The historic analysis of courtly love varies between different schools of historians. That sort of history which views the early Middle Ages dominated by a prudish and patriarchal theocracy views courtly love as a "humanist" reaction to the puritanical views of the Catholic Church. Scholars who endorse this view value courtly love for its exaltation of femininity as an ennobling, spiritual, and moral force, in contrast to the ironclad chauvinism of the first and second estates. The condemnation of courtly love in the beginning of the 13th century by the church as heretical, is seen by these scholars as the Church's attempt to put down this "sexual rebellion".


title: Courtly love

text: However, other scholars note that courtly love was certainly tied to the Church's effort to civilize the crude Germanic feudal codes in the late 11th century. It has also been suggested that the prevalence of arranged marriages required other outlets for the expression of more personal occurrences of romantic love, and thus it was not in reaction to the prudery or patriarchy of the Church but to the nuptial customs of the era that courtly love arose. In the Germanic cultural world a special form of courtly love can be found, namely "Minne".


title: Courtly love

text: At times, the lady could be a "princesse lointaine", a far-away princess, and some tales told of men who had fallen in love with women whom they had never seen, merely on hearing their perfection described, but normally she was not so distant. As the etiquette of courtly love became more complicated, the knight might wear the colors of his lady: where blue or black were sometimes the colors of faithfulness, green could be a sign of unfaithfulness. Salvation, previously found in the hands of the priesthood, now came from the hands of one's lady. In some cases, there were also women troubadours who expressed the same sentiment for men.


title: Courtly love

text: The literary convention of courtly love can be found in most of the major authors of the Middle Ages such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower, Dante, Marie de France, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried von Strassburg and Thomas Malory. The medieval genres in which courtly love conventions can be found include the lyric, the romance and the allegory.


title: Courtly love

text: Courtly love was born in the lyric, first appearing with Provençal poets in the 11th century, including itinerant and courtly minstrels such as the French troubadours and trouvères, as well as the writers of lays. Texts about courtly love, including lays, were often set to music by troubadours or minstrels. According to scholar Ardis Butterfield, courtly love is "the air which many genres of troubadour song breathe". Not much is known about how, when, where, and for whom these pieces were performed, but we can infer that the pieces were performed at court by troubadours, trouvères, or the courtiers themselves. This can be inferred because people at court were encouraged or expected to be "courtly" and be proficient in many different areas, including music. Several troubadours became extremely wealthy playing the fiddle and singing their songs about courtly love for a courtly audience.


title: Courtly love

text: It is difficult to know how and when these songs were performed because most of the information on these topics is provided in the music itself. One lay, the "Lay of Lecheor", says that after a lay was composed, "Then the lay was preserved / Until it was known everywhere / For those who were skilled musicians / On viol, harp and rote / Carried it forth from that region…" Scholars have to then decide whether to take this description as truth or fiction.


title: Courtly love

text: Period examples of performance practice, of which there are few, show a quiet scene with a household servant performing for the king or lord and a few other people, usually unaccompanied. According to scholar Christopher Page, whether or not a piece was accompanied depended on the availability of instruments and people to accompany—in a courtly setting. For troubadours or minstrels, pieces were often accompanied by fiddle, also called a vielle, or a harp. Courtly musicians also played the vielle and the harp, as well as different types of viols and flutes.


title: Courtly love

text: This French tradition spread later to the German Minnesänger, such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. It also influenced the Sicilian School of Italian vernacular poetry, as well as Petrarch and Dante.


title: Courtly love

text: The vernacular poetry of the "romans courtois", or courtly romances, included many examples of courtly love. Some of them are set within the cycle of poems celebrating King Arthur's court. This was a literature of leisure, directed to a largely female audience for the first time in European history.


title: Courtly love

text: Allegory is common in the romantic literature of the Middle Ages, and it was often used to interpret what was already written. There is a strong connection between religious imagery and human sexual love in medieval writings.


title: Courtly love

text: The tradition of medieval allegory began in part with the interpretation of the Song of Songs in the Bible. Some medieval writers thought that the book should be taken literally as an erotic text; others believed that the Song of Songs was a metaphor for the relationship between Christ and the church and that the book could not even exist without that as its metaphorical meaning. Still others claimed that the book was written literally about sex but that this meaning must be "superseded by meanings related to Christ, to the church and to the individual Christian soul".


title: Courtly love

text: Marie de France's lai "Eliduc" toys with the idea that human romantic love is a symbol for God's love when two people love each other so fully and completely that they leave each other for God, separating and moving to different religious environments. Furthermore, the main character's first wife leaves her husband and becomes a nun so that he can marry his new lover.


title: Courtly love

text: Allegorical treatment of courtly love is also found in the "Roman de la Rose" by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. In it, a man becomes enamored with an individual rose on a rosebush, attempting to pick it and finally succeeding. The rose represents the female body, but the romance also contains lengthy digressive "discussions on free will versus determinism as well as on optics and the influence of heavenly bodies on human behavior".


title: Courtly love

text: Through such routes as Capellanus's record of the Courts of Love and the later works of Petrarchism (as well as the continuing influence of Ovid), the themes of courtly love were not confined to the medieval, but appear both in serious and comic forms in early modern Europe. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet," for example, shows Romeo attempting to love Rosaline in an almost contrived courtly fashion while Mercutio mocks him for it; and both in his plays and his sonnets the writer can be seen appropriating the conventions of courtly love for his own ends.


title: Courtly love

text: Paul Gallico's 1939 novel "The Adventures of Hiram Holliday" depicts a Romantic modern American consciously seeking to model himself on the ideal Medieval knight. Among other things, when finding himself in Austria in the aftermath of the Anschluss, he saves a Habsburg princess who is threatened by the Nazis, acts towards her in strict accordance with the maxims of courtly love and finally wins her after fighting a duel with her aristocratic betrothed.


title: Courtly love

text: A point of ongoing controversy about courtly love is to what extent it was sexual. All courtly love was erotic to some degree, and not purely platonic—the troubadours speak of the physical beauty of their ladies and the feelings and desires the ladies arouse in them. However, it is unclear what a poet should do: live a life of perpetual desire channeling his energies to higher ends, or physically consummate. Scholars have seen it both ways.


title: Courtly love

text: Denis de Rougemont said that the troubadours were influenced by Cathar doctrines which rejected the pleasures of the flesh and that they were metaphorically addressing the spirit and soul of their ladies. Rougemont also said that courtly love subscribed to the code of chivalry, and therefore a knight's loyalty was always to his King before his mistress. Edmund Reiss claimed it was also a spiritual love, but a love that had more in common with Christian love, or "caritas". On the other hand, scholars such as Mosché Lazar claim it was adulterous sexual love with physical possession of the lady the desired end.


title: Courtly love

text: Many scholars identify courtly love as the "pure love" described in 1184 by Capellanus in "De amore libri tres":


title: Courtly love

text: Within the corpus of troubadour poems there is a wide range of attitudes, even across the works of individual poets. Some poems are physically sensual, even bawdily imagining nude embraces, while others are highly spiritual and border on the platonic.


title: Courtly love

text: The lyrical use of the word "midons," borrowed from Guilhem de Poitou, allowed troubadours to address multiple listeners—the lords, men, and women of the court alike. A sort of hermaphroditic code word, or "senhan," scholar Meg Bogin writes, the multiple meanings behind this term allowed a covert form of flattery: "By refusing to disclose his lady's name, the troubadour permitted every woman in the audience, notably the patron's wife, to think that it was she; then, besides making her the object of a secret passion—it was "always" covert romance—by making her his lord he flashed her an aggrandized image of herself: she was more than 'just' a woman; she was a man." These points of multiple meaning and ambiguity facilitated a "coquetry of class", allowing the male troubadours to use the images of women as a means to gain social status with other men, but simultaneously, Bogin suggests, voiced deeper longings for the audience: "In this way, the sexual expressed the social and the social the sexual; and in the poetry of courtly love the static hierarchy of feudalism was uprooted and transformed to express a world of motion and transformation."


title: Courtly love

text: A continued point of controversy is whether courtly love was purely literary or was actually practiced in real life. There are no historical records that offer evidence of its presence in reality. Historian John Benton found no documentary evidence in law codes, court cases, chronicles or other historical documents. However, the existence of the non-fiction genre of courtesy books is perhaps evidence for its practice. For example, according to Christine de Pizan's courtesy book "Book of the Three Virtues" (c. 1405), which expresses disapproval of courtly love, the convention was being used to justify and cover up illicit love affairs. Courtly love probably found expression in the real world in customs such as the crowning of Queens of Love and Beauty at tournaments. Philip le Bon, in his "Feast of the Pheasant" in 1454, relied on parables drawn from courtly love to incite his nobles to swear to participate in an anticipated crusade, while well into the 15th century numerous actual political and social conventions were largely based on the formulas dictated by the "rules" of courtly love.


title: Courtly love

text: A point of controversy was the existence of "courts of love", first mentioned by Andreas Capellanus. These were supposed courts made up of tribunals staffed by 10 to 70 women who would hear a case of love and rule on it based on the rules of love. In the 19th century, historians took the existence of these courts as fact, but later historians such as Benton noted "none of the abundant letters, chronicles, songs and pious dedications" suggest they ever existed outside of the poetic literature. Likewise, feminist historian Emily James Putnam wrote in 1910 that, secrecy being "among the lover's first duties" in the ideology of courtly love, it is "manifestly absurd to suppose that a sentiment which depended on concealment for its existence should be amenable to public inquiry". According to Diane Bornstein, one way to reconcile the differences between the references to courts of love in the literature, and the lack of documentary evidence in real life, is that they were like literary salons or social gatherings, where people read poems, debated questions of love, and played word games of flirtation.


title: Courtly love

text: The Church emphasized love as more of a spiritual rather than sexual connection. There is a possibility that other writings not associated with the Church over courtly love were made as a response to the Catholic Church's ideas about love. Many scholars believe Andreas Capellanus’ work, "De arte honeste amandi", was a satire poking fun at the Church. In that work, Capellanus is supposedly writing to a young man named Walter, and he spends the first two books telling him how to achieve love and the rules of love. However, in the third book he tells him that the only way to live his life correctly is to shun love in favor of God. This sudden change is what has sparked the interest of many scholars.


title: Complex conjugate

text: In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the number with an equal real part and an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. That is, (if formula_1 and formula_2 are real, then) the complex conjugate of formula_3 is equal to formula_4 The complex conjugate of formula_5 is often denoted as formula_6 or formula_7.


title: Complex conjugate

text: The product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number: formula_10 (or formula_11 in polar coordinates).


title: Complex conjugate

text: If a root of a univariate polynomial with real coefficients is complex, then its complex conjugate is also a root.


title: Complex conjugate

text: The complex conjugate of a complex number formula_5 is written as formula_13 or formula_14 The first notation, a vinculum, avoids confusion with the notation for the conjugate transpose of a matrix, which can be thought of as a generalization of the complex conjugate. The second is preferred in physics, where dagger (†) is used for the conjugate transpose, as well as electrical engineering and computer engineering, where bar notation can be confused for the logical negation ("NOT") Boolean algebra symbol, while the bar notation is more common in pure mathematics. If a complex number is represented as a formula_15 matrix, the notations are identical.


title: Complex conjugate

text: The following properties apply for all complex numbers formula_5 and formula_17 unless stated otherwise, and can be proved by writing formula_5 and formula_19 in the form formula_20


title: Complex conjugate

text: For any two complex numbers, conjugation is distributive over addition, subtraction, multiplication and division:


title: Complex conjugate

text: A complex number is equal to its complex conjugate if its imaginary part is zero, that is, if the number is real. In other words, real numbers are the only fixed points of conjugation.


title: Complex conjugate

text: Conjugation is an involution, that is, the conjugate of the conjugate of a complex number formula_5 is formula_24 In symbols, formula_25


title: Complex conjugate

text: The product of a complex number with its conjugate is equal to the square of the number's modulus: formula_26 This allows easy computation of the multiplicative inverse of a complex number given in rectangular coordinates: formula_27


title: Complex conjugate

text: is a line through the origin and perpendicular to formula_34 since the real part of formula_35 is zero only when the cosine of the angle between formula_5 and formula_37 is zero. Similarly, for a fixed complex unit formula_38 the equation


title: Complex conjugate

text: These uses of the conjugate of formula_5 as a variable are illustrated in Frank Morley's book "Inversive Geometry" (1933), written with his son Frank Vigor Morley.


title: Complex conjugate

text: The other planar real unital algebras, dual numbers, and split-complex numbers are also analyzed using complex conjugation.


title: Complex conjugate

text: For matrices of complex numbers, formula_43 where formula_44 represents the element-by-element conjugation of formula_45 Contrast this to the property formula_46 where formula_47 represents the conjugate transpose of formula_48


title: Complex conjugate

text: Taking the conjugate transpose (or adjoint) of complex matrices generalizes complex conjugation. Even more general is the concept of adjoint operator for operators on (possibly infinite-dimensional) complex Hilbert spaces. All this is subsumed by the *-operations of C*-algebras.


title: Complex conjugate

text: One may also define a conjugation for quaternions and split-quaternions: the conjugate of formula_49 is formula_50


title: Complex conjugate

text: There is also an abstract notion of conjugation for vector spaces formula_52 over the complex numbers. In this context, any antilinear map formula_53 that satisfies


title: Complex conjugate

text: is called a , or a real structure. As the involution formula_62 is antilinear, it cannot be the identity map on formula_63


title: Complex conjugate

text: Of course, formula_64 is a formula_65-linear transformation of formula_66 if one notes that every complex space formula_67 has a real form obtained by taking the same vectors as in the original space and restricting the scalars to be real. The above properties actually define a real structure on the complex vector space formula_63


title: Complex conjugate

text: One example of this notion is the conjugate transpose operation of complex matrices defined above. However, on generic complex vector spaces, there is no notion of complex conjugation.


title: Capirote

text: A capirote is a Catholic pointed hat of conical form that is used in Spain and Hispanic countries by members of a confraternity of penitents. It is part of the uniform of such brotherhoods including the "" and "Fariseos" during Easter observances and reenactments in some areas during Holy Week in Spain and its former colonies, though similar hoods are common in other Christian countries such as Italy. Capirote are worn by penitents so that attention is not drawn towards themselves as they repent, but instead to God.


title: Capirote

text: Historically, the flagellants are the origin of the current traditions, as they flogged themselves with a discipline to do penance. Pope Clement VI ordered that flagellants could perform penance only under control of the church; he decreed "Inter sollicitudines" ("inner concerns" for suppression). This is considered one of the reasons why flagellants often hid their faces.


title: Capirote

text: The use of the capirote or coroza was prescribed in Spain by the holy office of Inquisition. Men and women who were arrested had to wear a paper capirote in public as sign of public humiliation. The capirote was worn during the session of an Auto-da-fé. The colour was different, conforming to the judgement of the office. People who were condemned to be executed wore a red coroza. Other punishments used different colours.


title: Capirote

text: When the Inquisition was abolished, the symbol of punishment and penitence was kept in the Catholic brotherhood, however, the capirotes used today are different; they are covered in fine fabric, as prescribed by the brotherhood. To this day, they are still worn during the celebration of the Holy Week/Easter most notably in Andalusia, by penitentes (who perform public penance for their sins) who walk through streets with the capirote.


title: Capirote

text: The usage of the capirote during the Holy Week was once common throughout Spain's colonies, but this custom has since died out in most of them by the late 19th century. Notable exceptions to this are some parts of Mexico and Guatemala. Similar hoods are common in other Christian countries such as Italy.


title: Capirote

text: The capirote is today the symbol of the Catholic penitent: only members of a confraternity of penance are allowed to wear them during solemn processions. Children can receive the capirote after their first holy communion, when they enter the brotherhood.


title: Capirote

text: Historically the design is called the capirote, but the brotherhoods cover it with fabric together with their face, and the medal of the brotherhood that is worn underneath. The cloth has two holes for the penitent to see through. The insignia or crest of the brotherhood is usually embroidered on the capirote in fine gold.


title: Capirote

text: According to historian Michael K. Jerryson, the capirote was culturally appropriated by the early 20th-century American Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist and anti-Catholic group. However, Alison Kinney of "New Republic" traces the uniform to Southern Mardi Gras celebrations, therefore only indirectly related to the capirote.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Assassin's Creed Chronicles is a sub-series of video games in the "Assassin's Creed" franchise. The series consists of three games developed by Climax Studios and published by Ubisoft. The games feature new protagonists and settings and a design that is new to the series: 2.5D environments inspired by traditional brush paintings. The first entry, "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: China", was released on April 21, 2015, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It was followed by "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: India" and "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: Russia" on January 12, 2016 and February 9, 2016, respectively. A collection comprising all three games was released on February 9, 2016 for the same platforms, and on April 5, 2016 for the PlayStation Vita.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: All three "Chronicles" games are 2.5D side scrolling platformers. Players control the protagonist from a third-person perspective and must make their way past enemy guards and other threats to reach the end of each level. The levels are all linear and feature little in terms of exploration, although some include hidden areas and collectibles, such as Animus shards, chests, and Sync points (which reveal the locations of other collectibles on the in-game map).


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: The core gameplay of each title revolves around stealth and combat. Stealth consists of the player using various tactics, such as hiding in the shadows or creating distractions, to stray away from the enemies' cones of vision. If the player is detected, then an alarm is raised, prompting all nearby enemies to actively search for the player until they either find them or give up. The games' combat system revolves around weakening the enemy's defense until they can be executed; players can use light and heavy attacks, block incoming strikes, and perform some more advanced moves, like dodging gunfire and rolling over enemies. Parkour is also featured in the games, although players are restricted to only being able to climb areas highlighted with more color.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Players are scored at the end of each level based on their performance, which takes into account various factors, such as the number of times they have been detected and whether or not they have completed that level's optional objective. The total score is calculated by adding up the 'ranks' received for each section of the level. There are three possible ranks that can be obtained in "Chronicles: China": Shadow, the highest-scoring rank, earned for passing a section without being detected and without killing any enemy; Assassin, earned for passing a section undetected and assassinating at least one enemy; and Brawler, obtained when the player is detected and forced into combat. In "India" and "Russia", the Brawler rank has been replaced with Silencer, which is earned for remaining undetected and using only non-lethal takedowns (which are absent in "China"). Some levels do not feature these ranks, and instead score the player based on the time taken to complete the level. Depending on their score, players can unlock new upgrades for their character, such as an increased health bar.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Each protagonist has a unique arsenal of weapons and gadgets that can be used in both combat and stealth situations. In "China", Shao Jun wields a standard "jian" sword, throwing knives, firecrackers and noise-creating darts, which can be used to temporarily incapacitate or distract enemies. In "India", Arbaaz Mir has a typical Mughal and Dravidian Hindu sword resembling an Aruval of Tamil Nadu, Urumi from Kerala, a concealed Katar with Bagh nakh, and Chakram, as well as smoke bombs and a slingshot with rock pellets. In "Russia", Nikolai Orelov possesses a custom Berdan rifle fitted with a bayonet which can be used for melee combat with sniping capabilities, and a grapnel gun that can also produce electricity in order to short out electricity boxes, spotlights, lamp posts or kill unsuspecting enemies standing on water puddles.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "China" is set in 16th-century Imperial China, during the Ming dynasty, and follows Shao Jun, the female Assassin introduced in the short film "". In 1526, Jun returns to China after a long journey to Europe, where she trained under the legendary Assassin Mentor Ezio Auditore da Firenze and learned the key to liberating her people. Her mission is to eliminate the Eight Tigers, a group of influential Templars who rule China from the shadows, with the Emperor as their puppet, and who oversaw the extermination of most of the Chinese Assassin Brotherhood.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Jun's first target is Gao Feng, the warden of a prison in the Maijishan Grottoes, and in order to get close to him, she allows herself to be captured, along with a box given to her by Ezio, which is a Precursor artifact. After escaping and killing Feng, Jun travels to the port city of Macau with fellow Assassin Wang Yangming, who already killed another Tiger, Ma Yongcheng ("The Butcher"), in order to assassinate Yu Dayong ("The Slaver") and recover the Precursor box. Jun succeeds, and escapes after the Templars set the port on fire in retaliation.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: In 1529, Jun goes after Wei Bin ("The Snake"), the second-in-command of the Tigers, in Nan'an. After killing him, however, she learns that the Tigers' leader, Zhang Yong, knows that Wang has the Precursor box and is hunting him down. Jun tries to save Wang, but arrives too late. In 1530, Jun infiltrates the Forbidden City to seek the help of Empress Zhang, an old friend from during her years as a concubine, only to discover that the Templars have forced the Empress to lure Jun into a trap. Jun forgives her, and escapes after killing the Tiger Qiu Ju ("The Demon").


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: In 1532, Jun learns that Zhang Yong is plotting to maintain his grip on power by allowing the Mongols, led by Altan Khan, to invade China. Jun travels to the Great Wall and prevents the Mongol invasion, before facing Zhang Yong. He reveals that the Precursor box is no longer in China, as it has been given to his fellow Templars, and attempts to flee, but Jun kills him. With the last Tiger eliminated, Jun claims that her destiny is not to search for the box, but to stay in China and rebuild the Brotherhood. Years later, an elderly Jun, now the Mentor of the Chinese Assassins, plots the assassination of the Jiajing Emperor by sending him lethal mercury disguised as an elixir of life.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "India" is set in 19th-century India, during the Sikh Empire in the midst of a conflict with the East India Company during the Anglo-Sikh Wars, and follows Arbaaz Mir, the main protagonist of the graphic novel "". In 1841, following the assassination of Maharaja Kharak Singh, Templar agents infiltrated within the Company attempt to strengthen their control over the country during this period of political instability, as well as find more Precursor sites. Arbaaz manages to delay the Templars' plans by stealing the Koh-i-Noor diamond, believed to be a powerful Precursor artifact. However, while Arbaaz is visiting his lover, Princess Pyara Kaur, the Templars attack the Assassin Brotherhood's headquarters, steal back the diamond, and capture Arbaaz's mentor and friend, Hamid.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: After interrogating a British captain, Arbaaz learns where Hamid was taken and rescues him. Hamid reveals that the Templars' leader, William Henry Sleeman, hopes to use the Precursor box to unravel the Koh-i-Noor's secrets, prompting Arbaaz to follow Sleeman and his men into an underground Precursor temple. After making his way past ancient death traps, Arbaaz confronts Sleeman, just as the latter unlocks a map showing the locations of other Precursor sites around the globe. When Sleeman fires his gun at Arbaaz, he accidentally hits a Precursor structure, causing a chain reaction that results in the entire temple collapsing. Escaping back to the surface, Arbaaz reunites with Hamid and learns that the Templars are organizing an expedition to Afghanistan, one of the locations shown on the map.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Arbaaz travels to Herat, where the British have occupied the citadel in the center of the city and are being besieged by Afghan forces. Arbaaz opens the gates of the citadel to facilitate the Afghans' assault and keep the British soldiers occupied while he explores the Precursor site underneath the citadel. He finds another artifact, but before he can retrieve it, he is held at gunpoint and captured by Sleeman and the Templars. Arbaaz is taken to the Katasraj Temple in Punjab, Pakistan, where he escapes and discovers that Sleeman left the Koh-i-Noor and the Precursor box behind, to be guarded by his right-hand man, Alexander Burnes. Arbaaz bests Burnes in combat, but chooses to spare his life; this earns him Burnes' respect, who orders his men to allow Arbaaz to leave with the diamond and the box.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Arbaaz returns to Amritsar, only to learn from Hamid that the Templars have taken over the Maharaja's Summer Palace and are holding Pyara hostage. Arbaaz infiltrates the palace and confronts Sleeman, who orders him to hand over the Koh-i-Noor and the Precursor box while holding Pyara at knifepoint. Arbaaz tosses the artifacts into the air just as Pyara stabs Sleeman with her own knife, forcing him to let her go. After Arbaaz and Pyara escape to safety, the former reveals that he managed to grab the Koh-i-Noor in the confusion, but the box has been lost to the Templars; he proclaims that the Brotherhood will one day recover it. Some time later, Arbaaz gives the Koh-i-Noor to Ethan Frye, a British Assassin and the father of Jacob and Evie Frye, for safekeeping.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "Russia" is set in early 20th-century Soviet Russia, in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917, and follows Nikolai Orelov, the main protagonist of the comic book "" and its graphic novel sequel, "". In 1918, Nikolai contemplates retiring from the Assassin Brotherhood and leaving the country with his family, but agrees to perform one final mission: to recover the Precursor box, which is believed to be in the possession of the Romanov family. On the night of 16–17 July, he travels to Yekaterinburg and infiltrates the house where former Tsar Nicholas II and his family are being held, only to witness their execution at the hands of Templar agents infiltrated within the Red Army, who also seek the box. Nikolai discovers that the Tsar's youngest daughter, Anastasia, survived the massacre and has the box, which somehow links her to Shao Jun, giving her the latter's memories and abilities, which she is unable to control.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Taking pity on Anastasia, Nikolai decides to take her back to the Brotherhood in the hope that they could heal her. Pursued by both the Templars and the Bolsheviks, the two escape Yekaterinburg on a train headed to Kazan, arriving there in September, in the midst of the Red Army's attempt to retake the city. Nikolai leaves to find for his old friend, Leon Trotsky, only to discover that the latter, believing Anastasia to be too dangerous as a symbol to be left alive, has allied with the Templars. Trotsky betrays Nikolai to the Templars, who torture him for the location of Anastasia and the Precursor box. Anastasia manages to rescue Nikolai, and together they escape Kazan by stealing a boat.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: Nikolai and Anastasia sail to Moscow, where the two are separated upon meeting the other Assassins, who take Anastasia away to experiment on her and find a possible cure for her condition. Nikolai is instructed to return to the Assassins' bureau to report about his recent experiences, but overhears two Assassins talking about how Anastasia is now a living Precursor artifact and that they must extract Jun's memories from her, likely killing her in the process. Caring for Anastasia and enraged by the Assassins' lies, Nikolai reluctantly decides to betray the Brotherhood to save the girl. After interrogating an Assassin, he learns that Anastasia was taken to the Kremlin, and proceeds to make his away across the city while avoiding his former Assassin brothers, who are now attempting to kill him. Along the way, he runs into an old Assassin friend who helps him by giving him the access codes to the laboratories where Anastasia is being held.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: After rescuing Anastasia, Nikolai works with her to escape the facility and return to the city. Once there, the Assassins try to kill them using a tank, but Nikolai is able to destroy it. Afterwards, Nikolai gives Anastasia false documents originally intended for his wife, providing her with a new identity, Anna Anderson, and a means to leave the country unnoticed. The two part ways, with Anastasia planning to start a new life in Germany, and believing that she will be able to keep Jun's memories under control.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: A secret ending can be unlocked in "Russia" by inputting hidden codes found throughout all three games. The ending takes place in the present day, where Templar agent Juhani Otso Berg meets up with the Head of Operations at Abstergo Industries, Laetitia England. Berg, who has recently studied the memories of Assassin-turned-Templar Shay Cormac to learn more about the Precursor box, presents it to England, who instructs him to take it to Dr. Álvaro Gramática in secret. Gramática claims the box to be instrumental in the success of Abstergo's Phoenix Project.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "China" was announced in September 2014 as part of the season pass for "Assassin's Creed Unity". On March 31, 2015, it was announced that "China" was part of a trilogy, with "India" and "Russia" to be released at a later time. The trilogy was developed by Climax Studios in association with Ubisoft Montreal. "China" was released on April 21, 2015 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. "China" is the first title in the franchise to utilize Epic Games' Unreal Engine 3.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: On December 8, 2015, Ubisoft announced that "India" would be released on January 12, 2016 and "Russia" would be released on February 9, 2016 alongside a collection of the three games titled "Trilogy Pack". A PlayStation Vita version of the Trilogy Pack was released on April 5, 2016.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: China" received "mixed or average" reviews from critics upon release, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: India" received "mixed or average" reviews from critics upon release, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Assassin's Creed Chronicles

text: "Assassin's Creed Chronicles: Russia" received "mixed or average" reviews from critics upon release, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Maid Sama!

text: Once an all-boys high school, Seika High, infamous for its rowdy students, has recently become a co-ed school. However, with the female population remaining a minority even after the change over the recent years, Misaki Ayuzawa works hard to make the school a better place for girls. She puts a lot of effort into academics and athletics and earns the trust of the teachers. Eventually, she becomes the first female student council president. Misaki has gained a reputation among the male student body as a strict boy-hating demon dictator and as a shining hope for the teachers and fellow female students. However, despite her reputation, she secretly works part-time at a maid café to support her mother and younger sister by returning the huge debt their father had left them.


title: Maid Sama!

text: Unfortunately, Misaki's secret is soon discovered by Takumi Usui, a popular boy at Seika High. Instead of exposing it to the school, though, Usui keeps it for himself and even becomes a regular customer at the café, much to Misaki's chagrin. Known for being a genius in pretty much everything from academics to athletics and for having rejected numerous confessions of his female peers, Usui takes a liking to Misaki because he finds her 'interesting'. After going through various awkward situations, including being confronted by a forgotten childhood friend of hers, Misaki falls in love with Usui, who reciprocates, and the two soon become a couple.


title: Maid Sama!

text: However, their relationship is troubled by Usui's difficult familial past coming back to haunt him. Being an illegitimate child of a wealthy English noble family, Usui technically cannot form a relationship with anyone not in his social standing, Misaki included. Misaki has to see Usui being forced to transfer to a prestigious rival school Miabigaoka, and then away from Japan completely when his family takes him back to England.


title: Maid Sama!

text: "Maid Sama!" is written and illustrated by Hiro Fujiwara. This series was serialized in Hakusensha's "shōjo" manga magazine "LaLa", from December 24, 2005 to September 24, 2013. The 85 individual chapters were collected into eighteen "tankōbon" volumes, released between September 5, 2006 and February 5, 2014.


title: Maid Sama!

text: At their Anime Expo 2008 panel, North American publisher Tokyopop announced its various newly licensed series and that "Kaichō wa Maid-sama!" would be titled "Maid-sama!". The series has been relicensed by Viz Media in North America, JPF in Poland, Pika Édition in France, Carlsen Verlag in Germany, Panini Comics in Italy, Mexico and Brazil, and Everglory Publishing Co in Taiwan. In Indonesia, the series was published by M&C Comic.


title: Maid Sama!

text: The October 2009 issue of "LaLa" announced that a 26 episode anime television adaptation of the series would be produced. It was broadcast in TBS and BS-TBS during Spring 2010. The April 2010 issue of "LaLa" revealed the broadcast date to be on April 1, 2010 at 1:55 midnight. The adaptation was also present at the Tokyo International Anime Fair with Ayumi Fujimura, Nobuhiko Okamoto, Kana Hanazawa and Yū Kobayashi's attendance. The anime series is licensed by Sentai Filmworks, with The Anime Network currently streaming the series on their video portal. Anime distributor Section23 Films released the first subtitled-only set on DVD, June 7, 2011. The second subtitled-DVD set was released on August 2, 2011. A complete collection on DVD was released on October 9, 2012. Sentai Filmworks & Section23 re-released the series on DVD and Blu-ray, with an English dub on January 27, 2015.


title: Maid Sama!

text: The staff list was announced and Hiroaki Sakurai directed the series with series composition done by Mamiko Ikeda who previously worked on the series composition for "Emma: A Victorian Romance" series and most recently the "Rental Magica" series and "Hanasakeru Seishōnen", while the animation character designs by Yuki Imoto and music composed by Tōru Motoyama. The series was animated by J.C.Staff who previously worked on "Honey and Clover", "Toradora!" and "Nodame Cantabile". Ayumi Fujimura and Nobuhiko Okamoto took on the role of Misaki Ayuzawa and Takumi Usui respectively.


title: Maid Sama!

text: Connie C. described the manga as being "pretty entertaining, if shallow", feeling that it was sexist towards both genders, but lighthearted enough in this that offense could not be taken, saying that she would continue to read the series as a "guilty pleasure". Deb Aoki feels that the maid café setting provides both fanservice and a vehicle to critique gender roles. In contrast, Johanna Draper Carlson feels that the story is "a male fantasy, where the scary, strong, smart, self-possessed girl turns out to secretly be subservient to men. It’s sort of funny to read, until you think about what its real messages are." Robert Harris notes the formulaic beginnings, but feels that the characters make the manga enjoyable. Leroy Douresseaux found the character of Takumi unconvincing, describing him as a "cheap plot trick" to rescue Misaki when needed. Carlo Santos felt the premise was "otaku-tastic", but appreciated the lack of fanservice and panty shots in the maid cafe scenes, feeling that these marked the series as being shōjo. He also appreciated the chemistry between the leads, and the humour, but noted the stereotypical plot, and criticises the layouts and overly-talky characters. Connie C. described the second volume as reminding her that plot devices are plot devices because "they work wonderfully if used right", feeling that the sense of humour and character interactions lifted the stereotypical plots of the school sports day and rich new classmates.


title: Maid Sama!

text: In a 2019 "Forbes" article about the best anime of the 2010s decade, Lauren Orsini considered it to be one of the five best anime of 2010; she wrote, "Clever comedy with snappy delivery keeps this show sharp even ten years later".


title: Hi-NRG

text: Hi-NRG (pronounced "high energy") is a genre of uptempo disco or electronic dance music (EDM) that originated in the United States during the late 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Hi-NRG

text: As a music genre, typified by fast tempo, staccato hi-hat rhythms (and the four-on-the-floor pattern), reverberated "intense" vocals and "pulsating" octave basslines, it was particularly influential on the disco scene. Its earliest association was with Italo disco.


title: Hi-NRG

text: Whether hi-NRG is more rock-oriented than standard disco music is a matter of opinion. Hi-NRG can be heavily synthesized but it is not a prerequisite, and whether it is devoid of "funkiness" is, again, in the ear of the beholder. Certainly, many artists perform their vocals in R&B and soul styles on hi-NRG tracks.


title: Hi-NRG

text: The sound of high energy dance tracks, particularly electronic dance or disco, is immediately identifiable by its iconic basslines, pioneered by producer Giorgio Moroder, often programmed in repeating bass sequences, particularly 16th notes, which is characteristic of the hi-NRG electronic dance sound as in "I Feel Love" performed by Donna Summer and produced by Moroder.


title: Hi-NRG

text: The rhythm is characterized by an energetic, staccato, sequenced synthesizer sound of octave basslines or/and where the bass often takes the place of the hi-hat, alternating a more resonant note with a dampened note to signify the tempo of the record. There is also often heavy use of the clap sound found on drum machines.


title: Hi-NRG

text: One form of hi-NRG, as performed by Megatone Records artists and Ian Levine, is any uptempo disco and dance music, whether containing octave basslines or not, that often features covers of "classic" Motown hits (Boys Town Gang) and torch songs, and is often "theatrical" in performance, featuring female (and male) musicians with facetious diva personas and male musicians sometimes in "drag" (Sylvester, Divine), cabarets/musical theater (Vicki Sue Robinson, Sharon Redd). This style, that Stock Aitken Waterman were influenced by, had a large cult following among LGBT club-goers in the 1980s, especially San Franciscan black and white gay men.


title: Hi-NRG

text: A second form, a precursor of Italian/Japanese "Eurobeat", with influences of techno and early Chicago house, primarily focuses on its characteristic sequenced "octave-jumping basslines" above anything else and in this form hi-NRG managed to surge into the mainstream with Stacey Q, Kim Wilde, and Laura Branigan. The octave basslines are also found in electroclash and in both cases may be traced to synthpop and even further back to Giorgio Moroder ("I Feel Love").


title: Hi-NRG

text: Donna Summer was interviewed about her single "I Feel Love", which was a mostly electronic, relatively high-tempo Euro disco song without a strong funk component. In the interview, she said "this song became a hit because it has a high-energy vibe". Following that interview, the description "high-energy" was increasingly applied to high-tempo disco music, especially songs dominated by electronic timbres. The tempo threshold for high-energy disco was around 130 to 140 BPM. In the 1980s, the term "high-energy" was stylized as "hi-NRG". Eurobeat, dance-pop and freestyle artists such as Shannon, Stock Aitken & Waterman, Taylor Dayne, Freeez and Michael Sembello were also labeled as "hi-NRG" when sold in the United States.


title: Hi-NRG

text: In the 1980s, "hi-NRG" referred not just to any high-tempo disco/dance music, but to a specific genre, only somewhat disco-like.


title: Hi-NRG

text: Ian Levine, a hi-NRG DJ, the in-house DJ at London's Heaven nightclub in its early years and subsequently a record producer, defines hi-NRG as "melodic, straightforward dance music that's not too funky." Music journalist Simon Reynolds adds "The nonfunkiness was crucial. Slamming rather than swinging, hi-NRG's white European feel was accentuated by butt-bumping bass twangs at the end of each bar."


title: Hi-NRG

text: High-tempo disco music dates back to the mid-1970s. Early examples include several British disco songs by Biddu and Tina Charles in 1976 and Patrick Hernandez ("Born to Be Alive") in 1979.


title: Hi-NRG

text: Examples of high energy disco acts include Claudja Barry, Miquel Brown, Amanda Lear, France Joli, Sylvester, Divine, Amii Stewart, the Pointer Sisters, Lime, Lisa, and the Weather Girls. San Francisco-based Patrick Cowley and New York producer and composer Bobby Orlando were behind a number of high energy hits in this period. Orlando acts include Divine, the Flirts, and Claudja Barry.


title: Hi-NRG

text: In the early 1980s, high energy music found moderate mainstream popularity in Europe, while opposing both Euro disco and electro on the dance scene and it became mainstream in the gay community in the United States. Hi-NRG was totally reliant on technology and was all about "unfeasibly athletic dancing, bionic sex, and superhuman stamina". Freedom seemed to be embodied by a literal escape from human embodiment and synchrony with technology. However, this was generally limited to the bodies of men as evidenced by songs titled "Menergy", and "So Many Men, So Little Time". Producers such as Bobby Orlando and Patrick Cowley created "an aural fantasy of a futuristic club populated entirely by Tom of Finland studs."


title: Hi-NRG

text: During the same period, a genre of music styled as "hi-NRG" (EDM) became popular in Canada and the UK. The most popular groups of this style are Trans-X and Lime. The genre is also closely related to space disco; bands of this genre include Koto, Laserdance, and Cerrone. The hi-NRG sound also influenced techno and house music.


title: Hi-NRG

text: In 1983 in the UK, music magazine "Record Mirror" began publishing a weekly hi-NRG chart. Hi-NRG entered the mainstream with hits in the UK pop and dance charts (and the US dance charts), such as Hazell Dean's "Searchin' (I Gotta Find a Man)" and Evelyn Thomas's "High Energy".


title: Hi-NRG

text: In the mid-1980s, hi-NRG producers in the dance and pop charts included Ian Levine and Stock Aitken Waterman, both of whom worked with many different artists. Stock Aitken Waterman had two of the most successful hi-NRG singles ever with their productions of Dead or Alive's "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)" (UK #1, CAN #1, US #11 in 1985) and Bananarama's "Venus" (US #1, CAN #1, UK #8 in 1986). They also brought the genre full circle, in a sense, by writing and producing Donna Summer's 1989 hit "This Time I Know It's for Real" (UK #3, CAN #7, US #7).


title: Hi-NRG

text: American music magazine "Dance Music Report" published hi-NRG charts and related industry news in the mid to late 1980s as the genre reached its peak. By 1990, however, techno and rave had superseded hi-NRG in popularity in many dance clubs. Despite this, hi-NRG music is still being produced and played in various forms, including many remixed versions of mainstream pop hits, some with re-recorded vocals. Later in the 1990s, nu-NRG music, a fusion of hi-NRG and trance, was born.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The 1994 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVII Olympic Winter Games (; ) and commonly known as Lillehammer '94, was an international winter multi-sport event held from 12 to 27 February 1994 in and around Lillehammer, Norway. Having lost the bid for the 1992 Winter Olympics to Albertville in France, Lillehammer was awarded the 1994 Winter Games on 15 September 1988, at the 94th IOC Session in Seoul, South Korea. This was the only Winter Olympics to take place two years after the previous edition of the Winter Games, and the first to be held in a different year from the Summer Olympics. This was the second Winter Games hosted in Norway — the first being the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo — and the fourth Olympics overall to be held in a Nordic country, after the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden, and the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland. Lillehammer is the northernmost city ever to host the Olympic Games. This was the last of three consecutive Olympics held in Europe, with Albertville and Barcelona in Spain hosting the 1992 Winter and Summer Games, respectively.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Although many of the events took place in Lillehammer, the skating events were held in Hamar, some ice hockey matches were played in Gjøvik, and the Alpine skiing events were held in Øyer and Ringebu. Sixty-seven National Olympic Committees and 1,737 athletes participated in six sports and sixty-one events. Fourteen countries made their Winter Olympic debuts, of which nine were former Soviet republics. The Games also saw the introduction of stricter qualifying rules, reducing the number of under-performing participants from warm-weather countries. New events were two new distances in short track speed skating and aerials, while speed skating was moved indoors. Almost two million people spectated at the Games, which were the first to have the Olympic Truce in effect. The Olympics were succeeded by the 1994 Winter Paralympics from 10 to 19 March.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Manuela Di Centa and Lyubov Yegorova dominated women's cross-country skiing, taking five and four medals for Italy and Russia respectively. A crowd of more than 100,000 saw Italy beat Norway by 0.4 seconds in the men's 4 × 10 km relay. Vreni Schneider won a complete set of medals for Switzerland in Alpine skiing, while Norway took a podium sweep in the men's combined competition. Figure skater Nancy Kerrigan won silver in ladies' singles, despite being attacked a few weeks before the Games by Tonya Harding's associate Shane Stant; 16-year-old Oksana Baiul edged Kerrigan to win the gold medal, marking the first time the Ukrainian national anthem was played at the Olympics. Johann Olav Koss won three speed skating golds for Norway, while 13-year-old Kim Yun-mi from South Korea became the youngest-ever Olympic gold medalist. Sweden defeated Canada in a dramatic penalty shootout in the ice hockey final. Russia won the most events, with 11 gold medals, while Norway collected the highest number of medals overall, winning 26.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Planning for the Lillehammer bid started in 1981, following Sweden's failed Falun bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics, which lost out to Calgary. The bid was supported by the Swedish government, largely to help stimulate the economy of the inland counties. Lillehammer originally bid for the 1992 Games but came fourth in the voting, with the Games ultimately awarded to Albertville, France. In 1985, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games (which had been held in the same year since the inception of the Winter Olympics in 1924) and arrange for them to take place in alternating even-numbered years. Lillehammer subsequently launched another bid, now for the 1994 Games, with some drastic modifications of the project, such as a new indoor speed skating venue and an additional ice hall in Lillehammer. Supplementary government guarantees and funds were secured for the new bid.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Three other locations put in bids for the 1994 Games: Anchorage (United States), Östersund (Sweden), and Sofia (Bulgaria). Lillehammer was elected to host the 1994 Winter Games at the 94th IOC Session, held in Seoul on 15 September 1988, two days before the start of the 1988 Summer Olympics. Until 2018, the Lillehammer Games were the last Winter Olympics to be held in a town, rather than centered in a city.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The overall responsibility for the games was held by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee, which was created on 14 November 1988 and led by Gerhard Heiberg. It was reorganized several times with various subsidiaries, but from 1993 consisted of a single company owned 51% by Lillehammer Municipality, 24.5% by the Government of Norway and 24.5% by the Norwegian Olympic Committee. The government had issued a guarantee for the games, and also covered the expenses related to infrastructure. The total costs of the games was 7.4 billion Norwegian krone (NOK), of which NOK 0.95 billion was expenditure by the ministries, NOK 4.48 billion was for operations and event expenses, and NOK 1.67 billion was for investments. The games had a revenue of NOK 2.71 billion, of which NOK 1.43 billion was from television rights, NOK 0.65 billion was from sponsors, and NOK 0.15 billion was from ticket sales.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Production of the broadcasting, which costs NOK 462 million, was the joint responsibility of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK),the CTV (Canada) (CTV) and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). NRK had 1,424 people working at the Olympics, while international broadcasters sent an additional 4,050 accredited broadcasting personnel. The transmission rights for the games were held by EBU in Europe, CBS in the United States, NHK in Japan, CTV in Canada, the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union, Nine Network in Australia, as well as other broadcasters in other countries. The total transmission rights price was 350 million United States dollars, 310 of which were paid by CBS. In part because of the Harding–Kerrigan affair, the viewership in the United States is still the highest ever for Winter Olympics.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: NOK 460 million was used on information technology, with the main system running on an IBM AS/400. 3,500 terminals were in use during the game based on the Info '94 system; it was the first Olympics to have terminals installed abroad. Seiko delivered the time-keeping devices. Telecommunications were delivered by Telenor, including signal transmission. This included a mobile radio network with nine base stations.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: "The Oxford Olympics Study" established the outturn cost of the Lillehammer 1994 Winter Olympics at US$2.2 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 277% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) "operational costs" incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) "direct capital costs" incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are "not" included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Lillehammer 1994 compares with costs of US$2.5 billion and a cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, and costs of US$51 billion and a cost overrun of 289% for Sochi 2014, the latter being the most costly Olympics to date. Average cost for Winter Games since 1960 is US$3.1 billion, average cost overrun is 142%.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The opening ceremony was held at the ski jumping hill Lysgårdsbakken. Artistic content was made to present a range of Norwegian culture, included Sami joik, Telemark skiing, fiddlers and folk dancing, simulations of traditional events and their processions, and the figure of vetter from Norse mythology. After speeches by Heiberg and IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch, the games were officially declared opened by King Harald V. The Olympic Flame was to be skied down the skijump before lighting the cauldron. Originally this task had rested upon Ole Gunnar Fidjestøl, but after he was injured in a practice jump, his back-up Stein Gruben received the honor.The cauldron was lit by Crown Prince Haakon Magnus. The Olympic oaths were issued by Vegard Ulvang for the athletes and Kari Kåring for the officials.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Since the 1992 Games, the rules for combined changed, where the winner was determined by total time instead of points. The women's downhill was originally scheduled for Hafjell, but after protests it was moved to Kvitfjell, which also hosted the men's downhill and super-G. In the men's events, Germany's Markus Wasmeier won two disciplines, giant slalom and super-G, finishing ahead of the United States's Tommy Moe on the super-G. Moe won the downhill ahead of Norway's Kjetil André Aamodt, who came in third in the super-G. Austria's Thomas Stangassinger won the slalom ahead of Italy's Alberto Tomba. In the combined, Norway took a medal sweep, with Lasse Kjus winning ahead of Aamodt and Harald Christian Strand Nilsen.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: In the women's events, Switzerland's Vreni Schneider was the most successful, winning the slalom, taking silver in combined and taking bronze in giant slalom. The only other athlete to take multiple medals was Italy's Isolde Kostner, who took a third place in both downhill and super-G. The downhill was won by Germany's Katja Seizinger, super-G by the United States' Diann Roffe, the giant slalom by Italy's Deborah Compagnoni, and the combined by Sweden's Pernilla Wiberg.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Russia and Germany split all the individual men's medals. In the 10 km sprint, Russia's Sergei Tchepikov won ahead of Ricco Groß, both with a clean sheet. Bronze winner Sergei Tarasov won the 20 km individual ahead of Germany's Frank Luck and Sven Fischer. Germany easily revenged itself by winning the 4 × 7.5 km relay ahead of Russia and France. In the women's class, Canada's Myriam Bédard won both the individual events, finishing ahead of Belarus' Svetlana Paramygina on the 7.5 km sprint and ahead of France's Anne Briand on the 15 km individual. In the 4 × 7.5 km relay, the format since 1992 was changed from three to four participants. Russia, with a clean sheet, won ahead of Germany, who made six misses, with France taking the bronze.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: In two-man, Switzerland took the top two places, with Gustav Weder, Donat Acklin winning 0.05 seconds ahead of Reto Götschi and Guido Acklin, who were again 0.15 seconds ahead of Italy's Günther Huber and Stefano Ticci placing third. In four-man, Germany-II, consisting of Harald Czudaj, Karsten Brannasch, Olaf Hampel and Alexander Szelig, finished 0.06 seconds ahead of Switzerland-I and 0.23 ahead of Germany-I.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Participants from five countries took all the medals of the ten events. Starting in 1994, the Olympics alternated which of the medium-distance and long-distance races had classical and freestyle. men's 4 × 10 km relay was watched by a crowd of nearly 150,000. Norway, Italy and Finland followed each other tightly for three and a half rounds, with the second and third exchange of the three talking place within 1.1 seconds of each other. Finland fell behind in the end, and Norwegian Bjørn Dæhlie and Italian Silvio Fauner battled to the end, with Italy beating Norway by 0.4 seconds. Dæhlie won the 10 km classical and 15 km freestyle pursuit, while taking silver in the 30 km freestyle. Kazakhstan's Vladimir Smirnov won the 50 km classical, in addition to silver in the 10 km and the 15 km. Norway's Thomas Alsgaard won the 30 km, while Finland's Mika Myllylä took an individual silver and a bronze.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Italy's Manuela Di Centa and Russia's Lyubov Yegorova dominated the women's events. They took five and four medals each, respectively, and between them winning all the races. Yegorova finished ahead of Di Centa on the 5 km classical and the 10 km pursuit, while Di Centa finished ahead of Yegorova on the 15 km freestyle, and also won the 30 km classical ahead of Norway's Marit Wold. Finland's Marja-Liisa Kirvesniemi took two bronze medals, in 5 km and 30 km. In the 4 × 5 km relay, Norway and Russia kept up with each other until the final stage, in which Anita Moen lost to Yegorova, with Italy finishing third. With Yegorova's sixth career gold, she was tied as the most-winning Winter Olympic participant.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: On 6 January, Tonya Harding's ex-husband, Jeff Gillooly and his friend Shawn Eckdardt, conspired with Shane Stant to club fellow female figure skater Nancy Kerrigan in the knee. Both Harding and Kerrigan were selected for the Olympic team. After Harding admitted to helping to cover up the attack, the United States Olympic Committee initiated proceedings to remove her from the Olympic team, but Harding retained her place after threatening legal action. In the ladies' singles, Ukraine's Oksana Baiul won ahead of Kerrigan and Chen Lu, with Harding finishing eighth. In the men's singles, Russia's Alexei Urmanov won ahead of Canada's Elvis Stojko and France's Philippe Candeloro. Relaxation of the amateurism rules led to several former stars returning, such as ice dancing 1984 Champions Great Britain's Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who took a bronze behind Russians Oksana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov, and Maya Usova and Alexander Zhulin. In pair skating, the Russians also took a double, with Ekaterina Gordeeva and Sergei Grinkov winning ahead of Natalia Mishkutenok and Artur Dmitriev.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Aerials was added as a discipline, after it had been a demonstration sport at the previous two games. Ski ballet, which had been a demonstration sport in 1992, was dropped. Canada dominated the men's events, with Jean-Luc Brassard winning the men's moguls ahead of Russian Sergey Shupletsov. In the men's aerials, Switzerlands's Andreas Schönbächler won ahead of Canada's Philippe LaRoche and Lloyd Langlois, with Canadians also claiming the fourth and sixth places. In the women's disciplines, Norway was the only nation to take two medals; Stine Lise Hattestad won the moguls ahead of the United States' Liz McIntyre. In the aerials, Lina Cheryazova won, claiming Uzbekistan's only medal, ahead of Sweden's Marie Lindgren and Norway's Hilde Synnøve Lid.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Twelve teams participated in the ice hockey tournament, divided into two groups. Each played as a single round robin, with the four best advancing to the single elimination medal tournament. Group A saw Finland win all five matches, while the host nation lost all theirs. Also Germany, the Czech Republic and Russia advanced from the group, all with three victories. Group B was won by Slovakia ahead of Canada, Sweden and the United States. The quarter-finals saw the Czech Republic, the United States, Germany and Slovakia eliminated. In the semi-finals, Canada beat Finland 5–3, while Sweden beat Russia 4–3. After the final period of the final, the match was a 2–2 tie, resulting in a shoot-out. After six shots, it was tied 2–2 until Sweden's Peter Forsberg beat Corey Hirsch, making the Swedes win after Paul Kariya missed his shot. This led to Tomas Jonsson, Håkan Loob and Mats Näslund becoming the first three members of the Triple Gold Club.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Italy, Germany and Austria collected all the medals in the luge events. Germany's Georg Hackl won the men's singles, making him the first to defend an Olympic title in the event in thirty years. He finished ahead of Austria's Markus Prock and Italy's Armin Zöggeler. In the doubles, the two Italian teams finished on top, with Kurt Brugger and Wilfried Huber winning ahead of Hansjörg Raffl and Norbert Huber. In the women's singles, Italy's Gerda Weissensteiner won ahead of Germany's Susi Erdmann and Austria's Andrea Tagwerker. The own debuts was start Nedžad Lomigora from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Marco Feder from Liechtenstein, Sminon J. Payne from Bermuda, Paul Hix from United Kingdom, Josef Svarek from Slovakia, Roger White from Australia.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Although the events were the same, since the 1992 Games there was a rule change so that instead of jumping three times and taking the points for the best two, the competitors only jumped twice. In the individual normal hill/15 km, Japan's Kenji Ogiwara had only lost a single event in the season's World Cup, but came in sixth on the hill, which was won by Norway's Fred Børre Lundberg. He won the event after finishing eight-best in the skiing, ahead of Japan's Takanori Kono, Norway's Bjarte Engen Vik and Ogiwara in fourth. In the team normal hill/3 x 10 km, Japan finished first, third and fifth among the jumpers, giving them a 5:07 minute lead over Norway and finishing 4:49 minutes ahead. Switzerland took the bronze.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Short track speed skating was dominated by South Korea, who won four of the six events. After the discipline's debut in 1992, 1994 featured two new events, the men's 500 meters and the women's 1000 meters. South Korea's Chae Ji-Hoon won the men's 500 meters, while taking silver on the 1000 meters behind countryman Kim Ki-Hoon, who defended his 1992 gold. The bronze was won by Canada's Marc Gagnon, who won the B final. In the A final, countryman Derrick Campbell was obstructed by Great Britain's Nicky Gooch, who was disqualified. Campbell got up and started celebrating his bronze medal, when he discovered he had not completed the race.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: In the men's 5000 meter relay, South Korea did not enter after a fall in the sole qualifying event, which took place in March 1993. Canada fell during the final, which saw Italy take a clear victory ahead of the United States, who were marginally ahead of Australia. The United States' Eric Flaim became the first to take Olympic medals in both short track and long track speed skating, while Australia took its first Winter Olympic medal ever. Six people took the individual medals in the women's events, with the United States' Cathy Turner defending her 1992 gold on the 500 meters and South Korea's Chun Lee-Kyung taking the gold in 1000 meters. South Korea won the 3000 meter relay with a team of four girls under 19. At 13, Kim Yoon-Mi became the world's youngest Olympic gold medalist.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Norway won three of the six individual medals, with Norway's Espen Bredesen winning the normal hill ahead of Norway's Lasse Ottesen and Germany's Dieter Thoma. In the large hill, Germany's Jens Weißflog won ahead of Bredesen and Austria's Andreas Goldberger. In the


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: large hill team, the 1994 Games introduced new rules whereby all four jumps in each round counted, and not just the best three. Neither Norway nor Finland, who between them had won all but one former Olympic team jump, managed to collect a medal. The event became a duel between Germany and Japan, with only a point separating them after the first round of jumps. Masahiko Harada had the last jump, and would secure a gold if he managed 105 meters but lost his 'cool' mistiming his leap and landed at 97.5 meters, giving the gold to the Germans.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The long track speed skating events moved indoors, after they had been held outdoors in 1992. The 1994 Games introduced new qualification rules, limiting the number of participants in the men's 5000 meters and women's 3000 meters to 32, and only allowing the 16 best in each of these events to participate in the men's 10000 meters and the women's 5000 meters. Norway's Johann Olav Koss took three golds, in the men's 1,500 meters, 5000 meters and 10000 meters. In the latter two, he finished ahead of fellow countryman Kjell Storelid. The men's 500 meters was won by Russia's Aleksandr Golubev ahead of fellow countryman Sergey Klevchenya, while the men's 1000 meters was won by American Dan Jansen. For women, American Bonnie Blair defended her two 1992 golds in 500 meters and 1000 meters. Austria's Emese Hunyady won the 1500 meters ahead of Russia's Svetlana Bazhanova and Germany's Gunda Niemann. However, Bazhanova took gold ahead of Nemeth-Hunyady on the 3000 meters, with Germany's Claudia Pechstein in third. Pechstein would go on to win the 5000 meters ahead of Niemann.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: At the closing ceremonies, also held at Lysgårdsbakken, all spectators were handed a flashlight with the inscription "Remember Sarajevo"—the host of the 1984 Winter Olympics which was at worst moment of the Yugoslavian Civil War,the Siege of Sarajevo . The first entrants on the stage were Liv Ullmann and Thor Heyerdahl, followed by the athletes' precession. After the Olympic flag had been transferred to Nagano mayor Tasuka Tsukada, speeches were held by Lillehammer mayor Audun Tron, Heiberg and Samaranch. The latter used his speech to remind about Sarajevo's situation, before giving Heiberg IOC's gold medal. Artistic presentations followed with many of the themes from the opening ceremony.At the 15-minute presentation as the next host city,Nagano was presented to world as a modern Yama-uba,also the 1998 Winter Olympics mascots, the Snowlets, was also presented on a public eye for the first time. Of the 2,200 people performing in the opening and closing ceremonies, only 50 were professionals.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The VI Winter Paralympics were run in part by a diferent Organizing Committee (LPOC), but the LOOC managed all the common areas of the two events, serving as a model for Sydney that would host the 2000 Summer Paralympics,six years latter.The Games were held from 10 to 19 March. Competitions were held in Alpine skiing, ice sledge speed racing, biathlon and cross-country skiing; the games also introduced ice sledge hockey. The Paralympics used the same venues as the Olympics, and were the second in Norway, after the 1980 Winter Paralympics in Geilo. 471 athletes from 31 countries participated, with Norway claiming the most gold medals ahead of Germany. This was the first Paralympics which the International Paralympic Committee had 100% involvement and responsibility.They featured their own logo (the people under the sun), the amputee mascot Sondre, However,the Paralympics despite being organized by an Organizing Committee in a diferent composition, had the same visual identity as was treaty as an integral part of the event.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The games were spread out over ten venues in five municipalities in two counties, Oppland and Hedmark. Lillehammer, with 25,000 inhabitants, and Hamar and Gjøvik, both with 27,000 inhabitants, are all situated on the lake Mjøsa. Gjøvik and Hamar are located south of Lillehammer. Hunderfossen is located north of Lillehammer, but lies within the municipality. Øyer and Ringebu, both with just under 5,000 inhabitants, are located north of Lillehammer, in the valley Gudbrandsdalen. Lillehammer had four venues, Hamar had two venues, while Hunderfossen, Gjøvik, Øyer and Ringebu had one venue each.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: In Lillehammer, Lysgårdsbakken features twin ski jumping hills. The large hill has a hill size of 138 and a critical point of 120, while the normal hill has a hill size of 100 and a critical point of 90. The hill has capacity for 35,000 spectators and hosted, in addition to the ski jumping events, the opening and closing ceremonies. Birkebeineren Skistadion featured cross-country skiing and biathlon, with the stadium itself having a capacity for 31,000 spectators during cross-country skiing and 13,500 during biathlon. In addition, spectators could watch from along the tracks. Kanthugen Freestyle Arena featured a capacity for 15,000 spectators. All the outdoor skiing arenas had free areas, which saw up to 25,000 extra spectators at the team jump and 75,000 extra spectators at the 50 km.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track is located at Hunderfossen. It had a capacity for 10,000 spectators and is the only bobsleigh and luge track in the Nordic countries. Ice hockey was played at two venues, in Håkons Hall in Lillehammer and Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall in Gjøvik. Håkons Hall has a capacity for 10,500 spectators, and also features the Norwegian Olympic Museum. The Cavern Hall is built as a man-made cave and had a capacity for 5,300 spectators. Skating events took place at two venues in Hamar. Vikingskipet had a capacity for 10,600 spectators and featured speed skating events, while figure skating and short-track speed skating were held at Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre. Alpine skiing was split between two ski resorts: Hafjell in Øyer and Kvitfjell in Ringebu. The former was used for the slalom and giant slalom, while the latter hosted downhill and super-G.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Spectators relied heavily on the use of buses and trains for transportation. Downtown Lillehammer and the axis between Lillehammer and Oslo were the most limiting areas, and the Norwegian State Railways ran up to 22 trains per day between Oslo and Lillehammer. Trains were also used northwards towards Trondheim, while other areas were served by bus. All the venues were located along railway lines, making use of spectators walking from the stations to the venues to limit road congestion, although special services were available for disabled people. Shuttle buses were established between venues and also connected to park and ride facilities.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: A record 67 nations participated in the 1994 Winter Olympics. These Games were the first to implement stricter qualifying standards that prevented low-performing athletes from competing without meeting minimum requirements. As a consequence, eleven "warm-weather countries" that signed up to take part in the Games were mostly absent because very few of their athletes succeeded in qualifying; the number of African athletes fell from nineteen in 1992 to three in 1994. These rules were, however, not applied to bobsled events, enabling the U.S. Virgin Islands, Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica to compete in that sport. On 25 October 1993, the United Nations General Assembly urged its members to observe the Olympic truce, lasting from seven days before the start of the Games until seven days after the close, making the Lillehammer Olympics the first to observe the truce. The IOC appealed for a truce in the ongoing Bosnian War and the Siege of Sarajevo, the city that had hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: The former Soviet republics of Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Ukraine and Uzbekistan participated as independent nations. This was the first time since the 1912 Summer Olympics that Russia competed independently at the Olympic Games. Athletes of these countries previously competed in the Winter Olympics as part of the Soviet Union team until 1991. The Czech Republic and Slovakia participated for the first time, after the break-up of Czechoslovakia in 1993. Bosnia and Herzegovina made their Olympic debut, following their independence from Yugoslavia in 1992; the composition of their four-man bob team was one Croat, two Bosniaks and a Serb, mirroring the ethnic diversity of the country. This was also Israel's first appearance at the Winter Olympics and a member of the European Olympic Committees. American Samoa participated for the first time, as did Trinidad and Tobago.


title: 1994 Winter Olympics

text: Russia won the most golds, while Norway won the most medals overall. The following table presents the top ten nations, sorted by gold medals, with the host nation highlighted.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Jigme Singye Wangchuck (, ; born 11 November 1955) is a member of the House of Wangchuck who was the king of Bhutan (Druk Gyalpo) from 1972 until his abdication in favor of his eldest son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, in 2006.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: During his reign, he advocated the use of a Gross National Happiness index to measure the well-being of citizens rather than Gross domestic product.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Jigme Singye Wangchuck was born in Dechencholing Palace in Thimphu, Bhutan, on 11 November 1955. to Jigme Dorji Wangchuck and "Ashi" Kesang Choden Wangchuck. The political officer of India stationed in Sikkim and the representative of the Sikkimese government came soon after to offer felicitations to the royal parents and to pay their respect to the newborn prince. At the age of four, sometime in 1959, the young Crown Prince received the offerings of good wishes and respects by the public, monks, and officials for the first time in Tashichho Dzong.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Wangchuck received western and traditional learning in various institutions. He began studying at Dechencholing Palace, when he was six years old, in 1961. Soon afterwards, he went to study at St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling, in India. In 1964, he attended Heatherdown School in England where he completed his studies in 1969. The next phase of his formal education took place at Namselling Palace in 1969. Finally, he attended Ugyen Wangchuck Academy at Satsham Choten in Paro, which was established in 1970, along with a class of selected students from all over Bhutan.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: In 1971 Wangchuck's father appointed Wangchuck as the Chairman of National Planning Commission, charged with the planning and co-ordination of the five year development plan. The following year, on 16 June 1972, he was made the Trongsa Penlop bestowing on him directly the saffron scarf or namza. The 3rd Five-Year Plan (FYP), which spanned the period 1971–77, was in progress when his father died. Wangchuck was 16 at that time. 1972 to 1976 was the period of the 3rd FYP, and 1976 to 1981 was the period of 4th FYP. As both King and the Chairman of the National Planning Commission, the clearing house for the programmes and projects, Wangchuck guided the planned activities first in broad terms and then increasingly in detail.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: In a public ceremony, the Royal Wedding of Wangchuck was held in Dechog Lhakhang in Punakha Dzong on 31 October 1988, corresponding with the Descending Day of Buddha. The four queens, Dorji Wangmo Wangchuck, Tshering Pem Wangchuck, Tshering Yangdon Wangchuck and Sangay Choden Wangchuck are daughters of "Dasho Yab" Ugyen Dorji, the descendant of both the mind and speech incarnations of Ngawang Namgyal, and "Yum" Thuiji Zam.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: In his Coronation Address on 2 June 1974, Jigme Singye stressed the need "to attain self-reliance and preserve Bhutan’s sovereignty and independence." He also stressed that any development undertaking should be a genuine collaboration between the people and the government. During the 1970s, immediate aims for rural households unfolded in terms of intensive valley projects, cash crops cultivation, especially potatoes – irrigation, and resettlement. Enhancing the income and livelihood of the rural people were the main focus of the 3rd and 4th FYPs. Soon after he acceded to the throne, Jigme Singye launched the Trashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Development Projects in 1972. These projects were part of a larger vision of food self-sufficiency and income generation.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Encouraged by the achievements in the Trashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Projects, similar valley projects were replicated in Mongar and the newly created Shumar (Pemagatshel) districts. These projects were also sites of experimental and participatory decision making. It led to the formation of Dzongkhag Yargay Tshogchungs (DYTs), which brought the , gups and officials to prepare plans together. By 1981, Trashigang and Tsirang had fully functional DYTs.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: In higher altitude areas a new initiative by Wangchuck in early 1970s consisted of diffusing potatoes as cash crops, first tested in royal pastureland of Longtoed and Longmed, which had been converted to potato farms. Beginning with the large-scale production in Khaling and Chapcha, potatoes become a key export crop, reaching 60,000 tonnes, grown by over 10,725 households by 2006.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: In southern Bhutan, the focus was on growing citrus fruits. For example, in 1977, the King encouraged the people of Dagana to start cardamom and orange plantations. Both of these cash crops are now major sources of rural income as 3,400 tonnes of cardamom, 55,558 tonnes of oranges and 7,400 tonnes of apples were produced in 2006 due to the initiatives taken first in 1970s.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: A Kasho (royal decree) issued by King Jigme Singye in 1986 directed the Planning Commission to ensure that "the basis for the evaluation of the achievements of the Sixth Plan is to see whether the people enjoy happiness and comfort". The social and economic indicators point towards sub-ordinate goals, not ultimate goals which was to be measured from a holistic, GNH point of view. Happiness and contentment became the ultimate yardstick of progress.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Data, which enables comparison of achievements over time starting from 1985 onwards, some 14 years after the king's ascension to the throne.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: There is a lack of systematic quantitative information about the social and economic situation of Bhutan for the 1970s. The baselines for historical comparison available today were first collected in 1985 – the year when time series data was collected. Some information that date back to 1974 indicate the low base of infrastructure that existed at that time. There were 11 ill-equipped hospitals, manned mostly by foreign doctors, and 45 basic health units in 1974, the year Jigme Singye's coronation was held.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Sparse networks of 1,332 km of roads had been built by 1974, compared to 4,544 by the end of his reign in 2006. In 1974, 24 wireless stations linked the rest of the country. Telephone connections, mostly for officials in Thimphu, were limited to 480 in 1974 compared to 31,526 in 2006.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: There were 13,410 students enrolled in schools compared to 151,260 or so in 2006. By 2006, school enrollment touched 90%, literacy 60%, and both were so mainly due to a free education policy (more information at Education in Bhutan and Ministry of Education Website).


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Health services, safe drinking water and better nutrition have led to a 66-year life-span and lower morbidity during this life span. One of the constraints in education and health was the lack of qualified people. In 1976, King Jigme Singye commanded the establishment of the Royal Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS) and the first batch of Health Assistants and Basic Health Workers passed out in 1986. There were 56 health establishments in 1974; by 2006 there were 715 resulting in 90% free primary health coverage. In 1985, there was nearly 50% health coverage. Infant mortality has fallen from 142 in 1985, to 60 in 2006. This was mainly due to the success of universal child immunisation and the supply of safe drinking water. There were 150 water supply schemes in 1985; this increased to 3,852 by 2006, giving 78% coverage of safe drinking water. Maternal mortality rate dropped from 7.7% in 1985 to 2.6% in 2006.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Besides these human development indicators, material prosperity rose remarkably. The distance between Bhutan and the outside world shortened because of motor road and air services. Wangchuck visited Delhi in 1978 and during that visit he discussed the possibility of having air links with India to promote its trade and commerce. The discussion was fruitful and led to a Donier flight between Paro and Kolkata in 1983. By 2006, air services connected Bhutan to Kathmandu, Delhi, Dhaka and Bangkok.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: Just four million units of electricity were generated in 1974, compared to 3.357 billion units by the end of his reign in 2006. In 1985, just around 10,000 households had electricity, and the number reached over 65,000 meter-point units by 2006. The connectivity of Bhutan increased in his reign through air services, internet, and surface transport. Internet reached Bhutan in 1999. The spread of faxes, telephones, satellite TVs, computers, and the Internet brought Bhutan into a transnational or globalized world.


title: Jigme Singye Wangchuck

text: The national income of the country, as measured by GDP, was Nu 2.4 billion in 1985. This increased to Nu 36.9 billion in 2006, which was a 15-fold increase in 21 years. Bhutan's per capita income reached US$1,500 in 2006 by the end of his reign. In purchasing power parity terms, Bhutan's per capita income in 2006 was nearly US$4,085.