title: Uttam Kumar

text: "Sonar Harin" saw Supriya Devi play the lead opposite Kumar. As they began to act in more films together, the two got involved off-screen as well. In 1963, Uttam left his family home at Girish Mukherjee Road, Bhowanipur and stayed with Supriya for the next 17 years until his death. They starred together in several other films like "Uttarayan", "Chiradiner", "Agni Sanskar", "Suno Baranari", "Kal Tumi Aleya", "Lal Pathor", "Andha Atit", "Sudhu Ekti Bochhor", "Mon Niye", "Bilambita Loy", "Bhola Maira", "Sanyasi Raja", "Bon Palashir Padabali", "Sister", "Jibon Mrityue", "Bagh Bandir Khela".


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Kumar worked in many films with the actress Sabitri Chatterjee. They first worked together in 1951 in the film "Sahajatri". They worked in 39 films together, including "Abak Prithibi", "Bhranti Bilash", "Uttarayon", "Nishipadma", "Mouchak", "Dhanni Meye" and others.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Kumar was selected in 1976 to recite the Chandi Path in the All India Radio (AIR) studios. He was criticized by audience members for replacing the role normally served Birendra Krishna Bhadra. Kumar apologized and Bhadra was reinstated.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Kumar was active in the Indian independence movement. In 1945, he helped Subhas Chandra Bose's Indian National army relief fund, arranging a performance of the play "Anandamath" and giving the profit of 1700 rupees to Bose's elder brother Satish Chandra Bose. He also engaged in the Kolkata communal riots of 1946.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: In 1968, he left Abhinetri Sangha and founded his own foundation, Shilpi Sangshad, to help poor artists and technicians. He was president of this organization until his death. He worked in many films without any salary.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: For the 1978 flood, he organized a charity cricket match between artists from the Bengali film industry and the Bombay film industry 1979. He captained the Bengal team while Dilip Kumar captained the Bombay team.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Kumar married Gauri Chatterjee (1929–1981) in 1941. They had a son named Gautam Chatterjee, born in 1950 and died 2003. They had a troubled marriage.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Many fans were inquisitive about the relationship between Uttam and Suchitra and thought they were together. Rumours arose that they were the reason Kumar had a divorce; however, there is no truth in that, they were both married and had families, and were respectful of each other as colleagues.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: Some of greatest actors and actresses such as Elizabeth Taylor, Dilip Kumar, Vyjayanthimala, Dharmendra, Rajesh Khanna, Shammi Kapoor and Amitabh Bachchan have expressed their admiration to him.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: In 2009, Tollygunge Metro station in Kolkata was renamed as Mahanayak Uttam Kumar Metro Station in his honour. A life-size statue of Kumar has been erected near the station.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: The Department of Post released a new postage stamp featuring the actor on September 3, 2009, celebrating the 83th anniversary of his birth.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: In 2012, on the anniversary of his death, the Government of West Bengal created the "Mahanayak Samman" award named after Kumar, for lifetime achievement in film. Chief Minister Mamta Banerjee gave this award. This program is held on Uttam Mancha every year on his death anniversary.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: In 2016 a television series based on his life was started, which was starring by the Bengali cinema actor Prosenjit Chatterjee named Mahanayak.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: A biopic named Achena Uttam on his life is being made, where his character is played by the Bengali actor Saswata Chatterjee.


title: Uttam Kumar

text: National Award winner director Srijit Mukherjee made a film where he cast him through the VFX taken the footage of his 54 films the filmed named as Oti Uttam.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: The Night Shift is an American medical drama television series that ran on NBC from May 27, 2014, to August 31, 2017, for four seasons and 45 episodes. The series was created by Gabe Sachs and Jeff Judah, and follows the lives of the staff who work the late night shift in the emergency room at San Antonio Memorial Hospital.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: On November 17, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on June 22, 2017. On October 13, 2017, NBC canceled the series after four seasons.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: The series follows the overnight shift at San Antonio Memorial Hospital, where three of the doctors have a connection to the U.S. military. Dr. TC Callahan is a former US Army doctor who initially exhibits PTSD-type symptoms, having watched his brother die right in front of him on the battlefield. He frequently breaks rules and butts heads with his ex-girlfriend and newly-appointed head of the night shift, Dr. Jordan Alexander; Scott Clemmens, Chief Of Surgery; and the hospital's administrator, Michael Ragosa. Dr. Topher Zia is a former army doctor, while Dr. Drew Alister is a gay Army doctor still active in the reserves who initially tries to hide his sexual orientation for fear of backlash. Dr. Krista Bell-Hart is a young surgical resident trying to work her way up the ranks, while fellow resident Dr. Paul Cummings works hard to emerge from the shadow of his father, a famous surgeon at Johns Hopkins. The shift's lone psychiatrist, Dr. Landry de la Cruz, briefly works on the night shift.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: Jordan is initially in a relationship with Dr. Scott Clemmens, which complicates things when Scott becomes the Chief of Surgery at the hospital and recurrently argues with TC. After a hostage situation that ends in Topher being shot, TC has a breakdown in the ER, and Scott breaks up with Jordan when he realizes she still has feelings for TC. After a cancer scare, Ragosa finds that he can no longer tolerate the stresses of his administrator job, and he quits that position in order to pursue his original dream of becoming a doctor. Meanwhile, TC's and Jordan's relationship quickly escalates, Topher makes his job as Head of Night Shift permanent, Krista, Kenny and a new surgeon become embroiled in a love triangle, and Drew spirals when his boyfriend ends their relationship. Some time later, TC and Topher head to Afghanistan to help an old friend of the latter, and Jordan suffers a stroke from pregnancy complications. In the season 2 finale, Ragosa passes his boards to become a doctor, TC and Jordan break up when she miscarries, Drew and his boyfriend make up, and get married, and Ragosa moves to Dallas to follow his ex-wife and kids.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: After some time away, Jordan hires Dr. Shannon Rivera as a replacement for Ragosa. She and Paul quickly strike up a rivalry turned romance. After an incident overseas, Drew and his husband adopt a foster daughter despite numerous setbacks. After a bomb that goes off outside the hospital, Topher discovers the hospital is being sold off to an Insurance Company with plans to turn it into a Plastic Surgery Center. TC returns to Syria to help with the Humanitarian Crisis. In the season 3 finale, Paul's father returns to the hospital to buy it. TC's camp gets hit by mortar fire when he attempts to leave, and Paul's father fires Topher due to his way of running the hospital, and most of the staff quits in protest. A few days later, TC reveals his intentions to remain in Syria, Jordan and Paul's father blackmail each other for the return of the hospital, and he makes Scott and Jordan the head of surgery and the ER, respectively. However, Jordan reveals that Topher and his daughter were killed in a car accident. Despite this, TC remains in Syria, while Drew discovers he must adjust his "act first" mentality due to his new role as a parent. In the series finale, the hospital begins a medical-combat training program, causing Shannon, Paul and TC to question their role at the ER. Kenny gets engaged to Paul's sister, Drew goes to Ranger school, with his husband's blessing, Shannon returns to her clinic on the reservation, Paul goes to Syria, and Scott and Jordan use the program to transform the hospital. In the end, TC tells Jordan he isn't ready to leave.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: The series first appeared as part of NBC development slate in October 2011. NBC decided to not go forward with a pilot order. In August 2012, NBC decided to revisit the pilot script for the series, then known as "The Last Stand". On October 8, 2012, NBC placed a pilot order, with the new name "After Hours". The pilot was directed by Pierre Morel and written by Gabe Sachs and Jeff Judah.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: On April 18, 2013, NBC ordered four additional scripts under a third and final title, "The Night Shift". On May 10, 2013, NBC officially ordered "The Night Shift" to series.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: Casting announcements began in October 2012, with Eoin Macken first cast in the role of TC Callahan, a doctor who has recently returned from the army who constantly disagrees with his superiors and does things his own way. Freddy Rodriguez was the next actor cast in the series, in the role of Michael Ragosa, the hospital's administrator who originally wanted to be a doctor. Ken Leung and Jeananne Goossen were then added to the cast, with Leung cast in the role of Topher, an emergency room doctor who previously helped soldiers that were injured in battle. Goossen signed onto the role of Krista, a beautiful resident at the hospital. In early November, Robert Bailey Jr. joined the series as Paul Cummings, a young, but squeamish resident at the hospital. Jill Flint later signed onto the role of Jordan Alexander, the newly promoted Chief of the Night Shift, who once dated T.C. Daniella Alonso was the last actor cast in the series. Alonso played the role of Dr. Landry de la Cruz, the lone psychiatrist working the night shift.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: Production on season one of "The Night Shift" began in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in late August 2013, and ended filming in mid-November. Production on season two commenced on November 10, 2014. Production on season three took place from February to June 2016. Filming for season four began in April 2017.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: Brian Lowry of "Variety" said ""The Night Shift" is still an awfully weak blip creatively speaking". David Hinckley of the New York "Daily News" gave the show three out of five stars.


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives Season 1 an approval rating of 17% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 4.18/10. The site's consensus states: "Calculated and cliche-ridden, "The Night Shift" is DOA."


title: The Night Shift (TV series)

text: On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


The 20th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), commonly referred to as "Èrshí Dà" (), opened in Beijing on 16 October 2022 and closed on 22 October 2022. The CCP Congress endorsed the membership list of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and elected the 20th Central Committee of the CCP. The day after the closing of the Congress, the 1st Plenary Session was held at which the Central Committee approved the membership of the CCP's Politburo and its Standing Committee, the party's most powerful decision-making body.


title: 20th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party

text: The CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping secured an unprecedented third term as China's top leader at the Congress. It will be followed by the 21st National Congress of the CCP in 2027.


text: Preparations for the 20th Chinese Communist Party National Congress began in 2021 and ended with a plenary session of the 19th Central Committee, a few days prior to the 20th National Congress. Elections for the delegates of the 20th Chinese Communist Party National Congress started in November 2021, as well as receiving and amending party documents. A total of 2,296 delegates were elected to represent the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)'s 96.7 million members by 25 September 2022.


text: In May 2022, the CCP General Office issued a set of regulations warning retired members not to make any ‘negative’ political comments or discussion of the party's policies in the run-up to the 20th National Congress and that violations of the disciplinary rules will be ‘dealt with seriously’.


text: In September 2022, rumours of a coup spread throughout social media, but were quashed after Xi Jinping appeared days later.


text: On 15 October 2022, a preparatory meeting of the party congress was presided by CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, which elected the Presidium of the 20th Chinese Communist Party National Congress and the Qualification Review Committee. In the meeting, it was decided that Wang Huning will serve as the secretary-general of the party congress. On the same day, the presidium of the National Congress, chaired by Wang Huning, held its first session.


text: On 13 October 2022, three days prior to the opening of the CCP National Congress, the Beijing Sitong Bridge protest took place. This protest against Xi Jinping and his policies was rare as it came just days before the start of the Congress, a period during which the authorities imposed extremely tight control over protests and dissent.


text: Similar protest slogans subsequently appeared in other cities in China and around the world. Some people shared these messages as graffiti or via AirDrop.


text: On the opening day of the congress, Xi gave a speech for around 104 minutes, roughly half of his speech in the 19th Congress. During the speech, he defended China's zero-COVID approach to the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, said that Hong Kong had "a major transition from chaos to governance", advocated for Taiwan's "peaceful reunification" but vowed to not renounce the use of force, advocated for "common prosperity," and denounced corruption. On China's position on the world stage, he said that "China’s international influence, appeal and power to shape the world has significantly increased". Overall, the speech was said to be showing continuity rather than change.


text: The Congress saw several amendments to the CCP Constitution, adding the Two Establishes and Two Safeguards, which call for establishing the status of Xi Jinping as the core of the CCP and establishing the guiding role of Xi Jinping Thought. The amendments included adding opposition to Taiwan independence.


text: The CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping secured an unprecedented third term as China's leader. The newly elected members of the 20th Politburo Standing Committee in addition to Xi were, in their orders of precedence:


text: At the closing ceremony on 22 October 2022, Hu Jintao, the former General Secretary of the CCP and President of China preceding Xi, who had been sitting next to Xi, was "inexplicably" pulled from his seat and escorted out of the hall by two men in suits and with name badges. According to Agence France-Presse journalists, Hu "initially seemed reluctant to leave." Xi Jinping appeared wholly unconcerned but Li Zhanshu and Wang Huning, both sitting to Hu's left, appeared visibly concerned. Li Zhanshu attempted to help him until being pulled back by Wang Huning. Hu nudged and whispered to Xi, and gave a pat on the back of Premier Li Keqiang before being led away. No Politburo members at the front row showed any visible reaction towards Hu's removal.


text: This incident occurred before the congressional voting on the report of the 19th Central Committee, the work report of the 19th Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, and an amendment to the Party Constitution. Hu was absent from the voting due to this incident. Subsequent official voting results showed that all proposals passed unanimously with no abstentions or negative votes. The 20th Central Committee was also elected on the same day; Xi Jinping and Wang Huning were among the members of the new Central Committee while Li Keqiang, Li Zhanshu and Wang Yang were not.


text: Xinhua News Agency, China's official press agency, stated on Twitter that "When [Hu] was not feeling well during the session, his staff, for his health, accompanied him to a room next to the meeting venue for a rest. Now, he is much better."


text: Subsequent footage released on 25 October by Channel News Asia captures an apparent argument about official papers between Hu and Li Zhanshu before Xi requested for his removal. The incident was not broadcast in China and both Hu's and Hu's son's names were blocked by Chinese censors.


text: James Palmer, a deputy editor at "Foreign Policy", interpreted the incident to have been political, suggesting that it could have been Xi's intention to "deliberately and publicly humiliate his predecessor." Xi had been harshly critical in his previous speeches, where he spoke of "the problem that the party's leadership had been weakened, blurred, diluted, and marginalized" () before his leadership. "The Economist" said that while it is possible the act was deliberate, it was more likely that Hu was not feeling well, saying that the event "looked consistent with a sudden episode of mental confusion". Jude Blanchette, an expert at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, said that the event "didn’t have the stage-managed feel of an orchestrated purge", while Bill Bishop, a China expert, noted that the China Central Television would likely not show Hu during the news footage of the event if he was purged.


text: Workers' Party of Korea general secretary Kim Jong Un sent a congratulatory letter to Xi Jinping on his reelection as CCP general secretary, saying he hoped to further develop their ties.


text: Russian President Vladimir Putin congratulated Chinese leader Xi Jinping on Sunday on securing an unprecedented third term as leader.


text: Shortly after Xi Jinping's opening speech in which he stated that the People's Republic of China would never renounce the option of conducting military operations against Taiwan, the Office of the President of Taiwan issued a statement in which it said it would not compromise on either its sovereignty or democracy. The Kuomintang, on the other hand, congratulated Xi Jinping on his reelection as CCP general secretary.


text: Stocks related to Chinese corporations suffered major losses on October 24, with the Hang Seng Index falling 6%, its worst daily decline since the 2008 financial crisis. The Shanghai Stock Exchange only declined by 2% after the meeting. The renminbi also nearly fell to a rate of 7.31 to the dollar. The Golden Dragon China Index, an index of multiple Chinese companies listed on American exchanges, fell 14% in its worst daily drop since 2004, before partially rebounding a day later.


title: Bisleri

text: Bisleri International (formerly Parle Exports and Parle Bisleri) is an Indian company which is best known for the eponymous brand of bottled water. The company was started in the 1970s by Ramesh Chauhan, and sells bottled water and soft drinks.


title: Bisleri

text: Bisleri conducts its major businesses in India, with 135 operational plants and a network of 3,000 distributors & 5,000 distribution trucks. Bisleri also distributes its products through its own e-commerce platform and other online retailers.


title: Bisleri

text: Bisleri was originally an Italian brand created by Felice Bisleri as an alcohol remedy drink. In 1965, Italian doctor Cesari Rossi and Indian businessman Khushroo Suntook introduced Bisleri bottled water in India by setting up a factory in Thane. It was initially sold only in luxury hotels and restaurants in Mumbai in glass bottles in two varieties – bubbly and still. In 1969, the Jayantilal Chauhan family of Parle Group acquired the struggling Bisleri brand, which was looking to exit the Indian market, for 4 lakh (about 50,000).


title: Bisleri

text: In the 1970s, Jayantilal Chauhan split his soft drinks business between his two sons; Prakash Chauhan obtained control of Parle Agro, while Ramesh Chauhan received Parle Exports (now Bisleri International).


title: Bisleri

text: In 1976, Parle Exports launched Maaza, a fruit drink made of mango pulp. After the exit of The Coca-Cola Company from India in 1977, Parle Exports entered the carbonated drinks segment with the launch of cola drink Thums Up, lemon flavoured drink Limca and orange flavoured drink Gold Spot.


title: Bisleri

text: To complement its soft drinks portfolio, Parle Exports launched mineral water and carbonated water in the retail market under the previously acquired Bisleri brand name. According to Chauhan, the Italian name "added a dash of class to it." The water was initially sold in PVC bottles, before the company switched to PET bottles in the mid-1980s.


title: Bisleri

text: The economic liberalisation in India in 1991 saw the return of The Coca-Cola Company in the country. In 1993, Parle Exports sold its carbonated drinks brands Thums Up, Limca, Gold Spot, Citra and RimZim to The Coca-Cola Company for between 125 crore (about 40 million) and 200 crore (about 60 million). In addition, it sold Maaza trademark in the Indian market to The Coca-Cola Company. The deal also included a 15-year non-compete clause, which prevented Parle Exports from launching competing carbonated drinks until 2008.


title: Bisleri

text: In 1998, Ramesh Chauhan sold Delhi Bottling Company and Coolaid, the bottling companies of the five carbonated drink brands, to The Coca-Cola Company.


title: Bisleri

text: In 2000, Ramesh Chauhan announced that Bisleri, which was being operated by eight different companies from 16 manufacturing locations, would be consolidated under a single entity. As a result, Bisleri International was incorporated in 2001.


title: Bisleri

text: In 2006, the company sold the trademark of Maaza in European and US markets to Infra Beverages and House of Spice respectively for undisclosed amounts.


title: Bisleri

text: In 2010, Bisleri launched a premium bottled water brand called Vedica, with water sourced from a spring in the Himalayan foothills in Uttarakhand. In 2016, Bisleri re-entered carbonated drinks segment with the creation of Bisleri Pop under which it launched four varieties of soft drinks – Limonata, Fonzo, Spyci and Pina Colada.


title: Non-functional requirement

text: In systems engineering and requirements engineering, a non-functional requirement (NFR) is a requirement that specifies criteria that can be used to judge the operation of a system, rather than specific behaviours. They are contrasted with functional requirements that define specific behavior or functions. The plan for implementing "functional" requirements is detailed in the system "design". The plan for implementing "non-functional" requirements is detailed in the system "architecture", because they are usually architecturally significant requirements.


title: Non-functional requirement

text: Broadly, functional requirements define what a system is supposed to "do" and non-functional requirements define how a system is supposed to "be". Functional requirements are usually in the form of "system shall do <requirement>", an individual action or part of the system, perhaps explicitly in the sense of a mathematical function, a black box description input, output, process and control functional model or IPO Model. In contrast, non-functional requirements are in the form of "system shall be <requirement>", an overall property of the system as a whole or of a particular aspect and not a specific function. The system's overall properties commonly mark the difference between whether the development project has succeeded or failed.


title: Non-functional requirement

text: Non-functional requirements are often mistakenly called the "quality attributes" of a system, however there is a distinction between the two. Non-functional requirements are the criteria for evaluating how a software system should perform and a software system must have certain quality attributes in order to meet non-functional requirements. So when we say a system should be "secure", "highly-available", "portable", "scalable" and so on, we are talking about its quality attributes. Other terms for non-functional requirements are "qualities", "quality goals", "quality of service requirements", "constraints", "non-behavioral requirements", or "technical requirements". Informally these are sometimes called the "ilities", from attributes like stability and portability. Qualities—that is non-functional requirements—can be divided into two main categories:


title: Non-functional requirement

text: A system may be required to present the user with a display of the number of records in a database. This is a functional requirement. How current this number needs to be, is a non-functional requirement. If the number needs to be updated in real time, the system architects must ensure that the system is capable of displaying the record count within an acceptably short interval of the number of records changing.


title: Non-functional requirement

text: Sufficient network bandwidth may be a non-functional requirement of a system. Other examples include:


title: William Brocius

text: William Brocius (c. 1845 – March 24, 1882), better known as Curly Bill Brocius, was an American gunman, rustler and an outlaw Cowboy in the Cochise County area of the Arizona Territory during the late 1870s and early 1880s. His name is likely an alias or nickname, and some evidence links him to another outlaw named William "Curly Bill" Bresnaham, who was convicted of an 1878 attempted robbery and murder in El Paso, Texas.


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius had a number of conflicts with the lawmen of the Earp family, and he was named as one of the individuals who participated in Morgan Earp's assassination. Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp and a group of deputies including his brother Warren Earp pursued those they believed responsible for Morgan's death. The Earp posse unexpectedly encountered Curly Bill and other Cowboys on March 24, 1882, at Iron Springs (present-day Mescal Springs). Wyatt killed Curly Bill during the shootout. In his journal written in October 1881, George Parsons referred to Brocius as "Arizona's most famous outlaw".


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius arrived in Arizona Territory from either Texas or Missouri about 1878, and went briefly to the San Carlos Reservation with a herd of cattle, before arriving in the Arizona Territory.


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius was an Outlaw Cowboy and a rustler, and was for a time also a tax collector for Cochise County Sheriff Johnny Behan, making other rustlers pay taxes on their stolen cattle (the money went into the sheriff's coffers and added to his salary).


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius was known for a mean sense of humor when drunk. He was reported to have perpetrated such "practical jokes" as using gunfire to make a preacher "dance" during a sermon and making Mexicans at a community dance take off their clothes and dance naked. (Both incidents were reported by Wells Fargo agent Fred Dodge in his memoirs, and both incidents are alluded to in the newspapers of the time).


title: William Brocius

text: An unauthenticated photo of Brocius is displayed in the Bird Cage Theater Museum in Tombstone. Two other unauthenticated photos of Brocius have been provided by descendants. Several writers who knew Brocius reported that he was well-built with curly black hair and a freckled complexion.


title: William Brocius

text: In a drunken revelry, some of Curly Bill's friends were firing pistols into the air on October 28, 1880, in a dark vacant lot between Toughnut and Allen Streets, near where the Birdcage Theater now stands. Tombstone's Town Marshal Fred White attempted to disarm Brocius and grabbed his weapon by the barrel. The gun discharged, striking White in the groin. Wyatt Earp had borrowed Fred Dodge's pistol and he pistol-whipped Brocius. At the preliminary hearing for Brocius afterward, Wyatt testified that he had heard White say: "I am an officer; give me your pistol." When he got close, he saw Brocius remove his pistol from his holster and White grab it by the barrel. He said he put his arms around Brocius from behind to see if he had any other weapons, and White "gave a quick jerk and the pistol went off." White fell to the ground, wounded. When the pistol discharged, Wyatt buffaloed Brocius and arrested him. Brocius complained, "What have I done? I have not done anything to be arrested for."


title: William Brocius

text: White was carried to a doctor and they initially thought he would recover, and the next day, he gave a statement that exonerated Curly Bill of murder, but that night, White's condition worsened. Brocius later claimed that his gun discharged accidentally and reportedly immediately regretted shooting White. He testified at his trial that he did not consider himself to have committed a crime. Brocius waived his right to a preliminary hearing, apparently because he feared a lynching, as White was very popular as town marshal. Brocius was anxious to be moved out of town. Pima County Deputy Sheriff Earp and George Collins immediately took Brocius to Tucson for trial.


title: William Brocius

text: White died two days after Curly Bill shot him. Before dying, White testified that he thought the pistol had accidentally discharged and that he did not believe that Curly Bill shot him on purpose. Wyatt Earp supported this testimony, (ironically, given his later vendetta against Brocius and the rest of the Cowboy gang) as did a demonstration that Brocius's pistol could be fired from half-cock, and the fact that it had been found to contain six rounds, with only one of them fired. After spending most of November and December 1880 in jail awaiting trial, Brocius was acquitted with a verdict of accidental death.


title: William Brocius

text: Wyatt told his biographer John H. Flood, Jr., many years later that he thought that Brocius was still armed at the time and did not notice that Brocius' pistol lay on the ground in the dark, until Brocius was already down. Despite being responsible for the deaths of several other men during his life, Brocius had apparently personally liked White and maintained that his death had been an accident.


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius was described by contemporary author Billy Breakenridge in his book, "Helldorado: Bringing the Law to the Mesquite," as being the most deadly pistol shot of the Cowboys: "able to hit running jackrabbits, shoot out candle flames without breaking the candles or lantern holders, and shoot quarters from between the fingers of volunteers". When drunk, Brocius was also known for a mean sense of humor and for such "practical jokes" as using gunfire to make a preacher "dance" during a sermon or forcing Mexicans at a community dance to take off their clothes and dance naked. Wells Fargo agent Fred Dodge reported both incidents in his memoirs, and both were alluded to in local newspapers.


title: William Brocius

text: On March 8, 1881, Brocius and his friend Johnny Ringo rode to Maxey, near Camp Thomas, Arizona. Cowboy Dick Lloyd got drunk while playing poker in O'Neil and Franklin's saloon. After shooting and wounding one man, Lloyd rode his horse into the saloon where Brocius was drinking. Brocius and several other men resented the interruption, and about a dozen of them, including Brocius, shot and killed Lloyd. Owner O'Neil took the blame and was acquitted.


title: William Brocius

text: On May 25, 1881, Brocius was drinking heavily in Galeyville with his friend of several months and Lincoln County War veteran Jim Wallace and eight or nine other cowboys. Wallace insulted Brocius' friend and ally, Tombstone Deputy Marshal Billy Breakenridge. Breakenridge ignored him, but Brocius took offense and insisted that Wallace accompany him and apologize to Breakenridge. Brocius threatened to kill him. Wallace complied, but Brocius afterward heaped abuse on Wallace, announcing, "You damned Lincoln County son of a bitch, I'll kill you anyhow." Wallace left the saloon and Curly Bill followed him. Feeling threatened, Wallace shot Curly Bill, wounding him in the cheek and neck.


title: William Brocius

text: Deputy Breakenridge arrested Wallace, but the court ruled he acted in self-defense. Curly Bill may have first met Pony Diehl around this time, as well. Diehl was implicated in several Cowboy criminal activities later on.


title: William Brocius

text: In July 1881, Bill Leonard and Harry Head attempted to rob William and Isaac Haslett's general store in Hachita, New Mexico. The Haslett brothers killed Leonard and Head during the hold-up. Some modern researchers state that Brocius and friend Johnny Ringo rode to New Mexico to avenge their friends' deaths and killed both Haslett brothers. However, no witnesses to this crime were found nor to Curly Bill's involvement in the Hasletts' death.


title: William Brocius

text: Four months after Brocius was shot, on October 6, 1881, George Parsons rode through the McLaury brothers' ranch in Sulphur Springs Valley as part of an Indian scouting party, and noted that Brocius had not yet fully recovered from his wound, but was well enough to ride. For this reason, many historians doubt that Brocius took part in killing William and Isaac Haslett.


title: William Brocius

text: In July, some reports say that Brocius ambushed a Mexican trail herd in what became known as the Skeleton Canyon Massacre. Six" vaqueros" were killed and the remainder captured, then possibly tortured and murdered. Curly Bill reportedly sold the stolen Mexican beef to Newman Haynes Clanton the next month. When Old Man Clanton was herding the beef on the trail to Tombstone, he and four others were ambushed in the Guadalupe Canyon Massacre and murdered by Mexicans. No reports were verified of Curly Bill's involvement in these episodes, nor was he charged with any crimes related to these events.


title: William Brocius

text: Brocius was still recovering from being shot in the face by Wallace only six weeks earlier. Some modern researchers doubt that he was well enough to take part in these events.


title: William Brocius

text: Following the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881, Brocius robbed the Tombstone–Bisbee stagecoach on January 6, 1882, and the Tombstone-Benson stage the next day. Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp gathered a posse and rode after the men, but was unable to find them in the Chiricahua Mountains. Brocius returned to Tombstone on March 17. He was named by Pete Spence's wife Marietta Duarte as a participant in the assassination of Morgan Earp. Justice of the Peace Wells Spicer disallowed her testimony because it was hearsay and because she could not testify against her husband. Lacking evidence, the prosecution dropped all charges against the Cowboys. Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp killed outlaw Cowboy Frank Stilwell in Tucson on March 20, 1882, while guarding his brother Virgil en route to California.


title: William Brocius

text: On March 24, 1882, the Earp party was expecting to meet Charlie Smith at Iron Springs (later Mescal Springs), in the Whetstone Mountains. Smith was bringing cash from Tombstone about to the east to help pay posse expenses. As they surmounted the edge of a wash near the springs, they stumbled upon Brocius, Pony Diehl, Johnny Barnes, Frank Patterson, Milt Hicks, Bill Hicks, Bill Johnson, Ed Lyle, and Johnny Lyle, cooking a meal alongside the spring.


title: William Brocius

text: According to Wyatt Earp — and an anonymous report to "The Tombstone Epitaph"— he was in the lead of the posse when they suddenly came upon the Cowboys' camp at the springs from less than 30 feet (9m) behind an embankment. The Cowboys began firing just as Earp dismounted, and thought for a moment they had shot him, but had hit his saddle horn instead. Texas Jack Vermillion, whose horse was killed, remained cool under fire and stuck close to Wyatt during the fight. Doc, Johnson, and McMaster fired their weapons and sought cover. Warren Earp was away on an errand at the time.


title: William Brocius

text: Eighteen months prior, Wyatt Earp had protected Brocius against a mob ready to lynch him for killing Town Marshal Fred White, and then provided testimony that helped spare him from a murder conviction. Now Brocius fired at Earp with his shotgun from about , but missed. Earp returned fire over his horse using a 22-inch, 10-gauge shotgun. He killed Brocius with a load of buckshot to the stomach, nearly cutting him in half. Brocius fell into the water at the edge of the spring.


title: William Brocius

text: The Cowboys fired a number of shots at the Earp party, but the lawmen's fire was so intense that those Cowboys who could, left. Earp's long coat was punctured by bullets on both sides. Another bullet struck his boot heel and his saddle horn was hit, as well, burning the saddle hide and narrowly missing Wyatt. Firing his pistol, Earp shot Johnny Barnes in the chest and Milt Hicks in the arm. Vermillion tried to retrieve his rifle wedged in the scabbard under his fallen horse, exposing himself to the Cowboys' gunfire. Doc Holliday helped him gain cover. Earp had trouble remounting his horse due to a cartridge belt that had slipped down his legs. He was finally able to get on his horse and retreat. McMaster was grazed by a bullet that cut through the straps of his field glasses.


title: William Brocius

text: Earp biographer John Flood wrote that The Cowboys buried Brocius' body on the nearby ranch of Frank Patterson near the Babocomari River. This is close to the original McLaury ranch site about 5 miles (8 km) west of Fairbank (before the McLaurys moved to the Sulphur Springs Valley in late 1880) and is believed to have originally belonged to Frank Stilwell. Brocius's grave site has never been identified.


title: William Brocius

text: Fred J. Dodge, an undercover operative for Wells Fargo in Tombstone, asked Curly Bill's associates about his death. He wrote that he talked to "J. B. Ayers, a saloonkeeper of Charleston where the outlaws and rustlers headquartered, told me that the men who were in the fight told him that Wyatt Earp killed Curly Bill and that they took the body away that night and that they buried him on Patterson's ranch on the Babocomari." The Tombstone "Nugget" first put up a $1,000 reward for proof Curly Bill lived, and "The Tombstone Epitaph" countered with a $2,000 reward. Neither was ever collected. Brocius was not wanted by the law in Arizona and if he was not dead had no reason to disappear. He also was unlikely to return to Texas, where according to Wyatt Earp's recollection, he was probably still wanted for murder.


title: William Brocius

text: Because of his nickname, "Curly Bill" Brocius has been confused with "Curly Bill" Graham, a different outlaw of the same geographical region and time period. Graham was killed in a gunfight by Deputy Sheriff James D. Houck on October 17, 1887, and buried in Young, Arizona, and is not considered by historians to be the same Curly Bill of Charleston and Tombstone. Brocius' birth date, birth name, and birthplace are not known.


title: William Brocius

text: In newspapers of the time, Brocius was known alternately as "Curly Bill" and "Curley Bill." His surname has also been spelled as "Brocious", although the former is the spelling used for his maildrop in Arizona Territory, according to one published letter of the time.


title: William Brocius

text: Historical research into Brocius' death turned up two possible earlier identities. Denis McLoughlin in "The Encyclopedia of the Old West" reports that Brocius was from Missouri and named William B. Graham. He said Brocius rode for various Texas cow outfits and was known in Kansas.


title: William Brocius

text: While on the way to Tucson, Brocius asked Wyatt Earp to recommend an attorney. As reported in "The Tombstone Epitaph":


title: William Brocius

text: Wyatt looked into the story about Brocius' time in Texas and learned that Brocius had been convicted of robbery in El Paso, Texas, during which a man had been killed. Zabriskie had prosecuted Brocius for the crime, and "he was tried and sentenced to the penitentiary, but managed to make his escape shortly after being incarcerated."


title: William Brocius

text: The "El Paso Daily Times" speculated that he was the man whom Texas Ranger Thomas Mode shot in the right ear.


title: William Brocius

text: Modern researchers have linked Brocius with a man known as William "Curly Bill" Bresnaham, who was convicted in a robbery attempt in Texas in 1878, along with another known cowboy of the Tombstone area named Robert Martin. The men were convicted and sentenced to five years in prison, but both escaped, presumably to the southwest Arizona Territory. Since both Robert Martin and Curly Bill became known as leaders of the rustlers in Arizona Territory, they are likely the same Robert Martin and Curly Bill of the Texas crime.


title: William Brocius

text: According to historian Robert M. Utley, Robert Martin was a member of the Jesse Evans gang of outlaws in New Mexico during the mid- to late 1870s. Billy the Kid briefly joined this group before going to work for John Tunstall. Evans's gang, a loose-knit consortium of desperadoes known as "The Boys", ended up fighting against the "Regulators" during the Lincoln County War. Because of the time frame, the location, and his friendship with Martin, Curly Bill Brocius may have been a member of the Evans gang, as well.


title: All men are created equal

text: The quotation "all men are created equal" is part of the sentence in the U.S. Declaration of Independence – penned by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 during the beginning of the American Revolution – that reads "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."


title: All men are created equal

text: The phrase echoes the words of John Locke in his second treatise on government, and other authors as early as the 14th century. Jefferson applied the concept in his original draft of the declaration. It was thereafter quoted and incorporated into speeches by a wide array of substantial figures in American political and social life in the United States. The final form of the phrase was stylized by Benjamin Franklin. It has been called an "immortal declaration", and "perhaps [the] single phrase" of the American Revolutionary period with the greatest "continuing importance."


title: All men are created equal

text: Thomas Jefferson, through his friendship with Marquis de Lafayette, was heavily influenced by French philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu. In their often censored writings, those philosophers advocated that men were born free and equal. This later led to the French Revolution of 1789 and the concept of Human Rights (Droits de l'Homme in French). At the age of 33, Jefferson may have also borrowed the expression from an Italian friend, born in Prato, and neighbor, Philip Mazzei, as noted by Joint Resolution 175 of the 103rd Congress as well as by John F. Kennedy in "A Nation of Immigrants".


title: All men are created equal

text: In English history there exists earlier uses of nearly the same phrase. First by the medieval priest John Ball who at the outbreak of the 1381 Peasants Revolt in his famous sermon posited the question "When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman?" and proclaimed "From the beginning all men by nature were created alike". In his 1690 work Second Treatise of Government the philosopher John Locke argues that in the "state of nature" that existed before the formation of governments all men were created equal. Another example is in John Milton's 1649 book called The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, written after the First English Civil War to defend the actions and rights of the Parliamentary cause, in the wake of the execution of king Charles I. The English poet says: "No man who knows ought, can be so stupid to deny that all men naturally were borne free, being the image and resemblance of God himself ... born to command and not to obey: and that they liv'd so".


title: All men are created equal

text: In 1776, the Second Continental Congress asked Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman to write the Declaration of Independence. This Committee of Five voted to have Thomas Jefferson write the document. After Jefferson finished he gave the document to Franklin to proof. Franklin suggested minor changes, one of which stands out far more than the others: "We hold these truths to be sacred and un-deniable..." became "We hold these truths to be self-evident."


title: All men are created equal

text: The second paragraph of the United States Declaration of Independence starts as follows: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.-- That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."


title: All men are created equal

text: The Virginia Declaration of Rights, chiefly authored by George Mason and approved by the Virginia Convention on June 12, 1776, contains the wording: "all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which . . . they cannot deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety." George Mason was an elder-planter who had originally stated John Locke's theory of natural rights: "All men are born equally free and independent and have certain inherent natural rights of which they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; among which are the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety." Mason's draft was accepted by a small committee and then rejected by the Virginia Convention. Thomas Jefferson, a competent Virginia lawyer, saw this as a problem in legal writing and chose words that were more acceptable to the Second Continental Congress.


title: All men are created equal

text: The Massachusetts Constitution, chiefly authored by John Adams in 1780, contains in its the wording: "All men are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness."


title: All men are created equal

text: The plaintiffs in the cases of "Brom and Bett v. John Ashley" and "Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison" argued that this provision abolished slavery in Massachusetts. The latter case resulted in a "sweeping declaration . . . that the institution of slavery was incompatible with the principles of liberty and legal equality articulated in the new Massachusetts Constitution".


title: All men are created equal

text: The phrase has since been considered a hallmark statement in democratic constitutions and similar human rights instruments, many of which have adopted the phrase or variants thereof.


title: All men are created equal

text: The contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal" and the existence of American slavery, including Thomas Jefferson himself owning slaves, attracted comment when the Declaration of Independence was first published. Before final approval, Congress, having made a few alterations to some of the wording, also deleted nearly a fourth of the draft, including a passage criticizing the slave trade. At that time many other members of Congress also owned slaves, which clearly factored into their decision to delete the controversial "anti-slavery" passage. Jefferson believed adding such a passage would dissolve the independence movement. Jefferson argued many cases to free enslaved people. In "Howell v. Netherland" (April 1770), the most famous of these, Jefferson argued for the freedom of Samuel Howell, a mixed-race indentured servant, but was unsuccessful. In writing the declaration, Jefferson believed the phrase "all men are created equal" to be self-evident, and would ultimately resolve slavery. In 1776, abolitionist Thomas Day wrote: "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves." This phrase is further used in Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech for many of these same reasons.


title: All men are created equal

text: The phrase "all men are created equal" has received criticism from elitists and traditional conservatives. Richard M. Weaver writing in one of the cornerstone works of traditional conservatism, "Ideas Have Consequences" (1948), paraphrased a 19th-century writer in writing that "no man was ever created free and no two men [were] ever created equal". He continues: "The comity of peoples in groups large or small rests not upon this chimerical notion of equality but upon fraternity, a concept which long antedates it in history because it goes immeasurably deeper in human sentiment. The ancient feeling of brotherhood carries obligations of which equality knows nothing. It calls for respect and protection, for brotherhood is status in family, and family is by nature hierarchical."


title: All men are created equal

text: Howard Zinn and others have written that the phrase is sexist. Zinn says that the use of the word "men", to the exclusion of women, indicated the women were "beyond consideration as worthy of inclusion" and "they were simply overlooked in any consideration of political rights, any notions of civic equality". However, others argue that in the 1700s the word "men" sometimes used to denote both genders"." According to the Library of Congress, most people have interpreted "all men""" to mean humanity and, within the context of the times, it is clear that "all men" was a euphemism for "humanity".


title: All men are created equal

text: It has also been criticised on grounds of racism. Nikole Hannah-Jones writes in The New York Times that "the white men who drafted those words did not believe them to be true for the hundreds of thousands of black people in their midst.".


title: All men are created equal

text: The Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, written in 1945, uses the phrase "all men are created equal" and also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence in it.


title: All men are created equal

text: The Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one, however, it omits the phrase "all men are created equal", along with "the consent of the governed".


title: Scott Rosenberg

text: Rosenberg was born in Needham, Massachusetts, to a Jewish family. After high school graduation in 1981, he attended Boston University, from which he received his bachelor's degree in 1985. He earned his MFA from UCLA. While at UCLA, he had entered a screenwriting contest, in which he came in third place, and as a result, signed with his first agent. His big break came when producer Joel Silver bought his script, "Love Lies Bleeding", and he wrote an episode for the television show, "Tales from the Crypt". His screenwriting credits include major motion pictures such as "Con Air" and "Gone in 60 Seconds".


title: Scott Rosenberg

text: During production of the film "Domestic Disturbance" in April 2001, Rosenberg was arrested along with actor Vince Vaughn after a bar brawl in Wilmington, North Carolina. The scuffle broke out at the Firebelly Lounge, where actor Steve Buscemi had been stabbed in the face, throat, and arm.


title: Scott Rosenberg

text: On "Beautiful Girls", 1996, starring Timothy Hutton, Matt Dillon, and Uma Thurman:It was the worst winter ever in this small hometown. Snow plows were coming by, and I was just tired of writing these movies with people getting shot and killed. So I said, 'There is more action going on in my hometown with my friends dealing with the fact that they can't deal with turning 30 or with commitment' – all that became "Beautiful Girls".In October 2015, Rosenberg was brought in to rewrite "" with his writing partner Jeff Pinkner. In February 2018, Rosenberg, Pinkner and director Jake Kasdan were expected to return to the .


title: Scott Rosenberg

text: WARNING: As of June 2022, LC credits some works by this Scott Rosenberg to the journalist Scott Rosenberg, born 1959. See the journalist at LC; similarly at WorldCat.


title: Commutative property

text: In mathematics, a binary operation is commutative if changing the order of the operands does not change the result. It is a fundamental property of many binary operations, and many mathematical proofs depend on it. Most familiar as the name of the property that says something like or , the property can also be used in more advanced settings. The name is needed because there are operations, such as division and subtraction, that do not have it (for example, ); such operations are "not" commutative, and so are referred to as "noncommutative operations". The idea that simple operations, such as the multiplication and addition of numbers, are commutative was for many years implicitly assumed. Thus, this property was not named until the 19th century, when mathematics started to become formalized. A similar property exists for binary relations; a binary relation is said to be symmetric if the relation applies regardless of the order of its operands; for example, equality is symmetric as two equal mathematical objects are equal regardless of their order.


title: Commutative property

text: Subtraction is noncommutative, since formula_6. However it is classified more precisely as anti-commutative, since formula_7.


title: Commutative property

text: Some truth functions are noncommutative, since the truth tables for the functions are different when one changes the order of the operands. For example, the truth tables for and are


title: Commutative property

text: Function composition of linear functions from the real numbers to the real numbers is almost always noncommutative. For example, let formula_9 and formula_10. Then


title: Commutative property

text: This also applies more generally for linear and affine transformations from a vector space to itself (see below for the Matrix representation).


title: Commutative property

text: The vector product (or cross product) of two vectors in three dimensions is anti-commutative; i.e., "b" × "a" = −("a" × "b").


title: Commutative property

text: Records of the implicit use of the commutative property go back to ancient times. The Egyptians used the commutative property of multiplication to simplify computing products. Euclid is known to have assumed the commutative property of multiplication in his book "Elements". Formal uses of the commutative property arose in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when mathematicians began to work on a theory of functions. Today the commutative property is a well-known and basic property used in most branches of mathematics.


title: Commutative property

text: The first recorded use of the term "commutative" was in a memoir by François Servois in 1814, which used the word "commutatives" when describing functions that have what is now called the commutative property. The word is a combination of the French word "commuter" meaning "to substitute or switch" and the suffix "-ative" meaning "tending to" so the word literally means "tending to substitute or switch". The term then appeared in English in 1838. in Duncan Farquharson Gregory's article entitled "On the real nature of symbolical algebra" published in 1840 in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.


title: Commutative property

text: In truth-functional propositional logic, "commutation", or "commutativity" refer to two valid rules of replacement. The rules allow one to transpose propositional variables within logical expressions in logical proofs. The rules are:


title: Commutative property

text: "Commutativity" is a property of some logical connectives of truth functional propositional logic. The following logical equivalences demonstrate that commutativity is a property of particular connectives. The following are truth-functional tautologies.


title: Commutative property

text: In group and set theory, many algebraic structures are called commutative when certain operands satisfy the commutative property. In higher branches of mathematics, such as analysis and linear algebra the commutativity of well-known operations (such as addition and multiplication on real and complex numbers) is often used (or implicitly assumed) in proofs.


title: Commutative property

text: The associative property is closely related to the commutative property. The associative property of an expression containing two or more occurrences of the same operator states that the order operations are performed in does not affect the final result, as long as the order of terms does not change. In contrast, the commutative property states that the order of the terms does not affect the final result.


title: Commutative property

text: Most commutative operations encountered in practice are also associative. However, commutativity does not imply associativity. A counterexample is the function


title: Commutative property

text: which is clearly commutative (interchanging "x" and "y" does not affect the result), but it is not associative (since, for example, formula_22 but formula_23). More such examples may be found in commutative non-associative magmas. Furthermore, associativity does not imply commutativity either - for example multiplication of quaternions or of matrices is always associative but not always commutative.


title: Commutative property

text: Some forms of symmetry can be directly linked to commutativity. When a commutative operation is written as a binary function formula_24 then this function is called a symmetric function, and its graph in three-dimensional space is symmetric across the plane formula_25. For example, if the function is defined as formula_26 then formula_27 is a symmetric function.


title: Commutative property

text: For relations, a symmetric relation is analogous to a commutative operation, in that if a relation "R" is symmetric, then formula_28.


title: Commutative property

text: In quantum mechanics as formulated by Schrödinger, physical variables are represented by linear operators such as formula_29 (meaning multiply by formula_29), and formula_31. These two operators do not commute as may be seen by considering the effect of their compositions formula_32 and formula_33 (also called products of operators) on a one-dimensional wave function formula_34:


title: Commutative property

text: According to the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg, if the two operators representing a pair of variables do not commute, then that pair of variables are mutually complementary, which means they cannot be simultaneously measured or known precisely. For example, the position and the linear momentum in the formula_29-direction of a particle are represented by the operators formula_29 and formula_38, respectively (where formula_39 is the reduced Planck constant). This is the same example except for the constant formula_40, so again the operators do not commute and the physical meaning is that the position and linear momentum in a given direction are complementary.


title: Scholar's mate

text: The same mating pattern may be reached by various move orders. For example, White might play 2.Bc4. In all variations, the basic idea is the same: the queen and bishop combine in a simple mating attack, occurring on f7 for White or on f2 for Black.


title: Scholar's mate

text: The scholar's mate is sometimes referred to as the four-move checkmate, although there are other ways for checkmate to occur in four moves.


title: Scholar's mate

text: The scholar's mate was named and described in "The Royall Game of Chesse-Play", a 1656 text by Francis Beale which adapted the work of the early chess writer Gioachino Greco. The example given above is an adaptation of that reported by Beale.


title: Scholar's mate

text: All of the details are coherent from the modern perspective except for the first moves by each player—if Black's pawn advances only one square, this prevents White's bishop from supporting the white queen to give mate. Beale's text was an early modern account of the rules and tactics of chess, including concepts such as the ability of a pawn to advance two squares on its first move, the "en passant" capture, , and exchanges. However, the document treated a then-exotic subject during the early days of printing; consequently the publisher attached a list of errata at the back, following publication. Thus, the text "one houſe" describing the first move (advancing one square) may have been a mistake.


title: Scholar's mate

text: Unlike the fool's mate, which rarely occurs at any level, games ending in the scholar's mate are quite common among beginners. It is not difficult to parry, however.


title: Scholar's mate

text: After 1.e4, Black can play a semi-open defense instead of 1...e5. Openings such as the French Defense (1...e6) or the Scandinavian Defense (1...d5) render the scholar's mate unviable, while other openings such as the Sicilian Defense (1...c5) make 2.Bc4 a bad move (1.e4 c5 2.Bc4 e6, intending ...d5, gaining time by attacking the c4-bishop and attaining easy ).


title: Scholar's mate

text: After 1.e4 e5 2.Qh5 Nc6 3.Bc4, the cleanest way to defend against the mate threat is 3...g6. Should White renew the Qxf7 threat with 4.Qf3, Black can easily defend by 4...Nf6 (see diagram), and develop the f8-bishop later via fianchetto (...Bg7).


title: Scholar's mate

text: Although a quick mate on f7 is almost never seen in play above beginner level, the basic idea underlying it—that f7 and f2, squares defended only by the kings, are weak and therefore good targets for early attack—is the motivating principle behind a number of chess openings.


title: Scholar's mate

text: The scholar's mate has sometimes also been given other names in English, such as "schoolboy's mate" (which in modern English perhaps better connotes the sense of 'novice' intended by the word "scholar's") and "Blitzkrieg" (German for "lightning war"), meaning a quick and short engagement.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Lionheart, released internationally under several names including A.W.O.L: Absent Without Leave, Wrong Bet, and Leon, is a 1990 American martial arts film directed by Sheldon Lettich, starring Jean-Claude Van Damme and co-starring Brian Thompson, along with Harrison Page, Deborah Rennard, Lisa Pelikan, and Ashley Johnson. Van Damme plays a French Foreign Legionnaire. When his brother is seriously injured, he returns to Los Angeles to enter the underground fighting circuit to raise money for his brother's family.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: The film's cast and crew included Michel Qissi who appeared in earlier Van Damme films: Tong Po, the villain in "Kickboxer" and Parades, a Kumite entrant in "Bloodsport". Sheldon Lettich helped write "Bloodsport", and "Double Impact". "Lionheart" grossed $24.3 million on a $6 million budget.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Lyon Gaultier is in the French Foreign Legion stationed in Djibouti, East Africa. After his brother, who lives in Los Angeles, is set on fire during a drug deal gone bad, Lyon receives a letter from his sister-in-law Hélène begging him to come see his dying brother, who has been calling his name in agony. Lyon escapes the Legion in a daring breakout and sets off across the desert, until he reaches a dockyard on the coast, where he finds work aboard a tramp steamer headed for the United States. Lyon's Legion Commander, anticipating his destination, sends two of his own men to Los Angeles to bring Lyon back to meet court-martial.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Arriving in New York City with no money to cross the country to Los Angeles, Lyon is attracted to an illegal street fight being run by a tramp named Joshua Eldridge. He volunteers for the next fight and easily defeats his opponent. Impressed, Joshua takes Lyon to meet Cynthia Caldera, an unscrupulous organizer of underground fights for the rich elite. Cynthia agrees to sponsor Lyon, dubbing him "Lionheart" and setting him up in a no-holds-barred fight against Sonny, a fighter known for heavily taunting his opponents. Lyon defeats Sonny easily, then leaves with Joshua to find a phone booth to call Hélène, fending off an attack by a local street gang of punks. Joshua calls in a favor from Cynthia, who gets them both across the States to Los Angeles.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: By the time Lyon reaches the hospital, his brother has died. Though his murderers were apprehended, Hélène was left penniless, with a stack of unpaid medical bills and little daughter Nicole to look after. Lyon and Joshua track down Hélène's address, but as Lyon tries to speak to Hélène, she angrily rejects his offers for much needed financial help, admonishing Lyon for deserting his brother and unjustly blaming him for her late husband's involvement in the drug business.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Lyon decides to help Hélène and Nicole without their knowledge. Through Cynthia, he joins the local street fighting circuit and has the profits delivered to Hélène in the form of checks, with Joshua claiming that her husband subscribed to life insurance prior to his death. Lyon defeats a number of high-profile fighters, including a dirty-fighting Scotsman, a wrestler in a squash court, and a martial artist in a shallow swimming pool. Seeing as Lyon is not keeping his winnings and spurns her advances, Cynthia grows suspicious of Lyon and jealous towards Hélène and puts her assistant Russell on Lyon's trail. Similarly, the two Legionnaires sent after Lyon stake out Hélène's apartment and eventually try to capture Lyon: he is saved by Russell but suffers a broken rib. Hélène, who has witnessed the attack, learns the truth about the nonexistent insurance policy, whereupon she finally acknowledges Lyon as Nicole's uncle.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Cynthia arranges for Lyon to fight with Attila, an undefeated combatant whose style includes giving his opponents the illusion of a fighting chance, only to permanently disable them with callous finishing moves. Cynthia agrees to hand Lyon over to the Legionnaires after the fight. In order to skew the odds, she shows potential bettors an altered tape of Attila which makes him look like a poor fighter, while she bets her entire fortune on Attila. Realizing Lyon is hurt, Joshua unsuccessfully tries to talk him out of the fight.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: As the fight proceeds, Attila recognizes Lyon's rib wound and takes full advantage of it. When Attila appears to have won after repeatedly knocking down his opponent, Joshua begs Lyon to give up the fight and offers to split the winnings from his own bet against Lyon. This angers Lyon, who summons his remaining strength to defeat Attila with a series of kicks, knee blows and brutal punches. Lyon pummels Attila senseless but spares him, leaving Cynthia with a big debt and his family cared for with his own winning stake. The Legionaires capture Lyon, but with remorse listening to his niece's cry at the farewell to Lyon, they release him a couple of blocks away and wish him luck with his new life in America. The film ends with Lyon reunited with his family and Joshua.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Director Sheldon Lettich had co-written "Bloodsport", the film that turned Van Damme into a star. They had become friends and Van Damme was impressed with a short film Lettich made, "Firebase", and agreed for Lettich to direct. The director later recalled


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: "Lionheart" was a defining film for Van Damme because I did not shy away from giving him considerable amounts of dialogue and character development throughout the film. I trusted him to pull this off, whereas before nobody else believed he could do much more than just deliver some fancy kicks and simple one-liners. Lionheart was the first movie to demonstrate that Van Damme was more than just a flash-in-the-pan "Karate Guy" who would never rise above simplistic low-budget karate movies.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: In the film, Van Damme's rear is exposed in one scene. While we were filming the scene in Lionheart where he takes a shower in Cynthia's apartment, he asked me if he might casually "drop his towel" and show off his butt for a brief moment. My reply was "Sure, if you're willing, why not? We can always use a different take later if we decide it's not a good idea." So we did one take where he casually lets the towel drop away, and then we later decided to go ahead and put that shot in the movie. Well, that became a very memorable moment for the ladies in the audience, and for the gay guys as well. Showing off his butt (clothed or unclothed) almost became a signature trademark of his after that.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: Like "Kickboxer", in addition to the various titles this film sports, there are also many varying versions and edits of the complete film. It seems that the most complete and uncut version is the R18+ version of "Wrong Bet" that was available in a special double VHS boxset with the original and uncut R18+ version of "Kickboxer". This was only available in Australia and New Zealand and was distributed by Palace Films and The Movie Group in the late 1980s and early to mid 1990s. Every other version of the film, including the more widely known "Lionheart", is an edited and shorter version. The violence is toned down, certain scenes were re-edited and shortened and random lines were cut. The closest version available is the original Australian release of "Wrong Bet" on DVD. However, even this version is yet another shorter edit.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: "Lionheart" performed well at the box office, debuting in 3rd position in the US with sales of about $7 million. The film dropped to 7th in its second week, and to 9th in its third. The film earned $24.3 million worldwide on a budget of $6 million.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: People love the characters. They're particularly fond of Lyon's motor-mouthed, self-appointed "manager," Joshua. Van Damme's female fans seem especially enamored of this film because it was the first (and possibly the best) to showcase JCVD's softer, more compassionate side. In Lionheart he's not fighting for revenge or to "honor his Sensei," or any of the usual motivations that are typical for these sorts of movies; he's fighting for his family. He's getting himself bruised and bloodied in these brutal street fights so that his little niece can get a new bicycle.


title: Lionheart (1990 film)

text: The critical reception for the film was negative. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 39% based on 18 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: "Cha Cha Slide" is a song by American artist DJ Casper. The song was released as a single in August 2000, and spent five weeks on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, peaking at the position of number 83. It continued to be a chart hit around the world for four years, topping the UK Singles Chart in March 2004.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: The song was also part of an 11-track album, "Cha Cha Slide: The Original Slide Album", released in September 2000. Initially aimed at aerobic sessions and nightclubs alike, the song is often played at dance clubs, school dances, prom nights, birthday parties, ice-skating rinks and roller rinks, bat mitzvahs, quinceañeras, weddings, and sporting events in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and different countries.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: DJ Casper originally wrote "The Cha-Cha Slide" as a step aerobics routine for his nephew, who was working at the time as a personal trainer at a fitness club. Perry wrote and recorded his performance of the original version of the song, titled "Casper Slide Part 1" in January 1998.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: The song was inspired by the Chicago stepping movement. Around June 12, 1999, Perry recorded a second version of the song, entitled "Casper Slide Part 2," at the home studio of Fred Johnson with the help of Hollywood Scott, band leader for the Platinum Band.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: Perry recorded and released the song at his own expense, and manufactured copies and distributed them with the help of Gardner Douglas ("Cisco"), owner of the Cisco's Music World record stores in Chicago, Illinois. The song was played at various night clubs and was used by Perry's nephew, a fitness trainer at Bally Total Fitness Health Club in Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood, as the music for a step aerobics class.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: DJ Casper enlisted the help of M.O.B. Music Publishing to produce, edit, and engineer the new version of the song "Cha Cha Slide". Men On Business also produced several other accompanying songs to produce the entire "Slide Album". DJ Casper and Men On Business licensed the "Slide Album" to Universal Records, and it was released on September 19, 2000.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: Once it was Universal's project, "we made some instructional 'Cha-Cha Slide' dance videos and distributed them to clubs," said Senior VP of Urban Promotion Michael Horton. "We also promoted the song at various black functions, such as homecoming events at black colleges." The song then made its way to R&B/hip hop station WGCI-FM, in DJ Casper's hometown of Chicago.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: In 2001, the following year, the dance caught on around Canada and the United States, where urban contemporary radio stations (and later mobile DJs) played the song continuously, particularly in Chicago, Houston, Atlanta, Arkansas, Memphis, and Detroit. In March 2004, the "Cha Cha Slide" was released in the United Kingdom, and went on to top the UK Singles Chart. Its success in the United Kingdom was helped by Scott Mills of BBC Radio 1, who promoted the song on his weekday afternoon radio show.


title: Cha Cha Slide

text: At the beginning of the video, a news van arrives in front of a crowd of people doing the dance on a sidewalk. After that, the reporter reports about the dance. Then, the video transitions to several scenes, including DJ Casper dancing with a group of people on a white background and different people in various locations doing said dance. Near the end of the video, the news camera crew begins dancing a bit. In the last scene, the reporter dances with them.


title: Tina Desai

text: Tina Desai is an Indian actress and model who works in both Indian and international projects. She debuted with the 2011 thriller "Yeh Faasley", before making her foreign debut in 2012 in the comedy-drama "The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel". She is also known for her main role in the Netflix series "Sense8".


title: Tina Desai

text: Desai was born in Bangalore to a Gujarati father and a Telugu mother. She is a graduate in Business Management with a specialization in finance from the National Institute of Management. She is fluent in five languages—Gujarati, Telugu, Kannada, English and Hindi.


title: Tina Desai

text: Desai began her career as a model and went on to feature in over 150 commercials and print campaigns. She participated in the reality show contest "Get Gorgeous" through which she was offered a contract with Elite Model India Management.


title: Tina Desai

text: She made her acting debut in 2011 in "Yeh Faasley", and shortly after, made her Hollywood debut in the film "The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel". In 2015, Desai booked two high-profile English language projects, "The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel", a sequel to the 2012 hit and the Netflix drama "Sense8" by The Wachowskis and J. Michael Straczynski in which she plays Kala Dandekar.


title: Tina Desai

text: She posed for the 2012 Kingfisher Swimsuit Calendar and starred in the Bollywood action thriller film "Table No. 21" opposite Rajeev Khandelwal. She appeared in the romantic song "Yeh Kahan Mil Gaye Hum" with singer KK.


title: Tina Desai

text: In 2016, she voiced the character of Ashima in the "Thomas & Friends" film "", and 2 years later in 2018, Desai Voiced Ashima in some of the episodes of seasons 22, 23 & 24 of Thomas and Friends. In April 2018, Tina played the role of Jenny in a short film titled 'Good luck' for "Hotstar, directed by Sujoy Ghosh."


title: Tina Desai

text: In 2021, Desai starred in the Amazon Prime web series "Mumbai Diaries 26/11". Directed by Nikkhil Advani and produced by Emmay Entertainment, it also stars Mohit Raina and Konkona Sen Sharma. Desai then appeared in crime thriller film "Bob Biswas" directed by Diya Annapurna Ghosh and produced by Red Chillies Entertainment.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Mariam Sayed Sameer Marbella Al-Alawi (; ; born 25 December 1996), better known by her screen name Ivana Alawi, is a Filipina-Moroccan actress, model, and YouTuber. She is also the CEO of her own skincare brand called Ivana Skin.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Regarded as one of the biggest social media influencers of our time, Alawi is the most subscribed Filipino celebrity on YouTube. In 2019, she won "Best New Female TV Personality" at the PMPC Star Awards for Television. In 2021, Alawi was ranked fourth on TC Candler's list of ‘100 Most Beautiful Faces in the World'. For two consecutive years, Google honored her as the 'Top YouTube Content Creator' in the Philippines.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Alawi appeared on the sixth season of GMA-7's "StarStruck", which aired in 2015, where she placed among the top 22 contestants. She was later signed by GMA Artist Center.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: In 2018, Alawi appeared as Rina in ABS-CBN's "Precious Hearts Romances Presents: Araw Gabi". A year later she appeared as Amor in "Ang Probinsyano", made her film debut in the film "Open" and was later cast in the Metro Manila Film Festival entry "", and appeared as Lolita in "",for which she was awarded Best New Female Personality in the 33rd PMPC Star Awards for Television.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Alawi launched a self-titled YouTube channel in 2019. Her channel currently is one of the most subscribed in YouTube Philippines.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Alawi was raised in the Kingdom of Bahrain to a Filipino mother and a Moroccan father. She is the third of four children. She inherited all of her father's money. Her youngest sibling is former child actress Mona Alawi.


title: Ivana Alawi

text: Following her parents' separation, the 7-year-old Alawi flew alone to the Philippines to live with her mother. The former worked various side jobs to financially support them in the Philippines.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Calcium sulfate (or calcium sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the formula CaSO and related hydrates. In the form of γ-anhydrite (the anhydrous form), it is used as a desiccant. One particular hydrate is better known as plaster of Paris, and another occurs naturally as the mineral gypsum. It has many uses in industry. All forms are white solids that are poorly soluble in water. Calcium sulfate causes permanent hardness in water.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The compound exists in three levels of hydration corresponding to different crystallographic structures and to minerals:


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The main use of calcium sulfate is to produce plaster of Paris and stucco. These applications exploit the fact that calcium sulfate which has been powdered and calcined forms a moldable paste upon hydration and hardens as crystalline calcium sulfate dihydrate. It is also convenient that calcium sulfate is poorly soluble in water and does not readily dissolve in contact with water after its solidification.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: With judicious heating, gypsum converts to the partially dehydrated mineral called bassanite or plaster of Paris. This material has the formula CaSO·("n"HO), where 0.5 ≤ "n" ≤ 0.8. Temperatures between are required to drive off the water within its structure. The details of the temperature and time depend on ambient humidity. Temperatures as high as are used in industrial calcination, but at these temperatures γ-anhydrite begins to form. The heat energy delivered to the gypsum at this time (the heat of hydration) tends to go into driving off water (as water vapor) rather than increasing the temperature of the mineral, which rises slowly until the water is gone, then increases more rapidly. The equation for the partial dehydration is:


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The endothermic property of this reaction is relevant to the performance of drywall, conferring fire resistance to residential and other structures. In a fire, the structure behind a sheet of drywall will remain relatively cool as water is lost from the gypsum, thus preventing (or substantially retarding) damage to the framing (through combustion of wood members or loss of strength of steel at high temperatures) and consequent structural collapse. But at higher temperatures, calcium sulfate will release oxygen and act as an oxidizing agent. This property is used in aluminothermy. In contrast to most minerals, which when rehydrated simply form liquid or semi-liquid pastes, or remain powdery, calcined gypsum has an unusual property: when mixed with water at normal (ambient) temperatures, it quickly reverts chemically to the preferred dihydrate form, while physically "setting" to form a rigid and relatively strong gypsum crystal lattice:


title: Calcium sulfate

text: This reaction is exothermic and is responsible for the ease with which gypsum can be cast into various shapes including sheets (for drywall), sticks (for blackboard chalk), and molds (to immobilize broken bones, or for metal casting). Mixed with polymers, it has been used as a bone repair cement. Small amounts of calcined gypsum are added to earth to create strong structures directly from cast earth, an alternative to adobe (which loses its strength when wet). The conditions of dehydration can be changed to adjust the porosity of the hemihydrate, resulting in the so-called α- and β-hemihydrates (which are more or less chemically identical).


title: Calcium sulfate

text: On heating to , the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite (CaSO·"n"HO where "n" = 0 to 0.05) is produced. γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the completely anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or "natural" anhydrite is formed. Natural anhydrite does not react with water, even over geological timescales, unless very finely ground.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The variable composition of the hemihydrate and γ-anhydrite, and their easy inter-conversion, is due to their nearly identical crystal structures containing "channels" that can accommodate variable amounts of water, or other small molecules such as methanol.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: For the FDA, it is permitted in Cheese and Related Cheese Products; Cereal Flours; Bakery Products; Frozen Desserts; Artificial Sweeteners for Jelly & Preserves; Condiment Vegetables; and Condiment Tomatoes and some candies.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: It is known in the E number series as E516, and the UN's FAO knows it as a firming agent, a flour treatment agent, a sequestrant, and a leavening agent.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Calcium sulfate has a long history of use in dentistry. It has been used in bone regeneration as a graft material and graft binder (or extender) and as a barrier in guided bone tissue regeneration. It is a biocompatible material and is completely resorbed following implantation. It does not evoke a significant host response and creates a calcium-rich milieu in the area of implantation.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: When sold at the anhydrous state as a desiccant with a color-indicating agent under the name Drierite, it appears blue (anhydrous) or pink (hydrated) due to impregnation with cobalt(II) chloride, which functions as a moisture indicator.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Up to the 1970s, commercial quantities of sulfuric acid were produced in Whitehaven (Cumbria, UK) from anhydrous calcium sulfate. Upon being mixed with shale or marl, and roasted, the sulfate liberates sulfur dioxide gas, a precursor in sulfuric acid production, the reaction also produces calcium silicate, a mineral phase essential in cement clinker production.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The plant made sulfuric acid by the “Anhydrite Process” , in which cement clinker itself was a by-product. In this process, anhydrite (calcium sulfate) replaces limestone in a cement rawmix, and under reducing conditions, sulfur dioxide is evolved instead of carbon dioxide. The sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfuric acid by the Contact Process using a vanadium pentoxide catalyst.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Because of its use in an expanding niche market, the Whitehaven plant continued to expand in a manner not shared by the other Anhydrite Process plants. The anhydrite mine opened on 11/1/1955, and the acid plant started on 14/11/1955. For a while in the early 1970s, it became the largest sulfuric acid plant in the UK, making about 13% of national production, and it was by far the largest Anhydrite Process plant ever built.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The main sources of calcium sulfate are naturally occurring gypsum and anhydrite, which occur at many locations worldwide as evaporites. These may be extracted by open-cast quarrying or by deep mining. World production of natural gypsum is around 127 million tonnes per annum.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: In addition to natural sources, calcium sulfate is produced as a by-product in a number of processes:


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Related sulfur-trapping methods use lime and some produces an impure calcium sulfite, which oxidizes on storage to calcium sulfate.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: These precipitation processes tend to concentrate radioactive elements in the calcium sulfate product. This issue is particular with the phosphate by-product, since phosphate ores naturally contain uranium and its decay products such as radium-226, lead-210 and polonium-210. Extraction of uranium from phosphorus ores can be economical on its own depending on prices on the uranium market or the separation of uranium can be mandated by environmental legislation and its sale is used to recover part of the cost of the process.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: Calcium sulfate is also a common component of fouling deposits in industrial heat exchangers, because its solubility decreases with increasing temperature (see the specific section on the retrograde solubility).


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The dissolution of the different crystalline phases of calcium sulfate in water is exothermic and releases heat (decrease in Enthalpy: ΔH < 0). As an immediate consequence, to proceed, the dissolution reaction needs to evacuate this heat that can be considered as a product of reaction. If the system is cooled, the dissolution equilibrium will evolve towards the right according to the Le Chatelier principle and calcium sulfate will dissolve more easily. Thus the solubility of calcium sulfate increases as the temperature decreases and vice versa. If the temperature of the system is raised, the reaction heat cannot dissipate and the equilibrium will regress towards the left according to Le Chatelier principle. The solubility of calcium sulfate decreases as temperature increases. This counter-intuitive solubility behaviour is called retrograde solubility. It is less common than for most of the salts whose dissolution reaction is endothermic (i.e., the reaction consumes heat: increase in Enthalpy: ΔH > 0) and whose solubility increases with temperature. Another calcium compound, calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH), portlandite) also exhibits a retrograde solubility for the same thermodynamic reason: because its dissolution reaction is also exothermic and releases heat. So, to dissolve the maximum amount of calcium sulfate or calcium hydroxide in water, it is necessary to cool the solution down close to its freezing point instead of increasing its temperature.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: The retrograde solubility of calcium sulfate is also responsible for its precipitation in the hottest zone of heating systems and for its contribution to the formation of scale in boilers along with the precipitation of calcium carbonate whose solubility also decreases when CO degasses from hot water or can escape out of the system.


title: Calcium sulfate

text: 2011 findings by the "Opportunity" rover on the planet Mars show a form of calcium sulfate in a vein on the surface. Images suggest the mineral is gypsum.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Mentha pulegium, commonly (European) pennyroyal, or pennyrile, also called mosquito plant and pudding grass, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Crushed pennyroyal leaves emit a very strong fragrance similar to spearmint. Pennyroyal is a traditional folk remedy, emmenagogue, abortifacient, and culinary herb, but is toxic to the liver and has caused some deaths. European pennyroyal is related to an American species, Hedeoma pulegioides. Though they differ in genera, they share similar chemical properties.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: An annual to perennial plant with creeping or erect branched stems to about 40 cm in height. The stems are square in cross-section and can vary from hairless on some plants to densely hairy on others, with a green to sometimes red or purplish colour. The leaves, which grow in opposite pairs, are narrowly oval, 2–3 cm long x 1 cm wide, downy, sparsely toothed towards the tip, and taper into a short stalk. All parts of the plant are strongly scented when crushed but it does not have noticeable glands on its surface. The small (6 mm) flowers are densely packed in whorls at the nodes, widely separated, above pairs of leaf-like bracts. The calyx is a ribbed tube about 3 mm long, with 5 triangular teeth, the lower 2 being narrower and slightly longer than the upper 3; it is hairy both on the inside and the outside. The corolla has 4 mauve lobes or "petals" and is hairy only on the outside. The flowers are bisexual and have 4 long stamens, 2 (or all 4) of which project well beyond the corolla lobes. There is one long style which is forked to produce 2 stigmas, which also project from the flower. The fruits consist of a cluster of four brown, 1-seeded nutlets, each about 0.7 mm long.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: The flowering period starts in June and continues into mid-summer, although in northern countries it flowers rather later, sometimes as late as September, when it can fail to set seed.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: The native range of pennyroyal is thought to be around the eastern Mediterranean, where it grows in damp meadows, around pools and in stream margins. It is, however, very widely established around the world, including North and South America, throughout Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. In many places it is considered a troublesome weed of agriculture. Towards the northern edge of its range, as in Britain, it is considered to be rare and declining, except where introduced.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: The habitat of pennyroyal is seasonally damp pasture, where standing water over the winter leaves bare ground in the summer, and where livestock preferentially graze other plants. An analogue of this habitat is found on roadsides, where trampling or disturbance of the ground produces similarly bare soil, particularly where there is waterlogging in winter. It is also found along watercourses, in wet woodland and in abandoned fields.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: In California, where it is considered an invasive species, it occupies a similar niche, in seeps, streamsides, vernal pools and swales, marshes, and ditches. There is some speculation that it may displace native species in these areas.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Few animals eat pennyroyal. In Britain, the only insect known to feed on it is the bug "Heterogaster artemisiae" Schilling, which is a seed bug that normally feeds on wild thyme.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: It is considered an axiophyte in many British counties, because low-intensity pasture is a rare habitat, although it has been spreading in recent decades. Its Ellenberg values in Britain are L = 8, F = 7, R = 5, N = 7, and S = 0.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Documented use of pennyroyal dates back to ancient Greek, Roman, and Medieval cultures. Its name – although of uncertain etymology – is associated with Latin "pulex" (flea), alluding to the manner it was used to drive away fleas when smeared on the body. Pennyroyal was commonly incorporated as a cooking herb by the Greeks and Romans. A large number of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius called for the use of pennyroyal, often along with such herbs as lovage, oregano and coriander. Although it was commonly used for cooking also in the Middle Ages, it gradually fell out of use as a culinary herb and is seldom used as such today.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Records from Greek and Roman physicians and scholars contain information pertaining to pennyroyal's medicinal properties, as well as recipes used to prepared it. Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia "Naturalis Historia" ("Natural History"), described the plant as an emmenagogue, and that it also expelled a dead fetus. Galen only listed pennyroyal as an emmenagogue, as did Oribasius. Roman and Greek writers Quintus Serenus Sammonicus and Aspasia the Physician however both agreed that pennyroyal, when served in tepid water, was an effective abortive method. A medical text on gynecology attributed to Cleopatra (though it was actually written by a female Greek physician Metrodora) recommends the use of pennyroyal with wine to induce abortions.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: In regard to its contraceptive properties, it was referred to in a joking manner in Aristophanes' play "Peace" (421 BCE). The god Hermes provides the male character Trygaios a female companion; when Trygaios asks if there would be a problem if she became pregnant, Hermes responds, "Not if you add a dose of pennyroyal." In a similar manner, in Aristophanes' comedy "Lysistrata", after a pregnant female character on stage is told to withhold her body sexually from her husband, a slender female character, in comparison to the pregnant woman, is described as "a very lovely land Well croppy, and trimmed and spruced with pennyroyal."


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Early settlers in colonial Virginia used dried pennyroyal to eradicate pests. Pennyroyal was such a popular herb that the Royal Society published an article on its use against rattlesnakes in the first volume of its Philosophical Transactions in 1665. 17th century apothecary and physician Nicholas Culpeper mentioned pennyroyal in his medical text "The English Physitian", published in 1652. In addition to its abortive properties, Culpeper recommends its use for gastrointestinal ailments, such as constipation and hemorrhoids, as well as itching and blemishes to the skin, and even toothaches.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Pennyroyal is an essential ingredient in the North african dish, which is still eaten to the this day, called .


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Pennyroyal continued to be used up through the 20th and 21st centuries. Its oil is still commercially available today, though little is known about the appropriate dosages for humans. Scientists therefore likely consider it unsafe for use, as it is potentially toxic.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Pennyroyal is frequently used as an insecticide and pest repellent. As a pest repellent, it is used to keep fleas away from household animals as well as on humans to ward off gnats and mosquitos. Some flea collars for pets have pennyroyal oil or the herb can be crushed in the lining. Humans have also put crushed pennyroyal stems in their pockets or on their clothing to ward off unwanted insects. However, when using the pennyroyal plant as a pest repellent, the use of the concentrated pennyroyal oil should be avoided. Pennyroyal oil can be extremely toxic to both humans and animals, even in small quantities. With the use of pennyroyal around animals and humans comes the risk of it being absorbed through the skin and causing negative health effects. The less concentrated leaves of the plant should be used instead as an insect repellent.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: Pennyroyal has historically also been used as a mint flavoring in herbal teas and foods. Pennyroyal tea has been used for cold relief, fevers, coughs, indigestion, liver and kidney problems and headaches. The fresh or dried leaves of pennyroyal have also been used when treating influenza, abdominal cramps, to induce sweating, as well as in the treatment of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. To make the tea, the leaves of the plant are boiled in hot water. The lower concentrations of toxic chemicals in these teas are less harmful than pennyroyal oil. It is recommended that people only drink pennyroyal tea periodically, as it is taxing on the body and should not be drunk on a regular basis. Consumption of pennyroyal tea can be fatal to infants and children.


title: Mentha pulegium

text: In Italy the fresh leaves of this plant, which in Rome and the surrounding area is called "menta romana", are used in the capital's cuisine to flavour lamb and tripe. In culinary use it should not be confused with lesser calamint ("Clinopodium nepeta"), which in Rome is used to prepare artichokes.