title: 800 metres

text: The 800m is also known for its tactical racing. Because it is the shortest middle-distance event that has all the runners converge into one lane (after the first bend), positioning on the cut-in and the position of the pack is critical to the outcome of the race. Gaining a front position early in the race is often advantageous as there are occasionally trips when running in a pack. Olympic champions Dave Wottle, Kelly Holmes and others have defied that logic by running a more evenly paced race, lagging behind the pack and accelerating past the slowing early leaders. Often the winner of elite 800m races is not the fastest runner, but the athlete best positioned near the end of the race: an athlete directly behind another runner, has to switch to an outer lane to overtake, so has to run further—and might be blocked by a third runner alongside.


title: 800 metres

text: 800 metre participants usually run a positive split, where the first lap is faster, but a negative split is occasionally run as a tactic. The current world record (by David Rudisha) was run with a positive split in the 2012 Olympics. Rudisha ran the first lap in 49.28 seconds and the second in 51.63 seconds. Theoretically, an even split is the most efficient running mode, but it is difficult to pace correctly.


title: 800 metres

text: World junior records (19 and under) are held by Nijel Amos (1:41.73, London, 9 August 2012) and Pamela Jelimo (1:54.01, Zürich, 29 August 2008). Both marks coincidentally rank them as the third fastest ever.


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: Yoon Kyun-sang (born March 31, 1987) is a South Korean actor who drew attention with his supporting roles in the television series "Pinocchio" (2014), "Six Flying Dragons" (2015–2016) and "The Doctors" (2016). He then played lead roles in "The Rebel" (2017), "Oh, the Mysterious" (2018), "Clean with Passion for Now" (2018), and "Class of Lies" (2019).


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: Before becoming an actor, Yoon initially worked as a model. Respecting his father's wishes, he then joined the army and completed his mandatory military service. In 2012, he debuted as an actor, starring in the historical drama "Faith". He was then cast in the sports film "No Breathing" as a swimmer, and as the youngest detective in crime thriller "Gap-dong". Yoon achieved acting recognition with his supporting role in the television series, "Pinocchio".


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In 2015, Yoon starred alongside Ha Ji-won and Lee Jin-wook in "The Time We Were Not in Love", a remake of the Taiwanese drama "In Time with You".


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: The same year, he was cast in the historical drama "Six Flying Dragons". He played a dim-witted boy who eventually becomes the greatest swordsman of Josen, rising to the head of the royal bodyguard unit that defends the king.


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In 2016, Yoon starred in the popular medical drama "The Doctors", as an heir to a large corporation, who became a doctor to escape the fight for inheritance. Yoon's acting in "Six Flying Dragons" earned him a Best New Actor award at the Grimae Awards. Yoon became a cast member of the third season of reality cooking show "Three Meals a Day" - "Fishing Village".


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In 2017, Yoon was cast in his first leading role in historical drama "The Rebel", as the titular character, Hong Gil-dong. Yoon returned to join the cast of the fourth season of reality cooking show "Three Meals a Day" - "Sea Ranch". Yoon landed his second leading role in SBS' crime drama "Oh, the Mysterious".


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In July 2019, he returned to the small screen with school crime drama "Class of Lies" playing double characters of a lawyer who works undercover as a teacher at an elite high school trying to discover the truth behind a murder.


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In 2020, Yoon was the MC of "The House Detox", a program about organizing homes, co-hosting with Shin Ae-ra and Park Na-rae.


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In 2021, Yoon has confirmed he will join the TVING crime detective drama "The Mansion" with Lim Ji-yeon, which will air in early 2022 making a comeback two years after 2019.


title: Yoon Kyun-sang

text: In January 2022, it was reported that Yoon had terminated his contract with Hooxi Creative. Later the same day, it was reported that Yoon had signed a contract with Management A.M.9. Later on January 6, 2022, it was officially confirmed that Yoon had signed a contract with Management AM9.


title: Vandalism

text: The term includes property damage, such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people.


title: Vandalism

text: The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire English poet John Dryden to write, "Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface" (1694). However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term "Vandalisme" was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularizing the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction.


title: Vandalism

text: Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing "war and conquest". Therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Courbet's attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendôme column, a symbol of the past Napoleon III authoritarian Empire, was one of the most celebrated events of vandalism. Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the "fight against culture", taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871. "The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture" wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche.


title: Vandalism

text: In a proposal to the International Conference for Unification of Criminal Law held in Madrid in 1933, Raphael Lemkin envisaged the creation of two new international crimes (delicta juris gentium): the crime of barbarity, consisting in the extermination of racial, religious, or social collectivities, and the crime of vandalism, consisting in the destruction of cultural and artistic works of these groups. The proposal was not accepted.


title: Vandalism

text: Private citizens commit vandalism when they willfully damage or deface the property of others or the commons. Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling: it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owner's permission. Examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard "liberation", and possibly crop circles. Criminal vandalism takes many forms. Graffiti on public property is common in many inner cities as part of a gang culture, where they might be used as territorial markers.


title: Vandalism

text: More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the willful destruction of public and private property. Vandalism per se is sometimes considered one of the less serious common crimes, but it can become quite serious and distressing when committed extensively, violently, or as an expression of hatred and intimidation. In response, local governments have adopted various legal measures to prevent vandalism, but research has shown that the conventional strategies employed by the government in response to at least unapproved graffiti are not the most effective.


title: Vandalism

text: Examples of vandalism include salting lawns, cutting trees without permission, egg throwing, breaking windows, arson, spraying paint on others' properties, tagging, placing glue into locks, tire slashing, "keying" (scratching) paint, ransacking a property, flooding a house by clogging a sink and leaving the water running, and pulling up plants from the roots without permission.


title: Vandalism

text: In elections, opposing candidates' supporters may engage in "political vandalism"—the act of defacing opponents' political posters, bumper stickers, billboards, and other street marketing material. Although the nature of this material is temporary, its effect can be long-lasting as it may reflect both negatively and positively on the candidate whose material is being vandalized as well as on the presumed candidate whose supporters are engaging in the vandalism.


title: Vandalism

text: In addition, activists may use the tactic of property destruction as means of protest, e.g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions and setting fire to cars. This often takes place during riots but can also happen as a stand-alone event, e.g. by animal rights activists destroying property owned by farmers, hunters, biotech companies, and research facilities and setting free animals (which is sometimes referred to as eco-terrorism by opponents). Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs.


title: Vandalism

text: Actions of this kind can be ascribed to anger or envy, or to spontaneous, opportunistic behaviour, possibly for peer acceptance or bravado in gang cultures, or disgruntlement with the target (victim) person or society. Another common motive is to seek attention, and for personal gain. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping. The large-scale prevalence of gang graffiti in some inner cities has almost made it acceptable to the societies based there, so much so that it may go unnoticed, or not be removed, possibly because it may be a fruitless endeavour, to be graffitied on once again. Greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies, wish to draw attention to problems, frustration, even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status and boredom. Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour. Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. Teenage boys and men in their 20s are most likely to vandalize, but older adults and females are also known to sometimes vandalize, with young children occasionally vandalizing, but in a much smaller form, such as making small crayon drawings on walls.


title: Vandalism

text: Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it and stems from a variety of motives. Sociologist Stanley Cohen describes seven different types of vandalism:


title: Vandalism

text: In view of its incivility, punishment for vandalism can be particularly severe in some countries. In Singapore, for example, a person who attempts to cause or commits an act of vandalism may be liable to imprisonment for up to 3 years and may also be punished with caning. Vandalism in the UK is construed as an environmental crime and may be punished with an ASBO (Anti-Social Behaviour Order).


title: Vandalism

text: In the 1990s, former New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani cracked down on "quality of life crimes", including graffiti. NY Parks Commissioner Henry J. Stern described graffiti as "a metaphor for urban decay perhaps best shown in 'A Clockwork Orange'" adding that "New York City will not be like that".


title: Vandalism

text: Cybervandalism is vandalism on the internet. For example, vandalism on Wikipedia involves adding questionable content, removing content, or changing content in order to make it questionable, generally with the objective of harming Wikipedia's reputation. Forms of online vandalism have been recorded, the most common of which is website defacement. Vandalism on web maps has been called "cartographic vandalism".


title: Vandalism

text: Another form of cybervandalism is the creation of malware such as viruses, Trojan horses, and spyware, which can harm computers. A particularly virulent form of cybervandalism is ransomware, which is used to extort money from computer owners, and can even go so far as to carry a destructive malware payload that harms the system if payment isn't forthcoming within a certain time limit.


title: Vandalism

text: Cybervandalism could be said to be a form of creativity and artistry. An example of this was when the Cheltenham paint festival was cancelled due to COVID-19, and artists still proceeded to celebrate their artistry virtually.


title: Vandalism

text: Defacement is a type of vandalism that involves damaging the appearance or surface of something. The object of damage may be architecture, books, paintings, sculpture, or other forms of art.


title: Vandalism

text: Though vandalism in itself is illegal, it is often also an integral part of modern popular culture. French painter Gustave Courbet's attempt to disassemble the Vendôme column during the 1871 Paris Commune was probably one of the first artistic acts of vandalism, celebrated at least since Dada performances during World War I. The Vendôme column was considered a symbol of the recently deposed Second Empire of Napoleon III, and dismantled as such.


title: Vandalism

text: After the burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871, Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche himself meditated about the "fight against culture", wondering what could justify culture if it were to be destroyed in such a "senseless" manner (the arguments are: culture is justified by works of art and scientific achievements; exploitation is necessary to those achievements, leading to the creation of exploited people who then fight against culture. In this case, culture cannot be legitimised by art achievements, and Nietzsche writes: "I {also} know what it means: fighting against culture". After quoting him, Klossowski writes: "The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture".


title: Vandalism

text: As destruction of monument, vandalism can only have sense in a culture respecting history, archeology: Nietzsche spoke of "monumental history". As destruction of monumental history, vandalism was assured a long life (as Herostratus proved): Performance art could make such a claim, as well as Hakim Bey's "poetic terrorism" or "Destroy 2000 Years of Culture" from Atari Teenage Riot. Gustave Courbet's declaration stated:


title: Vandalism

text: "Attendu que la colonne Vendôme est un monument dénué de toute valeur artistique, tendant à perpétuer par son expression les idées de guerre et de conquête qui étaient dans la dynastie impériale, mais que réprouve le sentiment d’une nation républicaine, [le citoyen Courbet] émet le vœu que le gouvernement de la Défense nationale veuille bien l’autoriser à déboulonner cette colonne."


title: Vandalism

text: Hence, painter Courbet justified the dismantlement of the Vendôme column on political grounds, downgrading its artistic value. Vandalism poses the problem of the value of art compared to life's hardships: Courbet thought that the political values transmitted by this work of art neutralized its artistic value. His project was not followed; however, on 12 April 1871, the Commune voted to dismantle the imperial symbol, and the column was taken down on 8 May. After the assault on the Paris Commune by Adolphe Thiers, Gustave Courbet was condemned to pay part of the expenses.


title: Vandalism

text: In 1974, Norman Mailer glorified the art of vandalism in his essay "The Faith of Graffiti", which likened tagging in New York City to the work of Giotto and Rauschenberg. New York Authorities responded by coating subway walls with Teflon paint, jailing taggers and requiring hardware stores to keep spray paint under lock and key.


title: Vandalism

text: Tags, designs, and styles of writing are commonplace on clothing, and are an influence on many of the corporate logos. Many skateparks and similar youth-oriented venues are decorated with commissioned graffiti-style artwork, and in many others patrons are welcome to leave their own. There is still, however, a fine line between vandalism as an artform, as a political statement, and as a crime. Bristol-born guerrilla artist Banksy's claim is that official vandalism is far worse than that perpetrated by individuals, and that he is decorating buildings of no architectural merit.


title: Vandalism

text: Defacing could also be one of the techniques that many graphic designers use, by applying their own hand writing on a graphic itself. Sometimes the use of this technique might be mistaken as vandalism to the original work, as exemplified by the work of Stefan Sagmeister, including his Lou Reed CD cover. A unique use of the defacement technique is the CD cover for A.P.C. by Jean Touitou, where the designer wrote the title, volume number, and date with her own hand writing on the pre-print blank CD. Creative vandalism of this sort is not limited to writing and sketching. For example, the spraying on the KPIST album Golden coat for MNW Records by Sweden graphic uses gold spray, which may be considered an act of vandalism, but the customer may also appreciate the unicity of each cover that had been sprayed gold in different ways.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and reference are maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout the experiment. Generally, the temperature program for a DSC analysis is designed such that the sample holder temperature increases linearly as a function of time. The reference sample should have a well-defined heat capacity over the range of temperatures to be scanned.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The technique was developed by E. S. Watson and M. J. O'Neill in 1962, and introduced commercially at the 1963 Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy. The first adiabatic differential scanning calorimeter that could be used in biochemistry was developed by P. L. Privalov and D. R. Monaselidze in 1964 at Institute of Physics in Tbilisi, Georgia. The term DSC was coined to describe this instrument, which measures energy directly and allows precise measurements of heat capacity.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: There are two main types of DSC: "Heat-flux DSC" which measures the difference in heat flux between the sample and a reference (which gives it the alternative name "Multi-Cell DSC") and "Power differential DSC" which measures the difference in power supplied to the sample and a reference.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: With Heat-flux DSC, the changes in heat flow are calculated by integrating the ΔT- curve. For this kind of experiment, a sample and a reference crucible are placed on a sample holder with integrated temperature sensors for temperature measurement of the crucibles. This arrangement is located in a temperature-controlled oven. Contrary to this classic design, the distinctive attribute of heat-flux DSC is the vertical configuration of planar temperature sensors surrounding a planar heater. This arrangement allows a very compact, lightweight and low heat capacitance structure with the full functionality of a DSC oven.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: For this kind of setup, also known as "Power compensating DSC", the sample and reference crucible are placed in thermally insulated furnaces and not next to each other in the same furnace like in Heat-flux-DSC experiments. Then the temperature of both chambers is controlled so that the same temperature is always present on both sides. The electrical power that is required to obtain and maintain this state is then recorded rather than the temperature difference between the two crucibles.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The 2000s have witnessed the rapid development of Fast-scan DSC (FSC), a novel calorimetric technique that employs micromachined sensors. The key advances of this technique are the ultrahigh scanning rate, which can be as high as 106 K/s, and the ultrahigh sensitivity, with a heat capacity resolution typically better than 1 nJ/K. Nanocalorimetry has attracted much attention in materials science, where it is applied to perform quantitative analysis of rapid phase transitions, particularly on fast cooling. Another emerging area of application of FSC is physical chemistry, with a focus on the thermophysical properties of thermally labile compounds. Quantities like fusion temperature, fusion enthalpy, sublimation, and vaporization pressures, and enthalpies of such molecules became available.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The basic principle underlying this technique is that when the sample undergoes a physical transformation such as phase transitions, more or less heat will need to flow to it than the reference to maintain both at the same temperature. Whether less or more heat must flow to the sample depends on whether the process is exothermic or endothermic. For example, as a solid sample melts to a liquid, it will require more heat flowing to the sample to increase its temperature at the same rate as the reference. This is due to the absorption of heat by the sample as it undergoes the endothermic phase transition from solid to liquid. Likewise, as the sample undergoes exothermic processes (such as crystallization) less heat is required to raise the sample temperature. By observing the difference in heat flow between the sample and reference, differential scanning calorimeters are able to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released during such transitions. DSC may also be used to observe more subtle physical changes, such as glass transitions. It is widely used in industrial settings as a quality control instrument due to its applicability in evaluating sample purity and for studying polymer curing.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: An alternative technique, which shares much in common with DSC, is differential thermal analysis (DTA). In this technique it is the heat flow to the sample and reference that remains the same rather than the temperature. When the sample and reference are heated identically, phase changes and other thermal processes cause a difference in temperature between the sample and reference. Both DSC and DTA provide similar information. DSC measures the energy required to keep both the reference and the sample at the same temperature whereas DTA measures the difference in temperature between the sample and the reference when the same amount of energy has been introduced into both.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The result of a DSC experiment is a curve of heat flux versus temperature or versus time. There are two different conventions: exothermic reactions in the sample shown with a positive or negative peak, depending on the kind of technology used in the experiment. This curve can be used to calculate enthalpies of transitions. This is done by integrating the peak corresponding to a given transition. It can be shown that the enthalpy of transition can be expressed using the following equation:


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: where formula_2 is the enthalpy of transition, formula_3 is the calorimetric constant, and formula_4 is the area under the curve. The calorimetric constant will vary from instrument to instrument, and can be determined by analyzing a well-characterized sample with known enthalpies of transition.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Differential scanning calorimetry can be used to measure a number of characteristic properties of a sample. Using this technique it is possible to observe fusion and crystallization events as well as glass transition temperatures "T". DSC can also be used to study oxidation, as well as other chemical reactions.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Glass transitions may occur as the temperature of an amorphous solid is increased. These transitions appear as a step in the baseline of the recorded DSC signal. This is due to the sample undergoing a change in heat capacity; no formal phase change occurs.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: As the temperature increases, an amorphous solid will become less viscous. At some point the molecules may obtain enough freedom of motion to spontaneously arrange themselves into a crystalline form. This is known as the crystallization temperature ("T"). This transition from amorphous solid to crystalline solid is an exothermic process, and results in a peak in the DSC signal. As the temperature increases the sample eventually reaches its melting temperature ("T"). The melting process results in an endothermic peak in the DSC curve. The ability to determine transition temperatures and enthalpies makes DSC a valuable tool in producing phase diagrams for various chemical systems.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Differential scanning calorimetry can also be used to obtain valuable thermodynamics information about proteins. The thermodynamics analysis of proteins can reveal important information about the global structure of proteins, and protein/ligand interaction. For example, many mutations lower the stability of proteins, while ligand binding usually increases protein stability. Using DSC, this stability can be measured by obtaining Gibbs Free Energy values at any given temperature. This allows researchers to compare the free energy of unfolding between ligand-free protein and protein-ligand complex, or wild type and mutant proteins. DSC can also be used in studying protein/lipid interactions, nucleotides, drug-lipid interactions. In studying protein denaturation using DSC, the thermal melt should be at least to some degree reversible, as the thermodynamics calculations rely on chemical equlibrium.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The technique is widely used across a range of applications, both as a routine quality test and as a research tool. The equipment is easy to calibrate, using low melting indium at 156.5985 °C for example, and is a rapid and reliable method of thermal analysis.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: DSC is used widely for examining polymeric materials to determine their thermal transitions. Important thermal transitions include the glass transition temperature ("T"), crystallization temperature ("T"), and melting temperature ("T"). The observed thermal transitions can be utilized to compare materials, although the transitions alone do not uniquely identify composition. The composition of unknown materials may be completed using complementary techniques such as IR spectroscopy. Melting points and glass transition temperatures for most polymers are available from standard compilations, and the method can show polymer degradation by the lowering of the expected melting temperature. "T" depends on the molecular weight of the polymer and thermal history.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: The percent crystalline content of a polymer can be estimated from the crystallization/melting peaks of the DSC graph using reference heats of fusion found in the literature. DSC can also be used to study thermal degradation of polymers using an approach such as Oxidative Onset Temperature/Time (OOT); however, the user risks contamination of the DSC cell, which can be problematic. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) may be more useful for decomposition behavior determination. Impurities in polymers can be determined by examining thermograms for anomalous peaks, and plasticisers can be detected at their characteristic boiling points. In addition, examination of minor events in first heat thermal analysis data can be useful as these apparently "anomalous peaks" can in fact also be representative of process or storage thermal history of the material or polymer physical aging. Comparison of first and second heat data collected at consistent heating rates can allow the analyst to learn about both polymer processing history and material properties.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: DSC is used in the study of liquid crystals. As some forms of matter go from solid to liquid they go through a third state, which displays properties of both phases. This anisotropic liquid is known as a liquid crystalline or mesomorphous state. Using DSC, it is possible to observe the small energy changes that occur as matter transitions from a solid to a liquid crystal and from a liquid crystal to an isotropic liquid.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Using differential scanning calorimetry to study the stability to oxidation of samples generally requires an airtight sample chamber. It can be used to determine the oxidative-induction time (OIT) of a sample. Such tests are usually done isothermally (at constant temperature) by changing the atmosphere of the sample. First, the sample is brought to the desired test temperature under an inert atmosphere, usually nitrogen. Oxygen is then added to the system. Any oxidation that occurs is observed as a deviation in the baseline. Such analysis can be used to determine the stability and optimum storage conditions for a material or compound. DSC equipment can also be used to determine the Oxidative-Onset Temperature (OOT) of a material. In this test a sample (and a reference) are exposed to an oxygen atmosphere and subjected to a constant rate of heating (typically from 50 to 300 °C). The DSC heat flow curve will deviate when the reaction with oxygen begins (the reaction being either exothermic or endothermic). Both OIT and OOT tests are used as a tools for determining the activity of antioxidants.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: DSC makes a reasonable initial safety screening tool. In this mode the sample will be housed in a non-reactive crucible (often gold or gold-plated steel), and which will be able to withstand pressure (typically up to 100 bar). The presence of an exothermic event can then be used to assess the stability of a substance to heat. However, due to a combination of relatively poor sensitivity, slower than normal scan rates (typically 2–3 °C/min, due to much heavier crucible) and unknown activation energy, it is necessary to deduct about 75–100 °C from the initial start of the observed exotherm to "suggest" a maximal temperature for the material. A much more accurate data set can be obtained from an adiabatic calorimeter, but such a test may take 2–3 days from ambient at a rate of a 3 °C increment per half-hour.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: DSC is widely used in the pharmaceutical and polymer industries. For the polymer chemist, DSC is a handy tool for studying curing processes, which allows the fine tuning of polymer properties. The cross-linking of polymer molecules that occurs in the curing process is exothermic, resulting in a negative peak in the DSC curve that usually appears soon after the glass transition.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: In the pharmaceutical industry it is necessary to have well-characterized drug compounds in order to define processing parameters. For instance, if it is necessary to deliver a drug in the amorphous form, it is desirable to process the drug at temperatures below those at which crystallization can occur.


title: Differential scanning calorimetry

text: Freezing-point depression can be used as a purity analysis tool when analysed by differential scanning calorimetry. This is possible because the temperature range over which a mixture of compounds melts is dependent on their relative amounts. Consequently, less pure compounds will exhibit a broadened melting peak that begins at lower temperature than a pure compound.


title: Batman (military)

text: A batman or an orderly is a soldier or airman assigned to a commissioned officer as a personal servant. Before the advent of motorized transport, an officer's batman was also in charge of the officer's "bat-horse" that carried the officer's kit during a campaign.


title: Batman (military)

text: The British English term is derived from the obsolete "bat", meaning "pack saddle" (from French "bât", from Old French "bast", from Late Latin "bastum")


title: Batman (military)

text: The action of serving as a batman was referred to as "batting". In armies where officers typically came from the upper class, it was not unusual for a former batman to follow the officer into later civilian life as a domestic servant.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the French Army the term for batman was "ordonnance" ("orderly"). Batmen were officially abolished after World War II. However, in the 1960s there were still batmen in the French Army.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the German Army the batman was known as "Ordonnanz" ("orderly") from the French "ordonnance", or colloquially as "Putzer" ("cleaner") or as "Bursche" ("boy" or "valet").


title: Batman (military)

text: The main character Švejk of the antimilitarist, satirical novel "The Good Soldier Švejk" by the Czech author Jaroslav Hašek is the most famous portrayal of a batman drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War. (The 1967 German song ""Ich war der Putzer vom Kaiser"" is actually based on the British instrumental hit "I Was Kaiser Bill's Batman" of the same year, with original German lyrics.)


title: Batman (military)

text: The old British term "orderly" continued into the post-independence Indian Army. It has now, however, been replaced with the Hindi word "sahayak", which translates as "assistant" or "helper". There have been suggestions to do away with the practice, as the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force already have.


title: Batman (military)

text: In Bangladesh Army, officers and officer cadets have civilian orderlies. In Bangladesh Air Force, they are called batmen.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the Italian Army the term for batman was "attendente", from the Italian verb "attendere" (same meaning of the English verb "to attend"). "Attendenti" were eventually abolished in 1971.


title: Batman (military)

text: The term "batman" in the Pakistan Army dates from the period of the British Indian Army. In the modern Pakistan Army, civilian personnel are employed in this role and are designated as NCB (Non-Combatant Bearer) or (Non-Commissioned Batman). The term implies that the present-day batman is not a soldier or part of the fighting cadre of the army, and works only as a personal servant to each officer.


title: Batman (military)

text: The employment of NCBs in the Pakistan Air Force and the Pakistan Navy is not officially recognized. However both these services pay their officers an extra allowance comparable to the average pay of a household servant.


title: Batman (military)

text: The Imperial Russian Army used the term "denshchik" () for a batman. In the Russian Empire higher-ranking cavalry officers often chose Cossacks for these roles as they could be reasonably depended on to survive combat, and were also known for resourcefulness on campaign. However, they were hired help, and had to be provided with a horse also. The lower-ranking officers from serf-owning families brought a servant from home they were familiar with, particularly the infantry and artillery officers that did not require additional protection in combat, and tended to leave the servants with the unit baggage train. After the abolition of serfdom in the Russian Empire (1861), many officers went on campaign without servants.


title: Batman (military)

text: Although the positions were abolished in the post-revolutionary Soviet Union, the recognition that higher-ranking officers required assistance soon fostered an unofficial reintroduction of the role through secondment of an NCO to the officer's staff, usually also as the driver, which also at one stage became their unofficial role and title as many officers often "lived" out of their vehicles. The term was borrowed from the French, but adopted to Russian pronunciation as "ordinarets" ().


title: Batman (military)

text: Several "ordirnartsy" of the marshals and generals commanding fronts and armies during the Second World War wrote memoirs about their service. For example, Zhukov's "driver" was a semi-professional racing car driver Aleksandr Nikolaevich Buchin who met Zhukov by accident on the first day of the war when Zhukov's previous elderly driver failed to get the vehicle he was in out of the rut. Buchin drove Zhukov throughout the war and although he began the war as a private, he ended the war with the rank of captain. Buchin wrote his memoirs called "One hundred and seventy thousand kilometres with Zhukov", at the suggestion of the marshal in the 1970s.


title: Batman (military)

text: "Kalfaktor", derived from calefactory and entering the Swedish language during the 17th century, was a soldier assigned to tend to an officer from the rank of platoon leader and higher. The duties was mainly focused on practicalities like maintaining the officer's personal equipment and uniform, make sure meals and sleeping quarters are prepared and so forth, but also to remind the officer to get rest when needed and to avoid unnecessary risks.


title: Batman (military)

text: The term "emir eri" (literally "order private") was used for a soldier that attends an officer. The practice was abolished in 1950.


title: Batman (military)

text: The official term used by the British Army in the First World War was "soldier-servant". Every officer was assigned a servant, usually chosen by the officer from among his men. The term "batman" replaced this in the inter-war years. Batmen were among the casualties of the Great Depression, and by the Second World War only senior officers of the army and Royal Air Force were officially assigned batmen, with junior officers usually sharing the services of one batman among several officers. Batwomen also served in the women's services.


title: Batman (military)

text: Batman was usually seen as a desirable position. The soldier was exempted from more onerous duties and often got better rations and other favours from his officer. Senior officers' batmen usually received fast promotion to lance-corporal, with many becoming corporals and even sergeants. The position was generally phased out after the war. Officers of the Household Division however still have orderlies, because of the high proportion of ceremonial duties required of them.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the Royal Navy, stewards performed many of the duties of batmen in the other services. Aboard ship, only captains and admirals were assigned personal stewards, with the other officers being served by a pool of officers' stewards. Most vessels carried at least two stewards, with larger vessels carrying considerably more.


title: Batman (military)

text: The term "orderly" was often used instead of "batman" in the colonial forces, especially in the British Indian Army. The orderly was frequently a civilian instead of a soldier. However, from 1903 to 1939 four Indian officers from different regiments were appointed each year to serve as "King's (or Queen's) Indian Orderly Officers" in attendance on the monarch in London. While performing some routine orderly functions the main role of these officers was to represent the Indian Army in full dress uniform at ceremonial functions in front of the British public who might otherwise seldom be made aware of its existence.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the British Armed Forces, the term "batman" or "batwoman" was formerly also applied to a civilian who cleaned officers' messes or married quarters. In the Royal Air Force, free married quarters cleaning services were phased out for all officers except squadron leaders or above in command appointments as of 1 April 1972.


title: Batman (military)

text: One famous example of officer and batman during the Second World War was British actor David Niven and fellow actor Peter Ustinov. Niven and Ustinov were working on the film "The Way Ahead", as actor and writer respectively, but the difference in their ranks—Niven was a Lieutenant-Colonel and Ustinov a private—made their association militarily impossible; to solve the problem, Ustinov was appointed as Niven's batman.


title: Batman (military)

text: At the start of the Battle of Gazala in the Second World War, Major General Frank Messervy was captured by the Germans on 27 May 1942, but having removed all insignia, managed to bluff the Germans into believing he was a batman. As such, he was not closely guarded by his captors and managed to escape with other members of his staff to rejoin Division HQ the following day.


title: Batman (military)

text: Aides are junior commissioned officers who are available to support some of the needs of general officers who serve in command positions in the rank of brigadier general and above, and those of Flag Officers in the grade of Rear Admiral (lower half) and above in the Navy and Coast Guard. These aides "perform tasks and details that, if performed by general or flag officers, would be at the expense of the officer’s primary military and official duties." Their assistance, however, is restricted to those tasks which are directly related to the officer's official duties.


title: Batman (military)

text: In addition to officers being assigned as aides de camp, all the US Services, including the US Coast Guard, also use enlisted personnel in support of General Officers and Flag Officers. This program is officially known as the Enlisted Aide Program. Generally the personnel are military cooks however in recent years, any enlisted person could volunteer to serve in this position. They attend a joint service course for Enlisted Aides and advanced culinary course for cooks. Many are often sent on to education outside the military to become chefs and butler training. Some will also be used as stewards and stewardess on very senior officer aircraft. In addition General and Flag officers are assigned a driver. Drivers may get additional training but not always in driving, taking their service's or another service's driver course and or other government agency's driving schools. Only personnel in the Enlisted Aide Program can serve as an Enlisted Aide. Drivers, admin personnel and others on the personal staff are often but not always selected locally.


title: Batman (military)

text: Ordinarily, enlisted service members would be prohibited from performing services as an aide. "No officer may use an enlisted member as a servant for duties that contribute only to the officer's personal benefit and that have no reasonable connection with the officer's official responsibilities, according to the Department of Defense instruction 1315.09 for Enlisted Aides.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the United States Army the term "striker" or "dog robber" (a slang term implying that the soldier ate table scraps otherwise given to the officer's pet dog) was unofficially used, although that could also be applied to a junior officer who acted as a gofer to somebody with high rank. The actor James Garner played such a role in the film "The Americanization of Emily" (1964).


title: Batman (military)

text: In Dorothy L. Sayers's novel "Whose Body?" (1923) and subsequent novels, Lord Peter Wimsey's valet Mervyn Bunter was also his batman during World War I. Bunter is said to have helped rescue Lord Peter after he was buried alive when shell fire collapsed a dugout he was in and was credited with saving his life on several occasions both during and after the war. Bunter was also instrumental in helping his master recover from and cope with what was then called "shell shock" (post traumatic stress disorder) upon his return to civilian life. Bunter taught himself photography in order to assist His Lordship in his detective activities.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the novella "Goodbye, Mr. Chips" (1933), Mr. Chipping's former student, Peter Colley, is killed during the Great War attempting to save the life of his batman and childhood antagonist-cum-friend, Perkins.


title: Batman (military)

text: Jaroslav Hašek's "Good Soldier Švejk" begins his WWI military career as a batman to army chaplain Otto Katz; Katz loses him at cards to Senior Lieutenant Lukáš, whose batman he then becomes.


title: Batman (military)

text: In DC Comics media, Alfred Pennyworth (Batman's butler, created in 1943) has been referred to multiple times as "Batman's batman." Currently unsubstantiated rumors have it that Alfred was also Thomas Wayne's (Bruce Wayne's late father) batman when both men were in military service.


title: Batman (military)

text: J. R. R. Tolkien took the relationship of his characters Samwise Gamgee and Frodo Baggins (introduced in "The Fellowship of the Ring" in 1954) from his observations while in military service during World War I of the relationship between a batman and his officer.


title: Batman (military)

text: In 1967, the pseudonymous Whistling Jack Smith (actually a session vocalist) recorded an all-whistling number called "I Was Kaiser Bill's Batman", which went Top 5 in the UK. Despite a title that baffled most Americans (who no doubt were thinking of the other Batman), the tune hit number 20 on the "Billboard" charts.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the musical film "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" (1968), Caractacus Potts's father was Lord Scrumptious's batman.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the BBC sitcom "Blackadder Goes Forth" (1989), set during World War I, actor Tony Robinson portrays Private S. Baldrick, the bumbling and incompetent batman to Captain Edmund Blackadder. In the earlier series, taking place between the 1400s and the early 1800s, he plays Edmund Blackadder's dogsbody Baldrick, a similar, non-military role.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the "Honor Bound" book series (1993–2012), the character of Sergeant Major Enrico Rodriguez served in this capacity to Cletus Frade's father.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the television show "Archer" (created in 2009), the eponymous character's valet, Woodhouse, was the batman of his superior officer in the Royal Flying Corps in the First World War.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the television series "Downton Abbey" (2010–2015), Lord Grantham's valet, Mr Bates, was his batman in the Boer War; it also appears that William Mason was assigned to be Matthew Crawley's batman in the First World War.


title: Batman (military)

text: "Blunt Talk" (2015–2016), Adrian Scarborough played Harry Chandler, Falklands War veteran and former Royal Marines lance corporal turned Walter's valet.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the 2012 novel "Cold Days" by Jim Butcher, the lead character, Harry Dresden is assigned a batman, and initially both Harry and Cat Sith are very unhappy with this assignment.


title: Batman (military)

text: In Terry Pratchett's 2013 novel "Monstrous Regiment", the main character serves as batman to her lieutenant.


title: Batman (military)

text: Frank Herbert’s 1984 novel "Heretics of Dune", Patrin, the aide of Miles Teg, is referred to as the Bashar’s Batman.


title: Batman (military)

text: In the Hungarian movie Taxidermia (2006) Vendel Morosgoványi serves as a batman condemned to performing menial duties for the officer and his family while sleeping in an unheated shack next to the latrines. He frequently escapes into fantasy. So realistic are these fantasies that in one ambiguous instance, Morosgoványi sleeps with and impregnates the lieutenant's wife and "wakes up" to find himself engaged in an act of sodomy with a slaughtered pig.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean (Jean Benoît Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano; 5 January 1921 – 23 April 2019) was the Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He was the first Grand Duke of Luxembourg of French agnatic descent.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean was the eldest son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix. Jean's primary education was initially in Luxembourg, before attending Ampleforth College in England. In 1938, he was officially named Hereditary Grand Duke as heir-apparent to the throne of Luxembourg. While Luxembourg was occupied by Germans during the Second World War, the grand ducal family was abroad in exile. Jean studied at the Université Laval in Quebec City. Jean later volunteered to join the British army's Irish Guards in 1942, and after graduating from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, received his commission in 1943. He participated in the Normandy landings and the Battle for Caen, and joined the Allied forces in the liberation of Luxembourg. From 1984 until 2000, he was Colonel-in-chief of the Irish Guards.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: On 9 April 1953, Jean married Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium with whom he had five children. On 12 November 1964, Grand Duchess Charlotte abdicated and Jean succeeded her as Grand Duke of Luxembourg. He then reigned for 36 years before he himself abdicated on 7 October 2000 and was succeeded by his son, Grand Duke Henri.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean was born on 5 January 1921, at Berg Castle, in central Luxembourg, the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and of Prince Félix. Among his godparents was Pope Benedict XV, who gave him his second name. He attended primary school in Luxembourg, where he continued the initial stage of secondary education. He completed secondary school at Ampleforth College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in the United Kingdom. Upon reaching maturity, on 5 January 1939 he was styled 'Hereditary Grand Duke', recognising his status as heir apparent.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, beginning a four-year occupation. Having been warned of an imminent invasion, the Grand Ducal Family escaped the previous night. At first, they sought refuge in Paris, before fleeing France only weeks later, after receiving transit visas to Portugal from the Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes, in June 1940. They arrived at Vilar Formoso on 23 June 1940. After travelling through Coimbra and Lisbon, the family first stayed in Cascais, in Casa de Santa Maria, owned by Manuel Espírito Santo, who was then the honorary consul for Luxembourg in Portugal. By July they had moved to Monte Estoril, staying at the Chalet Posser de Andrade. On 10 July 1940, Prince Jean, together with his father Prince Félix, his siblings, Princess Elisabeth, Princess Marie Adelaide, Princess Marie Gabriele, Prince Charles and Princess Alix, the nanny Justine Reinard and the chauffeur Eugène Niclou, along with his wife Joséphine, boarded the "S.S. Trenton" headed for New York City, where they sought refuge during the war in a rented estate in Brookville, New York.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: The Grand Ducal Family sought refuge in the United States, renting an estate in Brookville, New York. Jean studied Law and Political Science at Université Laval, Quebec City.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: He joined the British Army as a volunteer in the Irish Guards in November 1942. After receiving officer training at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, Jean was commissioned as a lieutenant on 30 July 1943, before being promoted to captain in 1944. He landed in Normandy on 11 June 1944, and took part in the Battle for Caen and the liberation of Brussels. On 10 September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Luxembourg before moving on to Arnhem and the invasion of Germany. He relinquished his commission in the British Army on 26 June 1947. From 1984 until his abdication, he served as Colonel-in-chief of the Irish Guards, often riding in uniform behind Queen Elizabeth II during the Trooping the Colour.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean was named Lieutenant-Representative of the Grand Duchess on 28 April 1961. He became Grand Duke when his mother, Grand Duchess Charlotte, abdicated on 12 November 1964. The same day, he was made a General of the Armed Forces of Luxembourg.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: From the beginning of his reign, Grand Duke Jean's priorities included the well-being of his people and the completion of European unity. In the words of President Georges Pompidou of France, "If Europe had to choose a hereditary president, it would certainly be the Grand Duke of Luxembourg". Indeed, during his reign Grand Duke Jean saw Luxembourg transformed from a minor industrial contributor into an international financial centre. In 1986, he was honoured with the Charlemagne Prize in Aachen for his efforts towards European integration.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: The Grand Duke's reign was one of the most prosperous periods in the history of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The degree of stability in the country's politics, economy and social life was without precedent, thanks in part to the influence of the Grand Duke and his wife. He abdicated on 7 October 2000, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Henri.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Luxembourg's museum of modern art Mudam was officially named "Musée d'Art Moderne Grand-Duc Jean" to commemorate his reign which lasted 36 years. It was inaugurated in his presence in July 2006.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: In the summer of 2002, Grand Duke Jean and Grand Duchess Joséphine Charlotte took up residence at Fischbach Castle. After his wife died in January 2005, the Grand Duke continued to live there alone. On 27 December 2016, Grand Duke Jean was hospitalized due to bronchitis and was discharged from hospital on 4 January 2017, a day before he celebrated his 96th birthday.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Surrounded by his family, Grand Duke Jean died at 00.25 CEST on 23 April 2019 at the age of 98 after he had been hospitalized for a pulmonary infection.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: His funeral was held on Saturday, 4 May at the Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg after a period of mourning of 12 days.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean-Claude Juncker, president of the European Commission and former prime-minister of Luxembourg, described Jean's death as "a great loss for the Grand Duchy and for Europe". He added, "Like all the people of Luxembourg, I had great esteem for this man of commitment, kindness and courage."


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Luxembourg's prime-minister, Xavier Bettel, alluded to his service in the Second World War: "Grand Duke Jean fought for our freedom, for our independence and for the unity of our country and we will always be grateful. A family man left us today. A great statesman, a hero, an example – and a very beloved and gracious man."


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Tributes followed from the Belgian royal family, commenting "His courage, his dignity and his high sense of duty will remain as an example... The whole of Belgium shares the grief of the Luxembourg people."


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: In their tribute, the Dutch royal family mentioned "the friendship and warmth he radiated", adding "With his thoughtfulness and humanity, he added to calm and confidence in his country and Europe."


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: In their tribute, the British royal family said that the Grand Duke will be "missed, both inside and outside Luxembourg".


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: In the tribute from the Romanian Royal Family via a post on their websites, they mentioned that "The entire Royal Family of Romania is alongside the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in these sad and painful moments"; also written was their very close relations (via Queen Anne who was a paternal first cousin of his) as well as "a lifetime of friendship"; the head of the family, Crown Princess Margareta, sent a letter of condolences to her cousin, Grand Duke Henri.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: The president of the International Olympic Committee Thomas Bach paid tribute to Grand Duke Jean who had joined the IOC in 1946 and had been an honorary member since 1998. "He was always a very calm and well-balanced person who was highly respected by the entire Olympic Movement because of his integrity... The IOC will always hold him in the highest honour and with the greatest respect."


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: In October 1952, Jean was officially engaged to Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium, his third cousin, the only daughter of King Leopold III of the Belgians and his first wife, Princess Astrid of Sweden. There had been speculation that the marriage was arranged to improve relations between Luxembourg and Belgium but it soon became apparent that a love match was blooming between two longtime friends.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: They were married in Luxembourg on 9 April 1953, first in the Hall of Ceremonies at the Grand Ducal Palace, later in Luxembourg's Notre-Dame Cathedral. The marriage put an end to the tensions between Luxembourg and Belgium which arose from 1918 to 1920 when there had been a threat of annexation. The couple had five children, 22 grandchildren and 15 great-grandchildren:


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean renounced the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family in 1986. This decree was however repealed by another decree on 21 September 1995.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: The "Arrêté Grand-Ducal" (Grand Ducal decree) of 21 September 1995 established that the title of Prince/Princesse de Luxembourg is reserved for the children of the sovereign and the heir to the throne. It also stated that the descendants in male lineage of the sovereign should be styled as Royal Highnesses and titled Prince/Princess of Nassau and that the descendants of unapproved marriages should be styled as Count/Countess of Nassau.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if Grand Duke Jean were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean is a member of the House of Bourbon-Parma, a sub-branch of the House of Bourbon-Spain, itself originally a branch of the House of Bourbon, and thus of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.


title: Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg

text: Jean's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Dukes of Parma as well as the Kings of Spain, France, and Navarre. The line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.


title: Sierra McClain

text: Sierra Aylina McClain (born March 16, 1994) is an American actress and singer. As an actress, she was first recognized for her role as Sierra in "Daddy's Little Girls" (2007). She had her breakthrough as Nessa Parker in "Empire" (2016–2018), and is also best known for starring as Tanya Clifton in the television series "Mindhunter" (2019). Her film roles have included starring as Tosha in the films "" (2018), and as Carina in "Shrink" (2009). She is currently starring as Grace Ryder in "" (2020–present).


title: Sierra McClain

text: Sierra Aylina McClain was born on March 16, 1994, in Decatur, Georgia. Her father, Michael McClain, is a music producer who produced Solange Knowles' debut album "Solo Star" (2002). Her mother, Shontell, is a songwriter and former screenwriter. She has two younger sisters, Lauryn and China Anne, who are also actresses and singers, and has a younger brother, Gabriel.


title: Sierra McClain

text: After her sister was discovered in 2004 by a music executive who heard her sing, China was cast in the film "The Gospel" (2005) with Sierra cast in the children's choir. Around this time the sisters formed the music group the 3mcclaingirls. In December 2005, while on the set of "Tyler Perry's House of Payne", China introduced her sisters Sierra and Lauryn to a show producer and the sisters performed a song for him. They were then cast in the film "Daddy's Little Girls" (2007) as the James sisters, and Sierra guest starred in the series, "Tyler Perry's House of Payne." In 2008 the three sisters began posting videos on their YouTube channel of themselves singing covers of songs. McClain had a small role as a neighbor in the short film "Six Blocks Wide" (2008). The next year, she starred as Carina in the film "Shrink" alongside Kevin Spacey and Keke Palmer.


title: Sierra McClain

text: After China landed her own show on the Disney Channel called "A.N.T. Farm" in 2011, McClain and her sisters changed their group name to the McClain Sisters, and sang two songs on the "A.N.T. Farm" soundtrack: "Perfect Mistake" and "Electronic Apology". Sierra McClain was also a theme music composer for the series. In December the group performed their version of the song "Jingle Bell Rock" at the 2011 "Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade". In March 2012, the group signed with Hollywood Records, released their song "Rise", and was the opening act in Houston at the Houston Rodeo for Big Time Rush on their Better with U Tour.


title: Sierra McClain

text: The next month they performed at the 2012 White House Easter Egg Roll. In November 2012, McClain guest starred with her sister Lauryn and performed the song "Go" during the episode "chANTs of a Lifetime" for "A.N.T. Farm." From late 2012 to 2016, McClain and her sisters continued performing and releasing songs. Most notably they released their song "The Great Divide" which peaked at number 4 on "Billboard's" US Kid Digital Songs; performed at the pre-show for the 2014 Radio Disney Music Awards and presented an award; and had their first headlining concert at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California; and performed at 19th Arthur Ashe Kids' Day. From the summer to the fall of 2014, the group embarked on a state fair tour around the United States. In December 2013, China announced on Twitter that "A.N.T. Farm" would be ending after its third season. Shortly after this announcement, the McClain Sisters parted ways with Hollywood Records. After leaving the record label, the group changed their name from the McClain Sisters to simply McClain.


title: Sierra McClain

text: In September 2015, McClain was cast in a Showtime pilot by Lena Waithe, but it was not picked up. In 2016, McClain was cast and began starring as Nessa Parker, a recurring role, in the television series "Empire" (2016–2018). For the series, she sang several songs for the series' soundtrack, and her role as Nessa is considered her breakthrough role. Her girl group, McClain, went on hiatus after all three sisters booked various acting roles. She next went on to star as Tosha in the dance film "Honey: Rise Up and Dance" (2018). She gained further recognition for starring as main role Tanya Clifton in the second season of the critically acclaimed television series "Mindhunter" (2019)"." She gained more attention after starring as main role Grace Ryder in "" (2020–present).


title: Sierra McClain

text: In June 2020, her girl group changed their name to Thriii, and performed at "Radio Disney Presents ARDYs Summer Playlist".


title: Experience

text: Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involves a subject to which various items are presented. In this sense, seeing a yellow bird on a branch presents the subject with the objects "bird" and "branch", the relation between them and the property "yellow". Unreal items may be included as well, which happens when experiencing hallucinations or dreams. When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience. In this sense, experience is usually identified with perception and contrasted with other types of conscious events, like thinking or imagining. In a slightly different sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the practical knowledge and familiarity they produce. In this sense, it is important that direct perceptual contact with the external world is the source of knowledge. So an experienced hiker is someone who actually lived through many hikes, not someone who merely read many books about hiking. This is associated both with recurrent past acquaintance and the abilities learned through them.


title: Experience

text: Many scholarly debates on the nature of experience focus on experience as conscious event, either in the wide or the more restricted sense. One important topic in this field is the question of whether all experiences are intentional, i.e. are directed at objects different from themselves. Another debate focuses on the question of whether there are non-conceptual experiences and, if so, what role they could play in justifying beliefs. Some theorists claim that experiences are "transparent", meaning that what an experience feels like only depends on the contents presented in this experience. Other theorists reject this claim by pointing out that what matters is not just what is presented but also how it is presented.


title: Experience

text: A great variety of types of experiences is discussed in the academic literature. Perceptual experiences, for example, represent the external world through stimuli registered and transmitted by the senses. The experience of episodic memory, on the other hand, involves reliving a past event one experienced before. In imaginative experience, objects are presented without aiming to show how things actually are. The experience of thinking involves mental representations and the processing of information, in which ideas or propositions are entertained, judged or connected. Pleasure refers to experience that feels good. It is closely related to emotional experience, which has additionally evaluative, physiological and behavioral components. Moods are similar to emotions, with one key difference being that they lack a specific object found in emotions. Conscious desires involve the experience of wanting something. They play a central role in the experience of agency, in which intentions are formed, courses of action are planned, and decisions are taken and realized. Non-ordinary experience refers to rare experiences that significantly differ from the experience in the ordinary waking state, like religious experiences, out-of-body experiences or near-death experiences.


title: Experience

text: Experience is discussed in various disciplines. Phenomenology is the science of the structure and contents of experience. It uses different methods, like epoché or eidetic variation. Sensory experience is of special interest to epistemology. An important traditional discussion in this field concerns whether all knowledge is based on sensory experience, as empiricists claim, or not, as rationalists contend. This is closely related to the role of experience in science, in which experience is said to act as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. In metaphysics, experience is involved in the mind-body problem and the hard problem of consciousness, both of which try to explain the relation between matter and experience. In psychology, some theorists hold that all concepts are learned from experience while others argue that some concepts are innate.


title: Experience

text: The term "experience" is associated with a variety of closely related meanings, which is why various different definitions of it are found in the academic literature. Experience is often understood as a conscious event. This is sometimes restricted to certain types of consciousness, like perception or sensation, through which the subject attains knowledge of the world. But in a wider sense, experience includes other types of conscious events besides perception and sensation. This is the case, for example, for the experience of thinking or the experience of dreaming. In a different sense, "experience" refers not to conscious events themselves but to the knowledge and practical familiarity they bring with them. According to this meaning, a person with job experience or an experienced hiker is someone who has a good practical familiarity in the respective field. In this sense, experience refers not to a conscious process but to the result of this process.


title: Experience

text: Experience is often understood as a conscious event in the widest sense. This includes various types of experiences, such as perception, bodily awareness, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, action and thought. It usually refers to the experience a particular individual has, but it can also take the meaning of the experience had by a group of individuals, for example, of a nation, of a social class or during a particular historical epoch. Phenomenology is the discipline that studies the subjective structures of experience, i.e. what it is like from the first-person perspective to experience different conscious events.


title: Experience

text: When someone has an experience, they are presented with various items. These items may belong to diverse ontological categories corresponding e.g. to objects, properties, relations or events. Seeing a yellow bird on a branch, for example, presents the subject with the objects "bird" and "branch", the relation between them and the property "yellow". These items can include both familiar and unfamiliar items, which means that it is possible to experience something without fully understanding it. When understood in its widest sense, the items present in experience can include unreal items. This is the case, for example, when experiencing illusions, hallucinations or dreams. In this sense, one can have the experience of a yellow bird on a branch even though there is no yellow bird on the branch. Experiences may include only real items, only unreal items, or a mix between the two. Phenomenologists have made various suggestions about what the basic features of experience are. The suggested features include spatial-temporal awareness, the difference in attention between foreground and background, the subject's awareness of itself, the sense of agency and purpose, bodily awareness and awareness of other people.


title: Experience

text: When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience. In this sense, it is possible to experience something without understanding what it is. This would be the case, for example, if someone experienced a robbery without being aware of what exactly was happening. In this case, the sensations caused by the robbery constitute the experience of the robbery. This characterization excludes more abstract types of consciousness from experience. In this sense, it is sometimes held that experience and thought are two separate aspects of mental life. A similar distinction is sometimes drawn between experience and theory. But these views are not generally accepted. Critics often point out that experience involves various cognitive components that cannot be reduced to sensory consciousness. Another approach is to distinguish between internal and external experience. So while sensory perception belongs to external experience, there may also be other types of experience, like remembering or imagining, which belong to internal experience.


title: Experience

text: In another sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the knowledge they produce. For this sense, it is important that the knowledge comes about through direct perceptual contact with the external world. That the knowledge is direct means that it was obtained through immediate observation, i.e. without involving any inference. One may obtain all kinds of knowledge indirectly, for example, by reading books or watching movies about the topic. This type of knowledge does not constitute experience of the topic since the direct contact in question concerns only the books and movies but not the topic itself. The objects of this knowledge are often understood as public objects, which are open to observation by most regular people.


title: Experience

text: The meaning of the term "experience" in everyday language usually sees the knowledge in question not merely as theoretical know-that or descriptive knowledge. Instead, it includes some form of practical know-how, i.e. familiarity with a certain practical matter. This familiarity rests on recurrent past acquaintance or performances. It often involves having learned something by heart and being able to skillfully practice it rather than having a mere theoretical understanding. But the knowledge and skills obtained directly this way are normally limited to generalized rules-of-thumb. As such, they lack behind the scientific certainty that comes about through a methodological analysis by scientists that condenses the corresponding insights into laws of nature.


title: Experience

text: Most experiences, especially the ones of the perceptual kind, aim at representing reality. This is usually expressed by stating that they have intentionality or are about their intentional object. If they are successful or veridical, they represent the world as it actually is. But they may also fail, in which case they give a false representation. It is traditionally held that all experience is intentional. This thesis is known as "intentionalism". In this context, it is often claimed that all mental states, not just experiences, are intentional. But special prominence is usually given to experiences in these debates since they seem to constitute the most fundamental form of intentionality. It is commonly accepted that all experiences have phenomenal features, i.e. that there is something it is like to live through them. Opponents of intentionalism claim that not all experiences have intentional features, i.e. that phenomenal features and intentional features can come apart. Some alleged counterexamples to intentionalism involve pure sensory experiences, like pain, of which it is claimed that they lack representational components. Defenders of intentionalism have often responded by claiming that these states have intentional aspects after all, for example, that pain represents bodily damage. Mystical states of experience constitute another putative counterexample. In this context, it is claimed that it is possible to have experiences of "pure consciousness" in which awareness still exists but lacks any object. But evaluating this claim is difficult since such experiences are seen as extremely rare and therefore difficult to investigate.


title: Experience

text: Another debate concerns the question of whether all experiences have conceptual contents. Concepts are general notions that constitute the fundamental building blocks of thought. Conceptual contents are usually contrasted with sensory contents, like seeing colors or hearing noises. This discussion is especially relevant for perceptual experience, of which some empiricists claim that it is made up only of sense data without any conceptual contents.


title: Experience

text: The view that such a type of experience exists and plays an important role in epistemological issues has been termed the "myth of the given" by its opponents. The "given" refers to the immediate, uninterpreted sensory contents of such experiences. Underlying this discussion is the distinction between a "bare" or "immediate" experience in contrast to a more developed experience. The idea behind this distinction is that some aspects of experience are directly given to the subject without any interpretation. These basic aspects are then interpreted in various ways, leading to a more reflective and conceptually rich experience showing various new relations between the basic elements. This distinction could explain, for example, how various faulty perceptions, like perceptual illusions, arise: they are due to false interpretations, inferences or constructions by the subject but are not found on the most basic level. In this sense, it is often remarked that experience is a product both of the world and of the subject. The distinction between immediate and interpreted aspects of experience has proven contentious in philosophy, with some critics claiming that there is no immediate given within experience, i.e. that everything is interpreted in some way. One problem with this criticism is that it is difficult to see how any interpretation could get started if there was nothing there to be interpreted to begin with.


title: Experience

text: Among those who accept that there is some form of immediate experience, there are different theories concerning its nature. Sense datum theorists, for example, hold that immediate experience only consists of basic sensations, like colors, shapes or noises. This immediate given is by itself a chaotic undifferentiated mass that is then ordered through various mental processes, like association, memory and language, into the normal everyday objects we perceive, like trees, cars or spoons. Direct realists, on the other hand, hold that these material everyday objects themselves are the immediate given. Some philosophers have tried to approach these disagreements by formulating general characteristics possessed by the contents of immediate experience or "the given". It is often held that they are private, sensory, simple and incorrigible. Privacy refers to the idea that the experience belongs to the subject experiencing it and is not directly accessible to other subjects. This access is at best indirect, for example, when the experiencer tells others about their experience. Simplicity means, in this context, that what is given constitutes basic building blocks free from any additional interpretations or inferences. The idea that the given is incorrigible has been important in many traditional disputes in epistemology. It is the idea that we cannot be wrong about certain aspects of our experience. On this view, the subject may be wrong about inferences drawn from the experience about external reality, for example, that there is a green tree outside the window. But it cannot be wrong about certain more fundamental aspects of how things seem to us, for example, that the subject is presented with a green shape. Critics of this view have argued that we may be wrong even about how things seem to us, e.g. that a possibly wrong conceptualization may already happen on the most basic level.


title: Experience

text: There is disagreement among theorists of experience concerning whether the subjective character of an experience is entirely determined by its contents. This claim has been called the "transparency of experience". It states that what it is like to undergo an experience only depends on the items presented in it. This would mean that two experiences are exactly alike if they have the same contents. Various philosophers have rejected this thesis, often with the argument that what matters is not just "what" is presented but also "how" it is presented. For example, the property of roundness can be presented visually, when looking at a sphere, or haptically, when touching the sphere. Defenders of the transparency-thesis have pointed out that the difference between the experiences in such examples can be explained on the level of content: one experience presents the property of visual-roundness while the other presents felt-roundness. Other counterexamples include blurry vision, where the blurriness is seen as a flawed representation without presenting the seen object itself as blurry. It has been argued that only the universals present in the experience determine the subjective character of the experience. On this view, two experiences involving different particulars that instantiate exactly the same universals would be subjectively identical.


title: Experience

text: Perceptual experience refers to "an immediate consciousness of the existence of things outside us". This representation of the external world happens through stimuli registered and transmitted by the senses. Perceptual experience occurs in different modalities corresponding to the different senses, e.g. as visual perception, auditory perception or haptic perception. It is usually held that the objects perceived this way are "ordinary material objects", like stones, flowers, cats or airplanes that are presented as public objects existing independent of the mind perceiving them. This stands in contrast, for example, to how objects are presented in imaginative experience. Another feature commonly ascribed to perceptual experience is that it seems to put us into "direct touch" with the object it presents. So the perceiver is normally not aware of the cognitive processes starting with the stimulation of the sense organs, continuing in the transmission of this information to the brain and ending in the information processing happening there. While perception is usually a reliable source of information for the practical matters of our everyday affairs, it can also include "false information" in the form of illusion and hallucination. In some cases, the unreliability of a perception is already indicated within the experience itself, for example, when the perceiver fails to identify an object due to blurry vision. But such indications are not found in all misleading experiences, which may appear just as reliable as their accurate counterparts.


title: Experience

text: This is the source of the so-called "problem of perception". It consists in the fact that the features ascribed to perception so far seem to be incompatible with each other, making the so-characterized perception impossible: in the case of misleading perceptions, the perceiver may be presented with objects that do not exist, which would be impossible if they were in direct touch with the presented objects. Different solutions to this problem have been suggested. Sense datum theories, for example, hold that we perceive sense data, like patches of color in visual perception, which do exist even in illusions. They thereby deny that ordinary material things are the objects of perception. Disjunctivists, on the other hand, try to solve the problem by denying that veridical perceptions and illusions belong to the same kind of experience. Other approaches include adverbialism and intentionalism. The problem with these different approaches is that neither of them is fully satisfying since each one seems to contradict some kind of introspective evidence concerning the fundamental features of perceptual experience.


title: Experience

text: The experience of episodic memory consists in a form of reliving a past event one experienced before. This is different from semantic memory, in which one has access to the knowledge of various facts concerning the event in question without any experiential component associated with this knowledge. In episodic memory, on the other hand, the past event is consciously re-experienced. In this sense, it is a form of mental time travel that is not present in non-episodic memory. But this re-experiencing is not an exact copy of the original experience since the experienced event is presented as something in the past seen from one's current perspective, which is associated with some kind of feeling of pastness or familiarity not present in the original experience. In this context, it is often held that episodic memory provides two types of information: first-order information about the past event and second-order information about the role of this event in the subject's current memory. Episodic memory is different from merely imagining the experience of a past event. An important aspect of this difference is that it is part of the nature of episodic memory to try to represent how the original experience was, even if it sometimes fails to do so. Other suggested differences include the degree of vividness and the causal connection between the original experience and the episodic memory.


title: Experience

text: Imaginative experience involves a special form of representation in which objects are presented without aiming to show how things actually are. Like memory and unlike perception, the associated mental images are normally not caused by the stimulation of sensory organs. It is often held that both imagination and memory depend on previous perceptual acquaintance with the experienced contents. But unlike memory, more freedom is involved in most forms of imagination since the subject can freely vary, change and recombine various of the experienced contents while memory aims to preserve their original order. Different theorists focus on different elements when trying to conceptualize the nature of imagination. The impoverishment view holds that imagination is distinguished from perception and memory by being less vivid and clear. The will-dependence view, on the other hand, centers on the power of the will to actively shape the contents of imagination whereas the nonexistence view focuses on the impression of unreality or distance from reality belonging to imaginative experience. Despite its freedom and its lack of relation to actuality, imaginative experience can serve certain epistemological functions by representing what is possible or conceivable. This is the case, for example, when imaginatively speculating about an event that has happened or might happen. Imagination can happen in various different forms. One difference concerns whether the imagined scenario is deliberately controlled or arises spontaneously by itself. Another concerns whether the subject imagines itself as experiencing the imagined event from the inside, as being one of the protagonists within this event, or from the outside. Different imaginative experiences tend to have different degrees to which the imagined scenario is just a reconstruction of something experienced previously or a creative rearrangement. Accounts of imaginative experience usually focus on the visual domain, but there are also other, less prominent forms, like auditory imagination or olfactory imagination.


title: Experience

text: The term "thinking" is used to refer to a wide variety of cognitive experiences. They involve mental representations and the processing of information. This way, ideas or propositions are entertained, judged or connected. It is similar to memory and imagination in that the experience of thinking can arise internally without any stimulation of the sensory organs, in contrast to perception. But thinking is still further removed from sensory contents than memory and imagination since its contents belong to a more abstract level. It is closely related to the phenomenon of speech, with some theorists claiming that all thinking is a form of inner speech expressed in language. But this claim is controversial since there seem to be thoughts that are not linguistically fully articulated. But the more moderate claim is often accepted that thinking is associated with dispositions to perform speech acts. On this view, making a judgment in thought may happen non-linguistically but is associated with a disposition to linguistically affirm the judged proposition. Various theories of the nature of the experience of thinking have been proposed. According to Platonism, it is a spiritual activity in which Platonic forms and their interrelations are discerned and inspected. Conceptualists, on the other hand, hold that thinking involves entertaining concepts. On this view, judgments arise if two or more concepts are connected to each other and can further lead to inferences if these judgments are connected to other judgments.


title: Experience

text: Various types of thinking are discussed in the academic literature. They are sometimes divided into four categories: concept formation, problem solving, judgment and decision making, and reasoning. In concept formation, the features common to the examples of a certain type are learned. This usually corresponds to understanding the meaning of the word associated with this type. In the case of problem solving, thinking has as its goal to overcome certain obstacles by discovering a solution to a problem. This happens either by following an algorithm, which guarantees success if followed correctly, or by using heuristics, which are more informal methods that tend to bring the thinker closer to a solution. Judgment and decision making involve choosing the best course of action among various alternatives. In reasoning, the thinker starts from a certain set of premises and tries to draw conclusions from them. A simpler categorization divides thinking into only two categories: theoretical contemplation and practical deliberation.


title: Experience

text: Pleasure refers to experience that feels good. It involves the enjoyment of something, like eating a cake or having sex. When understood in the widest sense, this includes not just sensory pleasures but any form of pleasant experience, such as engaging in an intellectually satisfying activity or the joy of playing a game. Pleasure comes in degrees and exists in a dimension that includes negative degrees as well. These negative degrees are usually referred to as pain and suffering and stand in contrast to pleasure as forms of feeling bad. Discussions of this dimension often focus on its positive side but many of the theories and insights apply equally to its negative side. There is disagreement among philosophers and psychologists concerning what the nature of pleasure is. Some understand pleasure as a simple sensation. On this view, a pleasure experience is an experience that has a pleasure-sensation among its contents. This account is rejected by attitude theories, which hold that pleasure consists not in a content but in a certain attitude towards a content. According to this perspective, the pleasure of eating a cake consists not in a taste sensation together with a pleasure sensation, as sensation-theorists claim. Instead, it consists in having a certain attitude, like desire, towards the taste sensation. A third type of theory defines pleasure in terms of its representational properties. On this view, an experience is pleasurable if it presents its objects as being good for the experiencer.


title: Experience

text: Emotional experiences come in many forms, like fear, anger, excitement, surprise, grief or disgust. They usually include either "pleasurable or unpleasurable aspects". But they normally involve various other components as well, which are not present in every experience of pleasure or pain. It is often held that they also comprise "evaluative components", which ascribe a positive or negative value to their object, "physiological components", which involve bodily changes, and "behavioral components" in the form of a reaction to the presented object. For example, suddenly encountering a grizzly bear while hiking may evoke an emotional experience of fear in the hiker, which is experienced as unpleasant, which represents the bear as dangerous, which leads to an increase in the heart rate and which may provoke a fleeing reaction. These and other types of components are often used to categorize emotions into different types. But there is disagreement concerning which of them is the essential component determining the relevant category. The dominant approaches categorize according to how the emotion feels, how it evaluates its object or what behavior it motivates.


title: Experience

text: Moods are closely related to emotions, but not identical to them. Like emotions, they can usually be categorized as either positive or negative depending on how it feels to have them. One core difference is that emotional experiences usually have a very specific object, like the fear of a bear. Mood experiences, on the other hand, often either have no object or their object is rather diffuse, like when a person is anxious that "something bad" might happen without being able to clearly articulate the source of their anxiety. Other differences include that emotions tend to be caused by specific events, whereas moods often lack a clearly identifiable cause, and that emotions are usually intensive, whereas moods tend to last longer. Examples of moods include anxiety, depression, euphoria, irritability, melancholy and giddiness.


title: Experience

text: Desires comprise a wide class of mental states. They include unconscious desires, but only their conscious forms are directly relevant to experience. Conscious desires involve the experience of wanting or wishing something. This is often understood in a very wide sense, in which phenomena like love, intention, and thirst are seen as forms of desire. They are usually understood as attitudes toward conceivable states of affairs. They represent their objects as being valuable in some sense and aim to realize them by changing the world correspondingly. This can either happen in a positive or a negative sense. In the positive sense, the object is experienced as good and the aim is to create or maintain it. In the negative sense, the object is experienced as bad and the aim is to destroy it or to hinder it from coming into existence. In intrinsic desires, the object is desired for its own sake, whereas in extrinsic desires, the object is desired because of the positive consequences associated with it. Desires come in different degrees of intensity and their satisfaction is usually experienced as pleasurable.


title: Experience

text: Agency refers to the capacity to act and the manifestation of this capacity. Its experience involves various different aspects, including the formation of intentions, when planning possible courses of action, the decision between different alternatives, and the effort when trying to realize the intended course of action. It is often held that desires provide the motivational force behind agency. But not all experiences of desire are accompanied by the experience of agency. This is the case, for example, when a desire is fulfilled without the agent trying to do so or when no possible course of action is available to the agent to fulfill the desire.


title: Experience

text: In a more restricted sense, the term "sense of agency" refers to the impression of being in control and being the owner of one's action. It is often held that two components are the central sources of the sense of agency. On the one hand, the agent constantly makes predictions about how their intentions will influence their bodily movement and compares these predictions to the sensory feedback. On this view, a positive match generates a sense of agency while a negative match disrupts the sense of agency. On the other hand, when looking backward, the agent interprets their intention as the cause of the action. In the successful case, the intention precedes the action and the action is consistent with the intention.


title: Experience

text: The terms "non-ordinary experience", "anomalous experience" or "altered state of consciousness" are used to describe a wide variety of rare experiences that significantly differ from the experience in the ordinary waking state. Examples of non-ordinary experiences are religious experiences, which are closely related to spiritual or mystical experiences, out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, psychotic episodes, and psychedelic experiences.


title: Experience

text: Religious experiences are non-ordinary experiences that carry religious significance for the experiencer. They often involve some kind of encounter with a divine person, for example, in the form of seeing God or hearing God's command. But they can also involve having an intensive feeling one believes to be caused by God or recognizing the divine in nature or in oneself. Some religious experiences are said to be ineffable, meaning that they are so far away from the ordinary that they cannot be described in words. Out-of-body experiences involve the impression of being detached from one's material body and perceiving the external world from this different perspective. In them, it often seems to the person that they are floating above their own body while seeing it from the outside. They can have various different causes, including traumatic brain injuries, psychedelic drugs, or sleep paralysis. They can also take the form of near-death experiences, which are usually provoked by life-threatening situations and include contents such as flying through a tunnel towards a light, talking to deceased relatives, or a life review, in which a person sees their whole life flash before their eyes.


title: Experience

text: It is uncontroversial that these experiences occur sometimes for some people. In one study, for example, about 10% report having had at least one out-of-body experience in their life. But it is highly controversial how reliable these experiences are at accurately representing aspects of reality not accessible to ordinary experience. This is due to the fact that various wide-reaching claims are made based on non-ordinary experiences. Many of these claims cannot be verified by regular perception and frequently seem to contradict it or each other. Based on religious experience, for example, it has been claimed that a divine creator distinct from nature exists or that the divine exists in nature. Out-of-body experiences and near-death experiences, on the other hand, are often used to argue for a mind-body dualism by holding that the soul can exist without the body and continues to exist after the death of the body. Defenders of such claims often contend that we have no decisive reason to deny the reliability of such experiences, for example, because they are in important ways similar to regular sensory experience or because there is an additional cognitive faculty that provides us access to knowledge beyond the regular senses.