title: Fátima, Portugal

text: The trees in this area are primarily dominated by holly oak ("Quercus rotundifolia"), Portuguese oak ("Quercus faginea"), strawberry trees ("Arbutus unedo"), buckthorn ("Rhamnus alaternus"), mastic ("Pistacia lentiscus"), bay laurel ("Laurus nobilis") and olive trees, all of which are resistant to both the winter precipitation extremes and the summer drought. There are also areas of savannah, strips of land bounded by walls of loose stone. Pine and eucalyptus forests are also common in the outskirts of the city.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: The climate is characterized by heavy precipitation during late autumn and winter, with approximately annually, and warm, dry summers. Fátima has considerably more precipitation than other cities nearby in part due to its higher altitude, though precipitation in summer is more or less the same.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: In the winter, temperatures range between at day and at night with January being the coldest month. Humid air masses coming from N/NW that come into contact with the plateau of Fátima are the reason behind the strong rains experienced in the low-sun half of the year. Light frosts are typical from late December to mid February and temperatures can get down to occasionally.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: Summer temperatures range between at day and at night, but are rather unpredictable, as influences from the marine layer of the nearby Atlantic can often lower the maxima to around and thermal lows from the Iberian Peninsula can lead temperatures to surpass . Temperatures rarely get above but when they do they are often accompanied by low humidity which can sometimes lead to unwanted forest fires around the area.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: The city has about 2600 hours of annual sunshine. Snow is rare but not uncommon, the last one being in 2016 and 2013 both in 27 February.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: The economy of the city relies on religious tourism because the world devotion through Our Lady of Fátima attracts millions of Christian pilgrims. The locals have numerous shops and stalls devoted to the sale of religious articles and souvenirs. In addition, services for tourists, hotels, restaurants and other retail also benefit from the visitors. Other economic activities in the region include: marble sculpturing, saw-milling, carpentry, civil construction, commerce, and services.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima, in Cova da Iria, is the principal focus of all visitors. Annually, at least five million Catholic pilgrims fill the country roads leading to the Marian shrine. Numbers can reach hundreds of the thousands on 13 May and 13 October, the most significant dates of the apparitions in Fátima.


title: Fátima, Portugal

text: Fátima's major sports club is the Sport Center of Fátima, currently in Portuguese football's second tier, the "LigaPro".


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Hermite polynomials were defined by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1810, though in scarcely recognizable form, and studied in detail by Pafnuty Chebyshev in 1859. Chebyshev's work was overlooked, and they were named later after Charles Hermite, who wrote on the polynomials in 1864, describing them as new. They were consequently not new, although Hermite was the first to define the multidimensional polynomials in his later 1865 publications.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Like the other classical orthogonal polynomials, the Hermite polynomials can be defined from several different starting points. Noting from the outset that there are two different standardizations in common use, one convenient method is as follows:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: is the probability density function for the normal distribution with expected value 0 and standard deviation 1.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The th-order Hermite polynomial is a polynomial of degree . The probabilist's version has leading coefficient 1, while the physicist's version has leading coefficient .


title: Hermite polynomials

text: From the Rodrigues formulae given above, we can see that and are even or odd functions depending on :


title: Hermite polynomials

text: and are th-degree polynomials for . These polynomials are orthogonal with respect to the "weight function" (measure)


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The probabilist polynomials are thus orthogonal with respect to the standard normal probability density function.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The Hermite polynomials (probabilist's or physicist's) form an orthogonal basis of the Hilbert space of functions satisfying


title: Hermite polynomials

text: An orthogonal basis for is a "complete" orthogonal system. For an orthogonal system, "completeness" is equivalent to the fact that the 0 function is the only function orthogonal to "all" functions in the system.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Since the linear span of Hermite polynomials is the space of all polynomials, one has to show (in physicist case) that if satisfies


title: Hermite polynomials

text: vanishes identically. The fact then that for every real means that the Fourier transform of is 0, hence is 0 almost everywhere. Variants of the above completeness proof apply to other weights with exponential decay.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: In the Hermite case, it is also possible to prove an explicit identity that implies completeness (see section on the Completeness relation below).


title: Hermite polynomials

text: An equivalent formulation of the fact that Hermite polynomials are an orthogonal basis for consists in introducing Hermite "functions" (see below), and in saying that the Hermite functions are an orthonormal basis for .


title: Hermite polynomials

text: where is a constant. Imposing the boundary condition that should be polynomially bounded at infinity, the equation has solutions only if is a non-negative integer, and the solution is uniquely given by formula_21, where formula_22 denotes a constant.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: the Hermite polynomials formula_24 may be understood as eigenfunctions of the differential operator formula_25 . This eigenvalue problem is called the Hermite equation, although the term is also used for the closely related equation


title: Hermite polynomials

text: whose solution is uniquely given in terms of physicist's Hermite polynomials in the form formula_27, where formula_22 denotes a constant, after imposing the boundary condition that should be polynomially bounded at infinity.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The general solutions to the above second-order differential equations are in fact linear combinations of both Hermite polynomials and confluent hypergeometric functions of the first kind. For example, for the physicist's Hermite equation


title: Hermite polynomials

text: where formula_22 and formula_32 are constants, formula_33 are physicist's Hermite polynomials (of the first kind), and formula_34 are physicist's Hermite functions (of the second kind). The latter functions are compactly represented as formula_35 where formula_36 are Confluent hypergeometric functions of the first kind. The conventional Hermite polynomials may also be expressed in terms of confluent hypergeometric functions, see below.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: With more general boundary conditions, the Hermite polynomials can be generalized to obtain more general analytic functions for complex-valued . An explicit formula of Hermite polynomials in terms of contour integrals is also possible.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The Hermite polynomials constitute an Appell sequence, i.e., they are a polynomial sequence satisfying the identity


title: Hermite polynomials

text: These umbral identities are self-evident and included in the differential operator representation detailed below,


title: Hermite polynomials

text: These last relations, together with the initial polynomials and , can be used in practice to compute the polynomials quickly.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The probabilist's Hermite polynomials have similar formulas, which may be obtained from these by replacing the power of with the corresponding power of and multiplying the entire sum by :


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The inverse of the above explicit expressions, that is, those for monomials in terms of probabilist's Hermite polynomials are


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The corresponding expressions for the physicist's Hermite polynomials follow directly by properly scaling this:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This equality is valid for all complex values of and , and can be obtained by writing the Taylor expansion at of the entire function (in the physicist's case). One can also derive the (physicist's) generating function by using Cauchy's integral formula to write the Hermite polynomials as


title: Hermite polynomials

text: one can evaluate the remaining integral using the calculus of residues and arrive at the desired generating function.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: If is a random variable with a normal distribution with standard deviation 1 and expected value , then


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The moments of the standard normal (with expected value zero) may be read off directly from the relation for even indices:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: where is the double factorial. Note that the above expression is a special case of the representation of the probabilist's Hermite polynomials as moments:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: holds true. For certain cases concerning a wider range of evaluation, it is necessary to include a factor for changing amplitude:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This expansion is needed to resolve the wavefunction of a quantum harmonic oscillator such that it agrees with the classical approximation in the limit of the correspondence principle.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: A finer approximation, which takes into account the uneven spacing of the zeros near the edges, makes use of the substitution


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The physicist's Hermite polynomials can be expressed as a special case of the parabolic cylinder functions:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The probabilist's Hermite polynomials satisfy the identity formula_77 where represents differentiation with respect to , and the exponential is interpreted by expanding it as a power series. There are no delicate questions of convergence of this series when it operates on polynomials, since all but finitely many terms vanish.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Since the power-series coefficients of the exponential are well known, and higher-order derivatives of the monomial can be written down explicitly, this differential-operator representation gives rise to a concrete formula for the coefficients of that can be used to quickly compute these polynomials.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Since the formal expression for the Weierstrass transform is , we see that the Weierstrass transform of is . Essentially the Weierstrass transform thus turns a series of Hermite polynomials into a corresponding Maclaurin series.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The existence of some formal power series with nonzero constant coefficient, such that , is another equivalent to the statement that these polynomials form an Appell sequence. Since they are an Appell sequence, they are "a fortiori" a Sheffer sequence.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: From the generating-function representation above, we see that the Hermite polynomials have a representation in terms of a contour integral, as


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The probabilist's Hermite polynomials defined above are orthogonal with respect to the standard normal probability distribution, whose density function is


title: Hermite polynomials

text: of variance , where is any positive number. These are then orthogonal with respect to the normal probability distribution whose density function is


title: Hermite polynomials

text: is called the umbral composition of the two polynomial sequences. It can be shown to satisfy the identities


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The last identity is expressed by saying that this parameterized family of polynomial sequences is known as a cross-sequence. (See the above section on Appell sequences and on the differential-operator representation, which leads to a ready derivation of it. This binomial type identity, for , has already been encountered in the above section on #Recursion relations.)


title: Hermite polynomials

text: the sequence that is inverse to the one similarly denoted, but without the minus sign, and thus speak of Hermite polynomials of negative variance. For , the coefficients of formula_88 are just the absolute values of the corresponding coefficients of formula_89.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: These arise as moments of normal probability distributions: The th moment of the normal distribution with expected value and variance is


title: Hermite polynomials

text: where is a random variable with the specified normal distribution. A special case of the cross-sequence identity then says that


title: Hermite polynomials

text: One can define the Hermite functions (often called Hermite-Gaussian functions) from the physicist's polynomials:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Since these functions contain the square root of the weight function and have been scaled appropriately, they are orthonormal:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: and they form an orthonormal basis of . This fact is equivalent to the corresponding statement for Hermite polynomials (see above).


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This equation is equivalent to the Schrödinger equation for a harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics, so these functions are the eigenfunctions.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This formula can be used in connection with the recurrence relations for and to calculate any derivative of the Hermite functions efficiently.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The Hermite functions are a set of eigenfunctions of the continuous Fourier transform . To see this, take the physicist's version of the generating function and multiply by . This gives


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The Hermite functions are thus an orthonormal basis of , which "diagonalizes the Fourier transform operator".


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The Wigner distribution function of the th-order Hermite function is related to the th-order Laguerre polynomial. The Laguerre polynomials are


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This is a fundamental result for the quantum harmonic oscillator discovered by Hip Groenewold in 1946 in his PhD thesis. It is the standard paradigm of quantum mechanics in phase space.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: In the Hermite polynomial of variance 1, the absolute value of the coefficient of is the number of (unordered) partitions of an -element set into singletons and (unordered) pairs. Equivalently, it is the number of involutions of an -element set with precisely fixed points, or in other words, the number of matchings in the complete graph on vertices that leave vertices uncovered (indeed, the Hermite polynomials are the matching polynomials of these graphs). The sum of the absolute values of the coefficients gives the total number of partitions into singletons and pairs, the so-called telephone numbers


title: Hermite polynomials

text: Moreover, the following completeness identity for the above Hermite functions holds in the sense of distributions:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: where is the Dirac delta function, the Hermite functions, and represents the Lebesgue measure on the line in , normalized so that its projection on the horizontal axis is the usual Lebesgue measure.


title: Hermite polynomials

text: The function is the bivariate Gaussian probability density on , which is, when is close to 1, very concentrated around the line , and very spread out on that line. It follows that


title: Hermite polynomials

text: This yields that can be expressed in Hermite functions as the sum of a series of vectors in , namely,


title: Hermite polynomials

text: In order to prove the above equality for , the Fourier transform of Gaussian functions is used repeatedly:


title: Hermite polynomials

text: and this yields the desired resolution of the identity result, using again the Fourier transform of Gaussian kernels under the substitution


title: Vital signs

text: Vital signs (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most crucial medical signs that indicate the status of the body's vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery. The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall health.


title: Vital signs

text: There are four primary vital signs: body temperature, blood pressure, pulse (heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system.


title: Vital signs

text: Early warning scores have been proposed that combine the individual values of vital signs into a single score. This was done in recognition that deteriorating vital signs often precede cardiac arrest and/or admission to the intensive care unit. Used appropriately, a rapid response team can assess and treat a deteriorating patient and prevent adverse outcomes.


title: Vital signs

text: The equipment needed is a thermometer, a sphygmomanometer, and a watch. Although a pulse can be taken by hand, a stethoscope may be required for a patient with a very weak pulse.


title: Vital signs

text: Temperature recording gives an indication of core body temperature which is normally tightly controlled (thermoregulation) as it affects the rate of chemical reactions. Body temperature is maintained through a balance of the heat produced by the body and the heat lost from the body.


title: Vital signs

text: Temperature can be recorded in order to establish a baseline for the individual's normal body temperature for the site and measuring conditions.


title: Vital signs

text: Temperature can be measured from the mouth, rectum, axilla (armpit), ear, or skin. Oral, rectal, and axillary temperature can be measured with either a glass or electronic thermometer. Note that rectal temperature measures approximately 0.5 °C higher than oral temperature, and axillary temperature approximately 0.5 °C less than oral temperature. Aural and skin temperature measurements require special devices designed to measure temperature from these locations.


title: Vital signs

text: While 37 °C (98.6 °F) is considered "normal" body temperature, there is some variance between individuals. Most have a normal body temperature set point that falls within the range of 36.0 °C to 37.5 °C (96.5–99.5 °F).


title: Vital signs

text: The main reason for checking body temperature is to solicit any signs of systemic infection or inflammation in the presence of a fever. Fever is considered temperature of 37.8 °C or above. Other causes of elevated temperature include hyperthermia, which results from unregulated heat generation or abnormalities in the body's heat exchange mechanisms.


title: Vital signs

text: Temperature depression (hypothermia) also needs to be evaluated. Hypothermia is classified as temperature below 35 °C (95 °F).


title: Vital signs

text: It is also recommended to review the trend of the patient's temperature over time. A fever of 38 °C does not necessarily indicate an ominous sign if the patient's previous temperature has been higher.


title: Vital signs

text: The pulse is the rate at which the heart beats while pumping blood through the arteries, recorded as beats per minute (bpm). It may also be called "heart rate". In addition to providing the heart rate, the pulse should also be evaluated for strength and obvious rhythm abnormalities. The pulse is commonly taken at the wrist (radial artery). Alternative sites include the elbow (brachial artery), the neck (carotid artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries). The pulse is taken with the index finger and middle finger by pushing with firm yet gentle pressure at the locations described above, and counting the beats felt per 60 seconds (or per 30 seconds and multiplying by two). The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse may vary due to exercise, fitness level, disease, emotions, and medications. The pulse also varies with age. A newborn can have a heart rate of 100–160 bpm, an infant (0–5 months old) a heart rate of 90–150 bpm, and a toddler (6–12 months old) a heart rate of 80–140 bpm. A child aged 1–3 years old can have a heart rate of 80–130 bpm, a child aged 3–5 years old a heart rate of 80–120 bpm, an older child (age of 6–10) a heart rate of 70–110 bpm, and an adolescent (age 11–14) a heart rate of 60–105 bpm. An adult (age 15+) can have a heart rate of 60–100 bpm.


title: Vital signs

text: Average respiratory rates vary between ages, but the normal reference range for people age 18 to 65 is 16–20 breaths per minute. The value of respiratory rate as an indicator of potential respiratory dysfunction has been investigated but findings suggest it is of limited value. Respiratory rate is a clear indicator of acidotic states, as the main function of respiration is removal of CO leaving bicarbonate base in circulation.


title: Vital signs

text: Blood pressure is recorded as two readings: a higher systolic pressure, which occurs during the maximal contraction of the heart, and the lower diastolic or resting pressure. In adults, a normal blood pressure is 120/80, with 120 being the systolic and 80 being the diastolic reading. Usually, the blood pressure is read from the left arm unless there is some damage to the arm. The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure is called the pulse pressure. The measurement of these pressures is now usually done with an aneroid or electronic sphygmomanometer. The classic measurement device is a mercury sphygmomanometer, using a column of mercury measured off in millimeters. In the United States and UK, the common form is millimeters of mercury, while elsewhere SI units of pressure are used. There is no natural 'normal' value for blood pressure, but rather a range of values that on increasing are associated with increased risks. The guideline acceptable reading also takes into account other co-factors for disease. Therefore, elevated blood pressure (hypertension) is variously defined when the systolic number is persistently over 140–160 mmHg. Low blood pressure is hypotension. Blood pressures are also taken at other portions of the extremities. These pressures are called segmental blood pressures and are used to evaluate blockage or arterial occlusion in a limb (see Ankle brachial pressure index).


title: Vital signs

text: In the U.S., in addition to the above four, many providers are required or encouraged by government technology-in-medicine laws to record the patient's height, weight, and body mass index. In contrast to the traditional vital signs, these measurements are not useful for assessing acute changes in state because of the rate at which they change; however, they are useful for assessing the impact of prolonged illness or chronic health problems.


title: Vital signs

text: The definition of vital signs may also vary with the setting of the assessment. Emergency medical technicians (EMTs), in particular, are taught to measure the vital signs of respiration, pulse, skin, pupils, and blood pressure as "the 5 vital signs" in a non-hospital setting.


title: Vital signs

text: Children and infants have respiratory and heart rates that are faster than those of adults as shown in the following table :


title: Vital signs

text: Monitoring of vital parameters most commonly includes at least blood pressure and heart rate, and preferably also pulse oximetry and respiratory rate. Multimodal monitors that simultaneously measure and display the relevant vital parameters are commonly integrated into the bedside monitors in intensive care units, and the anesthetic machines in operating rooms. These allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being continuously informed of the changes in the general condition of a patient.


title: Vital signs

text: While monitoring has traditionally been done by nurses and doctors, a number of companies are developing devices that can be used by consumers themselves. These include Cherish Health, Scanadu and Azoi.


title: Operation Popeye

text: Operation Sober Popeye (Project Controlled Weather Popeye / Motorpool / Intermediary-Compatriot) was a military cloud-seeding project carried out by the U.S. Air Force during the Vietnam War in 1967–1972. The highly classified program attempted to extend the monsoon season over specific areas of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, in order to disrupt North Vietnamese military supplies by softening road surfaces and causing landslides.


title: Operation Popeye

text: The former U.S. Secretary of Defense, Robert S. McNamara, was aware that there might be objections raised by the international scientific community but said in a memo to the president that such objections had not in the past been a basis for prevention of military activities considered to be in the interests of U.S. national security.


title: Operation Popeye

text: The chemical weather modification program was conducted from Thailand over Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam and allegedly sponsored by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and the CIA without the authorization of then Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird, who had categorically denied to Congress that a program for modification of the weather for use as a tactical weapon even existed.


title: Operation Popeye

text: A report titled "Rainmaking in SEASIA" outlines use of lead iodide and silver iodide deployed by aircraft in a program that was developed in California at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake and tested in Okinawa, Guam, the Philippines, Texas, and Florida in a hurricane study program called Project Stormfury.


title: Operation Popeye

text: Project Popeye was the experiment in increased rainfall through cloud seeding leading up to Operation Popeye. The technical aspects of the experiment were verified by Dr. Donald F. Hornig, Special Assistant to the President of the United States for Science and Technology. During October 1966, Project Popeye was tested in a strip of the Laos panhandle east of the Bolovens Plateau in the Se Kong River valley. The government of Laos was not informed of the project, its methods, or its goals. The test was conducted by personnel from the Naval Ordnance Test Station located at China Lake California. The results of this specific experiment are unknown, but other less surreptitious cloud seeding tests have been conducted.


title: Operation Popeye

text: Operation Popeye's goal was to increase rainfall in carefully selected areas to deny the Vietnamese enemy, namely military supply trucks, the use of roads by:


title: Operation Popeye

text: The 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron carried out the operation using the slogan "make mud, not war." Starting on March 20, 1967, and continuing through every rainy season (March to November) in Southeast Asia until 1972, operational cloud seeding missions were flown. Three C-130 Hercules aircraft and two F-4C Phantom aircraft based at Udon Thani Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand flew two sorties per day. The aircraft were officially on weather reconnaissance missions and the aircraft crews as part of their normal duty also generated weather report data. The crews, all from the 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, were rotated into the operation on a regular basis from Guam. Inside the squadron, the rainmaking operations were code-named "Motorpool".


title: Operation Popeye

text: The initial area of operations was the eastern half of the Laotian panhandle. On 11 July 1967, the operational area was increased northward to around the area of the 20th parallel and included portions of far western North Vietnam. In September 1967, the A Shau Valley in South Vietnam was added to the operational area. Operations over North Vietnam were eliminated on April 1, 1968, concurrent with conventional bombing restrictions being put into effect. The southern region of North Vietnam was added to the operational area on September 25, 1968, and then removed on November 1 of that year concurrent with a halt to conventional bombing of North Vietnam. In 1972, most of northeastern Cambodia was added to the operational area.


title: Operation Popeye

text: Reporter Jack Anderson published a story in March 1971 concerning Operation Popeye (though in his column, it was called Intermediary-Compatriot). The name Operation Popeye (Pop Eye) entered the public space through a brief mention in the "Pentagon Papers" and a July 3, 1972, article in the "New York Times". Operations in Laos ceased two days after the publication of the "Times" article.


title: Operation Popeye

text: The press stories led to demands from members of the U.S. Congress, led by Senator Claiborne Pell, for more information. U.S. House and Senate resolutions in favor of banning environmental warfare were passed as Senate Resolution 71 on July 11, 1973, H.R. 116 of 1974, H.R. 329 of 1974 and H.R. 28 of 1975.


title: Operation Popeye

text: Weather modification procedures, when performed to achieve a military end, now fall under the provenance of the Environmental Modification Convention.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization founded by Richard Stallman on October 4, 1985, to support the free software movement, with the organization's preference for software being distributed under copyleft ("share alike") terms, such as with its own GNU General Public License. The FSF was incorporated in Boston, Massachusetts, US, where it is also based.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSF's funds were mostly used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSF's employees and volunteers have mostly worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement and the free software community.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development. It continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement. The FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, such as GNU Compiler Collection. As holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL) when copyright infringement occurs on that software.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSF's lawyer, Eben Moglen. Typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations.org.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn (then executive director), with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, and Peter T. Brown, formalized these efforts into FSF's GPL Compliance Labs. From 2002–2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a major focus of the FSF's efforts during this period.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBM's contributions to various free software, including FSF's GNU, violated SCO's rights. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5, 2003. During 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL and the surrounding law. Usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In 2007, the FSF published the third version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products. Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. In May 2009, FSF dropped the lawsuit when Cisco agreed to make a monetary donation to the FSF and appoint a Free Software Director to conduct continuous reviews of the company's license compliance practices.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In September 2019, Richard Stallman resigned as president of the FSF after pressure from journalists and members of the open source community in response to him making controversial comments in defense of then-deceased Marvin Minsky on Jeffrey Epstein's sex trafficking scandal. Nevertheless, Stallman remained head of the GNU Project and in 2021, he returned to the FSF board of directors.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software. The organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a widely used license for free software projects. The current version (version 3) was released in June 2007. The FSF has also published the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), and the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The FSF's publishing department, responsible for "publishing affordable books on computer science using freely distributable licenses."


title: Free Software Foundation

text: This is a listing of software packages that have been verified as free software. Each package entry contains up to 47 pieces of information such as the project's homepage, developers, programming language, etc. The goals are to provide a search engine for free software, and to provide a cross-reference for users to check if a package has been verified as being free software. FSF has received a small amount of funding from UNESCO for this project.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: An abbreviation for "Hardware-Node", the "h-node" website lists hardware and device drivers that have been verified as compatible with free software. It is user-edited and volunteer supported with hardware entries tested by users before publication.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: FSF sponsors a number of campaigns against what it perceives as dangers to software freedom, including software patents, digital rights management (which the FSF and others have re-termed "digital restrictions management", as part of its effort to highlight technologies that are "designed to take away and limit your rights,") and user interface copyright. Defective by Design is an FSF-initiated campaign against DRM. It also has a campaign to promote Ogg+Vorbis, a free alternative to proprietary formats like AAC and MQA. FSF also sponsors free software projects it deems "high-priority".


title: Free Software Foundation

text: "Award for the Advancement of Free Software" and "Free Software Award for Projects of Social Benefit"


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The LibrePlanet wiki organizes FSF members into regional groups in order to promote free software activism against Digital Restrictions Management and other issues promoted by the FSF.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The FSF maintains a list of "high priority projects" to which the Foundation claims that "there is a vital need to draw the free software community's attention". The FSF considers these projects "important because computer users are continually being seduced into using non-free software, because there is no adequate free replacement."


title: Free Software Foundation

text: As of 2021, high priority tasks include reverse engineering proprietary firmware; reversible debugging in GNU Debugger; developing automatic transcription and video editing software, Coreboot, drivers for network routers, a free smartphone operating system and creating replacements for Skype and Siri.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Previous projects highlighted as needing work included the Free Java implementations, GNU Classpath, and GNU Compiler for Java, which ensure compatibility for the Java part of OpenOffice.org, and the GNOME desktop environment (see Java: Licensing).


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The effort has been criticized by Michael Larabel for either not instigating active development or for being slow at the work being done, even after certain projects were added to the list.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The FSF maintains a "Respects Your Freedom" (RYF) hardware certification program. To be granted certification, a product must use 100% Free Software, allow user installation of modified software, be free of backdoors and conform with several other requirements.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: The FSF's board of directors includes professors at leading universities, senior engineers, and founders. Current board members are:


title: Free Software Foundation

text: At any given time, there are usually around a dozen employees. Most, but not all, work at the FSF headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: On November 25, 2002, the FSF launched the FSF Associate Membership program for individuals. Bradley M. Kuhn (FSF executive director, 2001–2005) launched the program and also signed up as the first Associate Member


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Eben Moglen and Dan Ravicher previously served individually as pro bono legal counsel to the FSF. After forming the Software Freedom Law Center, Eben Moglen continued to serve as the FSF's general counsel until 2016.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Most of the FSF funding comes from patrons and members. Revenue streams also come from free-software-related compliance labs, job postings, published works, and a web store. FSF offers speakers and seminars for pay, and all FSF projects accept donations.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Revenues fund free-software programs and campaigns, while cash is invested conservatively in socially responsible investing. The financial strategy is designed to maintain the Foundation's long-term future through economic stability.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Linus Torvalds has criticized FSF for using GPLv3 as a weapon in the fight against DRM. Torvalds argues that the issue of DRM and that of a software license should be treated as two separate issues.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: On June 16, 2010, Joe Brockmeier, a journalist at "Linux Magazine", criticized the Defective by Design campaign by the FSF as "negative" and "juvenile" and not being adequate for providing users with "credible alternatives" to proprietary software. FSF responded to this criticism by saying "that there is a fundamental difference between speaking out against policies or actions and smear campaigns", and "that if one is taking an ethical position, it is justified, and often necessary, to not only speak about the benefits of freedom but against acts of dispossession and disenfranchisement."


title: Free Software Foundation

text: In 2009, a license update of LibDWG/LibreDWG to the version 3 of the GNU GPL, made it impossible for the free software projects LibreCAD and FreeCAD to use LibreDWG legally. Many projects voiced their unhappiness about the GPLv3 license selection for LibreDWG, such as FreeCAD, LibreCAD, Assimp, and Blender. Some suggested the selection of a license with a broader license compatibility, for instance the MIT, BSD, or LGPL 2.1. A request went to the FSF to relicense GNU LibreDWG as GPLv2, which was rejected in 2012.


title: Free Software Foundation

text: Stallman resigned from the board in 2019 after making controversial comments about one of the victims of Jeffrey Epstein, but Stallman rejoined the board 18 months later. Several prominent organizations and individuals who develop free software objected to the decision, citing past writings on Stallman's blog which they considered antithetical to promoting a diverse community. As a result of Stallman's reinstatement, prominent members of the Free Software Foundation quit in protest and the major benefactor Red Hat announced that it would stop funding and supporting the Free Software Foundation.


title: Suicide Is Painless

text: "Suicide Is Painless" (or "Song from M*A*S*H") is a song written by Johnny Mandel (music) and Michael Altman (lyrics) for the 1970 film "M*A*S*H". In addition to being performed by characters in the film, it plays during the title sequence as sung by The Ron Hicklin Singers. An instrumental version is likewise the theme music for the TV series based on the film, playing over the opening and closing credits.


title: Suicide Is Painless

text: The song was written for Ken Prymus, the actor playing Private Seidman, to sing during the faux-suicide of Walter "Painless Pole" Waldowski (John Schuck) in the film's "Last Supper" scene. Director Robert Altman had two stipulations about the song for composer Johnny Mandel: it had to be called "Suicide Is Painless" and it had to be the "stupidest song ever written". Altman attempted to write the lyric himself, but, upon finding it too difficult for his "45-year-old brain" to write something "stupid" enough, he gave the task to his 15-year-old-son Michael, who reportedly wrote the lyrics in five minutes.


title: Suicide Is Painless

text: Altman later decided that the song worked so well he would use it as the film's main theme. This more choral version was sung by uncredited session singers John Bahler, Tom Bahler, Ron Hicklin, and Ian Freebairn-Smith, and was released as a single attributed to "The Mash". Altman said that, while he only made $70,000 for directing the movie, his son had earned more than $1 million for co-writing the song.


title: Suicide Is Painless

text: Several instrumental versions of the song were used as the theme for the TV series, but the lyrics were never used in the show. It became a number-one hit in the UK Singles Chart in May 1980. The song was ranked No. 66 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs.


title: Suicide Is Painless

text: Welsh alternative rock band Manic Street Preachers released a cover version of "Suicide Is Painless" on September 7, 1992, as "Theme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless)". In the UK, it was a double A-side charity single to help The Spastics Society, with the Fatima Mansions' take on Bryan Adams' "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" as the other A-side. The 12-inch and CD versions of the UK single included "Sleeping with the NME" – an excerpt from a radio documentary recorded in the offices of the "NME" capturing staff's reaction to photographs of guitarist Richey Edwards' infamous self-mutilation. The single peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart spending three weeks in the top 10.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran (; ) is a 2018 Indian Hindi-language historical action drama film directed by Abhishek Sharma and jointly written by Saiwyn Quadras, Sanyuktha Chawla Sheikh and Sharma. It was produced by Zee Studios, JA Entertainment and KYTA Productions banners. The film is based on the nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by the Indian Army at Pokhran in 1998. It stars John Abraham, Diana Penty and Boman Irani in lead roles.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: "Parmanu" was earlier slated to release on 8 December 2017, but was postponed to avoid clashing with "Padmaavat" (2018). It was further delayed owing to conflicts between the producers of the film, Abraham and KriArj Entertainment. It was eventually released on 25 May 2018.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: In 1995, Ashwat Raina, an IAS officer from the Research and Analysis Wing, suggests the ministers perform a retaliatory nuclear test in response to the recent nuclear missile tests by China. However, he is ridiculed, and the PMO secretary Suresh Yadav tells him to keep the file of his plan brief. Ashwat submits the file along with a floppy containing the details, but Yadav submits a half-baked plan to the Prime Minister and ignores the floppy. The test is hastily conducted without Ashwat's involvement, who then becomes the scapegoat when an American Lacrosse Satellite photographs the test preparations, and the United States warns India not to continue with the tests. Ashwat loses his job, and three years later, in 1998, when a new Prime Minister is sworn in, he is approached by the new PMO secretary Himanshu Shukla who questions the failure of the tests. Ashwat explains the most integral part of the mission was to keep it confidential, but it couldn't happen since no one viewed the floppy. Himanshu gives Ashwat a second chance to conduct the tests, for which he starts preparing a team. Selecting five members from the BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation), Indian Army, ISA (Indian Space Agency) and IB (Intelligence Bureau (India)), Ashwat leads the team to Pokhran for the test setup.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: As the activities begin, two local spies of the CIA and ISI are alerted, and they bug Ashwath's guest house to get the information on the nuclear test. Ashwat and the team manage to prepare the setup for the tests while distracting the Lacrosse satellite. When the material is arranged, Himanshu tells Ashwat to stop the tests due to the political climate. Ashwat nevertheless convinces him to greenlit the tests and distract media attention from Pokhran. This gives Ashwat and the team time as they now struggle to complete the tests within a shorter deadline. One day, when a sandstorm exposes the setup, Ashwat and other officers rush to cover it before being spotted by the satellite. They manage to run to the bunker before being spotted, but the spies learn of the test when they view satellite-clicked photographs of Ashwat's vehicle parked oddly. They try to convince the CIA about the tests, but they don't believe them. The ISI Agent calls Ashwat's wife and tells him he's in Pokhran with a woman, after which she arrives at the guest house and mistakenly believes Ashwat to be having an affair with his teammate Ambalika. Ashwat tries to defend himself, but she leaves, following which Ambalika learns of this and believes it to be a setup.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: On the day of the tests, the ISI agent breaks into the guest house to retrieve Ashwat's cell phone containing codes for the blindspot at the test site. He fights off Ashwat and runs away, taking the phone. A chase ensues, leaving Ashwat trapped in a police station when he mistakenly fires a bullet from the agent's gun. Ambalika arrives and frees him, and Himanshu proceeds to meet the Prime Minister and explain to him the plan. As Ashwat arrives at the test site, Ambalika and other officers capture the agents. Himanshu manages to get encrypted permission from the Prime Minister to proceed with the tests. The CIA now has the evidence sent by the spies, but the explosion takes place before they can take any action. The test is successfully conducted, Ashwat reconciles with his wife, and India is established as a nuclear state.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: "Parmanu" was officially announced on 15 April 2017 via Taran Adarsh's Twitter handle. John Abraham was approached by film producers Prerna Arora and Arjun N Kapoor with the script, which was further developed. "Parmanu" was shot in Delhi and Mumbai, with major portions being shot in Pokhran, and areas of Pokhran Fort, Aada Bazaar, Gandhi Chowk Main Market and the Gomat Railway Station. The principal photography of the film began on 31 May 2017 and the shoot was completed in August. About the film, Abraham said: ""Parmanu" is an ode to the Army and scientists, who although ordinary people, truly accomplished extraordinary feats in the face of adversity to ensure that India finds its due place on the world nuclear map."


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: The first look of the film was revealed by Abraham through his Twitter handle on 22 June 2017. It showed his face merged with the map of Pokhran. The second poster of the film was released on 14 August 2017 which showed Abraham running with jeeps, bunkers in the background. Two posters of the film showing John and Diana in Army uniform were released on 3 November 2017.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: Earlier scheduled to release on 8 December 2017, the film released on 25 May 2018 across 1935 screens.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: The music of the film is composed by Sachin–Jigar and Jeet Gannguli while lyrics are penned by Vayu, Rashmi Virag, Sachin Sanghvi and Kumar Vishwas. The songs featured in the film are sung by Arijit Singh, Divya Kumar, Yasser Desai, Keerthi Sagathia and Jyotica Tangri. The first song of the film titled "Shubh Din" which is sung by Sagathia and Tangri, was released on 14 May 2018. The album was released by Zee Music Company on 15 May 2018.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: Vipin Nair of "The Hindu" gave the soundtrack 2.5/5 stating that the soundtrack is a "middling start to the year" for the composer duo.


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: "Parmanu" received positive reviews from film critics. Bollywood Hungama rated the film 3.5/5 and predicted its financial success. "The Times of India" rated it 3.5/5 and wrote "What "Parmanu" lacks in detail and authenticity, it makes up with emotions and a sense of national pride. The narrative isn't explosive but it does have dramatic moments to keep the viewer engaged. Thrills, suspense, drama, a little bit of humor, as well as a solid comment on India's soldiers – this movie, largely has all the tricks to please even a discerning audience." Rohit Vats from "Hindustan Times" rated the film 3/5 and wrote "Actually, the best moments of Parmanu arrive towards the end, just when they are needed. A film that was slowly progressing towards a definite end in the first half starts to gather steam 20 minutes into the second half."


title: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran

text: The film was criticized by some reviewers. Shrishti Negi of News18 criticized over-dramatization and twisting of facts, rating it 2/5. The opening sequence was also criticised, being called "too shaky". Kennith Rosario of "The Hindu" felt the film was "simplistic" and had "all the ingredients to be a propaganda film". Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" criticised the film for its lack of details and use of historical facts, calling it "all surface, no depth", and gave it 1.5 stars. "Deccan Chronicle" also gave it 1.5 stars out of 5 in its review by Arnab Banerjee, saying that the seriousness of the film didn't come across as it looked like a "picnic with a little bit of work thrown in here and there".


title: Eagles (album)

text: Eagles is the debut studio album by American rock band the Eagles. The album was recorded at London's Olympic Studios with producer Glyn Johns and released in 1972. The album was an immediate success for the young band, reaching No. 22 on the charts and going platinum. Three singles were released from the album, each reaching the Top 40: "Take It Easy" (number 12), "Witchy Woman" (number 9), and "Peaceful Easy Feeling" (number 22). The band, starting with this album, played a major role in popularizing the country rock sound.


title: Eagles (album)

text: The album was ranked number 368 in the 2012 edition of "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, and at number 207 in the 2020 reboot of the list. The single "Take It Easy" is part of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".


title: Eagles (album)

text: In 1971, the band had just been formed and signed by David Geffen, who then sent them to Aspen, Colorado, to develop as a band. For their first album, Glenn Frey wanted Glyn Johns to be the producer as they liked a number of rock albums produced by Johns, including albums by the Rolling Stones, the Who, and Led Zeppelin. Johns was invited by Geffen to see the band perform at a club called Tulagi in Boulder, Colorado, in December 1971. Johns, however, was not impressed by the band's live performance, thinking that it sounded confused and lacking in cohesion - Frey wanted it to be a rock & roll band while Bernie Leadon wanted a country feel—so Johns declined to produce the album.


title: Eagles (album)

text: Johns was persuaded by Geffen to have a second listen in a rehearsal setting in Los Angeles, but Johns did not change his opinion of the band until all four started singing harmonies with acoustic guitar on a ballad written by Meisner, "Take the Devil". Johns was impressed by their harmony singing, and later said: "There it was, the sound. Extraordinary blend of voices, wonderful harmony sound, just stunning." In the albums he produced for the Eagles, Johns emphasized the vocal blend of the band, and he has been credited with shaping the band into "the country-rock band with those high-flyin' harmonies".


title: Eagles (album)

text: The band went to London, where they spent two weeks recording the album at the Olympic Studios. The album cost $125,000 to produce. Johns tried to introduce a more acoustic sound in the recording, and concentrated on the vocal blend and arrangements. There were however frequent disagreements over the sound of the band between the producer and Frey and Don Henley during the making of the album. Frey and Henley wanted a rougher rock and roll sound, while Johns was interested in using Bernie Leadon's banjo and Randy Meisner's bass to create a more country sound. Frey later admitted: "[Johns] was the key to our success in a lot of ways", but added: "We just didn’t want to make another limp-wristed L.A. country-rock record." Johns also instituted a no-drug and no-alcohol rule that Frey, but not Henley, was unhappy about.


title: Eagles (album)

text: Three of the songs recorded in London feature Frey on lead vocals, another three with Meisner and two with Leadon. The chirping sound at the start of the song by Leadon and Meisner, "Earlybird", was taken from a sound effect library. On "Take It Easy", Johns convinced Leadon to play double-time banjo on the song, a little touch that Johns felt made the song different.


title: Eagles (album)

text: Originally, Henley only had one song on the album, namely "Witchy Woman". Later, a further track, "Nightingale", was recorded in Los Angeles after Geffen and manager Elliot Roberts listened to the tape of the album and decided that it needed another song with Henley on lead vocals. Johns had previously recorded a few takes of the song in London, but abandoned it as he felt it did not work. Geffen tried to get the song recorded with another production team, and Johns, angered by the attempt to record "Nightingale" behind his back, then re-recorded the song with the band at Wally Heider's Studio 3 in Hollywood. Even though Johns judged this recording unsatisfactory, it was included in the album.


title: Eagles (album)

text: The album was slated for Quadraphonic release and even given a Quadraphonic catalog number but it was never released in that format.


title: Eagles (album)

text: The album artwork was created by album cover artist Gary Burden with photography by Henry Diltz. The album was initially designed as a gatefold album that would further open up into a poster; however Geffen thought it would be confusing, and glued it together so that it would not open, and the gatefold image of the band members at Joshua Tree then became orientated the wrong side up. In the documentary "History of the Eagles", Glenn Frey revealed that the band were all on peyote when the gatefold picture of the band members was shot in Joshua Tree National Park.


title: Eagles (album)

text: Reviewing in 1972, Bud Scoppa of "Rolling Stone" believed the Eagles had "distinguished" country-rock backgrounds, and said the album is "right behind Jackson Browne's record as the best first album this year. And I could be persuaded to remove the word 'first' from that statement". In "" (1981), Robert Christgau felt that the band wrote good songs, but he was unsure about the authenticity of their country roots so what they produced was "suave and synthetic-brilliant, but false".


title: Eagles (album)

text: Allmusic's William Ruhlmann, in his retrospective review, sums up the album as balanced in terms of songwriting, but noting that the three hit singles were sung by Frey and Henley, who would later go on to dominate the band. "Rolling Stone" listed it as number 368 on their 2012 edition of the 500 greatest albums of all time list with the comment that the album "created a new template for laid-back L.A. country-rock style". It rose to number 207 in the 2020 edition of the list. It was included in Robert Dimery's "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Eagles (album)

text: The album debuted on the US "Billboard" 200 chart at number 102 in its first week of release, rising at number 22 in its sixth week on the chart. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 20, 2001 for shipment of 1 million copies in the United States.


title: Henry Lee III

text: Henry Lee III (January 29, 1756 – March 25, 1818) was an early American Patriot and U.S. politician who served as the ninth Governor of Virginia and as the Virginia Representative to the United States Congress. Lee's service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, "Light-Horse Harry". He was the father of Robert E. Lee, who led Confederate armies against the U.S. in the American Civil War.


title: Henry Lee III

text: Lee was born on Leesylvania Plantation in Prince William County in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II (1730–1787) of "Leesylvania" and Lucy Grymes (1734–1792). His father was the first cousin of Richard Henry Lee, twelfth President of the Continental Congress. His mother was an aunt of the wife of Virginia Governor Thomas Nelson Jr. His great-grandmother Mary Bland was also a grand-aunt of President Thomas Jefferson. Lee was the grandson of Henry Lee I, a great-grandson of Richard Bland, and a great-great-grandson of William Randolph. He was also a descendant of Theodorick Bland of Westover and Governor Richard Bennett.


title: Henry Lee III

text: Lee graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1773, and began pursuing a legal career.


title: Henry Lee III

text: With the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he instead became a captain in a Virginia dragoon detachment, which was attached to the 1st Continental Light Dragoons. In 1778, Lee was promoted to major and given the command of a mixed corps of cavalry and infantry known as Lee's Legion, with which he won a great reputation as a capable leader of light troops. At the time, highly mobile groups of light cavalry provided valuable service not only during major battles, but also by conducting reconnaissance and surveillance, engaging the enemy during troop movements, disrupting delivery of supplies, raiding and skirmishing, and organizing expeditions behind enemy lines; part of such tactics now are known as guerrilla warfare and maneuver warfare. In August, Lee led a detachment on a raid on a British fort, culminating in the Battle of Paulus Hook in New Jersey on August 19, in which 50 British soldiers were killed or wounded and 158 captured, while the Americans suffered two dead, three wounded and seven captured. (Despite his success, some of his fellow officers saw to it he was brought before a court martial on eight charges, over George Washington's disapproval; he was acquitted on all counts.) In September of the same year, Lee commanded a unit of dragoons which defeated a Hessian regiment at the Battle of Edgar's Lane.


title: Henry Lee III

text: It was during his time as commander of the Legion that Lee earned the sobriquet of "Light-Horse Harry" for his horsemanship. On September 22, 1779, the Continental Congress voted to present Lee with a gold medal—an honor given to no other officer below the rank of general—for the Legion's actions during the Battle of Paulus Hook.


title: Henry Lee III

text: Lee was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was assigned with his Legion to the southern theater of war. Lee's Legion raided the British outpost of Georgetown, South Carolina, with General Francis Marion in January 1781 and helped screen the American army in their Race to the Dan River the following month. Lee united with General Francis Marion and General Andrew Pickens in the spring of 1781 to capture numerous British outposts in South Carolina and Georgia including Fort Watson, Fort Motte, Fort Granby, South Carolina, Fort Galphin, Fort Grierson, and Fort Cornwallis, Augusta, Georgia. Lee and his legion also served at the Battle of Guilford Court House, the Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs. He was present at Charles Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, but left the Army shortly after, claiming fatigue and disappointment with his treatment from fellow officers.


title: Henry Lee III

text: In 1794, Lee was summoned by President George Washington to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Lee commanded the 12,950 militiamen sent to quash the rebels; because of a peaceful surrender, there was no fighting. In 1798, in anticipation of a war with France, Henry Lee was appointed a major general in the U.S. Army. In 1808, he was recommissioned by President Thomas Jefferson as major-general when war with Great Britain was imminent; Lee organized the Virginia militia. He asked President James Madison for a commission at the onset of the War of 1812 but without success. In 1812 he published his "Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States", where he summarized his military experiences during the Revolutionary War.


title: Henry Lee III

text: From 1786 to 1788, Lee was a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation. In 1788, he served in the Virginia convention and supported the ratification of the United States Constitution. From 1789 to 1791, he served in the Virginia General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794, was Governor of Virginia. A new county of Virginia was named after him during his governorship.


title: Henry Lee III

text: From 1799 to 1801, he served in the United States House of Representatives as a Federalist. At Washington's funeral on December 26, 1799, Lee famously eulogized him to a crowd of 4,000 as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."


title: Henry Lee III

text: Between April 8 and 13, 1782, at Stratford Hall, Lee married his second cousin, Matilda Ludwell Lee (1764–1790), who was known as "the Divine Matilda". She was the daughter of Philip Ludwell Lee Sr. and Elizabeth Steptoe. Matilda had three children before she died in 1790:


title: Henry Lee III

text: On June 18, 1793, Lee married the wealthy Anne Hill Carter (1773–1829) at Shirley Plantation. Anne was the daughter of Charles Carter, Esq., of Shirley, and his wife Ann Butler Moore. According to Winston Fontaine's research, Anne Moore's paternal pedigree dates back to Sir Thomas More. Her mother, Anne Katherine, was the daughter of Virginia Governor Alexander Spotswood, who was the great-grandson of John Spotswood and Rachel Lindsay; Rachelle's ancestors were David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford, and Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of King Robert II of Scotland. They had six children:


title: Henry Lee III

text: After retiring from public service in 1801, he lived with his family at Stratford Hall and unsuccessfully tried to manage his plantation. The Panic of 1796–1797 and bankruptcy of Robert Morris reduced Lee's fortune. In 1809, he became bankrupt and served one year in debtors' prison in Montross, Virginia; his son, Robert Lee was two years old at the time. After release, Lee moved his family to Alexandria, Virginia.


title: Henry Lee III

text: During the civil unrest in Baltimore, Maryland in 1812, Lee received grave injuries while helping to resist an attack on his friend, Alexander Contee Hanson, editor of the Baltimore newspaper, "The Federal Republican" on July 27, 1812. Hanson was attacked by a Democratic-Republican mob because his paper opposed the War of 1812. Lee and Hanson and two dozen other Federalists had taken refuge in the offices of the paper. The group surrendered to Baltimore city officials the next day and were jailed. Laborer George Woolslager led a mob that forced its way into the jail and removed the Federalists, beating and torturing them over the next three hours. All were severely injured, and one Federalist, James Lingan, died.


title: Henry Lee III

text: Lee suffered extensive internal injuries as well as head and face wounds, and even his speech was affected. His observed symptoms were consistent with what is now called post-traumatic stress disorder. After unsuccessful convalescence at home, he sailed to the West Indies in an effort to recuperate from his injuries. On his way back to Virginia, he died on March 25, 1818, at Dungeness, on Cumberland Island, Georgia, cared for by Nathanael Greene's daughter Louisa. "Light-Horse Harry" was buried with full military honors, provided by an American fleet stationed near St. Marys, Georgia, in a small cemetery at Dungeness. In 1913, his remains were moved to the Lee family crypt at University Chapel, on the campus of Washington & Lee University in Lexington, Virginia.


title: Henry Lee III

text: The fictional character of Colonel Harry Burwell in the 2000 film "The Patriot" according to screenwriter Robert Rodat was inspired by the historical exploits of Henry Lee.


title: Henry Lee III

text: In the 1969 musical "1776" Lee's nickname is mentioned (anachronistically) during the song "The Lees of Old Virginia," sung by the character of his older cousin Richard Henry Lee.


title: Henry Lee III

text: William Sturgis Thomas, Members of the Society of the Cincinnati, Original, Hereditary and Honorary; With a Brief Account of the Society's History and Aims (New York: T.A. Wright, 1929) page 93.


title: Lakshmi Venu

text: Lakshmi Venu is the joint managing director in Sundaram Clayton. She is a part of a prominent Indian business family.


title: Lakshmi Venu

text: Lakshmi is the daughter of Venu Srinivasan and Mallika Srinivasan. Both of Lakshmi's parents run separate business empires which they inherited from their respective fathers. Venu Srinivasan runs the TVS Group (Sundaram-Clayton Group) founded by his grandfather T. V. Sundaram Iyengar, while Mallika Srinivasan runs the TAFE Group companies (of the Amalgamations Group) inherited from her father, A. Sivasailam.


title: Lakshmi Venu

text: Lakshmi has one brother, Sudarshan Venu. She grew up in Chennai and studied at Sishya School in Adyar. She did her degree in economics from Yale University and then her Doctorate in Engineering Management from University of Warwick.


title: Lakshmi Venu

text: In 2011, she married Rohan Murty, son of Infosys founder N. R. Narayana Murthy and Sudha Murthy. They divorced in 2015.


title: Lakshmi Venu

text: In March 2018, it was announced that Lakshmi had married Mahesh Gogineni in a private ceremony held in Jodhpur. Mahesh Gogineni, is the grandson of N. G. Ranga. He is a first-generation entrepreneur who runs a small-time tech start-up.


title: Angers

text: Angers (, , ) is a city in western France, about southwest of Paris. It is the prefecture of the Maine-et-Loire department and was the capital of the province of Anjou until the French Revolution. The inhabitants of both the city and the province are called "Angevins" or, more rarely, "Angeriens".


title: Angers

text: Angers proper covers and has a population of 154,508 inhabitants, while around 432,900 live in its metropolitan area ("aire d'attraction"). The Angers Loire Métropole is made up of 29 communes covering with 299,500 inhabitants (2018). Not including the broader metropolitan area, Angers is the third most populous commune in northwestern France after Nantes and Rennes and the 18th most populous commune in France.


title: Angers

text: For centuries, Angers was an important stronghold in northwestern France. It was the cradle of the Plantagenet dynasty and became one of the intellectual centers of Europe during the reign of René of Anjou. Angers developed at the confluence of three rivers, the Mayenne, the Sarthe, and the Loir, all coming from the north and flowing south to the Loire. Their confluence, just north of Angers, creates the Maine, a short but wide river that flows into the Loire several kilometres south.


title: Angers

text: Today, Angers stands out for its specialization in the plant sector: Végépolys is Europe's leading horticultural competitiveness cluster, and the city is also home to the headquarters of the Community Plant Variety Office. In addition, the Angers metropolitan area is a major economic centre in western France, particularly active in industry and tourism. Angers enjoys a rich cultural life, made possible by its universities and museums. The old medieval center is still dominated by the massive château of the Plantagenêts, home of the "Apocalypse Tapestry", the biggest medieval tapestry ensemble in the world. Angers is also both at the edge of the Val de Loire, a World Heritage Site, and the Loire-Anjou-Touraine regional natural park.


title: Angers

text: The city is first mentioned by Ptolemy around AD 150 in his "Geography". It was then known as Juliomagus (, "Iouliomagos"), a name by which it also appears in the "Tabula Peutingeriana". The name is a compound of the Latin name Julius (probably in reference to Julius Caesar) and the Celtic "magos", "market". Similar town dedications were common in Roman Gaul, and toponyms often kept a Gallic element.


title: Angers

text: When the location needed to be distinguished from other Juliomagi, it was known as Juliomagus Andecavorum ("Juliomagus of the Andecavi"), in reference to the principal Gallic tribe in and around the city.


title: Angers

text: Around AD 400, the city came to be referred to as the civitas Andecavorum ("tribal capital of the Andecavi"). This was a common change in Gaul, also seen in the names of Paris, Tours and Évreux around this time. During the Middle Ages, the late Latin name gradually developed into the modern one. It is successively mentioned as Andecava civitas (6th century), Andecavis (AD 769), Andegavis (861  882), Angieus (in 1127) and Angeus (in 1205). The form Angiers appeared during the 12th century and was later corrupted to "Angers".


title: Angers

text: The Latin "Andecavum" gave also Anjou its name. This double formation is quite common in France and is also seen in "Poitiers" & "Poitou" and "Bourges" & "Berry".


title: Angers

text: Angers was traditionally known as the "Black City" () because many roofs were built of slate, due to the quarry in neighbouring Trélazé. These have become less common since the development of the city in the 19th century.


title: Angers

text: The coat of arms of Angers bears the French royal fleur de lys of the dukes of Anjou (the first duke was the son of the king of France, Jean II); the key evokes the stronghold position of the city close to the Breton border. An acrostic from the Middle Ages calls it "Antique clef de France", which means "Ancient key to France":


title: Angers

text: Under Napoleon I's rule, Angers was one of the "Bonnes villes" and was therefore allowed to ask for a new coat of arms. The bees, symbol of the First French Empire, then replaced the royal fleurs de lys.


title: Angers

text: In 1949, Angers received the 1939–1945 War Cross and since then, the decoration is sometimes placed between the two fleurs de lys.


title: Angers

text: Angers in located at the geographical center of the Maine-et-Loire department, on the road which connects Paris to the Atlantic ocean. The city is situated just south of the confluence of the Loir, Mayenne and Sarthe which form together the river Maine. The Maine crosses Angers and heads south towards the Loire. The confluence of the three rivers and the proximity of the Loire make up a natural crossroads which favoured the foundation of the antique "Juliomagus".


title: Angers

text: Angers is located from Nantes, from Rennes, from Poitiers and from Paris. It is also far from Pornic, the closest sea resort, situated on the Atlantic ocean.


title: Angers

text: Angers is a hilly town, particularly marked by a rocky promontory dominating the lower valley of Anjou. This was the site of the ancient city and still houses the town's castle, cathedral, and medieval quarters.


title: Angers

text: At the north and south, where the river Maine arrives in and leaves Angers, the landscape is formed by islands, ponds and floodplains which are a haven for birds and a typical flora of the Val de Loire. The étang Saint-Nicolas and Lac de Maine, both artificial, are among the biggest green areas of the city.


title: Angers

text: The commune of Angers is bordered by ten other communes which form various suburbs. These are, clockwise, Avrillé, Cantenay-Épinard, Écouflant, Saint-Barthélemy-d'Anjou, Trélazé, Les Ponts-de-Cé, Sainte-Gemmes-sur-Loire, Bouchemaine and Beaucouzé. 22 other communes situated farther form with them the Communauté urbaine Angers Loire Métropole. All these peripheral communes are situated within from Angers proper. Together, they have around 272,400 inhabitants.


title: Angers

text: Angers has an oceanic climate, with moderate rain year-round. Winters have scarce frosts and snowfalls, and summers are warm and sunny.


title: Angers

text: The oldest streets and buildings in Angers are located on the promontory where the Angers castle stands. The urban structure there dates back from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries.


title: Angers

text: A military presence there was attested from the 3rd century and some remains of an antique city wall are still visible on the castle grounds. This wall was built to protect the city from the Germanic invasions of AD 275 & 276.


title: Angers

text: During the Middle Ages, the castle was the core of the city's defence system, composed of tall city walls and river chains which prevented enemy ships from going up the Maine. The walls were last reconstructed between 1230 and 1240, by order of King Louis IX. Today, portions of the wall are still visible in Rue Toussaint and on Boulevard Carnot, as are some towers, like the "Tour Villebon" and the "Tour des Anglais".


title: Angers

text: Before the first cadastre (1810), the city had not extended much beyond its medieval limits: on and around the castle promontory, with some dwellings on the other bank of the Maine in a neighbourhood called "La Doutre". That part of the city developed quickly during the industrial revolution and became a big river port. Industry was encouraged by firms like Bessonneau (textile factories) and Cointreau (distillery).


title: Angers

text: After 1850, many suburbs appeared around the train stations and the slate quarries to the south in Trélazé. Despite the port in La Doutre, demographic growth and urban extension were more significant on the eastern bank of the Maine, where the former Juliomagus had been founded.


title: Angers

text: The medieval city center was redeveloped and expanded from 1791. The "Place du Ralliement", the main square, was then built in place of three churches destroyed during the French Revolution and, later, ring boulevards planted with trees replaced the city walls.


title: Angers

text: The architectural style used is mainly Haussmanian, but there are also some Palladian, Art Nouveau or Art Deco buildings.


title: Angers

text: After 1945 and the Second World War, several large council estates made of tower blocks were built around the city center, the first of them being Belle-Beille in 1953. Industrial activity changed drastically: port activity declined while new factories, such as Technicolor SA in 1957, were built. During the 1970s, the collective approach to urban development gave way to more individual houses being built for the middle class.


title: Angers

text: As the metropolitan area continued to grow, commuting became more common. New shopping areas were constructed close to the villages which had been subsumed into the city. Because of the floodplains that surround the city north and south, Angers can only grow significantly on an east–west axis.


title: Angers

text: Being both at the edge of the Val de Loire World Heritage site and on the largest river confluence in France, Angers has a high natural potential, notably highlighted by the Saint-Aubin island, situated north of the center and covering a tenth of the city total surface. Protected, the island is formed of swamps and natural meadows.


title: Angers

text: The oldest green areas date back from the Renaissance, when the moats of the castle were transformed into pleasure and kitchen gardens. Similar gardens were built by the aristocracy around their hôtels particuliers and medicinal gardens were planted in hospices cloisters. The Jardin des plantes, the first botanical garden, dates back from the beginning of the 18th century. During the 19th century, others were built, for example the Faculty of Pharmacy garden and the Roseraie. The first recreational parks, for their part, were built during the Second French Empire. The étang Saint-Nicolas, made by a sluice on a small river, the Brionneau, was protected as early as 1936.


title: Angers

text: The Jardin du Mail ("Mall Garden"), an esplanade situated outside the ring boulevards, was built between 1820 and 1880 on the former Champs de Mars (Fields of Mars, a place where the garrisons used to train and parade). Another esplanade, the Mail François Mitterrand, was built in 1999 together with a garden inside the new Saint-Serge business district. During the 1960s the old gravel pits around the Maine were filled with water to form the Lac de Maine, which now hosts a marina. In 2010, a large amusement park, Terra Botanica, was inaugurated close to Saint-Aubin island.


title: Angers

text: The first sign of human presence in Angers dates back to around 400,000 BC. Vestiges from the Neolithic are more abundant and include numerous polished stone axes. Burials from 4500  3500 BC were also discovered on the castle grounds.


title: Angers

text: During the 5th century BC, the Andecavi, a Celtic people, settled north of the Loire. By the end of the Iron Age, Angers was a relatively densely populated hillfort. While the settlement's Roman name—Juliomagus—may be older, it is only attested from the 3rd century. The Roman town consisted of many villas and baths and had an amphitheater as well as a Mithraeum, a temple dedicated to Mithra.


title: Angers

text: Successive Germanic invasions in AD 275 and 276 forced the inhabitants to move to the highest point of their city and to build a wall around a small area of around .


title: Angers

text: Angers received its first bishop in 372 during the election of Martin of Tours. The first abbey, Saint-Aubin, was built during the 7th century to house the sarcophagus of Saint Albinius. Saint-Serge Abbey was founded by the Merovingian kings Clovis II and Theuderic III a century later. In 2008, ten Frankish sarcophagi from that period were discovered where Saint-Morille church once stood during the tramway construction.


title: Angers

text: From the 850s, Angers suffered from its situation on the border with Brittany and Normandy. In September 851, Charles the Bald and Erispoe, a Breton chief, met in the town to sign the Treaty of Angers, which secured Breton independence and fixed the borders of Brittany. However, the situation remained dangerous for Angers, and Charles the Bald created in 853 a wide buffer zone around Brittany comprising parts of Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Sées, which was ruled by Robert the Strong, a great-grandfather of Hugh Capet.


title: Angers

text: In 870, the Viking chief Hastein seized Angers where he settled until a successful siege temporarily displaced him. He again took control of the town in 873, before the Carolingian Emperor ousted him.


title: Angers

text: Fulk I of Anjou, a Carolingian descendant, was the first viscount of Angers (before 898 until 929) and of Tours (898–909), and count of Nantes (909–919). Around 929, he took the title of count (earl) of Angers and founded the first Anjou dynasty, the House of Ingelger ("French: Ingelgeriens"). Angers subsequently formed the capital of the province of Anjou.


title: Angers

text: During the 12th century, after internal divisions in Brittany, the county of Nantes was annexed by Anjou. Henry II Plantagenêt kept it for more than 30 years. The grandson of Henry I of England, he also succeeded to the English crown and ruled the vast Angevin Empire, which stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland. The castle of Angers was then the seat of the Court and the dynasty. The Empire disappeared in 1204–1205 when the King of France, Philip II, seized Normandy and Anjou. Henceforth there were no more counts of Anjou, as the French king had made Anjou a dukedom.


title: Angers

text: Now a part of the Kingdom of France, Angers became the "Key to the Kingdom" () facing still independent Brittany. In 1228, during Louis IX's minority, Blanche of Castile decided to fortify the city and to rebuild the castle. Later, during the 1350s and 1360s, the schools of Law, Medicine and Theology, renowned in Europe, were organized into a university. In 1373, Louis I of Naples and Anjou ordered the six tapestries illustrating the Apocalypse of St John known today as the "Apocalypse Tapestry".


title: Angers

text: King René of Anjou contributed to the economic revival in a city that had been diminished by the Black Death (1347–1350) and the Hundred Years War (1337–1453). A man of great culture and generosity, René transformed Angers into a cultural and political center and held court there. He transformed the castle moat into a menagerie and built several gardens. He also founded in Angers a new Ordre du Croissant which was supposed to compete with the Order of the Golden Fleece, created several years earlier.


title: Angers

text: In 1474, Louis XI of France, in his attempt to conquer Anjou, came to Angers with his army, asking for the keys of the city. René, then 65 years old, did not want to lead a war against his nephew and surrendered his domains without a fight. Thus, Anjou ceased to be an appanage and fell into the Royal domain. After his death, René was buried in 1480 in Saint-Maurice cathedral.


title: Angers

text: In 1551, Angers became the seat of a bailiwick and the présidial of a jurisdiction, a position the city kept until 1790. At the same time, with the growth of Protestantism in France, a Catholic was placed at the head of the city and its castle while the bourgeoisie formed a Catholic militia to protect Angers from the Huguenots. The bishop, Gabriel Bouvery, organized on his side an "Angevin League".


title: Angers

text: When the news of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre reached Angers, another massacre took place in the city. The bodies of slain Protestants were thrown into the Mayenne. It was the aldermen who stopped the slaughter.


title: Angers

text: In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was prepared by Henri IV in Angers. From 6 March until 2 April, Angers was the "de facto" capital of France and the King tried all means to satisfy the Catholics of the city, for example by laying the cornerstone of the new Capucine convent.


title: Angers

text: In 1619, Louis XIII of France gave the governance of Anjou to his mother, Marie de' Medici. The Queen Mother settled in Angers, at the Logis Barrault, with her chaplain, Cardinal Richelieu.


title: Angers

text: At the premature death of Louis XIII in 1643, his son Louis XIV was only an infant. France was troubled at this time by several famines and epidemics, and by political instability. In 1649, the people of Angers revolted against rising taxes, the start of the Fronde in Anjou. The Fronde was a nationwide military conflict opposing some aristocrats wanting more autonomy and the Royal forces loyal to Anne of Austria as Queen Mother and Regent, and her prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin. Royalist repression in Angers was narrowly averted by Bishop Henri Arnauld, who interceded with the Queen Mother. Arnauld, who would remain Bishop of Angers until 1692, was to leave a deep mark on the religious life of the city during the second half of the 17th century.


title: Angers

text: In 1652, Henri Chabot, Duke of Rohan and governor of Anjou, decided to back Louis of Condé, leader of the Fronde. Angers again became rebellious and Louis XIV sent his army to seize it. The Duke of Rohan immediately surrendered and thus again prevented the sack of the city.


title: Angers

text: The first months of the French Revolution were relatively quiet in Angers. In 1789, the city lost its ancient administrative positions, replaced in 1790 by the department of "Mayenne-et-Loire", soon renamed "Maine-et-Loire". Anjou, as a political entity, disappeared, although the new department included most of its territory.


title: Angers

text: The War of Vendée, a Royalist rebellion and counterrevolution led in Vendée, a department located at the southwest of Maine-et-Loire, reached the Loire in March 1793. The Royalist army soon crossed the river and progressed as far as Granville, in Normandy, in November. Pushed back, the Vendéens went back south and, to cross the Loire again, had to attack Angers.


title: Angers

text: The city was defended by 4,000 Republican soldiers, whereas the Royalists were at least 20,000, but weakened by successive fights and deceases. The Siege of Angers occurred on 3 and 4 December 1793. The Royalists' bad tactics, as well as the strength of Angers city wall and castle, caused their loss. They consequently went back north for a while, around Le Mans, before crossing the Loire at Ancenis on 16 December.


title: Angers

text: In 1794, fierce repression was conducted in the whole region against the Royalists. In Angers, 290 prisoners were shot and 1020 died of illness in jail. The city also welcomed many refugees, mostly Republicans living in Royalist rural areas. Between 19 and 31 May 1793, between 650 and 1000 Republican families sought asylum in Angers.


title: Angers

text: During the 19th century, the city was deeply influenced by the urban transformations in Paris. The city traditionally had a somewhat sombre appearance from the quantity of local slate used in construction but many quarters were gradually destroyed, redeveloped, or rebuilt on the Parisian model. The city wall, which formed a square around the old city core, was demolished around 1850 and replaced by wide boulevards. New districts of the city were also opened up on the opposite bank of the river.


title: Angers

text: In 1849, the Angers-Saumur railway was built; it was extended to Nantes two years later. When completed, the line connected Paris to the Atlantic coast.


title: Angers

text: In 1850, a catastrophic failure of the Basse-Chaîne suspension bridge caused the deaths of over 200 soldiers. The disaster inhibited the construction of suspension bridges in France for two decades. The accident was mainly caused by soldiers' lilting march which created resonance in the bridge structure.


title: Angers

text: In 1875, a "free faculty" was created. It was soon assimilated to the medieval Angevin University (), which had been dissolved during the French Revolution. The new faculty was canonically erected as the Catholic University of Angers () by Pope Pius IX in 1879. However, in 1890, a law prohibited private institutions of higher education from calling themselves "universities". The institution was then renamed the "Free Faculty of Angers" (), although it kept its original name on an informal basis. At the beginning of the 20th century, two higher education establishments, specializing in agriculture and commercial sciences, were opened.


title: Angers

text: During the first half of the 20th century, several Art Nouveau and Art Deco buildings were constructed, such as the "Nouvelles Galeries", the "Hotel des Postes", "Hotel Continental", the "Alcazar" and the "Maison bleue".


title: Angers

text: In September 1939, when Poland was invaded by Germany, the Polish government-in-exile settled in Angers. It left the city on 12 June 1940, after the invasion of France by the Wehrmacht. Angers fell to the Nazis during the same month. The Germans made it the seat of a regional Kommandantur. In 1941, a first Resistance movement, called "Honneur et Patrie", was created in Angers. 60 Resistants were shot at the Belle-Beille range in 1942 and a German bunker factory employed 6000 people in 1943. In July 1942, 853 Jews were arrested and sent to Auschwitz.


title: Angers

text: On the night of 28 May 1944, the first Allied bombing occurred over the Saint-Laud quarter. 243 people died and many others were wounded. Successive attacks on 29 and 30 May destroyed the train station and its surroundings which were reconstructed in the 1950s.


title: Angers

text: After liberating Avranches and Rennes, General Patton and his 5th infantry division arrived in Anjou on 5 August. To seize Angers, they decided to enter the city by its eastern side to surprise the Nazis. On 9 August, they crossed the Maine and started the fight. Helped by the local French Forces of the Interior, they progressively moved forward to the city center. The fight was nevertheless difficult and Angers was liberated the day after, at around 5 p.m.


title: Angers

text: After the end of the war, the city experienced quick development and demographic growth. In 1971, a decision was made to reestablish a public university, and the Université catholique d'Angers was split between the Université catholique de l'Ouest (private) and the Université d'Angers (public). Angers continues to have two different universities.


title: Angers

text: Until the 1980s, Angers experienced several massive urban development plans, such as the construction of the Lac de Maine, and several vast council estates and shopping malls, as well as the construction of a highway which crossed the city through its center, a project that forced the destruction of many old buildings and destroyed the original quays on the Maine. Later, other urban plans were drawn up, with a new emphasis on nature and heritage protection, as well as on social mixing. During the 1990s, the redevelopment of the Saint-Serge quarter, located just north of the historical center, produced a new business center, gardens and university buildings.


title: Angers

text: Angers received its communal charter from Louis XI of France in February 1475, but free elections for the mayor and aldermen were not guaranteed before 1484, following a decision by Charles VIII. Since then, 75 successive mayors have governed Angers.


title: Angers

text: Angers was until the Second World War mainly governed by centrist and republican mayors. From 1977 until 2014, all the successive mayors were members of the Socialist Party, whereas the Maine-et-Loire department has always been governed by moderate right-wing parties. The current mayor is Jean-Marc Verchère.


title: Angers

text: Angers is divided into eight cantons; most of them include parts of Angers plus some surrounding communes. These cantons are not administrative entities and only serve to elect the members of the department council. The INSEE, the French institute for statistics, divides the commune of Angers into twelve sectors. Depending on their social and economic issues, some of them can have priority for financial assistance and urban regeneration. In Angers, five are considered as priority sectors, three as sensitive urban areas, and one as an urban free zone.


title: Angers

text: Being the chef-lieu of Maine-et-Loire, Angers is the seat of a prefecture. It is also the seat of a Court of Appeal and of several regional or local institutes, concerning for example, customs, education or science. Angers also has several other courts of justice as well as a prison.


title: Angers

text: In 2017, Angers had 152,960 inhabitants, 1.2% more than ten years before. It is the 18th most populated commune in France. In 2018, the urban area ("unité urbaine"), which encompasses Angers plus eleven surrounding communes ( in total), had 242,613 inhabitants. The metropolitan area ("aire d'attraction") included in 2018 81 communes, 432,939 inhabitants and . The Angers Loire Métropole, an economic and political association of communes, includes 29 communes and around 299,000 inhabitants.


title: Angers

text: The population of Angers is relatively young, with 46% of the population being younger than 30 and 22% of residents over 60 years old. This is partially explained by the presence of two universities, 21.0% of the population between 15 and 64 being pupils and students in 2017.


title: Angers

text: The early prosperity of the town was largely due to the nearby quarries of slate, whose abundant use for the roofs of Angers led to its sobriquet as the "Black City". In the mid-19th century, the principal manufactures were goods for sailing ships (sailcloth and rope), linen and hose, sugar, leather, wax, and oil, as well as agricultural products (mainly wheat, wine, and fruit). By the time of the First World War, Cointreau had developed the distillation of liqueurs from the area's fruit to an industrial level. The work for sailing ships was still carried on but steamships had greatly reduced demand. Instead, local companies produced cables, wires, and thread and increased production of footwear, umbrellas, and parasols. The area's vineyards focused on sparkling wine and fruit was increasingly preserved for sale elsewhere. The area had also developed a small-scale textile industry and begun producing machines, as well as commercial-scale production of hemp and flowers.


title: Angers

text: Present-day Angers provides 45.7% of the Maine-et-Loire job positions. It is the 22nd-largest national job provider and the 3rd-largest one in northwestern France after Nantes and Rennes. Its unemployment rate (13.5% in 2017) is above the national rate. 20.7% of the people working in Angers have graduate or post-graduate qualifications.


title: Angers

text: Cointreau continues to produce its orange triple-sec liqueur in nearby Saint-Barthélemy-d'Anjou, but many of the other industries have since vanished. Modern Angers produces Scania trucks at Ecouflant and computers by Bull, Packard Bell, and NEC. It also supports research labs investigating horticulture and biotechnology. Thanks to its several higher education schools, laboratories, and various offices, Angers is the largest horticultural center in Europe and, as the home of the Community Plant Variety Office, Angers is the hub of the plant breeders' rights system in the European Community. For example, Angers is the leading hydrangeas producer in Europe. The local economy also relies on the presence of many administrative, educational, and health institutions. There are also many small firms, chiefly focused on the agricultural tradition of Maine-et-Loire. Angers also serves as a regional financial center, with many banks and insurance companies (including Afone, CNP Assurances, Crédit Agricole, Fiducial, and Groupama) maintaining their regional offices there.


title: Angers

text: Angers is an important convention center, with a present convention trade of around €8,000,000. The new convention center slated for 2016 has been cancelled in 2013. The renovation of the previous convention center and the addition of a 400 conference room at the back by the garden should be finished in 2018. The "Parc des Expositions", where fairs are currently held, welcomes 600,000 visitors and more than 300 events each year. With its , it is the biggest structure of its type in northwestern France.


title: Angers

text: The "Hôtel-Dieu", founded in the 12th century, is one of the oldest hospitals in France. First located in the "Hospice Saint-Jean", it moved into new buildings in 1870; it became Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) in 1966. It has 1,500 beds and around 5,500 people work there. Two private hospitals and a regional center for re-education also exist.


title: Angers

text: A center of learning, Angers boasts two renowned universities and several specialized institutions, altogether enrolling more than 26,000 students. The Catholic University of the West ( or UCO) is one of five Catholic universities in France. UCO is best known for its International Center for the Study of the French Language ( or CIDEF), which provides college students from around the world with college-level course instruction in the French language, and for its Institute for the Development of Consulting and Business ( or IDCE), an important business school which offers undergraduate and graduate (MBA) degrees in International Business and Consulting. The town is also home to a state university, the University of Angers, best university in France in 2015 for success rates.


title: Angers

text: Angers is also home to engineering graduate schools, such as the Arts et Métiers ParisTech, top school in mechanical and industrial engineering and the ESEO, an engineering school in electronics and computer science and ESAIP, an engineering school in risk management and environment. Its education and research institutes are the driving force behind the city's science and technology industries.