title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: In his paper "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension", published in "Science" in 1967, Mandelbrot discusses self-similar curves that have Hausdorff dimension that are examples of "fractals", although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975. The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals.


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Mandelbrot emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models for describing many "rough" phenomena in the real world. He concluded that "real roughness is often fractal and can be measured." Although Mandelbrot coined the term "fractal", some of the mathematical objects he presented in "The Fractal Geometry of Nature" had been previously described by other mathematicians. Before Mandelbrot, however, they were regarded as isolated curiosities with unnatural and non-intuitive properties. Mandelbrot brought these objects together for the first time and turned them into essential tools for the long-stalled effort to extend the scope of science to explaining non-smooth, "rough" objects in the real world. His methods of research were both old and new:


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Fractals are also found in human pursuits, such as music, painting, architecture, and stock market prices. Mandelbrot believed that fractals, far from being unnatural, were in many ways more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional Euclidean geometry: Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.  —Mandelbrot, in his introduction to "The Fractal Geometry of Nature"


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Mandelbrot has been called an artist, and a visionary and a maverick. His informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made "The Fractal Geometry of Nature" accessible to non-specialists. The book sparked widespread popular interest in fractals and contributed to chaos theory and other fields of science and mathematics.


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Mandelbrot also put his ideas to work in cosmology. He offered in 1974 a new explanation of Olbers' paradox (the "dark night sky" riddle), demonstrating the consequences of fractal theory as a sufficient, but not necessary, resolution of the paradox. He postulated that if the stars in the universe were fractally distributed (for example, like Cantor dust), it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain the paradox. His model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred.


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Mandelbrot's awards include the Wolf Prize for Physics in 1993, the Lewis Fry Richardson Prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000, the Japan Prize in 2003, and the Einstein Lectureship of the American Mathematical Society in 2006.


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: The small asteroid 27500 Mandelbrot was named in his honor. In November 1990, he was made a Chevalier in France's Legion of Honour. In December 2005, Mandelbrot was appointed to the position of Battelle Fellow at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Mandelbrot was promoted to an Officer of the Legion of Honour in January 2006. An honorary degree from Johns Hopkins University was bestowed on Mandelbrot in the May 2010 commencement exercises.


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Mandelbrot died from pancreatic cancer at the age of 85 in a hospice in Cambridge, Massachusetts on 14 October 2010. Reacting to news of his death, mathematician Heinz-Otto Peitgen said: "[I]f we talk about impact inside mathematics, and applications in the sciences, he is one of the most important figures of the last fifty years."


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Chris Anderson, TED conference curator, described Mandelbrot as "an icon who changed how we see the world". Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France at the time of Mandelbrot's death, said Mandelbrot had "a powerful, original mind that never shied away from innovating and shattering preconceived notions [... h]is work, developed entirely outside mainstream research, led to modern information theory." Mandelbrot's obituary in "The Economist" points out his fame as "celebrity beyond the academy" and lauds him as the "father of fractal geometry".


title: Benoit Mandelbrot

text: Best-selling essayist-author Nassim Nicholas Taleb has remarked that Mandelbrot's book "The (Mis)Behavior of Markets" is in his opinion "The deepest and most realistic finance book ever published".


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Ecstasy (; ; ) is a 1933 Czech erotic romantic drama film directed by Gustav Machatý and starring Hedy Lamarr (then Hedy Kiesler), Aribert Mog, and Zvonimir Rogoz.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: The film is about a young woman who marries a wealthy but much older man. After abandoning her brief passionless marriage, she meets a young virile engineer who becomes her lover. "Ecstasy" was filmed in three language versions – German, Czech, and French. It is perhaps the first non-pornographic movie to portray sexual intercourse and female orgasm, although never showing more than the actors' faces.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Emil, a fastidious and orderly older man, carries his happy new bride, Eva, over the threshold of their home. He has great difficulty opening the lock on the front door, trying key after key. She is greatly disappointed on their wedding night because he does not even come to bed. He has pinched his finger in the clasp of Eva's pearls when he attempts to remove them. He is unable to consummate their marriage due to the minor injury on his finger. Emil continues to ignore Eva for many days often retreating behind his newspaper. Eva refuses to live in a loveless marriage. She can no longer bear to be Emil's wife in name only and returns to the estate of her father, a wealthy horse breeder. Eva seeks and is granted a divorce from Emil.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: One day, Eva goes horseback riding in the countryside surrounding her father's estate. She has a swim in the nude, leaving her clothes on her horse, which wanders off to find a stallion locked in a nearby corral. Eva, still completely naked, chases after her horse. Adam, a virile, young engineer working in road construction in that area, happens to look up and see Eva trying to catch her horse. Finally, Adam is able to catch the runaway horse. Eva is so embarrassed that she hides in the bushes when Adam approaches her. At first, Eva is ashamed of her nudity, but then she glares up at him in defiance. He hands Eva her clothes. When she tries to leave, she hurts her ankle. At first, she resists Adam's efforts to help, then acquiesces.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: That night, Eva is restless and cannot stop thinking about Adam. Finally, she goes to his isolated residence, which is located near the field where they met. After some hesitation, they embrace and spend the night together. In the throes of passion, Eva's pearl necklace is broken and falls to the floor. She forgets to take it with her the next morning but the young lovers promise to meet in town at the local hotel the following evening.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: When Eva returns home the next morning, she finds an unwelcome visitor. Her ex-husband, Emil, has been waiting for her all night. He wants to reconcile with her, but she tells him that it is too late. Brokenhearted, he leaves.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: By chance, while driving away, Emil encounters Adam on the road and Adam asks for a ride into town. Emil agrees. They stop at Adam's residence in order to pack his suitcase. While packing, Adam notices Eva's pearls on the floor. He takes them along intending to return them to her. While traveling to town, Emil notices Adam admiring the pearl necklace and instantly recognizes it as that belonging to his ex-wife. Emil becomes jealous and enraged. Adam has no idea that Emil had been married to Eva. In his anger, Emil considers driving into an approaching train at a crossing, but at the last moment thinks better of it.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: That night, Emil sits alone in a hotel room while a fly tries futilely to get out through a closed window and several others are shown trapped in flypaper. Meanwhile, downstairs, Adam is arranging flowers as he waits in the hotel restaurant for his lover, Eva, to arrive. The young lovers are very happy to be reunited. While they are drinking champagne and dancing, they suddenly hear a gunshot. Emil has shot himself. Everyone in the hotel runs to the door of Emil's room. Adam still does not know of the connection between Emil and Eva. She is deeply saddened by the suicide of Emil. However, she does not divulge her relationship with Emil to anyone, including Adam.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: The young couple were to take the train to Berlin later that evening and begin their new life together. While waiting at the train station, Adam falls asleep. A distraught Eva slips quietly away while Adam sleeps and leaves on a different train. Later, he returns to his work in construction and daydreams of Eva, imagining her happily holding his baby.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: "Ecstasy" was filmed in the summer of 1932, with a German language script that contained only five pages. The original prepared script (two previous versions were cancelled) was in Czech, so Lamarr was useful in translating from German to French. After the shooting at Barrandov Terraces in Prague and a pond in Jevany, the crew moved to Dobšiná, Slovakia to shoot the rest of the outdoor scenes on 5 July 1932. It was not until August that shooting really started, mostly because of disputes about the French version and French actors. From Dobšiná, short shooting trips of one or two days were made to other places: Topoľčianky (scenes with horses), Khust, Carpathian Ruthenia, and railroad construction Červená skala – Margecany. The film was not finished in time, and "A-B ateliery" in Prague were already booked out in September, and therefore, some indoor scenes were filmed in the Atelier Schönbrunn studios in Vienna, Austria, in 6 days, which was also commercially useful, because the producer did not have to pay the import (contingency) fee when showing the film in Austria. By that time the distribution rights were already sold in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Belgium, France, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and other countries.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: The world premiere of the film took place on 20 January 1933 in Prague, Czechoslovakia. In Austria, the film was released on 14 February 1933. Due to censorship problems, German cinemas did not show it until 8 January 1935, with the title "Symphonie der Liebe" ("Symphony of Love").


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: "Ecstasy" was controversial in some countries because of the scenes in which Lamarr is running and swimming naked, and the orgasm scene. Lamarr later claimed in interviews she was tricked into the nude scenes by the director and there was no mention of the nude scenes in the script.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: After a Vatican journalist attended screening at Venice Film Festival, Pope Pius XI denounced the film in the Vatican newspaper. As a result, none of the Italian distributors bought the rights for distribution. In Germany, the film was banned and only released in 1935 with edited scenes. In the United States, the Catholic Legion of Decency found the film morally objectionable. It condemned the film in 1933, making "Ecstasy" one of the first foreign films condemned by the Legion.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Beginning in 1936, the US distributor of "Ecstasy" lobbied the Hays office for ten months to get the film the Hays Code seal of approval which would allow it a wide American release. Joseph Breen called the picture "highlyeven dangerouslyindecent" in an inter-office memo to Will H. Hays, and told the producers:


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: "Ecstasy" was not released in the United States until 1935. It went on to limited run in America without the Hays seal, where it played in mostly independent art houses. Some state censor boards such as New York approved the film but most others either only allowed it with restrictions, demanded substantial cuts, or in the case of Pennsylvania, banned it altogether.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Lamarr's first husband, the wealthy arms dealer Friedrich Mandl, reportedly spent $280,000 ($ in dollars) in an unsuccessful attempt to suppress the film by purchasing every existing print.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Austrian and Czech versions of the film were very similar. Only the scenes with supporting actors differed. The roles of Eva, Adam and Eva's father were overdubbed by Czech actors for the Czech version. Zvonimir Rogoz replayed all of his dialog in Czech. The French version featured actors André Nox as Eva's father and Pierre Nay as Adam.


title: Ecstasy (film)

text: Machatý anticipated problems with censors, so he shot alternative scenes, that could be edited in the movie. The original versions were screened in Czechoslovakia, Austria and Venice Film Festival. In Germany censors allowed the film only after some of the naked shots were removed and two additional scenes were added: one scene making it clear Eva was already divorced when she met Adam, and a more traditional ending where Eva and Adam stay together. This version was the basis for the US distribution version. The US version also added songs by Denes Agay and Emery H. Helm with lyrics by Henry Gershwin and William Colligan.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: There are numerous tales describing his escapes, but some details may be folkloric rather than factual.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: Shiratori was born on 31 July 1907, in Aomori, Japan. Initially, he worked in a tofu shop and later as a fisherman to catch crabs in Russia. After switching jobs several times and finding little success, he turned to gambling for a living.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: Falsely accused of robbery and murder, Shiratori was imprisoned at Aomori prison in 1936. However, after studying the guards' routine for months, he escaped by picking his cell lock with the metal wire that was wrapped around the bucket provided for bathing and escaped through a cold cracked skylight. Before escaping, he placed floorboards onto his futon to fool the passing guards into thinking he was still asleep.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: Police recaptured Shiratori after three days while he was stealing supplies from a hospital. Sentenced to life in prison for escaping and theft, he was transferred to Akita prison in 1942.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: At Akita prison, Shiratori was placed in a cell specially designed for escape artists, featuring high ceilings, one small skylight, and smooth copper walls. Nevertheless, Shiratori was able to scale the walls, and noticed that the wood holding the window bars was beginning to rot. Every night, he would climb up to loosen the vent, until he finally managed to pry away the wood and open the skylight. Knowing prison staff would be able to hear his footsteps on the roof, Shiratori waited until a stormy night to climb the walls and escape. Three months later, he showed up at Guard Kobayashi’s house to ask for help in a case against injustice in the Japanese prison system, as he was one of the only people who had shown kindness and respect to Shiratori during his stay in the Akita prison. However, while Shiratori was in the bathroom, the guard called the police, and Shiratori was arrested and sent back to prison.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: During the winter of 1943, Shiratori was transferred to Abashiri prison in Northern Hokkaido, the country’s northernmost prison. He was thrown into an open cell exposed to the extreme cold, with summer prison garments, allowing the guards to beat him down whenever he stood up. Angrily, Shiratori vowed to escape, and to the guards' amazement, broke his handcuffs in front of them. Later, he was placed in specially made handcuffs taking nearly two hours to unlock by a specialist who came once per week so that he could bathe. When the guards delivered meals however, he would always drip miso soup on the handcuffs and food slot, both of which became corroded, allowing Shiratori to break them. Then on August 26, 1944, he dislocated both of his shoulders, enabling him to fit out of the narrow food slot in his cell door and escaped the prison, using a wartime blackout as cover.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: After living in an abandoned mine deep in the mountains for two years, he descended to a nearby village, and learned of the surrender of Japan. However, he was captured yet again after fatally stabbing a farmer who attacked him after he was caught stealing a tomato from his farm. He said it was an act of self defense. By now, he had made headlines on several newspapers.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: For his previous escapes and the farmer's murder, Shiratori was sentenced to death by the Sapporo District Court. At the Sapporo prison, he was placed in a specially designed cell with high ceilings and windows smaller than his head. However, the prison guards at Sapporo had so much faith in it that they no longer bothered to handcuff Shiratori, and because they paid so much attention towards his ceiling escapes, they neglected the floors.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: In 1947, he dug his way out by making a tunnel with miso soup bowls, placing the dirt in a small pocket underneath the floorboards.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: After a year of freedom, it is said that Shiratori was offered a cigarette by a police officer in a park. Moved by the kindness (in 1948, cigarettes were luxury items in Japan), Shiratori admitted he was an escaped convict and offered to be turned in. He was arrested and tried once again, but the High Court of Sapporo, having reviewed his case, decided that the farmer's death was a result of acting in self defense, and during his escapes, he had not once injured or killed a single guard. As a result, the court revoked his death sentence, instead sentencing him to 20 years for his escapes. Shiratori's request to be imprisoned in Tokyo was also granted, and he spent 14 years in Fuchu Prison until 1961, when he was released for good behavior.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: Later, he returned to Aomori to reunite with his daughter; his wife had died while he was in prison. Shiratori lived for another decade working odd jobs to survive. He eventually succumbed to a heart attack in 1979, at the age of 71.


title: Yoshie Shiratori

text: The character Yoshitake Shiraishi in the manga "Golden Kamuy" by Satoru Noda was revealed in an interview with the author to have been based on and named after Shiratori.


title: Shinto shrine

text: A is a structure whose main purpose is to house ("enshrine") one or more "kami", the deities of the Shinto religion.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The "honden" (本殿, meaning: "main hall") is where a shrine's patron "kami" is/are enshrined. The "honden" may be absent in cases where a shrine stands on or near a sacred mountain, tree, or other object which can be worshipped directly or in cases where a shrine possesses either an altar-like structure, called a "himorogi," or an object believed to be capable of attracting spirits, called a "yorishiro," which can also serve as direct bonds to a "kami". There may be a and other structures as well.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Although only one word ("shrine") is used in English, in Japanese, Shinto shrines may carry any one of many different, non-equivalent names like "gongen", "-gū", "jinja", "jingū", "mori", "myōjin", "-sha", "taisha", "ubusuna" or "yashiro". Miniature shrines ("hokora") can occasionally be found on roadsides. Large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines, or . "Mikoshi", the palanquins which are carried on poles during festivals ("matsuri"), also enshrine "kami" and are therefore considered shrines.


title: Shinto shrine

text: In 927 CE, the was promulgated. This work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined "kami". In 1972, the Agency for Cultural Affairs placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the . Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine, are totally independent of any outside authority. The number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000. This figure may, or may not, include private shrines in homes and owned by small groups, abandoned or derelict shrines, roadside "hokora", etc.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Since ancient times, the "Shake" (社家) families dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions, and at some shrines the hereditary succession continues to present day.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Ancestors are "kami" to be worshipped. Yayoi-period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other "kami", and developed instruments, , to evoke them. "Yoshishiro" means "approach substitute" and were conceived to attract the "kami" to allow them physical space, thus making "kami" accessible to human beings.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Village-council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as "yorishiro". These sacred places and their "yorishiro" gradually evolved into today's shrines, whose origins can be still seen in the Japanese words for "mountain" and "forest", which can also mean "shrine". Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great "yorishiro": a big tree, surrounded by a sacred rope called .


title: Shinto shrine

text: The first buildings at places dedicated to worship were hut-like structures built to house some "yorishiro". A trace of this origin can be found in the term , "deity storehouse", which evolved into "hokora" (written with the same characters 神庫), and is considered to be one of the first words for shrine.


title: Shinto shrine

text: True shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract "kami" to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, a tradition of which traces can be found in some rituals.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Hints of the first shrines can still be found here and there. Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands—images or objects are therefore unnecessary. For the same reason, it has a worship hall, a , but no place to house the "kami", called . Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common (a "yorishiro" actually housing the enshrined "kami") in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied stream water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, a phallus-shaped mountain in Nikko which constitutes Futarasan Shrine's "shintai". Significantly, the name means "man's body". The mountain not only provides water to the rice paddies below but has the shape of the phallic stone rods found in pre-agricultural Jōmon sites.


title: Shinto shrine

text: In 905 CE, Emperor Daigo ordered a compilation of Shinto rites and rules. Previous attempts at codification are known to have taken place, but, neither the "Konin" nor the "Jogan Gishiki" survive. Initially under the direction of Fujiwara no Tokihira, the project stalled at his death in April 909. Fujiwara no Tadahira, his brother, took charge and in 912 and in 927 the Engi-shiki (延喜式, literally: "Procedures of the Engi Era") was promulgated in fifty volumes. This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites and Norito (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts. In addition to the first ten volumes of this fifty volume work (which concerned worship and the Department of Worship), sections in subsequent volumes addressing the Ministry of Ceremonies (治部省) and the Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮内省) also regulated Shinto worship and contained liturgical rites and regulation. Felicia Gressitt Brock published a two-volume annotated English language translation of the first ten volumes with an introduction entitled "Engi-shiki; procedures of the Engi Era" in 1970.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The arrival of Buddhism in Japan in around the sixth century introduced the concept of a permanent shrine. A great number of Buddhist temples were built next to existing shrines in mixed complexes called to help priesthood deal with local "kami", making those shrines permanent. Some time in their evolution, the word , meaning "palace", came into use indicating that shrines had by then become the imposing structures of today.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Once the first permanent shrines were built, Shinto revealed a strong tendency to resist architectural change, a tendency which manifested itself in the so-called , the tradition of rebuilding shrines faithfully at regular intervals adhering strictly to their original design. This custom is the reason ancient styles have been replicated throughout the centuries to the present day, remaining more or less intact. Ise Grand Shrine, still rebuilt every 20 years, is its best extant example. The tradition of rebuilding shrines or temples is present in other religions, but in Shinto it has played a particularly significant role in preserving ancient architectural styles. Izumo Taisha, Sumiyoshi Taisha, and Nishina Shinmei Shrine in fact represent each a different style whose origin is believed to predate Buddhism in Japan. These three styles are known respectively as "taisha-zukuri", "sumiyoshi-zukuri", and "shinmei-zukuri" (see below).


title: Shinto shrine

text: Shrines were not completely immune to change, and in fact show various influences, particularly that of Buddhism, a cultural import which provided much of Shinto architecture's vocabulary. The , the "haiden", the , the "tōrō", or stone lantern, and the "komainu", or lion dogs (see below for an explanation of these terms), are all elements borrowed from Buddhism.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Until the Meiji period (1868–1912), shrines as we know them today were rare. With very few exceptions like Ise Grand Shrine and Izumo Taisha, they were just a part of a temple-shrine complex controlled by Buddhist clergy. These complexes were called , places of worship composed of a Buddhist temple and of a shrine dedicated to a local "kami". The complexes were born when a temple was erected next to a shrine to help its "kami" with its karmic problems. At the time, "kami" were thought to be also subjected to karma, and therefore in need of a salvation only Buddhism could provide. Having first appeared during the Nara period (710–794), the "jingū-ji" remained common for over a millennium until, with few exceptions, they were destroyed in compliance with the new policies of the Meiji administration in 1868.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The Shinto shrine went through a massive change when the Meiji administration promulgated a new policy of separation of "kami" and foreign Buddhas ("shinbutsu bunri") with the . This event is of great historical importance partly because it triggered the "haibutsu kishaku", a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate and during the Meiji Restoration caused the forcible closure of thousands of Buddhist temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Until the end of Edo period, local "kami" beliefs and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called "shinbutsu shūgō" (神仏習合), up to the point where even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.


title: Shinto shrine

text: After the law, the two would be forcibly separated. This was done in several stages. At first an order issued by the "Jingijimuka" in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of "shasō" and "bettō" (shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines). A few days later, the 'Daijōkan' banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as "gongen" to Japanese "kami" and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines. The third stage consisted of the prohibition against applying the Buddhist term "Daibosatsu" (Great Bodhisattva) to the syncretic "kami" Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines. In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked "bettō" and "shasō" were told to become "shrine priests" ("kannushi") and return to their shrines. In addition, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as "kami".


title: Shinto shrine

text: After a short period in which it enjoyed popular favor, the process of separation of Buddhas and "kami" however stalled and is still only partially completed. To this day, almost all Buddhist temples in Japan have a small shrine ("chinjusha") dedicated to its Shinto tutelary "kami", and vice versa Buddhist figures (e.g. goddess Kannon) are revered in Shinto shrines.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The defining features of a shrine are the "kami" it enshrines and the "shintai" (or "go-shintai" if the honorific prefix "go-" is used) that houses it. While the name literally means "body of a kami", "shintai" are physical objects worshiped at or near Shinto shrines because a "kami" is believed to reside in them. In spite of what their name may suggest, "shintai" are not themselves part of "kami", but rather just symbolic repositories which make them accessible to human beings for worship. It is said therefore that the "kami" inhabits them. "Shintai" are also of necessity "yorishiro", that is objects by their very nature capable of attracting "kami".


title: Shinto shrine

text: The most common "shintai" are man-made objects like mirrors, swords, jewels (for example comma-shaped stones called "magatama)", "gohei" (wands used during religious rites), and sculptures of "kami" called , but they can be also natural objects such as rocks, mountains, trees, and waterfalls. Mountains were among the first, and are still among the most important, "shintai", and are worshiped at several famous shrines. A mountain believed to house a "kami", as for example Mount Fuji or Mount Miwa, is called a . In the case of a man-made "shintai", a "kami" must be invited to reside in it (see the next subsection, "Kanjō").


title: Shinto shrine

text: The founding of a new shrine requires the presence of either a pre-existing, naturally occurring "shintai" (for example a rock or waterfall housing a local "kami"), or of an artificial one, which must therefore be procured or made to the purpose. An example of the first case are the Nachi Falls, worshiped at Hiryū Shrine near Kumano Nachi Taisha and believed to be inhabited by a "kami" called Hiryū Gongen.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The first duty of a shrine is to house and protect its "shintai" and the "kami" which inhabits it. If a shrine has more than one building, the one containing the "shintai" is called "honden"; because it is meant for the exclusive use of the "kami", it is always closed to the public and is not used for prayer or religious ceremonies. The "shintai" leaves the "honden" only during festivals ("matsuri"), when it is put in portable shrines ("mikoshi") and carried around the streets among the faithful. The portable shrine is used to physically protect the "shintai" and to hide it from sight.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Often the opening of a new shrine will require the ritual division of a "kami" and the transferring of one of the two resulting spirits to the new location, where it will animate the "shintai". This process is called "kanjō", and the divided spirits , , or . This process of propagation, described by the priests, in spite of this name, not as a division but as akin to the lighting of a candle from another already lit, leaves the original "kami" intact in its original place and therefore does not alter any of its properties. The resulting spirit has all the qualities of the original and is therefore "alive" and permanent. The process is used often—for example during Shinto festivals ("matsuri") to animate temporary shrines called "mikoshi".


title: Shinto shrine

text: The transfer does not necessarily take place from a shrine to another: the divided spirit's new location can be a privately owned object or an individual's house. The "kanjō" process was of fundamental importance in the creation of all of Japan's shrine networks (Inari shrines, Hachiman shrines, etc.).


title: Shinto shrine

text: The "Shake" (社家) is the name for families and the former social class that dominated Shinto shrines through hereditary positions within a shrine. The social class was abolished in 1871, but many "shake" families still continue hereditary succession until present day and some were appointed hereditary nobility ("Kazoku") after the Meiji Restoration.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Those worshiped at a shrine are generally Shinto "kami", but sometimes they can be Buddhist or Taoist deities, as well as others not generally considered to belong to Shinto. Some shrines were established to worship living people or figures from myths and legends. A famous example are the Tōshō-gū shrines erected to enshrine Tokugawa Ieyasu, or the many shrines dedicated to Sugawara no Michizane, like Kitano Tenman-gū.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Often the shrines which were most significant historically do not lie in a former center of power like Kyoto, Nara, or Kamakura. For example, Ise Grand Shrine, the Imperial household's family shrine, is in Mie prefecture. Izumo-taisha, one of the oldest and most revered shrines in Japan, is in Shimane Prefecture. This is because their location is that of a traditionally important "kami", and not that of temporal institutions.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Some shrines exist only in one locality, while others are at the head of a network of . The spreading of a "kami" can be evoked by one or more of several different mechanisms. The typical one is an operation called "kanjō" (see the Re-enshrinement above), a propagation process through which a "kami" is invited to a new location and there re-enshrined. The new shrine is administered completely independent from the one it originated from.


title: Shinto shrine

text: However, other transfer mechanisms exist. In Ise Grand Shrine's case, for example, its network of Shinmei shrines (from Shinmei, 神明; another name for Amaterasu) grew due to two concurrent causes. During the late Heian period the cult of Amaterasu, worshiped initially only at Ise Grand Shrine, started to spread to the shrine's possessions through the usual "kanjō" mechanism. Later, branch shrines started to appear further away. The first evidence of a Shinmei shrine far from Ise is given by the "Azuma Kagami", a Kamakura-period text which refers to Amanawa Shinmei-gū's appearance in Kamakura, Kanagawa. Amaterasu began to be worshiped in other parts of the country because of the so-called phenomenon, the belief that she would fly to other locations and settle there. Similar mechanisms have been responsible for the spreading around the country of other "kami".


title: Shinto shrine

text: The Ise Grand Shrine in Mie prefecture is, with Izumo-taisha, the most representative and historically significant shrine in Japan. The "kami" the two enshrine play fundamental roles in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, two texts of great importance to Shinto. Because its "kami", Amaterasu, is an ancestor of the Emperor, Ise Grand Shrine is the Imperial Household's family shrine. Ise Grand Shrine is, however, dedicated specifically to the Emperor and in the past, even his mother, wife and grandmother needed his permission to worship there. Its traditional and mythological foundation date goes back to 4 BC, but historians believe it was founded around the 3rd to 5th century AD.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Izumo Taisha (in Shimane Prefecture) is so old that no document about its birth survives, and the year of foundation is therefore unknown. The shrine is the center of a series of popular sagas and myths. The "kami" it enshrines, Ōkuninushi, created Japan before it was populated by Amaterasu's offspring, the Emperor's ancestors. Because of its physical remoteness, in historical times Izumo has been eclipsed in fame by other sites, but there is still a widespread belief that in October all Japanese gods meet there. For this reason, the month of October is also known as the , while at Izumo Taisha alone it is referred to as the .


title: Shinto shrine

text: Fushimi Inari Taisha is the head shrine of the largest shrine network in Japan, which has more than 32,000 members (about a third of the total). Inari Okami worship started here in the 8th century and has continued ever since, expanding to the rest of the country. Located in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, the shrine sits at the base of a mountain also named Inari, and includes trails up the mountain to many smaller shrines. Another very large example is the Yūtoku Inari Shrine in Kashima City, Saga Prefecture.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Ōita Prefecture's Usa Shrine (called in Japanese Usa Jingū or Usa Hachiman-gū) is, together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū, the head of the Hachiman shrine network. Hachiman worship started here at least as far back as the Nara period (710–794). In the year 860, the "kami" was divided and brought to Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū in Kyoto, which became the focus of Hachiman worship in the capital. Located on top of Mount Otokoyama, Usa Hachiman-gū is dedicated to Emperor Ojin, his mother Empress Jungū, and female "kami" Hime no Okami.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Itsukushima Shrine is, together with Munakata Taisha, at the head of the Munakata shrine network (see below). Remembered for his "torii" raising from the waters, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The shrine is dedicated to the three daughters of Susano-o no Mikoto, "kami" of seas and storms and brother of the great sun "kami".


title: Shinto shrine

text: Kasuga Taisha is a Shinto shrine in the city of Nara, in Nara Prefecture, Japan. Established in 768 AD and rebuilt several times over the centuries, it is the shrine of the Fujiwara family. The interior is noted for its many bronze lanterns, as well as the many stone lanterns that lead up the shrine. The architectural style "Kasuga-zukuri" takes its name from Kasuga Taisha's "honden".


title: Shinto shrine

text: The Kumano Sanzan shrine complex, head of the Kumano shrine network, includes Kumano Hayatama Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Shingu), Kumano Hongu Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Tanabe), and Kumano Nachi Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Nachikatsuura). The shrines lie between 20 and 40 km one from the other. They are connected by the pilgrimage route known as . The great Kumano Sanzan complex also includes two Buddhist temples, Seiganto-ji and Fudarakusan-ji.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The religious significance of the Kumano region goes back to prehistoric times, and therefore predates all modern religions in Japan. The area was, and still is, considered a place of physical healing.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Yasukuni shrine, in Tokyo, is dedicated to the soldiers and others who died fighting on behalf of the Emperor of Japan.


title: Shinto shrine

text: There are estimated to be around 80,000 shrines in Japan. The majority of Shinto shrines are associated with a shrine network. This counts only shrines with resident priests; if smaller shrines (such as roadside or household shrines) are included, the number would be double. These are highly concentrated; over one-third are associated with Inari (over 30,000 shrines), and the top six networks comprise over 90% of all shrines, though there are at least 20 networks with over 200 shrines.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The next ten largest networks contain between 2,000 branches down to about 200 branches, and include the networks headed by Matsunoo-taisha, Kibune Shrine, and Taga-taisha, among others.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The number of branch shrines gives an approximate indication of their religious significance, and neither Ise Grand Shrine nor Izumo-taisha can claim the first place. By far the most numerous are shrines dedicated to Inari, tutelary "kami" of agriculture popular all over Japan, which alone constitute almost a third of the total. Inari also protects fishing, commerce, and productivity in general. For this reason, many modern Japanese corporations have shrines dedicated to Inari on their premises. Inari shrines are usually very small and therefore easy to maintain, but can also be very large, as in the case of Fushimi Inari Taisha, the head shrine of the network. The "kami" is also enshrined in some Buddhist temples.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The entrance to an Inari shrine is usually marked by one or more vermilion "torii" and two white foxes. This red color has come to be identified with Inari because of the prevalence of its use among Inari shrines and their "torii". The "kitsune" statues are at times mistakenly believed to be a form assumed by Inari, and they typically come in pairs, representing a male and a female, although sex is usually not obvious. These fox statues hold a symbolic item in their mouths or beneath a front paw – most often a jewel and a key, but a sheaf of rice, a scroll, or a fox cub are also common. Almost all Inari shrines, no matter how small, will feature at least a pair of these statues, usually flanking, on the altar, or in front of the main sanctuary.


title: Shinto shrine

text: A syncretic entity worshiped as both a "kami" and a Buddhist "daibosatsu", Hachiman is intimately associated with both learning and warriors. In the sixth or seventh century, Emperor Ōjin and his mother Empress Jingū came to be identified together with Hachiman. First enshrined at Usa Hachiman-gū in Ōita Prefecture, Hachiman was deeply revered during the Heian period. According to the Kojiki, it was Ōjin who invited Korean and Chinese scholars to Japan, and for this reason he is the patron of writing and learning.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Because as Emperor Ōjin he was an ancestor of the Minamoto clan, Hachiman became the of the Minamoto samurai clan of Kawachi (Osaka). After Minamoto no Yoritomo became "shōgun" and established the Kamakura shogunate, Hachiman's popularity grew and he became by extension the protector of the warrior class the "shōgun" had brought to power. For this reason, the "shintai" of a Hachiman shrine is usually a stirrup or a bow.


title: Shinto shrine

text: During the Japanese medieval period, Hachiman worship spread throughout Japan among not only samurai, but also the peasantry. There are 25,000 shrines in Japan dedicated to him, the second most numerous after those of the Inari network. Usa Hachiman-gū is the network's head shrine together with Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū. However, Hakozaki Shrine and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū are historically no less significant shrines, and are more popular.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Headed by Kyūshū's Munakata Taisha and Itsukushima Shrine, shrines in this network enshrine the , namely Chikishima Hime-no-Kami, Tagitsu Hime-no-Kami, and Tagori Hime-no-Kami. The same three "kami" are enshrined elsewhere in the network, sometimes under a different name. However, while Munakata Taisha enshrines all three in separate islands belonging to its complex, branch shrines generally do not; which "kami" they enshrine depends on the history of the shrine and the myths tied to it.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The Tenjin shrine network enshrines 9th-century scholar Sugawara no Michizane. Sugawara had originally been enshrined to placate his spirit, not to be worshiped. Michizane had been unjustly exiled in his life, and it was therefore necessary to somehow placate his rage, believed to be the cause of a plague and other disasters. Kitano Tenman-gū was the first of the shrines dedicated to him. Because in life he was a scholar, he became the "kami" of learning, and during the Edo period schools often opened a branch shrine for him. Another important shrine dedicated to him is Dazaifu Tenman-gū.


title: Shinto shrine

text: While the ritsuryō legal system was in use, visits by commoners to Ise were forbidden. With its weakening during the Heian period, commoners also started being allowed in the shrine. The growth of the Shinmei shrine network was due to two concomitant causes. During the late Heian period, goddess Amaterasu, worshiped initially only at Ise Grand Shrine, started to be re-enshrined in branch shrines in Ise's own possessions through the typical "kanjō" mechanism. The first evidence of a Shinmei shrine elsewhere is given by the Azuma Kagami, a Kamakura period text which refers to Amanawa Shinmei-gū's appearance in Kamakura. Amaterasu spread to other parts of the country also because of the so-called phenomenon, the belief that Amaterasu flew to other locations and settled there.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Kumano shrines enshrine the three Kumano mountains: Hongū, Shingū, and Nachi (the ). The point of origin of the Kumano cult is the Kumano Sanzan shrine complex, which includes (Wakayama Prefecture, Shingu), Kumano Hongu Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Tanabe), and Kumano Nachi Taisha (Wakayama Prefecture, Nachikatsuura). There are more than 3,000 Kumano shrines in Japan.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The general blueprint of a Shinto shrine is Buddhist in origin. The presence of verandas, stone lanterns, and elaborate gates is an example of this influence. The composition of a Shinto shrine is extremely variable, and none of its many possible features is necessarily present. Even the "honden" can be missing if the shrine worships a nearby natural "shintai".


title: Shinto shrine

text: However, since its grounds are sacred, they are usually surrounded by a fence made of stone or wood called "tamagaki", while access is made possible by an approach called "sandō". The entrances themselves are straddled by gates called "torii", which are usually the simplest way to identify a Shinto shrine.


title: Shinto shrine

text: A shrine may include within its grounds several structures, each built for a different purpose. Among them are the "honden" or sanctuaries, where the "kami" are enshrined, the "heiden" or hall of offerings, where offers and prayers are presented, and the "haiden" or hall of worship, where there may be seats for worshippers. The "honden" is the building that contains the "shintai", literally, "the sacred body of the kami". Of these, only the "haiden" is open to the laity. The "honden" is usually located behind the "haiden" and is often much smaller and unadorned. Other notable shrine features are the "temizuya", the fountain where visitors cleanse their hands and mouth, and the , the office which oversees the shrine. Buildings are often adorned by "chigi" and "katsuogi", variously oriented poles which protrude from their roof (see illustration above).


title: Shinto shrine

text: As already explained above, before the Meiji Restoration it was common for a Buddhist temple to be built inside or next to a shrine, or vice versa. If a shrine housed a Buddhist temple, it was called a . Analogously, temples all over Japan adopted and built to house them. After the forcible separation of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines (shinbutsu bunri) ordered by the new government in the Meiji period, the connection between the two religions was officially severed, but continued nonetheless in practice and is still visible today.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Shrine buildings can have many different basic layouts, usually named either after a famous shrine's "honden" (e.g. "hiyoshi-zukuri", named after Hiyoshi Taisha), or a structural characteristic (e.g. "irimoya-zukuri", after the hip-and gable roof it adopts. The suffix "-zukuri" in this case means "structure".)


title: Shinto shrine

text: The "honden's" roof is always gabled, and some styles also have a veranda-like aisle called "hisashi" (a 1-"ken" wide corridor surrounding one or more sides of the core of a shrine or temple).


title: Shinto shrine

text: Proportions are also important. A building of a given style often must have certain proportions measured in "ken" (the distance between pillars, a quantity variable from one shrine to another or even within the same shrine).


title: Shinto shrine

text: The oldest styles are the "tsumairi" "shinmei-zukuri", "taisha-zukuri", and "sumiyoshi-zukuri", believed to predate the arrival of Buddhism.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The two most common are the "hirairi" "nagare-zukuri" and the "tsumairi" "kasuga-zukuri". Larger, more important shrines tend to have unique styles.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The or is a style characterized by a very asymmetrical gabled roof ( in Japanese) projecting outwards on the non-gabled side, above the main entrance, to form a portico (see photo). This is the feature which gives the style its name, the most common among shrines all over the country. Sometimes the basic layout consisting of an elevated partially surrounded by a veranda called "hisashi" (all under the same roof) is modified by the addition of a room in front of the entrance. The "honden" varies in roof ridge length from 1 to 11 "ken", but is never 6 or 8 "ken". The most common sizes are 1 and 3 "ken". The oldest shrine in Japan, Uji's Ujigami Shrine, has a "honden" of this type. Its external dimensions are 5×3 "ken", but internally it is composed of three measuring 1 "ken" each.


title: Shinto shrine

text: as a style takes its name from Kasuga Taisha's "honden". It is characterized by the extreme smallness of the building, just 1×1 "ken" in size. In Kasuga Taisha's case, this translates in 1.9 m × 2.6 m. The roof is gabled with a single entrance at the gabled end, decorated with "chigi" and "katsuogi", covered with cypress bark and curved upwards at the eaves. Supporting structures are painted vermillion, while the plank walls are white.


title: Shinto shrine

text: After the "Nagare-zukuri" (see above), this is the most common style, with most instances in the Kansai region around Nara.


title: Shinto shrine

text: This style is rare, but historically important. It is unique in that the "honden", is missing. It is believed shrines of this type are reminiscent of what shrines were like in prehistorical times. The first shrines had no "honden" because the "shintai", or object of worship, was the mountain on which they stood. An extant example is Nara's Ōmiwa Shrine, which still has no "honden". An area near the "haiden" (hall of worship), sacred and taboo, replaces it for worship. Another prominent example of this style is Futarasan Shrine near Nikkō, whose "shintai" is Mount Nantai. For details, see Birth and evolution of Shinto shrines above.


title: Shinto shrine

text: is an ancient style typical of, and most common at, Ise Grand Shrine, the holiest of Shinto shrines. It is most common in Mie prefecture. Characterized by an extreme simplicity, its basic features can be seen in Japanese architecture from the Kofun period (250–538 CE) onwards and it is considered the pinnacle of Japanese traditional architecture. Built in planed, unfinished wood, the "honden" is either 3×2 "ken" or 1×1 "ken" in size, has a raised floor, a gabled roof with an entry on one of the non-gabled sides, no upward curve at the eaves, and decorative logs called "chigi" and "katsuogi" protruding from the roof's ridge. The oldest extant example is Nishina Shinmei Shrine.


title: Shinto shrine

text: takes its name from Sumiyoshi Taisha's "honden" in Ōsaka. The building is 4 "ken" wide and 2 "ken" deep, and has an entrance under the gable. Its interior is divided in two sections, one at the and one at the with a single entrance at the front. Construction is simple, but the pillars are painted in vermilion and the walls in white.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The style is supposed to have its origin in old palace architecture. Another example of this style is Sumiyoshi Jinja, part of the Sumiyoshi Sanjin complex in Fukuoka Prefecture. In both cases, as in many others, there is no veranda.


title: Shinto shrine

text: is the oldest shrine style, takes its name from Izumo Taisha and, like Ise Grand Shrine's, has "chigi" and "katsuogi", plus archaic features like gable-end pillars and a single central pillar ("shin no mihashira"). Because its floor is raised on stilts, it is believed to have its origin in raised-floor granaries similar to those found in Toro, Shizuoka prefecture.


title: Shinto shrine

text: The "honden" normally has a 2×2 "ken" footprint (12.46 × 12.46 m in Izumo Taisha's case), with an entrance on the gabled end. The stairs to the honden are covered by a cypress bark roof. The oldest extant example of the style is Kamosu Jinja's "honden" in Shimane Prefecture, built in the 16th century.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Shrine nomenclature has changed considerably since the Meiji period. Until then, the vast majority of shrines were small and had no permanent priest. With very few exceptions, they were just a part of a temple-shrine complex controlled by Buddhist clergy. They usually enshrined a local tutelary "kami", so they were called with the name of the "kami" followed by terms like "gongen"; , short for "ubusuna no kami", or guardian deity of one's birthplace; or . The term , now the most common, was rare. Examples of this kind of pre-Meiji use are Tokusō Daigongen and Kanda Myōjin.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Today, the term "Shinto shrine" in English is used in opposition to "Buddhist temple" to mirror in English the distinction made in Japanese between Shinto and Buddhist religious structures. This single English word however translates several non equivalent Japanese words, including as in Yasukuni Jinja; as in Tsubaki Ōkami Yashiro; as in Watarai no Miya; as in Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū; as in Meiji Jingū; as in Izumo Taisha; ; and .


title: Shinto shrine

text: Shrine names are descriptive, and a difficult problem in dealing with them is understanding exactly what they mean. Although there is a lot of variation in their composition, it is usually possible to identify in them two parts. The first is the shrine's name proper, or , the second is the so-called , or "title".


title: Shinto shrine

text: The most common "meishō" is the location where the shrine stands, as for example in the case of Ise Jingū, the most sacred of shrines, which is located in the city of Ise, Mie prefecture.


title: Shinto shrine

text: Very often the "meishō" will be the name of the "kami" enshrined. An Inari Shrine for example is a shrine dedicated to "kami" Inari. Analogously, a Kumano Shrine is a shrine that enshrines the three Kumano mountains. A Hachiman Shrine enshrines "kami" Hachiman. Tokyo's Meiji Shrine enshrines the Meiji Emperor. The name can also have other origins, often unknown or unclear.


title: Shinto shrine

text: These names are not equivalent in terms of prestige: a "taisha" is more prestigious than a "-gū", which in turn is more important than a "jinja".


title: Shinto shrine

text: A or is a priest responsible for the maintenance of a shrine, as well as for leading worship of a given "kami". These two terms were not always synonyms. Originally, a "kannushi" was a holy man who could work miracles and who, thanks to purification rites, could work as an intermediary between "kami" and man, but later the term evolved to being synonymous with "shinshoku", a man who works at a shrine and holds religious ceremonies there. Women can also become "kannushi", and it is common for widows to succeed their husbands.


title: Shinto shrine

text: A is a shrine maiden who has trained for and taken up several duties at a shrine including assistance of shrine functions such as the sale of sacred goods (including amulets known as "omamori", paper talisman known as "ofuda", wood tablets known as "ema" and among other items), daily tidying of the premises, and performing the sacred kagura dances on certain occasions.


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: The Yamaha MT-07 (called FZ-07 in North America until 2017) is a MT series standard motorcycle or UJM with a liquid-cooled 4 stroke and 8 valve DOHC parallel-twin cylinder with crossplane crankshaft, manufactured by Yamaha Motor Company from 2014 and US release in 2015. As of 2018, the bike is designated MT-07 in all markets.


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: For the Australian and New Zealand markets, the bike is available in Learner Approved Motorcycle Scheme (LAMS) version for riders on Learner and Restricted licences.


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: In most respects, the MT-07 is a conventional middleweight naked bike. It uses a compact tubular backbone frame. Its rear monoshock unit is placed horizontally within the subframe to give a shorter wheelbase, to save weight and to lower the centre of gravity. The front forks are conventional telescopic items, whereas its 3-cylinder sibling, the MT-09, has inverted forks. The anti-lock braking system is available as an option on 2015–2017 models, but became standard equipment in 2018.


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: Both the MT-07 and the MT-09 are base models from which a range of derivative bikes was intended to follow. Yamaha commissioned designer Shinya Kimura to create a café racer special based on the MT-07. In June 2015, Kimura revealed the machine, which he called "Faster Son". "Motorcycle News" said that they expected Yamaha to announce a production version based on "Faster Son" in late 2015. The Yamaha XSR700 was launched for the 2016 model year based on the MT-07. The Yamaha Ténéré 700, which shares the CP2 engine with the MT-07, was launched for the 2019 model year.


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: The MT-07 received positive reviews from motorcycling journalists. In "The Daily Telegraph", Roland Brown rated the bike at five out of five stars, praising the engine, handling, value for money and overall riding experience, while criticising the front brake, calling it "adequate but less powerful than is suggested by its superbike-style specification of twin discs and four-piston Monobloc calipers". "Motorcycle News" awarded five stars also, praising the light weight and engine response, although noting that "at high speed it will start to get breathless".


title: Yamaha MT-07

text: "Motorcycle Consumer News" declared the engine response "remarkable for its smoothness"; and their dynamometer tests showed rear wheel horsepower of @ 9,200 rpm, and torque at @ 6,600 rpm. They measured a top speed of , time of 12.13 seconds at , time of 3.80 seconds and time of 10.51 seconds; but braking performance was "disappointing" at in with ABS activated. "Motorcycle Consumer News" suspected the poor braking was down to the Michelin Pilot Road 3 tyres; and they recommended buyers to wait until Bridgestone BT023 tyres were OE items.


title: Dean Potter

text: Dean Spaulding Potter (April 14, 1972 – May 16, 2015) was an American free climber, alpinist, BASE jumper, and highliner. He completed many hard first ascents, free solo ascents, speed ascents, and enchainments in Yosemite National Park and Patagonia. In 2015, he died in a wingsuit flying accident in Yosemite National Park.


title: Dean Potter

text: Dean Potter was born in 1972 to an Army officer in a military hospital at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and grew up in New Hampshire. He taught himself to climb when he was in 10th grade in southern New Hampshire. He attended the University of New Hampshire, where he rowed varsity crew. Potter quit college and pursued his passion for climbing.


title: Dean Potter

text: Potter climbed many new routes and completed many solo ascents in Yosemite and Patagonia. He free-solo climbed a small part of El Capitan in Yosemite, where he pioneered a route he called "Easy Rider" by climbing down the slabby upper pitches of the route Lurking Fear (hardest moves rated grade 5.10a) and then traversed Thanksgiving Ledge to complete the last six pitches and six hundred feet of the route Free Rider (hardest pitch 5.11d, two pitches of 5.10d, 5.10b, 5.10a and 5.7). This was the first major section of El Capitan to be free soloed, but his path avoided the significantly more challenging climbing on what is the easiest way up El Capitan below (several 5.12 pitches, with difficulty up to 5.12d on Free Rider).


title: Dean Potter

text: In July 2006, Potter climbed "The Reticent Wall", one of the hardest routes on El Capitan in Yosemite Valley, in 34 hours and 57 minutes with Ammon McNeely and Ivo Ninov, slashing five days off the existing time. Potter and Sean Leary set a new speed record for climbing up "The Nose" of El Capitan in November 2010. They ran up the 31-pitch route in 2 hours, 36 minutes, 45 seconds. This was twenty seconds quicker than the existing record, set the previous October by Yuji Hirayama and Hans Florine. Potter's record was later surpassed by Brad Gobright and Jim Reynolds followed by Alex Honnold and Tommy Caldwell, who completed "The Nose" route in 1 hour 58 minutes in June of 2018.


title: Dean Potter

text: Controversy surrounded Potter after his 2006 climb of Delicate Arch in Arches National Park, for which he lost his sponsorship from the Patagonia clothing company. "There wasn't any legal reason for me not to climb it," Potter said of Delicate Arch, despite well-established tradition forbidding climbing named features in the park. This incident resulted in a blanket ban on the activity within Arches National Park. Potter had previously created conflict with Park authorities by slacklining between the Three Gossips.


title: Dean Potter

text: "I didn't see any moral reason not to climb it. I didn't hurt it," he said, though rope grooves in the soft sandstone were later found, possibly created or enhanced by the professional photographers Potter brought along to publicize the climb.


title: Dean Potter

text: Potter said he would not climb Totem Pole, the spire in Monument Valley that Navajo imbue with religious significance. Delicate Arch, despite its prominence on Utah license plates, did not have the stature of the sacred Arizona tower, he said: "I didn't see a reason why it's wrong, why we shouldn't mesh with nature." An account said: "At first Potter's handler at Patagonia spread the word of his climb by calling the "Salt Lake Tribune". Public outrage was immediate, though, especially in Utah, where many see Delicate Arch as a symbol for the state's wild beauty."


title: Dean Potter

text: Potter was known for his exploits in highlining and BASE jumping. He was introduced to slacklining by Charles Victor Tucker III, known as "Chongo", one of the first three people to highline across Lost Arrow Spire. Potter completed a variety of highline-crossings without the benefit of a safety lanyard, backup line or BASE jumping parachute. Some of these crossings included lines suspended as much as above the ground in Yosemite National Park.


title: Dean Potter

text: On August 6, 2008, he completed the first "freebase" ascent of "Deep Blue Sea" on the north face of the Eiger. Potter invented freebasing, a combination of free solo climbing without the assistance of ropes and – potentially – BASE jumping with a parachute rig attached on the climber's back. In the event of a fall, a climber can revert into a base jump and survive.


title: Dean Potter

text: In 2014, he released a 22-minute-long film, "When Dogs Fly", that chronicled the extreme adventures of his hearing dog, Whisper. The film became a viral phenomenon, but was criticised by animal rights activists.


title: Dean Potter

text: On May 16, 2015, Potter and Graham Hunt died attempting a proximity wingsuit flight from Taft Point above Yosemite Valley. The route they were attempting, which they had flown before, required them to clear a small notch in a rocky ridge line. Hunt hit a side wall during the flight while Potter cleared the notch before crashing. Both died on impact. Neither of them had deployed their parachutes. Potter's and Graham's deaths brought the total number of BASE jumping death in U.S. national parks in 2015 to five.


title: Criminal justice

text: Criminal justice is the delivery of justice to those who have been accused of committing crimes. The criminal justice system is a series of government agencies and institutions. Goals include the rehabilitation of offenders, preventing other crimes, and moral support for victims. The primary institutions of the criminal justice system are the police, prosecution and defense lawyers, the courts and the prisons system.


title: Criminal justice

text: In the criminal justice system, these distinct agencies operate together as the principal means of maintaining the rule of law within society.


title: Criminal justice

text: The first contact a defendant has with the criminal justice system is usually with the police (or "law enforcement") who investigates the suspected wrongdoing and makes an arrest, but if the suspect is dangerous to the whole nation, a national level law enforcement agency is called in. When warranted, law enforcement agencies or police officers are empowered to use force and other forms of legal coercion and means to effect public and social order. The term is most commonly associated with police departments of a state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. The word comes from the Latin "politia" ("civil administration"), which itself derives from the for ("city"). The first police force comparable to the present-day police was established in 1667 under King Louis XIV in France, although modern police usually trace their origins to the 1800 establishment of the Thames River Police in London, the Glasgow Police, and the Napoleonic police of Paris.


title: Criminal justice

text: Police are primarily concerned with keeping the peace and enforcing criminal law based on their particular mission and jurisdiction. Formed in 1908, the Federal Bureau of Investigation began as an entity which could investigate and enforce specific federal laws as an investigative and "law enforcement agency" in the United States; this, however, has constituted only a small portion of overall policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different contexts, but the predominant ones are concerned with order maintenance and the provision of services. During modern times, such endeavors contribute toward fulfilling a shared mission among law enforcement organizations with respect to the traditional policing mission of deterring crime and maintaining societal order.


title: Criminal justice

text: The courts serve as the venue where disputes are settled and justice is then administered. With regard to criminal justice, there are a number of critical people in any court setting. These critical people are referred to as the courtroom work group and include both professional and non professional individuals. These include the judge, prosecutor, and the defense attorney. The judge, or magistrate, is a person, elected or appointed, who is knowledgeable in the law, and whose function is to objectively administer the legal proceedings and offer a final decision to dispose of a case.


title: Criminal justice

text: In the U.S. and in a growing number of nations, guilt or innocence (although in the U.S. a jury can never find a defendant "innocent" but rather "not guilty") is decided through the adversarial system. In this system, two parties will both offer their version of events and argue their case before the court (sometimes before a judge or panel of judges, sometimes before a jury). The case should be decided in favor of the party who offers the most sound and compelling arguments based on the law as applied to the facts of the case.


title: Criminal justice

text: The prosecutor, or district attorney, is a lawyer who brings charges against a person, persons or corporate entity. It is the prosecutor's duty to explain to the court what crime was committed and to detail what evidence has been found which incriminates the accused. The prosecutor should not be confused with a plaintiff or plaintiff's counsel. Although both serve the function of bringing a complaint before the court, the prosecutor is a servant of the state who makes accusations on behalf of the state in criminal proceedings, while the plaintiff is the complaining party in civil proceedings.


title: Criminal justice

text: A defense attorney counsels the accused on the legal process, likely outcomes for the accused and suggests strategies. The accused, not the lawyer, has the right to make final decisions regarding a number of fundamental points, including whether to testify, and to accept a plea offer or demand a jury trial in appropriate cases. It is the defense attorney's duty to represent the interests of the client, raise procedural and evidentiary issues, and hold the prosecution to its burden of proving guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Defense counsel may challenge evidence presented by the prosecution or present exculpatory evidence and argue on behalf of their client. At trial, the defense attorney may attempt to offer a rebuttal to the prosecutor's accusations.


title: Criminal justice

text: In the U.S., an accused person is entitled to a government-paid defense attorney if he or she is in jeopardy of losing his or her life and/or liberty. Those who cannot afford a private attorney may be provided one by the state. Historically, however, the right to a defense attorney has not always been universal. For example, in Tudor England criminals accused of treason were not permitted to offer arguments in their defense. In many jurisdictions, there is no right to an appointed attorney, if the accused is not in jeopardy of losing his or her liberty.


title: Criminal justice

text: The final determination of guilt or innocence is typically made by a third party, who is supposed to be disinterested. This function may be performed by a judge, a panel of judges, or a jury panel composed of unbiased citizens. This process varies depending on the laws of the specific jurisdiction. In some places the panel (be it judges or a jury) is required to issue a unanimous decision, while in others only a majority vote is required. In America, this process depends on the state, level of court, and even agreements between the prosecuting and defending parties. Some nations do not use juries at all, or rely on theological or military authorities to issue verdicts.


title: Criminal justice

text: Some cases can be disposed of without the need for a trial. In fact, the vast majority are. If the accused confesses his or her guilt, a shorter process may be employed and a judgment may be rendered more quickly. Some nations, such as America, allow plea bargaining in which the accused pleads guilty, nolo contendere or not guilty, and may accept a diversion program or reduced punishment, where the prosecution's case is weak or in exchange for the cooperation of the accused against other people. This reduced sentence is sometimes a reward for sparing the state the expense of a formal trial. Many nations do not permit the use of plea bargaining, believing that it coerces innocent people to plead guilty in an attempt to avoid a harsh punishment. The courts nowadays are seeking alternative measures as opposed to throwing someone into prison right away.


title: Criminal justice

text: The entire trial process, whatever the country, is fraught with problems and subject to criticism. Bias and discrimination form an ever-present threat to an objective decision. Any prejudice on the part of the lawyers, the judge, or jury members threatens to destroy the court's credibility. Some people argue that the often Byzantine rules governing courtroom conduct and processes restrict a layman's ability to participate, essentially reducing the legal process to a battle between the lawyers. In this case, the criticism is that the decision is based less on sound justice and more on the lawyer's eloquence and charisma. This is a particular problem when the lawyer performs in a substandard manner. The jury process is another area of frequent criticism, as there are few mechanisms to guard against poor judgment or incompetence on the part of the layman jurors. Judges themselves are very subject to bias subject to things as ordinary as the length of time since their last break.


title: Criminal justice

text: Manipulations of the court system by defense and prosecution attorneys, law enforcement as well as the defendants have occurred and there have been cases where justice was denied.


title: Criminal justice

text: Offenders are then turned over to the correctional authorities, from the court system after the accused has been found guilty. Like all other aspects of criminal justice, the administration of punishment has taken many different forms throughout history. Early on, when civilizations lacked the resources necessary to construct and maintain prisons, exile and execution were the primary forms of punishment. Historically shame punishments and exile have also been used as forms of censure.


title: Criminal justice

text: The most publicly visible form of punishment in the modern era is the prison. Prisons may serve as detention centers for prisoners after trial. For containment of the accused, jails are used. Early prisons were used primarily to sequester criminals and little thought was given to living conditions within their walls. In America, the Quaker movement is commonly credited with establishing the idea that prisons should be used to reform criminals. This can also be seen as a critical moment in the debate regarding the purpose of punishment.


title: Criminal justice

text: Punishment (in the form of prison time) may serve a variety of purposes. First, and most obviously, the incarceration of criminals removes them from the general population and inhibits their ability to perpetrate further crimes. A new goal of prison punishments is to offer criminals a chance to be rehabilitated. Many modern prisons offer schooling or job training to prisoners as a chance to learn a vocation and thereby earn a legitimate living when they are returned to society. Religious institutions also have a presence in many prisons, with the goal of teaching ethics and instilling a sense of morality in the prisoners. If a prisoner is released before his time is served, he is released as a parole. This means that they are released, but the restrictions are greater than that of someone on probation.


title: Criminal justice

text: There are numerous other forms of punishment which are commonly used in conjunction with or in place of prison terms. Monetary fines are one of the oldest forms of punishment still used today. These fines may be paid to the state or to the victims as a form of reparation. Probation and house arrest are also sanctions which seek to limit a person's mobility and his or her opportunities to commit crimes without actually placing them in a prison setting. Furthermore, many jurisdictions may require some form of public or community service as a form of reparations for lesser offenses. In Corrections, the Department ensures court-ordered, pre-sentence chemical dependency assessments, related Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative specific examinations and treatment will occur for offenders sentenced to Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative in compliance with RCW 9.94A.660.


title: Criminal justice

text: Execution or capital punishment is still used around the world. Its use is one of the most heavily debated aspects of the criminal justice system. Some societies are willing to use executions as a form of political control, or for relatively minor misdeeds. Other societies reserve execution for only the most sinister and brutal offenses. Others still have discontinued the practice entirely, accepting the use of execution to be excessively cruel and/or irreversible in case of an erroneous conviction.


title: Criminal justice

text: The functional study of criminal justice is distinct from criminology, which involves the study of crime as a social phenomenon, causes of crime, criminal behavior, and other aspects of crime. It emerged as an academic discipline in the 1920s, beginning with Berkeley police chief August Vollmer who established a criminal justice program at the University of California, Berkeley in 1916. Vollmer's work was carried on by his student, O.W. Wilson, who led efforts to professionalize policing and reduce corruption. Other programs were established in the United States at Indiana University, Michigan State University, San Jose State University, and the University of Washington. As of 1950, criminal justice students were estimated to number less than 1,000. Until the 1960s, the primary focus of criminal justice in the United States was on policing and police science.


title: Criminal justice

text: Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, crime rates soared and social issues took center stage in the public eye. A number of new laws and studies focused federal resources on researching new approaches to crime control. The Warren Court (the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren), issued a series of rulings which redefined citizen's rights and substantially altered the powers and responsibilities of police and the courts. The Civil Rights Era offered significant legal and ethical challenges to the "status quo".


title: Criminal justice

text: In the late 1960s, with the establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) and associated policy changes that resulted with the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. The LEAA provided grants for criminology research, focusing on social aspects of crime. By the 1970s, there were 729 academic programs in criminology and criminal justice in the United States. Largely thanks to the Law Enforcement Education Program, criminal justice students numbered over 100,000 by 1975. Over time, scholars of criminal justice began to include criminology, sociology, and psychology, among others, to provide a more comprehensive view of the criminal justice system and the root causes of crime. Criminal justice studies now combine the practical and technical policing skills with a study of social deviance as a whole.


title: Criminal justice

text: Criminal justice degree programs at four-year institutions typically include coursework in statistics, methods of research, criminal justice, policing, U.S court systems, criminal courts, corrections, community corrections, criminal procedure, criminal law, victimology, juvenile justice, and a variety of special topics. A number of universities offer a Bachelor of Criminal Justice.


title: Criminal justice

text: The modern criminal justice system has evolved since ancient times, with new forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing reforms. These developments have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic conditions. In ancient times through the Middle Ages, exile was a common form of punishment. During the Middle Ages, payment to the victim (or the victim's family), known as wergild, was another common punishment, including for violent crimes. For those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of corporal punishment. These included mutilation, branding, and flogging, as well as execution.


title: Criminal justice

text: Though a prison, Le Stinche, existed as early as the 14th century in Florence, incarceration was not widely used until the 19th century. Correctional reform in the United States was first initiated by William Penn, towards the end of the 17th century. For a time, Pennsylvania's criminal code was revised to forbid torture and other forms of cruel punishment, with jails and prisons replacing corporal punishment. These reforms were reverted, upon Penn's death in 1718. Under pressure from a group of Quakers, these reforms were revived in Pennsylvania toward the end of the 18th century, and led to a marked drop in Pennsylvania's crime rate. Patrick Colquhoun, Henry Fielding and others led significant reforms during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.


title: Criminal justice

text: The development of a modern criminal justice system was contemporary to the formation of the concept of a nation-state, later defined by German sociologist Max Weber as establishing a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force", which was exercised in the criminal justice case by the police.


title: Criminal justice

text: The first modern police force is commonly said to be the Metropolitan Police in London, established in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel. Based on the Peelian principles, it promoted the preventive role of police as a deterrent to urban crime and disorder. In the United States, police departments were first established in Boston in 1838, and New York City in 1844. Early on, police were not respected by the community, as corruption was rampant.


title: Criminal justice

text: In the 1920s, led by Berkeley, California, police chief, August Vollmer and O.W. Wilson, police began to professionalize, adopt new technologies, and place emphasis on training and professional qualifications of new hires. Despite such reforms, police agencies were led by highly autocratic leaders, and there remained a lack of respect between police and the community. Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring, and many police agencies adopted community policing strategies.


title: Criminal justice

text: In the 1990s, CompStat was developed by the New York Police Department as an information-based system for tracking and mapping crime patterns and trends, and holding police accountable for dealing with crime problems. CompStat has since been replicated in police departments across the United States and around the world, with problem-oriented policing, intelligence-led policing, and other information-led policing strategies also adopted.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht (; also spelled Ethelbert or Aethelberht) was the King of Wessex from 860 until his death in 865. He was the third son of King Æthelwulf by his first wife, Osburh. Æthelberht was first recorded as a witness to a charter in 854. The following year Æthelwulf went on pilgrimage to Rome and appointed his oldest surviving son, Æthelbald, as king of Wessex while Æthelberht became king of the recently conquered territory of Kent. Æthelberht may have surrendered his position to his father when he returned from pilgrimage, but resumed (or kept) the south-eastern kingship when his father died in 858.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: When Æthelbald died in 860, Æthelberht united both their territories under his rule. He did not appoint a sub-king and Wessex and Kent were fully united for the first time. He appears to have been on good terms with his younger brothers, the future kings Æthelred I and Alfred the Great. The kingdom came under attack from Viking raids during his reign, but these were minor compared with the invasions after his death. Æthelberht died in the autumn of 865 and was buried next to his brother Æthelbald at Sherborne Abbey in Dorset. He was succeeded by Æthelred.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: When Æthelberht's grandfather Ecgberht became king of Wessex in 802, it must have seemed very unlikely to contemporaries that he would establish a lasting dynasty. For two hundred years, three families had fought for the West Saxon throne, and no son had followed his father as king. Ecgberht's nearest connection to a previous king of Wessex was as a great-great-grandson of Ingild, brother of King Ine (688–726), but he was believed to be a paternal descendant of Cerdic, the founder of the West Saxon dynasty. This made Ecgberht an ætheling – a prince who had a legitimate claim to the throne. But in the ninth and tenth centuries descent from Cerdic was no longer sufficient to make a man an ætheling: Ecgberht's line controlled the kingdom and all kings were sons of kings.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: At the beginning of the ninth century, England was almost wholly under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. The Midland kingdom of Mercia dominated southern England, but their supremacy came to an end in 825 when they were decisively defeated by Ecgberht at the Battle of Ellendun. The two kingdoms became allies, which was important in the resistance to Viking attacks. In the same year Ecgberht sent his son Æthelwulf to conquer the Mercian sub-kingdom of Kent (the area of the modern county plus Essex, Surrey and Sussex) and appointed him sub-king. In 835 the Isle of Sheppey was ravaged by Vikings and in the following year they defeated Ecgberht at Carhampton in Somerset, but in 838 he was victorious over an alliance of Cornishmen and Vikings at the Battle of Hingston Down, reducing Cornwall to the status of a client kingdom. He died in 839 and was succeeded by Æthelwulf, who appointed his eldest son Æthelstan as sub-king of Kent. Æthelwulf and Ecgberht may not have intended a permanent union between Wessex and Kent as they both appointed sons as sub-kings and charters in Wessex were attested (witnessed) by West Saxon magnates, while Kentish charters were witnessed by the Kentish elite; both kings kept overall control and the sub-kings were not allowed to issue their own coinage.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Viking raids increased in the early 840s on both sides of the English Channel, and in 843 Æthelwulf was defeated by the companies of 35 Danish ships at Carhampton. In 850 Æthelstan defeated a Danish fleet off Sandwich in the first recorded naval battle in English history. In 851 Æthelwulf and his second son Æthelbald defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Aclea and, according to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "there made the greatest slaughter of a heathen raiding-army that we have heard tell of up to this present day, and there took the victory".


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Anglo-Saxon charters provide the major source for Æthelberht's life and narrative accounts are very limited. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" only mentions two events in his reign and these are also the only incidents related in Asser's biography of his younger brother Alfred the Great, which is mainly based on the "Chronicle" for the mid-tenth century.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht was the third of five sons of Æthelwulf and his first wife Osburh, who died around 855. Æthelstan died in the early 850s, but the four younger brothers were successively kings of Wessex: Æthelbald from 855 to 860, Æthelberht from 860 to 865, Æthelred I from 865 to 871 and Alfred the Great from 871 to 899. Æthelberht had one sister, Æthelswith, who married King Burgred of Mercia in 853.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht was first recorded when he attested charters in 854. In the following year Æthelwulf went on pilgrimage to Rome after appointing his eldest surviving son, Æthelbald, under-king of Wessex and Æthelberht under-king of Kent, Essex, Sussex and Surrey, appointments which suggest that his sons were to succeed to the separate kingdoms whether or not he returned to England. Æthelberht attested charters as "dux" (ealdorman) in 854 and king in 855. In 856, Æthelwulf returned to England with a new wife, Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks. Æthelbald, with the support of Eahlstan, Bishop of Sherborne, and Eanwulf, Ealdorman of Somerset, refused to give up his kingship of Wessex. Æthelwulf compromised to avoid a civil war, but historians disagree how the kingdom was divided. According to Asser, Æthelwulf was assigned the "eastern districts", and most historians assume that Æthelbald kept Wessex while Æthelberht gave up Kent to his father; some others believe that Wessex itself was divided, with Æthelbald ruling the west and Æthelwulf the east, and Æthelberht retaining Kent.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelwulf confirmed that he intended a permanent division of his kingdom as he recommended that on his death Æthelbald should be king of Wessex and Æthelberht king of Kent. This proposal was carried out when Æthelwulf died in 858. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle": "And then Æthelwulf's two sons succeeded to the kingdom: Æthelbald to the kingdom of Wessex, and Æthelberht to the kingdom of the inhabitants of Kent and to the kingdom of Essex and to Surrey and to the kingdom of Sussex". Æthelbald was later condemned by Alfred the Great's biographer, Asser, both for his rebellion against his father and because he married his father's widow, but he appears to have been on good terms with Æthelberht. In 858 Æthelbald issued a charter (S 1274) relating to land in Surrey, and thus in his brother's territory, and a charter he issued in 860 (S 326) was witnessed by Æthelberht and Judith.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht appears to have made significant changes in personnel as a Kentish charter of 858 (S 328) was witnessed by twenty-one thegns, out of whom fourteen did not witness a surviving charter of his father. They include Eastmund, who Æthelberht later appointed ealdorman of Kent. The charter is regarded by historians as important because it clarifies the obligations of folkland.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: The separation of Wessex and Kent was soon reversed as Æthelbald died childless in 860 and Æthelberht succeeded to the whole kingdom of Wessex and Kent. Æthelred and Alfred may have been intended to succeed in Wessex, but they were too young as the preference was for adults as kings, especially when Wessex was under threat from the Vikings. During Æthelberht's rule over the whole kingdom, Wessex and its recent south-eastern conquests became a united kingdom for the first time. Unlike his father and grandfather, Æthelberht did not appoint another member of his family as under-king of Kent. A Kentish charter issued in the first year of his reign (S 327) was the first to include a full complement both of West Saxon and Kentish attesters, although he then returned to locally attested charters.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Æthelberht reigned "in good harmony and in great peace" and "in peace, love and honour". He appears to have been on good terms with his younger brothers and in a charter of 861 (S 330) he granted land to St Augustine's, Canterbury, in return for the abbot's continuing loyalty to him, Æthelred, and Alfred. Some historians believe that the three brothers agreed that each would succeed to the throne in turn. In two charters in 862 and 863 (S 335 and S 336) Æthelred makes grants as king of the West Saxons and Æthelberht is not mentioned. In Keynes's view, Æthelberht may have delegated some power in Wessex, perhaps in his own absence. However, a charter of Æthelberht dated December 863 (S 333) is attested by Æthelred and Alfred as "filius regis" (king's son). Æthelberht granted immunity from royal and judicial services to Sherborne church in honour of the souls of his father Æthelwulf and his brother Æthelbald. Unlike most charters, which were in Latin, this one is in Old English, and historians disagree whether this reflects a trend towards greater use of the vernacular as better suited to recording legal documents or support for Alfred's later claim that knowledge of Latin had declined disastrously when he came to the throne in 871.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht's reign began and ended with raids by the Vikings. In 860 a Viking army sailed from the Somme to England and sacked Winchester, but they were then defeated by the men of Hampshire and Berkshire. Probably in the autumn of 864, another Viking army camped on Thanet and were promised money in return for peace, but they broke their promise and ravaged eastern Kent. These attacks were minor compared with events after Æthelberht's death, when the Vikings almost conquered England.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: In the late eighth and ninth centuries the only denomination of coin produced in southern England was the silver penny. Coins were minted in an unidentified town in Wessex itself, but activity in the mid-ninth century was minimal and no Wessex coins of Æthelberht are known. Kent had mints at Canterbury and Rochester and they produced coins in the name of Æthelwulf until 858 and Æthelberht thereafter. The lack of coins in the name of Æthelbald is evidence that he did not have any status of overlordship over Æthelberht. In the early ninth century the quality of the inscription and the bust of the king on coins declined, but it revived on the Inscribed Cross penny at the end of Æthelwulf's reign and this continued under Æthelberht's, which also saw the introduction of the rare Floreate Cross design in about 862. There was a considerable increase in the number of moneyers: twelve struck Inscribed Cross coins in Æthelwulf's reign and fifty in Æthelberht's. This may have been due to a recoinage starting at the end of Æthelwulf's reign and continuing in Æthelberht's, when old coins were called in and melted down to make new ones. The silver content of his Inscribed Cross issue fell to below 50% and one penny minted in Canterbury has only 30%, but a Floreate Cross coin has 84%, perhaps indicating that it was intended as a recoinage with higher fineness. There was also increasing standardisation of design in the coinage, reflecting greater royal control over currency and minting in the middle of the ninth century.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: Æthelberht died of unknown causes in the autumn of 865. He was buried at Sherborne Abbey in Dorset beside his brother Æthelbald but the tombs had been lost by the sixteenth century. He had no known children and was succeeded by his brother Æthelred.


title: Æthelberht, King of Wessex

text: According to Asser, who based his account of events before 887 mainly on the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle": "So after governing in peace, love and honour for five years, Æthelberht went the way of all flesh, to the great sorrow of his people; and he lies buried honourably beside his brother, at Sherborne." Asser's view was followed by post-Conquest historians. John of Worcester copied Asser's words, while William of Malmesbury described him as "a vigorous but kindly ruler". The 20th-century historian Alfred Smyth points out that the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", which was first written in Alfred the Great's reign, only recorded two events in Æthelberht's reign, the attacks on Winchester and eastern Kent, and does not associate the king personally with either of them. Smyth argues that this reflected an agenda by Alfred's propagandists to play down the achievements of his brothers to enhance the reputation of Alfred himself.


The Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario (), often shortened to the Ontario PC Party or simply the PCs, colloquially known as the Tories, is a centre-right political party in Ontario, Canada.


title: Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario

text: The PC Party has historically embraced Red Toryism and centrism, ideologies that were prominent during their uninterrupted governance from 1943 to 1985; government intervention in the economy was significant and spending on health care and education dramatically increased. In the 1990s, the party underwent a shift to Blue Toryism after the election of Mike Harris as leader, who was premier from 1995 to 2002 and favoured a "Common Sense Revolution" platform of cutting taxes and government spending while balancing the budget through small government. The PCs lost power in 2003 though came back into power with a majority government in 2018 under Doug Ford.


text: The first Conservative Party in Upper Canada was made up of United Empire Loyalists and supporters of the wealthy Family Compact that ruled the colony. Once responsible government was granted in response to the 1837 Rebellions, the Tories emerged as moderate reformers who opposed the radical policies of the Reformers and then the Clear Grits.


text: The modern Conservative Party originated in the Liberal-Conservative coalition founded by Sir John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier in 1854. It is a variant of this coalition that formed the first government in Ontario with John Sandfield Macdonald as premier.


text: Until becoming the Progressive Conservatives in 1942, the party was officially known as the "Liberal-Conservative Association of Ontario", reflecting its liberal-conservative origins, but became widely known as the Conservative Party.


text: John Sandfield Macdonald was actually a Liberal and sat concurrently as a Liberal Party of Canada member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada but he was an ally of John A. Macdonald (though not a relative). His government was initially a true coalition of Liberals and Conservatives under his leadership but soon the more radical Reformers bolted to the opposition and Sandfield Macdonald was left leading what was essentially a conservative coalition that included some Liberals under the Liberal-Conservative banner. After losing power in 1871, this conservative coalition began to dissolve. What was originally a party that included Catholics and Protestants became an almost exclusively English and Protestant party, more and more dependent on the Protestant Orange Order for support, and even for its leadership. The party became opposed to funding for separate (Catholic) schools, opposed to language rights for French-Canadians, and distrustful of immigrants. Paradoxically, an element of the party gained a reputation for being pro-labour as a result of links between the Orange Order and the labour movement.


text: After 33 years in Opposition, the Tories returned to power under James P. Whitney, who led a progressive administration in its development of the province. The Whitney government initiated massive public works projects such as the creation of Ontario Hydro. It also enacted reactionary legislation (such as Regulation 17) against the French-Canadian population in Ontario. The Tories were in power for all but five years from 1905 to 1934. After the death of Whitney in 1914, however, they lacked vision and became complacent. The Tories lost power to the United Farmers of Ontario in the 1919 election but were able to regain office in 1923 election due to the UFO's disintegration and divisions in the Ontario Liberal Party. They were defeated by Mitch Hepburn's Liberals in 1934 due to their inability to cope with the Great Depression.